Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2010 Volume 5, Number 4

The Influence Of Personal Factors On

Workers‟ Turnover Intention In Work
Organizations In South-West Nigeria
Elsie Omolara Babajide, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the influence of personal factors on workers’ turnover intention in work
organizations in South-West Nigeria. This was for the purpose of ascertaining the relevance of
personal variables to turnover intention assessment among industrial workers in Nigeria. The
descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. A total of 725 respondents were selected
using stratified sampling technique. A set of self developed structured questionnaire titled
Personal Factors and Workers’ Turnover Intention Scale (PFWTIS) with reliability co-efficient of
0.84 was used for data collection. Multiple Regression Analysis and t-test statistics were used for
data analysis at 0.05 alpha levels. The findings revealed that: Personal factors (work-family life,
commitment, job satisfaction and general health) significantly influenced workers’ turnover
intention F (4, 720) = 0.570; P<0.05). Findings revealed that the order of causation in
descending order of magnitude: Job satisfaction (Beta = 0.345, P<.0.05); work-family life (Beta
= 0.205; P<0.05), general health (Beta = 0.213; P<0.05) and commitment, (Beta = 0.145;
P<0.05). Based on these findings, it was recommended that for retention of workers to be made
possible, motivational incentives that could foster workers` job satisfaction and commitment
should be provided at equitable measure of reward system to be commensurate with workers` job
performance. Also, organizational support system that could promote workers` good health and
reduction of occupational hazards should be provided for all levels of workers in order to achieve
workers retention.

Keywords: Personal factors, workers, turnover intention, South-West, work organizations

INTRODUCTION

T he issue of labour turnover and its attendant problems have received serious attention among the
organizational behaviourists. Studies on labour turnover behaviour as it affects job performance
effectiveness and organizational productivity in terms of goal achievement has been conducted by
various researchers across countries of the world (Akintayo, 2007; Adewoyin 2002, Price, 1992, Richard 2004).

According to Soyibo (2002) and Staw (1980), turnover is the degree of individual movement across the
membership boundary of a social system. This definition reveals the dynamic nature of turnover since it shows its
concern with movement of worker in and out of organization. This is why Panes (2001) regarded turnover as a
process type of concept. This is also why there is need for codifications of the literature concerning employee
turnover. By codification, we mean an orderly and compact arrangement of substantive findings or procedures.

The study of turnover cuts across several disciplines.

It was previously noted that economics study turnover under the label of “labour mobility”. Turnover is
one type of labour mobility – inter-firm movement. Reference is also commonly made to “labour turnover” rather
than to “turnover”. The label of “labour turnover” is used in this study because it is often interpreted as the turnover
of blue-collar workers. There are probably more turnover data about blue-collar workers than about white-collar

1
Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2010 Volume 5, Number 4

workers. Unskilled, semiskilled, and skilled workers – all blue-collar workers – have been favourite subjects of
study by turnover researchers; clerical, sales, professional and managerial workers – all white-collar workers – have
been studied less often. Since turnover refers to the movement of blue-collar and white-collar workers to many
people, it is perhaps best to refer merely to “labour turnover” to promote a clearer understanding of the subject
(Billups, 2002; Staw, 1980).

Moreover, voluntary and involuntary turnover are commonly distinguished. Voluntary turnover is
individual movement across the membership boundary of a social system which is initiated by the individual
(Akintayo, 2007). The term „quit‟ is probably the most frequent label for voluntary turnover. „Quit‟ and
„resignations‟ are generally used interchangeably. Involuntary turnover is movement not initiated by the individual
examples of which are dismissals, layoffs, retirements, and deaths (Onimode, 1999).

