An FPL Technical Primer

Air-Cooled Chillers
In many types of smaller commercial and industrial buildings, air-cooled electric chillers offer
an attractive alternative to the traditional cooling, direct-expansion, packaged rooftop units
(RTUs). Like RTUs, electric chillers draw air across the condenser to remove heat. But instead
of circulating air through the building, air-cooled chillers circulate cool water to air-handler
chilled-water coils, and then supply fans draw air across the coils to deliver cool air through
the building’s ductwork.

Air-Cooled Chiller Characteristics Tons. One ton of cooling is the amount of heat absorbed
Because water has more thermal mass than air, the on-and- by one ton of ice melting in one day, which is equivalent to
off cycling of the air-cooled chiller compressor doesn’t cause 12,000 Btus per hour, or 3.516 kilowatts (kW) (thermal).
as much fluctuation in the supply air temperature, providing Chiller performance is certified by the Air-Conditioning,
occupants with a more comfortable environment. In Heating, and Refrigeration Institute (AHRI), a manufacturer
addition, air-cooled chillers have a much greater “turndown” trade organization, according to its Standard 550/590:
capability. That is, they are better able to match part-load Performance Rating of Water-Chilling Packages Using
cooling conditions than RTUs. These two factors enable air- the Vapor Compression Cycle. Two efficiency metrics are
cooled chillers to provide better humidity and temperature commonly used for air-cooled chillers: full-load efficiency and
control, which translates into greater occupant comfort and part-load efficiency.
better efficiency.
Full-load efficiency. Indicating the efficiency of the chiller at
Chiller Terminology peak load, full-load efficiency is the energy-efficiency ratio (EER)
measured at standard AHRI conditions. This is the ratio of the
Several terms are used to describe chiller performance and cooling capacity to the total power input, expressed in Btus per
efficiency. Confusion can be minimized by first developing an hour-watt. A higher EER rating indicates higher efficiency.
understanding of the most common terms.
Part-load efficiency. This metric indicates the efficiency of
the chiller at part load, and is measured by either integrated
part-load value (IPLV) or nonstandard part-load value (NPLV),
depending on the particular AHRI part-load test conditions.
Both give the efficiency of the chiller using a weighted average
formula referencing four operating load points (100 percent,
75 percent, 50 percent, and 25 percent) and are expressed in
Btus per hour-watt.

Efficiency Considerations
When selecting an air-cooled chiller, spending a little more for
greater efficiency can really pay off as annual energy costs
can be up to half of a chiller’s purchase price. While there’s
some differentiation in full-load efficiency among available
models, there are more-significant differences in the part-
load performance as measured by the IPLV. Chillers that use
variable-frequency drives (VFDs) stretch the IPLV range even
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further and can produce chiller energy savings of 15 to
© E Source25 percent compared to standard models. Using VFDs at a
Figure 1: 40-ton air-cooled chiller. Air-cooled chillers use fans to chiller plant can produce large savings where the cooling load
reject heat by drawing air across the condenser. varies significantly.

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Air-Cooled Versus Water-Cooled Chillers What’s Available?

Air-cooled chillers are particularly well suited for facilities that Air-cooled chillers are factory assembled and available in sizes
have the following characteristics. from 10 to 530 tons of cooling capacity. Multiple chillers can
be used together to satisfy higher cooling requirements.
Smaller cooling loads. Due to the available product
capacities, air-cooled chillers are typically used in applications There are primarily two types of compressors available from
that require 300 tons of cooling or less. However, many the major manufacturers of new air-cooled chillers: scroll
industry experts agree that with cooling loads as low as compressors and screw compressors. Which type to choose
200 to 250 tons, water-cooled chiller options should also be for a specific application is determined largely by the cooling
considered because they may provide a more cost-effective capacity required and the trade-off between initial costs
solution if other factors (such as those discussed below) don’t and operating costs. Scroll compressors tend to be used
rule them out. on smaller chillers, up to about 140 tons capacity. Screw
compressors are available for chillers with capacities starting
Significant hours with high temperatures and humidity.
at about 80 tons up to the largest size available.
Though water-cooled chillers can be more efficient in many
climates, this advantage is significantly decreased where the While still relatively rare, magnetic-bearing centrifugal
temperature and humidity are frequently high. This may make compressors are beginning to be used in air-cooled
it difficult to justify the expense of water and water treatment chillers. Improved part-load performance and reduced
required for a water-cooled chiller. maintenance requirements are among the benefits of this
type of compressor.
Lack of trained maintenance staff. Water-cooled chillers
require constant and careful maintenance of their cooling
towers. Without an on-site staff or hired contractors trained
Chiller Efficiency and Addendum m
to accomplish this task, the performance of the cooling Minimum chiller efficiencies are dictated by local building
system can be significantly compromised. It’s much easier for codes rather than by U.S. federal standards as with other
facilities without trained staff or the funds to hire contractors to cooling equipment. Soon the Florida Building Code will
maintain the performance of an air-cooled chiller. incorporate the International Energy Conservation Code
(IECC) of 2009, which references the minimum efficiency
Smaller capital budgets. Air-cooled systems generally have levels established by ASHRAE’s Standard 90.1, the Energy
a lower first cost than water-cooled systems. Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings.
Potential applications for air-cooled chillers include offices, In 2007 ASHRAE developed Addendum m to Standard
schools, small malls, and medical centers. 90.1, which increased the part-load efficiency requirements
for air-cooled chillers, reflecting the availability of improved
equipment. Full-load efficiency requirements remained the
same. These changes, shown in Table 1, were rolled into the
2010 version of the standard.

