Solar Energy

Dr Vratraj Joshi
 Solar Water Heater

•It is a solar system that uses thermal energy of sun to heat water.

•The basic idea behind the solar water heater is piece of black
piping filled with water and laid in the sun for the water to heat up.
•To heat up more water you increase the number of pipes to make
a collector and add tank to store the heated water in.
•The whole system is insulated to minimize heat-loss.
 Solar Water Heater

• Water is cycled through the collector several times to raise the

temperature.
• Some system uses electric pumps to pump water through the
system but this increases the cost.
• Alternatively, water can be made to pass through the pipes
without a pump using the thermo-syphon effect.
 Solar Water Heater

• Basic elements of solar water heater:

– Flat plate collector
– Storage tank
– Circulation system
– Control of system
 Solar Water Heater

Types of solar water heater:

• Natural circulation/ Passive solar water heater
– When hot water is taken out from the hot water outlet, the
same is replaced by cold water make-up tank fixed above the
hot water tank, water is circulated in the loop naturally due to
thermo-syphon action is known as Passive or Natural circulation
solar water heater.
– Natural circulation solar water heater may be pressurized or
non-pressurized.
 Solar Water Heater

• Force circulation / Active solar water heater

– When the collector is fixed above the level of hot water tank.
– A pump is required to make circulation of water in the loop, is
known as Active or Force circulation solar water heater
• It can also be classified as:

Direct /open loop system

– An open loop system circulates household water through
collector
 Solar Water Heater

• Indirect /closed loop system

• A closed loop system uses a heat transfer fluid to collect heat and a
• heat exchanger to transfer the heat to household water.

Natural circulation solar water heater or Passive heating system

•It is also known as THERMO-SYPHON water heating system.

•THERMO-SYPHON uses the fact that hot water rises above cold water
due to density difference.
 Solar Water Heater

It consists of
• A tilted solar collector facing south with transparent cover glasses
• A highly insulated storage tank
• Well insulate pipes-connecting collector & tank.

• The storage tank is located above level of collector at least 0.3 m above
the top edge of collector.
• As the water in the collector pipes heats up, its density decreases and
hence it rises up into the top of the tank, colder water from the bottom
of the tank has higher density and so tends to sink and enters into the
collector through the lower header
Natural circulation solar water heater
 Solar Water Heater

– The flow continues until the water in the pipes and the tank is at
the same temperature.
– As long as the sun shine the water will quietly circulate, getting
hotter.
– After sunset, the thermo-syphon system can reverse its flow
direction and loss heat to surroundings during the night.
– To provide heat during long, cloudy periods an electrical heater is
provided in the storage tank.
 Solar Water Heater

Forced circulation solar water heater (Active heating system)

•The natural circulation solar water heater is normally used for
domestic purpose where less amount of hot water is required.
•When a large amount of hot water is required for supplying process
heat in an industry or in commercial utilization, a natural circulation
solar water heater is not suitable.
Large arrays of flat plate collectors are used and forced circulation is
maintained with a water pump.
 Solar Water Heater
• Forced circulation solar water heater in which pump is provided in cold
water line.
• Water from a storage tank is pumped through a collector array

• Where it is heated and then flow back into the storage tank, colder water
takes it place
• The pump for maintaining the forced circulation is operated by an ON-OFF
controller which senses the difference between this temperature of the
water at exist of collector and suitable location inside the storage tank.
• The pump is switched ON whenever this difference exceeds a certain value
and OFF when it falls belowacertainvalue
Solar Water Heater

Forced circulation solar water heater

 Solar Water Heater

COLLECTORS USED IN MODERN DOMESTIC SOLAR WATER HEATER

• Unglazed liquid flat-plate collector
– Made of a black polymer.

– They do not normally have a selective coating and do not

include a frame and insulation at the back
– Low cost

– Thermal losses to environment–high at windy places

– Used for low temperature application
 Solar Water Heater

Glazed liquid flat-plate collector

• Absorber with selective coating is fixed in a frame between a
single or double layer of glass & insulated at back
• Used for moderate temp application

• Evacuated tube solar collector

• Absorber with selective coating enclosed in sealed glass vacuum tube.
– Thermal losses–low

– Used for moderate to high temperature application

 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

It can be broadly classified as

• Passive space heating/cooling systems

• Active space heating/cooling system

 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Passive space heating / cooling systems

• This system operates without pumps, blowers, or other mechanical devices.
• A special building design is necessary

• In this system, the solar radiations are collected by an element of the

structure itself.
• The various elements of the buildings like walls, roof, windows, partitions
etc., are so selected and so architecturally integrated that they participate in
the collection, storage, transportation and distribution of thermal energy.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

• These systems are suitable where there is ample winter sunshine

and an unobstructed southern exposure is possible.
• It is less expensive than active system to construct and operate

Active space heating/cooling system

• In this system, pumps, blowers, or other mechanical devices are
required to circulate the working fluid for transportation of heat.
• A special building design is not necessary

• In this heating system, the solar radiations are collected using some
kind of separate collectors.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

• Solar energy may be stored in sensible heat storage materials, or in

latent heat storage materials and the energy is redistributed in the

building space using pumps, blowers, fans etc,.

• Active system can be employed to almost any location and types of

building.

• It is more expensive than passive system to construct and operate.

 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Solar heating of buildings

Passive solar space heating systems
• The passive solar heating are classified as

– Direct gain,
– Thermal storage wall (indirect gain),

– Thermal storage roof(indirect gain),

– Attached sun space and

– Convective loop.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Direct gain
• This is the simplest passive solar heating method for heating the
building during the winter.
• A double glazed windows facing south or the entire south facing
wall is double glazed through which direct radiation in winter enters
and strikes floor, walls or other objects in the room; is absorbed and
stored as heat.
• The heat loss from the room is reduced by using double glazes
window.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

• The floor or walls are made massive to increase the thermal mass
which helps in storing the heat during day time when sufficient heat is
available and releasing the same during night time.
• An appropriate over hang is provided above the windows or at the
roof level for the case where south wall is glazed shaded the window
or the wall during summer when the elevation of the sun is high.
• Adequate movable insulation may be used to reduce heat losses
during night.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Direct gain
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Thermal storage wall

• In this method, the thermal storage wall is provided between the
double glazed facing south and room living space
• Thus this thermal storage wall collects stores and transfers the heat
to the room.
• This wall also known as Trombe wall.