Soyibo (2000) asserts that most involuntary turnover is probably initiated by the organization. Dismissal,
layoffs, and retirements are examples of organizationally initiated turnover. It is possible, however, for turnover to
be initiated by neither the member nor the organization. An example might be a wife, who leaves her job at her
husband‟s insistence; the wife‟s turnover is initiated by her marriage partner. Involuntary turnover is best viewed as
a residual concept that refers to all movement not initiated by the member. Although there are difficult
methodological problems involved in distinguishing voluntary and involuntary turnover, the distinctions continues
to dominate the literature (Price, 1992; Richard, 2004).

Even with the extensive amount of previous turnover research, relatively few strong generalizations are
possible. The causes and correlates of employee turnover intention have been studied from many different
perspectives. The economist may focus on the relationship between average wages and turnover rates by type of
industry (Burton & Parker, 2003 Armknecht & Early, 1992). The human resource planner may look at turnover
rates by occupational category, length of service etc. (Shadare, 2008). The sociologist may compare such variables
as occupational groups, work group size, or communication pattern (Price, 1977). The industrial-organizational
psychologist may study such individual determinants of turnover intention as job dissatisfaction (Hulin, 2002),
commitment (Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1999), or behavioural intention to leave (Raut, 2005; Mobley, Horner, &
Hollingsworth, 2002).

The Brayfield and Crockelt (2005) analyses report reveal that for 2000 – 2002, the finance and health-care
industries exhibited the highest total separation rates while manufacturing industries exhibited the lowest rates.
Price (1977) classifies turnover rates by type of organization for 53 studies from 1947-1971. He found that
manufacturing industries had the highest median separation rate and those goods producing organizations had over
twice the separation rate of service producing organizations. A comparison of Price‟s conclusions and the more
recent Brafield and Crockelt data is difficult because of differences in time period, criteria, and a sample
composition.

Reviewers of the turnover literature report a consistent negative relation between age and tenure – younger
employees have a higher probability of leaving (Muchinsky & Tuttle 1979; Porter & Steers, 1973; Price, 1977). The
age turnover relationship may be based on a number of influences. Younger employees may have more entry-level
job opportunities and few responsibilities, thus making job mobility easier. They may also have inaccurate
expectations regarding working which are not fulfilled in their jobs (Porter & Steers, 1973; Wanous 1980).

Similarly, the reviewers of the turnover literature report a consistent negative relationship between length
of service and turnover. Turnover is significantly higher for shorter-tenure employees. Mangione (2003), in a
national multivariate study, found that length of service is one of the best predictors of turnover intention. Hulin
(2002) found that in any given cohort of hires, two-thirds to three-fourths of the quits will occur by the end of the
first three years of service; of these, more than half will occur by the end of the first year alone.

Akintayo, (2003) in his study of workers‟ recruitment and retention found that turnover occurs at all levels
of experience for a variety of reason, including family moves and child-rearing considerations. A national study
reports that a little over a quarter of those who left their organizations leave because of a family move or because
they need time for childbearing or child rearing (Ademoye, 1999). Besides, it was reported that ninety percent of the
2
Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2010 Volume 5, Number 4

unmarried teachers, but only 45.8 percent of the married teachers, were still working (Marso & Pigge, 1995). Lornu
and Grissmer (1993) theories that the decision to accept and keep a job depends on life cycle factors such as existing
family status and change in family status.

The literature reviewed for study revealed that various studies have been conducted on correlates of labour
turnover which include marital status, length of service, relocation and life cycle (Ademoye, 1999; Marso & Pigge,
1995, Lornu & Grissmer, 1993 etc). However, little or no efforts have been directed towards job satisfaction, work-
family life, personal commitment to organizations and general health as they influence labour turnover in Nigeria.
This existing gap serves as preoccupation for this study.