ASHRAE 90.1 ASHRAE 90.1 Best-available Best-available

before 1/1/2010 as of 1/1/2010 high efficiency VFD

Chiller capacity Full load (EER) IPLV (EER) Full load (EER) IPLV (EER) Full load (EER) IPLV (EER) Full load (EER) IPLV (EER)

< 150 tons 9.562 10.416 9.562 12.500 10.900 16.000 NA NA

≥ 150tons 9.562 10.416 9.562 12.750 11.600 15.400 11.600 19.800

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Notes: Metrics for high-efficiency units are the best available without a VFD. EER=energy-efficiency ratio; IPLV=integrated part-load value;
VFD=variable frequency drive; NA=not available

Table 1: Air-cooled chiller minimum and best-available EERs and IPLVs. There is a much bigger differentiation in IPLV than EER for
available products.

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As shown in Table 1, there is, at most, a 2-point difference in VFD Applications

full-load efficiency, measured in EER, between the standard Applications where VFDs can be particularly cost-effective
model required by ASHRAE 90.1 and the best-available include those that have the following characteristics.
models on the market across all sizes. In contrast, the
difference between standard and best-available part-load Low chiller load factors. In applications where chillers spend
efficiency, measured in IPLV, ranges from 3.7 points for high a lot of time at low loads, VFD units will save the most energy
efficiency to 7.0 points for models with VFDs. and have the best chance of a quick payback.

It’s important to keep in mind that a chiller’s EER efficiency Long cooling hours. Facilities that log more annual
rating is calculated when operating at one specific ambient air cooling hours are able to recoup the cost of cooling system
temperature, while a chiller’s IPLV efficiency rating references improvements more quickly than those with limited or
four operating load points: 100 percent, 75 percent, seasonal operating hours, such as a K–12 school.
50 percent, and 25 percent. Given the complexity of chiller Presence of multiple chillers. Many facilities have two or
systems, it’s therefore helpful to simulate the performance of more chillers that can be staged as load changes. This can
the entire chiller plant and look at the full range of expected create a good opportunity to install one or more VFD chillers
operating conditions. This calculation will consider the to improve capacity control. Using a VFD on only one chiller
operating hours of a facility, the climate it’s located in, and the allows you to more fully load the non-VFD chillers and use
use of VFDs or other product options. Design consultants and the VFD chiller to make up the difference in needed capacity.
other professionals can model these factors as well as various Using a VFD on all chillers in a plant allows you to balance
operating strategies. run hours on all the equipment while still reaping the energy-
efficiency benefits of VFDs.
VFD Options
Presence of a building automation system. While not
Some manufacturers offer VFDs for air-cooled screw
as common in smaller versus larger buildings, if a building
chillers, but VFDs aren’t available for scroll chillers. Most
automation system is present, it can help building staff track
manufacturers, or their sales representatives, can also provide
whether any of the various operating strategies that can be
VFDs for chiller auxiliary equipment (pumps and air handlers)
used on a VFD plant are helping or hindering overall
either as a standard part of a unit or as an option.
plant efficiency.
Condenser fans. Condenser fan energy use is factored into
the chiller’s EER and IPLV. Thus any efficiency improvement Economics
from a VFD that is included as part of a product’s standard Air-cooled chiller costs vary by manufacturer, location, and
offering is already factored into the unit’s efficiency metrics. technology options. A survey of the major manufacturers
VFD condenser fans also allow the chiller to operate at lower shows an average cost for the chiller itself of approximately
outdoor air temperatures. This is more likely to be helpful for $350 to $1,000 per ton, depending on capacity (see Table 2).
cooling process loads.
Installed costs are difficult to estimate as they vary according
Chilled-water pumps. These aren’t made by the chiller to a number of factors, including local labor rates, building
manufacturers themselves, but can often be purchased details, and the type of chilled-water pumps used. However,
through the same sales representatives offering chillers. air-cooled chiller installed costs are typically lower than water-
Using a VFD on the chiller water pump could save 10 percent cooled chiller installed costs.
of pumping energy in constant-flow applications (water flow
through the chiller is constant but is varied through the air In general, price per ton goes down as cooling capacity goes
handlers with bypass valves to match the load) and up to up, and price per ton goes up as efficiency goes up. Two
50 percent in variable-flow applications. manufacturers report that high-efficiency models tend to run
10 to 15 percent more, and adding a VFD to the chiller adds
approximately $50 per ton.

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It’s worth noting that while VFDs add significant capital cost »» Eliminate the pony chiller. Many plants include a small
to a chiller plant, installing a VFD chiller can allow you to reap “pony” chiller used to meet night or weekend loads.
capital cost savings in other ways: Because a VFD chiller can operate efficiently down to
»» Install fewer chillers. Because VFD chillers operate 10 percent of its full load capacity, there’s less need for
efficiently at low loads, it’s often possible to install fewer, a pony chiller.
larger chillers that can be regulated to match loads. This »» Install a smaller emergency generator. In critical
also saves on costs for piping, pumps, controls, and facilities such as hospitals and data centers, where the
real estate. emergency power generator is sized to keep the cooling
system running through a power interruption, the soft-
start capability of a VFD chiller can reduce the size and
cost of the generator.

Tons Dollars per ton

< 150 tons $400 – $1,000

≥ 150 tons $350 – $500

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Table 2: Average cost for air-cooled chillers. Price per ton increases significantly as tonnage decreases due to fixed costs
in manufacturing.

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