• This is the more effective way of heating the rooms and reducing
the large variation in the room air temperature.
• Also it allows reducing storage mass in floor, roof and walls
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

• A south facing thermal storage wall made of masonry or concrete

with an outer side facing the sun is blacked.
• The solar radiation after passing through glazing is absorbed by
Trombe wall there by heating it.
• Hence, air in the gap between the glazing and thermal wall get
heated, rises and enters room through the upper vent while the
cooled air from the room enters in the gap through bottom vent.
• This circulation continues till the wall goes on heating the air.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

– The dampers are provided at top and bottom vents to control the
mass flow rate of air.
– Room also heated by convection and radiation from thermal wall.

–One additional damper also provided on the top of the glazing to

remove the excess heat from the air space.
Thermal storage wall
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Thermal storage roof:

• This method of heating is similar to thermal storage wall except that

the interposed thermal storage mass is on building roof instead of a

wall
• The building is provided with metal roof which conducts heat more

effectively.
• Water bags made of transparent or black plastic sheet and filled with water
or any other massive material are put over the metal roof.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

•In the winters, during daytime when sun is shining, the water in
the bags gets heated, stores the heat and heats the room below
during day time as well as night time when sun is not shining.
•Movable insulating shutter are used over the water bags.
•During off sunshine hours or during the night, the insulating
shutter are slid over the bags, reducing heat loss from the water
bags to the outside.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Thermal storage roof

 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Attached sun space (greenhouse):

• This method of heating combines features of direct gain and
indirect gain (thermal storage).
• A sun space is an enclosed space on extreme south facing side of
the house covered with single or double layers of glass or plastic
sheets which function like greenhouse and can be used either for
grooving vegetables or flowers or as sunny spacefor living.
• The system also consists of thermal storage wall facing south in
between the room and sun space.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

• The thermal storage wall gets heated by direct absorption of solar

radiation coming through the greenhouse transparent cover.
• The living space is heated through convection and radiation heat
transfer from the thermal wall.
• Vents near the top and bottom of the wall permit the circulation of
living room air in the heated suns pace.
Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Sun space passive solar heating system

 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings
Convective loop:
• In this heating system the heated air is circulated by means of
natural convection (thermo-syphon principle).
• The system consists of
– solar air heater collector,
– Thermal storage
– pipes for air circulation
• The bed of rock is located beneath of sun space, provides thermal
storage.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

• Air after getting heated in the solar air heater goes either directly
into the living room to be heated or through the rock bed thermal
storage unit.
• The cool air from the room or from bottom of storage unit enters
through the bottom of solar air heater automatically by natural
convection and again gets heated, rises and enters the room.
• If more solar heat is available than is required for space heating, the
floor vents may be closed
Convective loop passive solar heating system
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Active solar space heating system

• In the active system of solar heating, separate solar collectors are
used to heat the fluid; storage devices to store heat for use at night
and during off sunshine hours; auxiliary heating system to supply
heat when required and distribution system along with controls to
supply heat to required space.
• If active system is installed in the existing buildings, such a system is
called retrofit system.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

• However if the buildings are designed which receives more solar

energy in winter and less energy in summer, such building are called
solar house.
• Main components:
– Solar water collector
– Heat storage device

– Pumping device or distribution system

– Auxiliary heating system
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Control system
• Generally hot water and air as working fluid are used for active space
• heating system.

• An active space heating system using water as working fluid.

• In this system, water is heated in solar flat plate collectors and stored

• in the storage tank.

• Heat is transferred to the air circulating in the space to be heated by

mean of the water to air heat exchanger.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

• An auxiliary heater is provided in the hot water line which heats water when
water temperature falls below the predefined temperature.
• During the normal operation, the three way valves are set to permit solar
heated water to flow from the storage tank and auxiliary heater to the
distribution system and back to the tank.
• During the long of sunshine hours, the three way valves will adjust
automatically to bypass the storage tank and auxiliary heater directly heat
exchanger, other wise large amount to heat is wasted to heat water in the tank.
Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Active solar space heating system

 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Solar cooling of buildings

•Solar passive cooling through ventilation
•Ventilation is the process of moving air into and out of an interior
space by natural or mechanical means.
•In this method flow of air takes place using chimney effect and is
effective where outside temperature is moderate.
 Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

•The air between the glazing and the interior south wall is heated by
solar radiation.
•The heated air rises up, is ducted outside and the warm air from the
room is drawn into this space due to the natural draught thus
produced.
•Hence, cooled outside air enters the room from the bottom air vent
on the other side of the room.
Solar Heating and Cooling of Buildings

Solar passive cooling through ventilation

 Solar Pumping
• A solar water pump is a socially and environmentally attractive
technology to supply water.
• Especially if the need for water is in remote locations which are beyond

• the reach of power lines, solar power is often the economically

preferred technology.
• Solar energy can be used for pumping of water in two ways as:

• Direct conversion method

• Thermodynamic conversion method

 Solar Pumping

Direct conversion method:

• In this method, solar energy is directly converted into electricity using
Photovoltaic (PV) panels.
• This electricity either stored or used directly in D.C. motor or converted into
A.C. using inverter and then used in conventional water pump.
• A typical solar powered pumping system consists of a solar panel array
(solar collectors) that powers an electric motor, which in turn powers a bore
or surface pump.
 Solar Pumping

The water is often pumped from the ground or stream into a storage tank
that provides a gravity feed, so energy storage is not needed for these
systems.
– The basic system consist of:
• Solar panel
• Electronic pump enhancer
• Pump
• Water tank
• Supporting pole
Photovoltaic water pumping system
 Solar Pumping

Thermodynamic conversion method

• In this method, solar energy is first converted mechanical energy
and then mechanical energy is used for pumping water.
• In this system some kind of solar energy collectors like flat plate or
concentrating type are used for heating a of a working fluid which is
then used for operating a Rankine, Brayton or Stirling engine
producing mechanical power.
 Solar Pumping

• Rankine cycle is preferred in solar energy conversion over the

other
• two cycles because of its superiority in terms of over all efficiency,

• components size and high work ratio.