Statement of Problem

This study investigated the influence of personal factors on workers‟ turnover intention in South-West
Nigeria. This is for the purpose of ascertaining the relevance of personal factors to turnover intention among
workers in South-West Nigeria.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are to:

1. Determine the extent to which the personal factors (work- family life, job satisfaction, commitment to
organization and general health) when combined together influence workers‟ turnover intention.
2. Find out the strength of causation of personal factors (job satisfaction, work family life, general health and
personal commitment to organization) to influence workers‟ turnover intention.
3. Determine whether there is any significant difference between married and single workers‟ turnover
intention on the basis of personal factors
4. Ascertain whether there is any significant difference between mal and female workers‟ turnover intention
on the basis of personal factors

Research Questions

The following research questions were generated for this study:

1. To what extent will the personal factors (work family life, job satisfaction, commitment to organization and
general health) combined together to influence workers‟ turnover intention?
2. What is the strength of causation of personal factors (job satisfactory, work family life, general health and
commitment to organization) to influence workers‟ turnover intention?
3. Is there is any significant difference between married and single workers‟ turnover intention on the basis of
personal factors
4. Is there is any significant difference between male and female workers‟ turnover intention on the basis of
personal factors.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The methods of research utilized for this study were both qualitative and quantitative in nature. However,
the descriptive survey method was adopted to examine the contribution of personal factors to workers` turnover
intention in work organizations in South-West Nigeria. The descriptive research method via the survey design
enabled the researcher to collect data on the identified research problem without manipulating any of the variables of
interest in the study.

3
Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2010 Volume 5, Number 4

Population

The population for the study consists of all workers in the selected work organizations in South-West
Nigeria. The population comprises of both male and female workers, who have spent at least two years in the
selected work organizations.

Sample and Sampling Technique

Multi- stage sampling technique was used for sample selection. The simple random sampling method was
utilized to select work organizations in South-West Nigeria. Thus, seven hundred and twenty five respondents were
selected using proportional stratified sampling technique.

The respondents were selected from the strata of gender (male and female), marital status (married, single,
separated, widow and divorced) and organizations (public and private) using stratified sampling method. Also, the
proportional sampling method was adopted for selection of respondents on the basis of population of workers in
each of the selected work organizations. The purposive sampling technique was used to select workers, who have
spent at least two years in their respective organizations in South-West Nigeria.

Instrument

A set of self developed structured questionnaire titled ``Personal and Organizational Factors of Teachers`
Turnover Intention Scale`` (POFTTIS) was used for data collection. The questionnaire consists of five sections A, B,
C, D, E and F. Section A focuses on demographic information about the respondents, such as, Name of
organization, gender, age, marital status, educational qualifications, working experience etc.

Section B consists of six items relating to workers` intention to leave present employment. For example:
`You will leave your job at slightest opportunity`; `You have already applied for alternative employment`, `You plan
to look for a new job within the next 12 months`, `Thoughts about quitting your job cross your mind` etc. Section C
focuses on job satisfaction and workers‟ turnover intention. For instance: `My job is like hobby to me`; `I am often
bored with my job`, `I feel fairly well satisfied with my present job`, `I feel real enjoyments in my work` etc. Section
D consists of items relating to work-family life. For instance; My official duties often conflict with my family life, I
can join my spouse anytime from now, my spouse is encouraging me to quit my organization etc.

Section E focuses on general health and workers‟ turnover intention. For instance: Worker leaves your
organization because of poor condition of health`; Delaying in implementing occupational health and safety policies
often led to worker‟s turnover intention`, work- induced stress has led to increase in the rate of workers` turnover
intention` etc. Section F contained items relating to personal commitment to organization and workers‟ turnover
intention. For example: Workers often found it difficult to identify with your organization; workers found it difficult
to harmonize personal goal with organizational goal, workers usually protect their personal interest more often than
of the organization etc.

Validity of the Instrument

The ability of the instrument to measure the variables it has been designed for was determined by the
researcher. The researcher distributed 10 copies of the drafted questionnaire to experts in questionnaire construction
for their suggestions and criticism. The experts‟ suggestions were incorporated into the final draft of the
questionnaire, which led to modification of some items on the questionnaire.