• The system consist of:

• Solar collector

• Flat plate collectors

• Stationary concentrator
• Sun tracking concentrators
 Solar Pumping

• The heat transport system

• Heat exchanger/boiler
• Rankine engine
• Condenser
• Pump
– Reciprocating pump
– Centrifugal pump
– Diaphragm pump
– Rotary pump
Solar thermal water pumping system
 Solar Pumping
– Water is used as a heat transport fluid and conveys its heat to a low boiling
point organic Rankine cycle working fluid in a heat exchanger (FreonR12 \ or
R113 or isobutene).
– The solar collector receives solar energy which is absorbed by water.
– The hot water gives up heat to Rankine cycle working fluid in the heat
exchanger.
– The high pressure vapours of working fluid produced in heat exchanger is
expand in turbine;
– condense in the condenser and liquid fluid return in heat exchanger.

– Surplus heat is stored in the thermal storage to be used later when the solar
energy is not available.
 Solar Pumping

Advantages of solar pumping

• Simple and reliable, Unattended operation, Low maintenance, no
fuel costs or spills,
• Easy to install, System can be made to be mobile.

Disadvantages of solar pumping

• Potentially high initial costs, Lower output in cloudy weather, Must
have good sun exposure between 9AM and 3PM.
 Solar Cooker

• A solar cooker, or solar oven is a device which uses the energy of

sunlight to heat food / drink to cook it or sterilize (to make free
from micro-organisms) it.
• Thermal energy requirement for cooking purpose forms a major
share of total energy consumed, especially in rural area.
• Using solar energy for cooking purposes is an attractive and
relevant option.
 Solar Cooker

Basically there are three design of solar cooker:

• Flat plate box type
– With reflector

– Without reflector
• Multi reflector box type

• Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker Simple solar cooker

uses the following basic principles
 Solar Cooker

Concentrating sunlight:
• Increasing its heating power

Converting light to heat

Light absorption converts the sun's visible light into heat, substantially
improving the effectiveness of the cooker.
• Trapping heat

The convection heat transfer from inside the cooker to atmosphere

can be reduced by isolating the air inside the cooker from the air
outside the cooker.
 Solar Cooker

A plastic bag or tightly sealed glass cover will trap the hot air inside.
This makes it possible to reach similar temperatures on cold and windy
days as on hot days.

Greenhouse effect
• Glass transmits visible light but blocks infrared thermal radiation
from escaping.
• This amplifies the heat trapping effect.
 Solar Cooker

Box type solar cooker

A box cooker consists of Rectangular enclosure made up of inner and
outer metal or wooden box with double glass sheet on it and
insulated on bottom and sides

Top transparent glass covers of each 3mm thick plain glass,

• Reflect or mirror,

• Cooking pots made from aluminum with blacked coating on outer

surface
 Solar Cooker

• Mechanism for adjusting reflect or mirror, and handle to carry the

cooker
• The extern dimensions of a typical model are 60 cm x 60 cm x 20cm
height.
• The temperature inside the solar cooker is maintained from 70° to
110°c.
 Solar Cooker

• This temperature is sufficient to cook food slowly steadily and

surely with delicious taste and preservation of nutrients.
• Maximum temperature obtained is
– 140°C in winter

– 160°C in summer

• Solar direct radiation and also reflected radiation (from a reflector

• mirror) enters through the top transparent glass cover and
absorbed by aluminum blackened tray kept inside the solar box.
 Solar Cooker

• The solar radiation entering the cooker is short wavelength.

• The glass cover reduces re-radiation losses from absorber surface to

outside solar cooker.

• The solar re-radiation (solar energy leaving from absorber surface)

has higher wavelength which is notable to pass through the top

glass cover.

• The blackened surface starts absorbing sunrays and temperature

inside the box starts rising.

 Solar Cooker

Box type solar cooker

 Solar Cooker

• The cooking pots gets heat energy and food will be cooked in a
certain period of time depending upon actual temperature attained
inside.
• The temperature attained depends upon the intensity of solar
radiation.
• Depending on the latitude and weather, time of cooking with this
cooker ranges from 1 hr to 4 hrs.
 Solar Cooker
Box type solar oven-Multi reflector type
•A box type solar oven was designed by Central Arid Zone Research Institute
Jodhpur
•The solar box type solar oven typically reaches a temperature of 250° C in
winter and 350° C in summer.
•In this oven, practically all types of food preparation like cooking, roasting,
baking and boiling can be done within 25 to 75 minutes under clear sky
conditions.
•This solar oven is ideal for baking purposes.
•A box type solar oven consists of a well-insulated semi-cylindrical box made
of sheet aluminum and wood.
 Solar Cooker

•Two shells are made and the space between them, 7.5 cm, is filled
with fiber glass insulation.
•The interior sheet is painted black.

•A door of a same insulating material is also made for keeping and

taking out food.
•The window of the oven consists of two transparent glass sheets.

•Eight reflectors are provided on the oven, four of square shape and
four of triangular shape.
 Solar Cooker

•The reflectors remade from silver glass mirrors.

•The oven can be manually tilted and oriented toward sun.

•A cradle like cooking platform is made in the oven which helps in keeping the
vessel containing food horizontally irrespective of the sun.
•The main advantage of this solar cooker is that its efficiency is high because
its performance is not affected by wind and there are no chances of dust
falling in the cooking spots which is problem in the arid zone of India.
•Moreover, the food remains warm if kept inside the oven for hours together
even after sunset.
 Solar Cooker

•Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker

•Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker consists of paraboloid

reflecting surface, through which the radiation is concentrated
•In this cooker cooking pot is placed at focus of paraboloid mirror and is thus
directly heated.
•Maximum temperature obtained 450°C

•It can be used for cooking food items requiring roasting, frying or boiling.

•It can save on fuel for upto 10 LPG cylinders per year for family having 10-15
persons.
 Solar Cooker

•Cooking time is 20-30 minutes

•Approximate cost is about Rs.10,000.

•They generate high temperatures and cook quickly, but require
frequent adjustment and supervision for safe operation.
•Also it requires manual tracking every 15 or 20 minutes.
•Used for large scale institutional cooking.
Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker
Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker
 Solar Still

•One of the major problems in many parts of world is the scarcity of

fresh water (water with less than 500 ppm salt content).
•Due to climate changes and less rainfall in many parts of the world,
fresh water which was available in abundance from rivers, lakes and
ponds, is becoming scarce.
•Also the available resources are getting polluted due to discharge of
industrial effluents and sewage in large quantities.
 Solar Still
• In this are a solar energy is plentiful and can be used for converting saline

water into distilled water with help of distillation process.

• Solar distillation process is considered to be one of the simplest and widely

adopted techniques for converting seawater into fresh water.

• A solar still is a simple device which converts saline water into fresh water

using heat of the sun.

• Several types of solar stills have evolved.

• However, only the Basin type solar still has been tried commercially on the

large scale.
 Solar Still

•The basic principles of solar water distillation are simple yet effective,
as distillation replicates the way nature makes rain.
•The sun's energy heats water to the point of evaporation.

•As the water evaporates, water vapour rises, condensing on the glass
surface for collection.
•This process removes impurities such as salts and heavy metals as
well as eliminates microbiological organisms.
•The end result is water cleaner than the purest rainwater.
 Solar Still

•A simple basin type solar still consists of a shallow blackened basin

filled – saline or brackish water to be distilled.
•The depth of water is kept about 5-10 cm.
•It is enclosed with a transparent air tight cover.
•The cover, which usually glass may be plastic, is sloped toward a
collection trough(a liquid conveying channel).
•The transparent roof material transmits nearly all radiation falling on
it and absorbs very little, hence it remains cool
 Solar Still

• Solar radiation passed through the cover and is absorbed by bottom

blackened surface and converted into heat.
• Saline water is heated in basin and vapour produce, which is then
condensed on the inner surface of glass cover.
• The transparent cover is cool enough to condense water vapour.
• The condensed water flows down the sloping roof and is collected in
troughs at the bottom.
• On a good sunny day, 3 litters/m2 with efficiency of 30-35% can be
obtained in well designed solar still.
Solar Still
 Solar Dryers
•Drying involves the removal of moisture; this is achieved through the application of heat to the

product.

•Due to that water vapour form and it is transferred to surrounding through evaporation.

•Drying process can be possible by two methods:

– Solar drying

– Product directly placed under sunlight

Solar drying

•Product is placed in solar dryer device & then under sunlight.

•Hence it gives faster drying rates.

 Solar Dryers

Types of solar dryers

• There are mainly three types of solar dryers:

– Direct type solar dryer

• with natural convection type
• forced convection type

– Indirect type with forced circulation type solar dryer

– Mixed mode type solar dryer
 Solar Still

Direct type with natural convection type solar dryer

•Direct drying uses incident radiation only or incident radiation plus
reflected radiation.
•Most solar drying techniques that use only direct solar energy also
use some means to reflect additional radiation on to the product to
further increase its temperature
•An example of direct absorption dryer is the Cabinet dryer.
 Solar Still

•The aim of this type of a dryer is mainly to improve product quality by

reducing contamination by dust, insect infestation, and animal or

human interference.

•It consists of an enclosure with a transparent top and blackened

interior surfaces.

•Ventilation holes in the base and upper parts of sidewalls maintained

a natural air circulation.

•The material to be dried is placed on perforated trays.

 Solar Still

•Solar radiation entering the enclosure is absorbed in the product itself

and the surrounding blackened interior surfaces of enclosure.
•Therefore, moisture is removed from the product and air inside is
heated.
•Temperatures ranging from 50°C to 80° Care normally attained by this
type of solar dryer and the drying time ranges from 2to4 days.
•It can be used for drying such as grapes, dates, apricots, chilies etc.
Direct type with natural convection type solar dryer
 Solar Still
Direct type with forced convection type solar dryer
•In this type of dryer, some kind of blower is used for the circulation of air
which his either operated electrically or mechanically.
•Such dryers are more efficient, faster, and can be used for drying large
quantities of agricultural products.
•The forced circulation type dryer may be director indirect types.

•The direct mode

•Type forced circulation drier is similar to direct type natural circulation except
that here natural circulation of air is replaced by forced circulation.
•Used for drying timber.
Direct type with forced convection type solar dryer
 Solar Still

Indirect type with forced convection type solar dryer

•Indirect mode type forced circulation dryers are very efficient, can be
used at lowas

•wellashightemperatures,andforlargequantitiesofagriculturalproducts.

•Normally,theindirectmodetypeforcedcirculationdryersareusedwhent
hesolar
radiationfallingdirectlyisnotadequateandtemperatureofproductneedt
obe controlled.
 Solar Still
•The main idea behind this type of a dryer is to obtain a low cost multi-
product system.
•Also, it leads to choose a drying chamber able to accommodate different
kinds of trays.
•Indirect mode with force convection type drier consists of chamber in
which the product to be dried is stored and a separate solar air heater
which receives solar radiation and convey the heated air to the chamber.
•This type of dryer is suitable for foodgrains, tea, spices etc. and for the
products like leather and ceramics.
Indirect type with forced convection type solar dryer
 Solar Still
•Mixed mode type solar dryer
•This utilizes both direct and indirect solar radiation.
•In these types of systems, radiant energy from the sun falls directly on
to the product being dried; however, in addition, a preheater also is
used to raise the air temperature, which in turn, accelerates the
drying rate.
•Acceleration of drying rate can occur in two ways: hot air can transfer
some of its heat to the product being dried, thus raising its vapour
pressure causing a faster moisture loss; or a stem perature of air mass
increases, the water-holding capacity also increases.
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

• There is major environmental concern regarding conventional

refrigeration technologies including contribution too zone layer
depletion and global warming.
• The use of solar energy to power refrigeration strives to minimize
the negative impacts refrigerators have on the environment.
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

Types of Solar refrigeration system

• Photovoltaic operated refrigeration system
• Refrigeration system with thermal collectors

• Vapour compression refrigeration system

• Vapour absorption refrigeration system

Photovoltaic operated refrigeration system

• Photovoltaic involve the direct conversion of solar radiation to D.C.
using semi conducting materials
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

•Solar photovoltaic panel produce D.C. electrical power that can be

used to operate
•D.C. motor, which is coupled to the compressor of a vapour
compression refrigeration system.
•The system consist of
• Compression