Reliability of the Instrument

The consistency of the instrument in measuring the variables of interest in the study was determined using a
pilot study. The researcher administered 50 copies of the questionnaire on respondents drawn from the University
of Ibadan, Ibadan, which is outside the targeted population in South West Nigeria. The data collected through the
pilot study was analyzed to determined reliability coefficient of the instrument using Kuber Cronbach coefficient
4
Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2010 Volume 5, Number 4

alpha. Thus, Cronbach alpha of 0.84 was obtained for the instrument. In essence, the instrument is valid and
reliable.

Administration of the Instrument

The researchers administered the measuring scales, which guarantee anonymity of the respondents,
personally with the assistance of three trained research assistants. The researchers consulted with the Director of
Personnel Administration in each of the selected private and public organizations in Nigeria, in order to intimate
them with the purpose of the study. The researchers explained all aspects of the questionnaire to the respondents.
However, through the help of the Directors of Personnel Administration, the researcher was able to administer the
questionnaire with ease. However, it took the researchers a period of four weeks to administer and retrieve the
distributed measuring scales due to geographical location of South-West Nigeria. 725 completely filled copies of the
questionnaire were utilized for the purpose of the study.

Method of Data Analysis

The data collected through the questionnaire was analyzed using percentage and frequency counts for
demographic information about the respondents. However, hypothesized research questions one and two were tested
using Regression Analysis. Hypothesized research questions three and four were tested with the use of t-test
statistical method. All the four hypothesized research questions were tested at 0.05 alpha levels.

RESULTS

This section focuses on presentation of results and discussion of findings. The results of the analyzed data
were interpreted on the basis of the research questions generated for the study.

Research question 1

To what extent will the personal factors (work family life, job satisfaction, commitment to organization and
general health) combined together to influence teachers‟ turnover intention.

Table 1: Summary of Regression Analysis of Personal Factors as Predictors of Workers’ Turnover Intention
R = 0.584
R square = 0.375
Adjusted R square = 0.339
Standard error = 8.702
Sum of square Df Mean square F Sig Remark
Regression 64532.521 4 34251.782 121.570 000a *
Residual 10336.76 720 98.657
Total 74868.597 724
* Significant (P<0.05).

In table 1 above, the finding of the study indicated that all the personal factors (work family life, job
satisfaction personal commitment to organization and general health) account for 37.5% of the total variance in
teachers‟ turnover intention. This percentage is statistically significant (R2 = 0.375; P<0.05). Thus, all the personal
factors are very important in predicting teachers‟ turnover intention. It implies that individual employees‟ intention
to change their job may be personal, not necessarily organizational.

Research question 2

What is the strength of causation of personal factors (job satisfactory, work family life, general health and
commitment to organization) to influence workers‟ turnover intention.

5
Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2010 Volume 5, Number 4

Table 2: Summary of Regression Analysis of Strength of Causation of Personal Factors on Workers’ Turnover Intention
Model Unstandardized Standardized Remark
coefficients coefficients
B Std Error Beta t Sig
1 (constant) 17.328 1.326 -11.231 .000 *

- Job satisfactory .256 .041 .345 -5.457 .001 *

- Work family life .275 .045 .205 9.713 .000 *
- General health .943 .054 .213 17.624 .000 *
- Commitment to .267 .054 .145 7.489 .000 *
Organization
NS = Not significant (P>0.05)
* = Significant (P<0.05)

In the table 2 above, the findings revealed that all the personal factors are considered. In this table, four
personal factors: job satisfactory, work-family life, general health and commitment to organization. All these eight
independent variables have significant causal influence on workers‟ turnover intention. The order of causation in
descending order of magnitude is: Job satisfaction (Beta = 0.345, P<0.05); work-family life (Beta = 0.205; P<0.05),
general health (Beta = 0.213; P<0.05), and personal commitment to organization (Beta = 0.145; P<0.05). Job
satisfaction is the greatest factor that makes employees to intend leaving an organization and the least significant
factors is commitment to organization.