• condenser

• Expansion valve
• Evaporator
Photovoltaic operated refrigeration system
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning
•Thepowerissuppliednotbythedomesticelectricalsupplysystem,butfromthe
solar PV panel.
•The solar system of the solar refrigerator consists of the solar. That collects
the solar energy.
•The solar panels are fitted with photovoltaic cells that convert the solar
energy into electrical energy and store it in the battery.
•During the normal running of the solar refrigerator the power is supplied
directly by the solar panel, but when the output power of solar panels is less,
the additional power is supplied by the battery.
•The battery is recharged when excess amount of power is produced by the
solar panels.
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

Refrigeration system with thermal collectors

• Vapour compression refrigeration system/solar mechanical
refrigeration
• Solar mechanical refrigeration uses a conventional vapour
compression system driven by mechanical power that is produced
with a solar-driven heat power cycle.
• The heat power cycle usually considered for this application is a
Rankine cycle.
Vapour compression refrigeration system/solar mechanical refrigeration
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

• The overall efficiency of solar mechanical refrigeration, defined as the

ratio of mechanical energy produced to the incident solar radiation, is
the product of the efficiencies of the solar collector and the power
cycle.
• Solar mechanical systems are competitive only at higher
temperatures for which tracking solar collectors are required.
• Because of its economy-of-scale, this option would only be applicable
for large refrigeration systems e.g.,1,000 tons
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

Vapour absorption refrigeration system

Absorption refrigeration is the least intuitive of the solar refrigeration

alternatives.

Unlike the PV and solar mechanical refrigeration options, the

absorption refrigeration system is considered a "heat driven“

system that requires minimal mechanical power for the

compression process.

It replaces the energy-intensive compression in a vapor compression

 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

• A single-stage absorption system using ammonia as the refrigerant

and ammonia- water
• Absorption cooling systems that use lithium bromide-water
absorption-refrigerant working fluid can not be used at temperatures
below 0°C.
• The condenser, throttle and evaporator operate in the exactly the
same manner as for the vapor compression system.
• In place of the compressor, however, the absorption system uses a
series of three heat exchangers
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

•Absorber.
•Regenerating intermediate heat exchanger and a generator

•Small solution pump.

•Ammonia vapor exiting the evaporator is absorbed in a liquid solution
of water ammonia in the absorber.
•The absorption of ammonia vapor into the water- ammonia solution is
analogous to a condensation process.
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

• The process is exothermic and so cooling water is required to carry

a way the heat of absorption.
• The principle governing this phase of the operation is that a vapor is
more readily absorbed into a liquid solution as the temperature of
the liquid solution is reduced.
• The ammonia- rich liquid solution leaving the absorber is pumped
to a higher pressure, passed through a heat exchanger and
delivered to the generator.
• Inthissystemthepowerrequirementforthepumpismuchsmallerthanth
atforthe compressor in case of vapour compression system
Vapour absorption refrigeration system
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

• In the generator, the liquid solution is heated, which promotes

desorption of the refrigerant (ammonia) from the solution.
• Unfortunately, some water also is desorbed with the ammonia, and it
must be separated from the ammonia using the rectifier.
• Without the use of a rectifier, water exits with the ammonia and
travels to the evaporator, where it increases the temperature at
which refrigeration can be provided.
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

• This solution temperature needed to drive the desorption process

with ammonia-water is in the range between 120°C to 130°C.
• Temperatures in this range can be obtained using low cost non-
tracking solar collectors.
• At these temperatures, evacuated tubular collectors may be more
suitable than flat plate collectors as their efficiency is less sensitive to
operating temperature.
 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

The advantage of solar refrigeration systems is that they displace some

or all of the conventional fuel use.

The operating costs of a solar refrigeration system should be lower

than that of conventional systems, but at current and projected fuel

costs, this operating cost savings would not likely compensate for

their additional capital costs, even in along term life-cycle analysis.

The major advantage of solar refrigeration is that it can be designed to

operate independent of a utility grid.

 Solar Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

•Of the three solar refrigeration concepts presented here, the

photovoltaic system is the most appropriate for small capacity
portable systems located in areas not near conventional energy
sources(electricity or gas).
•Absorption and solar mechanical systems are necessarily larger and
bulkier and require extensive plumbing as well as electrical
connections.
 Solar Pond

 In the continuous or discontinuous energy supply system, the energy

storage is required to balance the energy of mismatches between
the demand and the supply of energy.
 Especially in solar energy system the energy available only particular
duration and only day time, hence thermal energy storage is
required to improve performance and reducing total cost.
 Solar pond is a device to collect and store the solar thermal energy
in the form of sensible heat.
 Solar Pond

•It consists of an expanse of water about 2m deep with a thick durable plastic
liner laid at the bottom.
•Salts like magnesium chloride, sodium chloride or sodium nitrate are dissolved
in the water, concentration varying from 20% to 30%.
• There are 3 distinct layers of water in the pond as:

The top layer-Surface convective zone:

• Normally, it has a small thickness, about 0.3 m to 0.5 m.
• It has a low, uniform concentration (low salt content, salinity <5%) as well as a
fairly uniform temperature close to atmospheric temperature.
 Solar Pond

An intermediate insulating layer with a salt gradient Non convective zone:

• It is much thicker, about 1.0 m to 1.5 m and occupies more than half
• the depth of the pond.

• Both concentration and temperature increases with depth in this zone.

• This layer establishes a density gradient that prevents heat exchange by
natural convection.
 Solar Pond

The bottom layer-Lower convective or storage zone:

• Normally, it has a thickness about 0.5 m to 1 m and high salt content
(salinity about 20%).
• Both concentration and temperature are nearly constant in this zone.

• This zone serves as the main heat collection as well as thermal storage
medium.
Solar pond
 Solar Pond

• If the water is relatively translucent, and the pond's bottom has high
optical absorption, then nearly all of the incident solar radiation
(sunlight) will go into heating the bottom layer.
• When solar energy is absorbed in the water, its temperature
increases which causes thermal expansion and reduced density.
• If the water were fresh (without salts) the low-density hot water
would float to the surface, causing circulation of water by convection.
• The temperature gradient alone causes a density gradient that
decreases with depth.
 Solar Pond

•The situation is changed if the pond contains salts water at bottom

with layer of fresh water above it.
•In this case, the salinity gradient forms a density gradient that
increases with depth and this counter acts the temperature gradient,
thus preventing heat in the lower layers from moving up wards by
convection and leaving the pond.
•Because of its salt content, the solar pond bottom is denser than the
cooler fresh water at the top, and hence it does not tend to rise.
 Solar Pond

•A relatively stable layer of heated salt water is thus produced at the bottom of
the pond with a lighter layer of cooler fresh water, which acts as a heat
insulator, above it.
•Normally, the temperature at the bottom of the pond will rise to over 90° C
while the temperature at the top of the pond is usually around 30°C.
•A solar pond can be used for various applications, such as heating and cooling
of buildings, industrial process heating, desalination, refrigeration, heating
animal housing, drying crops on farms, heat for biomass conversion and solar
power generation.
 Solar Pond
• The heat trapped in the salty
bottom layer can be used for
many different purposes, such
as the heating of buildings or
industrial hot water or to drive
an organic Rankine cycle
turbine or Stirling engine for
generating electricity.

Temperature and concentration profile

for a typical solar pond
 Solar Power Plants

•Solar power generation technologies can be broadly classified into

two broad categories:

Solar Photo voltaic technologies:

•Photo voltaic converters are semi conductor devices that convert part
of the incident solar radiation directly into electrical energy.
Solar thermal power plants:
•Solar thermal power plants produce electricity by converting the solar
radiation into high temperature heat using mirrors and reflectors.
 Solar Power Plants
Classification solar thermal power plants
• Classification based on temperatures

– Low temperature cycles:

• Maximum temperature is limited to 100°C.
• For low temperature cycle, the thermo dynamic cycle preferred is
Rankine cycle.
– Medium temperature cycles:
• Maximum temperatures ranging from 150°C to 300°C.
• For medium temperature cycle, the thermodynamic cycle also
preferred is Rankine cycle.
 Solar Power Plants

- High temperature cycles:

• Work at temperatures above 300°C.
• For high temperature cycle, the thermodynamic cycle preferred is
the Rankine cycle, the Brayton cycle and the Stirling cycle.

Classification based on types of collectors

• Solar pond power plant
• Solar distributed collector thermal power plant
• Central receiver system or Power tower-Heliostat
• Solar chimney power plant
 Solar Power Plants
LOW TEMPERATURE SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT
Low temperature power generation cycle using liquid flat plate collectors:
• Array of flat plate collectors are used to receive the solar radiation.
• The booster mirrors are used with collector to get maximum solar energy.
• The hot water at temperature close to 100° C is stored in a well insulated
thermal storage tank.
• Hot water from storage tank is circulated through the heat exchanger
(vapour generator), and give up heat to the working fluid (low boiling
temperature fluid)of Rankine cycle.
 Solar Power Plants
• Low boiling temperature fluid evaporates at about 90° C and pressure of a
few atmospheres.
• Vapour generated in generator is then passes through turbine.

• After expansion in the turbine, low pressure vapour is condensed in

the condenser and then liquid again supply to the vapour generator with help
of liquid pump.
•Normally, the working fluids used are methyl chloride, toluene or refrigerants
like R11, R113, and R114.
•This power plant is very simple, but it required large investment cost per kW
because of large collector are involved.
• Overall efficiency of power plant is very low about 2%
 Solar Power Plants

Low temperature power generation cycle using liquid flat plate collectors
 Solar Power Plants

Low temperature power generation cycle using solar pond

•Solar pond is used to receive and to store the solar radiation
•The system works on Rankine cycle using low boiling temperature working
fluid.
•The bottom layers of brine reach 70 to 85° C while the top remains 25°C.
•The hot brine from bottom is slowly withdrawn in the laminar flow pattern
from the pond and used to evaporate low boiling temperature working fluid of
Rankine cycle in the vapour generator.
 Solar Power Plants

• The vapour of working fluid flows under high pressure to the

turbine and thereby, expanding through the turbine and electrical
generator coupled to it.
• Expansion in the turbine, low pressure vapour is condensed in the
condenser and then again supply to the vapour generator with help
of liquid pump
 Solar Power Plants

Low temperature power generation cycle using solar pond

 Solar Power Plants

MEDIUM TEMPERATURE SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT

• In this system, an array of parabolic line focusing type concentrating
collectors is used to receive the solar energy because of low cost and
require sun tracking in one plane only as compared to paraboloidal
concentrating collectors.
• It is work at maximum temperatures ranging from 150 to 300°C. This power
plant consists of a parabolic cylindrical reflector to concentrate sunlight on
to a collecting pipe within a pyrexor glass envelop, a storage tank, steam
generator, steam turbine, condenser, pump and electrical generator
 Solar Power Plants

Medium temperature solar power plant

 Solar Power Plants

• Incoming solar energy is absorbed by water, and this heat is

transferred to storage tank and finally to steam generator where
steam is generated.
• This steam is utilized to run a turbine.
• After expansion in the turbine, low pressure steam is condensed in
the condenser and then water again supply to steam generator with
help of liquid pump.
 Solar Power Plants

HIGH TEMPERATURE SOLAR THERMAL POWER PLANT

Solar distributed collector thermal power plant
• In this power plant, solar energy is collected by several individual
collectors located in solar field.
• A very large area of few km is covered by the field
• The Parabolic through collectors with line focus are used
 Solar Power Plants

The main components of plant are:

Parabolic through collectors distributed in the solar field

Piping system for primary heat transport (water) circuit
• At transport fluid pump

• Storage tank
• Steam generator

• Secondary fluid (steam) circuit

• Steam turbine
• Condenser and condensate pump
Solar distributed collector thermal power plant
 Solar Power Plants

• Incoming solar energy is collected in the collector which absorbed

by water, and this heat is transferred to storage tank and then to
steam generator where steam is generated.
• This steam is utilized to run a turbine.
• After expansion in the turbine, low pressure steam is condensed in
the condenser and then water again supply to the steam generator
with help of feed water pump after feed water heating in the feed
water heater.
 Solar Power Plants

• The operating temperature of parabolic through collectors with line focus

with sun tracking in one plane is in the range of200°C to300°C.
• In the solar distributed collector thermal power plant, parabolic through
collectors with line focus are generally recommended for medium size
electrical power plant (typically size 50MW) used for applications such as
stand alone power plant for farm or community centre, captive power plant
for small industry.
• The small solar distributed collector thermal power plant (typically size 2MW)
may be preferred for cogeneration plant (to deliver steam, hot water and
electric power) and irrigation water pumping
 Solar Power Plants

Solar Central Receiver or Solar Tower thermal power plant:

•In this solar-thermal power plant, a wide field of helio stats focuses
the sun's power on to a single collector to heat a medium such as
water or molten salt.