Research Question 3

Is there any significant difference between single and married workers‟ turnover intention?

Table 3: Summary of t-test Analysis of Marital Status and Workers’ Turnover Intention on the Basis of personal factors
N Mean Std Std Df T P Remark
Dev. Error
Married 412 18.231 12.435 0.238
Single 313 17.453 10.254 0.389 723 3.428 0.321 NS
NS = Not significant (P>0.05)

In table 3 above, the finding showed that there is no significant difference between single and married
teachers‟ turnover intention (t = 3.428, P>0.05). The finding implies that both single and married workers have
equal level of intention to stay or leave organizations.

Research Question 4

Is there any significant difference between male and female workers‟ turnover intention on the basis of
personal factors?

Table 4: Summary of t-test Analysis of Comparison of Male and Female Workers` Turnover Intention on the Basis of
Personal Factors
N Mean Std Std Df t P Remark
Dev. Error
Male 468 18.427 10.324 0.342
Female 257 16.546 8.672 0.267 723 4.654 0.000 *
* Significant (P<0.05)

As indicated in table 4, the finding revealed that there is a significant difference between male and female
workers‟ turnover intention (t = 4.654, P<0.05). Male workers have greater tendency to leave their jobs than their
female counterparts.

6
Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2010 Volume 5, Number 4

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

This study investigated the influence of personal factors on workers` turnover intention in South-West
Nigeria.

The findings of the study revealed that all the personal factors (work family life, job satisfaction,
commitment to organization and general health) taken together predict workers‟ turnover intention. Thus, all the
personal factors are very important in predicting workers‟ turnover intention. It implies that individual workers`
intention to change their jobs may be personal, not necessarily organizational. As stated earlier, job satisfaction
refers to an employee‟s positive appraisal of their work situation (Ademoye, 1999; Adewoyin, 2002). The
underpinning premise is that employees who are satisfied with their jobs are less likely to have turnover intentions.

Moreover, in line with the findings of the study, Hulin (2002) and Derek (2006) submitted that
commitment refers to an employee‟s attitude, expresses their emotional bond and uniqueness with the organization
The present study predicted that workers, who are more committed to the organization would be less likely to have
turnover intentions. This rationale was based on the assumption that if an employee‟s commitment is affective he or
she will stay “with the organization because they want to”. An explanation of why this hypothesis was supported can
be seen when looking through the lens of psychological attachment. When the employees have a sense of
psychological attachment to an organization, they can identify with the organization‟s policies, goals and values and
feel adherence and devotion to the organization (Richard, 2004). This implies that employees are prepared to stay
with organization based on their psychological attachment, rather than a continuance based on a calculative
exchange (Adewoyin, 2002, Akintayo, 2003 ; Derek, 2006).

Meanwhile, the findings of the study disagreed with Soyibo (2000) and Billups, (2002) who reported that
satisfaction and commitment were not correlated with turnover intentions since normative commitment was a
driving force. This implies that the longer the employee stays with the organization, gaining transferable skills and
valuable experience, the more he/she is inclined to remain with the organization.

The finding of this study disagreed with Derek (2006); Onimode (1999), Akintayo (2007), who posited that
work-to-family conflict, did not correlate with turnover intentions among the health workers. This was based on the
premise that health practitioners have perceptions that their employed organization, Waikato District Health Board,
is work-family friendly and provides work-family benefits. Paton, Jackson and Johnston (2003) found that in
organizations that provide an inclusive work family culture and have policies and procedures that are conducive to
work and family, therefore the employees experience less incidences of work-family conflict.

Besides, the finding showed that there is no significant difference between single and married workers‟
turnover intention. The finding implies that both single and married workers have equal level of intention to stay or
leave their organizations. The finding agreed with Derek (2006); Mangione (2003), Soyibo (2002), Brayfield and
Crockelt (2005) who reported that turnover intention does not correlate with marital status of the workers.
Meanwhile, the finding is contrary to finding of Richard (2004) who reported that married workers tend to desire to
quit an organization due to spouse relationship and location that could require relocation of the workers.