•The system consists of

•The field of oriented flat mirrors or array of helio stats

•Tower with the central receiver on top of it heat conversion

subsystem

•Heat storage device

 Solar Power Plants

•The fields of heliostats comprise many mirrors.

•The movement of most modern heliostats employs at wo-axis
motorized system, controlled by computer based on the latitude and
longitude and the time and date.
•In the central receiver at the top of the tower on which solar radiation
reflected from fields of heliostats is concentrated.
•The central receiver has a heat absorbing surface by which the heat
transport fluid is heated.
 Solar Power Plants

•In most of case water is a heat transport medium and working fluid of Rankine
cycle. An other possibility is to use a gas as heat transport medium and also
working fluid of Brayton cycle of a gas turbine.
•Thermal buffer storage is provided so that the plant can continue to operate
for a maximum period of 30 minute in case of cloud cover.
•Short term storage of heat can be provided by firebricks, ceramic oxides,
rocks, eutectic salts, fused salts, sulphure or lithium metal, sodium metal setc.
• Heliostat costs represent 30-50% of the initial capital investment for solar
power plant depending on the energy policy and economic frame work in
the location country.
Solar Central Receiver thermal power plant
 Solar Furnace

A solar furnace is an optical system used to produce high temperatures

by concentrating solar radiation on to specimen.
Solar furnace consists of
• A concentrator(paraboloidal reflector surface),
• Small size receiver

• Heliostats
 Solar Furnace

•The large number of heliostats directs solar radiation on to a concentrator

(paraboloidal reflector surface). The heliostats are adjusted such that they
direct the radiation parallel to the optical axis of the paraboloidal reflector.

•The paraboloidal reflector then brings the radiation to a focal point where the
receiver is fitted.

•The temperature at the focal point may reach 3,500°C and this heat can be
used to generate electricity, melt steel, and make hydrogen fuel or nano-
materials
Solar furnace
 Solar Furnace

Applications of solar furnace:

The rays are focused on to an area the size of a cooking pot and can reach

3,500°C depending on the process installed, for example:

(i) about 1,000°C for metallic receivers producing hotair,

(ii) about1,400°Ctoproducehydrogenbycracking methane molecules,

(iii) Upto 2,500°C to test materials for extreme environment such as nuclear

reactors or space vehicle,

(iv) Upto 3,500°C to produce nano- materials by solar induced sub limation

and controlled cooling, such as carbon nanotubes or zinc nano-particles.

 Solar Furnace

•The solar furnace is an excellent means for studying properties of ceramics at high

temperatures above the range ordinarily measured in the laboratory with flames and

electric currents

•Physical measurements such as melting points, phase changes, specific heat, thermal

expansion, thermal conductance, magnetic susceptibility and thermionic emission.

•Solar furnaces can be used in space to provide energy for manufacturing purposes.

•The solar furnace can be utilized to produce high temperature for metallurgical and

chemical operations
 Solar Furnace

Advantages of a solar furnace:

• In the solar furnace, heating is possible without any contamination and easy
to control the temperature.
• Solar furnace provides high temperature and rapid heating & cooling.
• Using solar furnace it is possible to measure various properties on an open
specimen and continuous observation is possible.
Disadvantages of a solar furnace:

Their use is limited to sunny days and that too for 4-5 hours only.

Very high temperature is obtained only over a very small area.

• Initial cost of solar furnace is very high
Solar Furnace
 Solar Chimney Power Plant

•The solar chimney power plant is a renewable-energy power plant for

generating electricity from solar power.

•Sun shine falling on a green house-like collector structure around the base of a

tall chimney heats the air with in it.

•The resulting convection causes air to rise up the tower by the chimney effect.

•This air flow drives wind turbines to produce electricity.

•It is also called solar up draft tower power plant.

• Sunlight passing through the transparent cover causes the air trapped in the

green house to heat up by 10°C to 20°C

Solar chimney power plant
 Solar Chimney Power Plant

•A typical 50 kW solar chimney power plant requires chimney height of

195 metres and a diameter of 10 metres with a collection are a
(greenhouse) of 46000m2 and a diameter of 244 metres.
•Solar thermal collectors or photovoltaic scan be arranged inside the
collector greenhouse to increase output.
•Initial cost–high
•Operating cost–low
Solar chimney power plant
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

•Solar cells are devices which convert solar energy directly into electricity via
the photo voltaic effect.

Solar cell principles:

•It is based on the photovoltaic effect.

•In general, the photo voltaic effect means the generation of a potential
difference at the junction of two different materials in response to visible or
other radiation.
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

The solar cell works in three steps:

• Photons in sun light hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting

materials, such as silicon.

• Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, causing

an electric potential difference. Current starts flowing through the material

to cancel the potential and this electricity is captured.

 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

• Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed
to move in a single direction.
• An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct
current (DC) electricity.
• Semi-conductors like silicon, cadmium telluride, gallium arsenide etc. are a
suitable material for absorbing the energy of photon of sunlight
Principle of working of solar cell
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

Photovoltaic cells, modules, panels and arrays

• Photo voltaic array is the device which generates electricity when
exposed to light.
• A typical single PV cells can produce about 0.5 V and 6 Amp, which
gives 3W power.
• A number of cells are combined to form a module.
• When modules are combined we get a panel.
• Panels are combined to get an array
Structure of solar cell
Photovoltaic cell, module, panel and array
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

A basic solar photovoltaic system for power generation

• It consist of:
– A PV panel array, ranging from two to many hundreds of panels;

– A control panel, to regulate the power from the panels;

– A power storage system, generally comprising of a number of
specially designed batteries;
– An inverter, for converting the DC to AC power e.g.240 V AC.
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

– A back up power supplies such as diesel start-up generators (optional)

– Frame work and housing for the system

– Trackers and sensors (optional)

– Arrays of panels are being increasingly used in building construction

– where they serve the dual purpose of providing a wall or roof as well as
providing electric power for the building.
• Eventually as the prices of solar cells fall, building integrated solar cells may
become a major new source of electric power.
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

• The daily energy output from PV panels will vary depending on the
orientation, location, daily weather and season.
• On average, in summer, a panel will produce about five times its
rated power output in watt-hours per day and in winter about two
times that amount.
• For example, in summer a 50 watt panel will produce an average of
250 watt-hours of energy, and in winter about 100watt-hours
Element of PV system
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

•Trakers are used to keep PV panels directly facing the sun, there by
increasing the output from the panels.
•Energy storage is often necessary when power is required when the
sun is not shining-either at night or in cloudy periods-or in quantities
greater than can be supplied directly from the array.
•Specially designed "deep-cycle“ lead acid batteries are generally used.
•Unlike normal batteries, they can discharge about half of their stored
energy several thousand times before they deteriorate.
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

•Inverters are necessary if mains-voltage appliances are to be used.

•In assessing the cost of the total system, it may be more economical
to purchase an inverter and mass produced consumer appliances than
to use low voltage DC appliances which may be more expensive.
•Sometimes wind generators are used in conjunction with PV systems,
if the combination of sun and wind is viable.
•Small petrol or diesel generators are often used as the back up.

•These systems are relatively cheap to purchase but expensiveto run.

 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

•The performance of PV modules and arrays are generally rated

according to their maximum DC power output (watts) under Standard
Test Conditions (STC).
•Standard Test Conditions are defined by a module (cell) operating
temperature of 25°C, and incident solar irradiance level of 1000W/m 2
and under Air Mass 1.5 spectral distribution.
•Today's photovoltaic modules are extremely safe and reliable
products, with minimal failure rates and projected service lifetimes of
20 to 30 years.
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

Types of solar cell

• Solar cells can be classified in the three ways as followed:

Classification on basis of type of active materials used in its fabrication

• Single crystal silicon solar cell
• Multi crystalline silicon solar cell
• Amorphous silicon solar cell
• Cadmium telluride solar cell
• Copper indium gallium diselenide
• Gallium arsenide multi-junction
• Dye-sensitized solar cell
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells
•Quantum dot solar cell

•Organic/polymer solar cell

Classification on basis of thickness of active material

• Bulk material solar cell
• Thin film solar cell

Classification on basis of junction structure

• p-n homo-junction solar cell
• p-n hetro-junction solar cell

• p-n metal semiconductor-junction solar cell

• p-i-n semiconductor-junction solar cell
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

Wafer-based crystalline silicon /Bulk material solar cell

• Mono crystalline silicon solar cells

– A mono crystalline silicon solar cell is made from a wafer of one big
silicon mono crystal.
– These cells belong to the most efficient class in the photovoltaic
technology.
– For the moment the efficiency factor is about 15%.
– The required production process for this type of solar cell is complex and
rather expensive.
– The surface of the cell is smooth and equally colored blue.
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

–They are not flexible and must be mounted in a firm frame and protected
against an aggressive environment.
• Polycrystalline silicon solar cells

– A polycrystalline silicon solar cells wafer is sawed out of a cast “ingot” of

molten silicon which is recrystallized.
– The wafer forms the basic of a polycrystalline solar cell.

– This solar cell is cheaper because the production process is less complex.
– The efficiency factor is lower as compared with mono crystalline cells.
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

–For the moment the efficiency factor is about 12%.

–The surface of a poly solar cell looks a little bit smudged with various blue
patches.
–They are not flexible and must be mounted in a firm frame and protected
against an aggressive environment.
Thin film solar cell
• Amorphous silicon solar cells

– An amorphous silicon solar cell consists of a thin homogenous layer of

silicon atoms instead of a crystal structure.
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

–The light absorption in amorphous silicon is more effective compared to

the former silicon types.

–So the cells can be thinner, hence the name “thin film” cells.

–Amorphous cells can be used on various carriers both on solid and flexible

materials.

–Bend or folded surfaces are no problem.

–The cell surface is dark grey colored.

–These cells are cheap but the efficiency factor is allow 6% for the moment.
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

–A property of amorphous solar cells is the power decrease in the first

month after first introduction.

–After this period the power output remain rather steady.

–In the specification of the cell the steady power state is mentioned.

• Cadmium telluride solar cell

–A cadmium telluride solar cell uses a cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin film, a

semi conductor layer to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity.

–The cadmium present in the cells would be toxic if released.

–However, release is impossible during normal operation of the cells.

 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

• Copper indium gallium diselenide

– Copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) is a direct band gap material.

– Gain to the CIGS mixture increases the band gap beyond 1.1 eV.

– It has the highest efficiency (~20%) among thin film materials and more
stable as compared to a-Si cell in outdoor applications.
– However, exposure to elevated temperature results in loss of efficiency,
but light soaking restores it to original efficiency level.
– The main attraction of this solar cell is inexpensive preparation
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

• Applications of solar cells

– Cathodic protection systems

– Electric fences
– Remote lighting systems
– Tele communications and remote monitoring systems
– Solar powered water pumping
– Rural electrification
– Water treatment Systems
– Watches, toys, calculators, emergency power systems, refrigerators for
remote areas, portable power supplies for camping and fishing etc.
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

• Advantages of solar cell

– Photovoltaic systems can be designed for a variety of applications and
operational requirements.
– It can be used for either centralized or distributed power generation.
– Photovoltaic systems have no moving parts, are modular, easily
expandable and even transportable in some cases.
– Energy independence and environmental compatibility
– The fuel (sunlight) is free, and no noise or pollution is created from
operating photovoltaic systems.
– Minimal maintenance and have long service life times.
 Photo Voltaic System or Solar Cells

• Disadvantages of solar cell

– High initial cost.

– Surface area required is high.

– Solar energy is intermittent.
– Hence requires large storage.

– This increase the cost and make the system bulky.

– Conversion efficiency-low-about 30%
Thank You