Moreover, the finding revealed that there is a significant difference between male and female workers`
turnover intention. Male workers have greater tendency to leave their jobs than their female counterparts. To
corroborate this finding, Panes (2001) and Hulin (2002) reported that the incidences of turnover intention were more
predominant for women than men, possibly due to work-family role conflict.

A cursory look at the finding of the study revealed that the general health of the worker tends to influence
their turnover intention. This finding tally with the views of O‟Driscoll and Brough (2003) who asserted that one
approach into health and well-being in the workplace was the stress or strain relationship that explains the influence
of job demands on employees` intention to quit or stay with an organization. A second approach is looking at
enhancing employees‟ health and well-being through positive experiences in the form of variety and autonomy,
leading to greater job satisfaction and performance. Occupational strain needs to be dealt with not only for the
benefit of the individual, but also for the organization as a whole. Increasing strain produces anxiety that ultimately
7
Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2010 Volume 5, Number 4

affects personal health, morale, productivity, organizational efficiency leading to absenteeism, job dissatisfaction,
decreased organizational commitment, and voluntary turnover (Allen & Meyer, 1996; Akintayo, 2007).

In contrast, the employee with strong economical/calculative ties to the organization (continuance
commitment) will stay because of the „side bets‟ they have invested in the organization. The side bets can be
monetary value, a pension plan, specific skills acquired whilst working there or status (Allen & Meyer, 1996 ;
Onimode, 1999) and would be lost if he/she decides to leave. It is expected that both affective and continuance
commitment will be negatively associated to turnover intentions (Raut, 2005; Hulin, 2002).

CONCLUSION

The findings of the study submitted that personal factors have significantly contributed to workers`
turnover intentions. The findings also established that the personal factors such as, job satisfaction, work-family life,
general health and commitment to organization combined together to influence workers‟ turnover intention.
Therefore, organizations need to focus on how to foster job satisfaction, conflict free work-family life, and improved
general health, commitment to organization in order to attract and retained competent workers. These findings
indicate that organizations in Nigeria can take positive actions that would facilitate employee retention. The findings
of this study provide information that will be useful to organizations, personnel psychologist and researchers,
behavioural scientists, and management practitioners.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that:

1. Leavers often cite “lack of job satisfaction” as a reason for resignation. However, a number of elements
cluster around what is broadly known as job satisfaction, and can often be linked with aspects of job design
and contents. Government and employers at all levels should endeavour to improve workers` level of job
satisfaction in order to induce the workers to stay longer in the organization.
2. However, for retention of workers to be made possible, motivational incentives that could foster workers`
job satisfaction should be provided at equitable measure of reward in terms of wages and salaries to be
made commensurate with workers` job performance. (3) Also, organizational support system that could
promote workers` good health and reduction of occupational hazards should be provided for all levels of
workers in order to guarantee workers` retention.

AUTHOR INFORMATION

Dr Elsie Omolara Babajide was born in 1966 in Nigeria. Her Primary, secondary and tertiary education was also in
Nigeria. She is a specialist in Industrial Education where she possessed a Masters as well as a PhD degree. She has
taught in reputable universities in Nigeria for ten years. She has published articles in local as well as international
journals. She has also attended both local and international conferences where she has presented scholarly articles.
Her special area of interest has been in Management as well as leadership studies. She is beautifully married and has
lovely children.

REFERENCES

1. Ademoye, M.O (1999). Child, rearing & child bearing. Lagos: University Press.
2. Adewoyin, F.A. (2002). Labour turnover and organizational goal achievement in selected industries in Oyo
State. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.
3. Allen, N. J., and Meyer, J.P. (1996). Affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the
organization: An examination of construct validity. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 252-276.
4. Akintayo, D.I. (2007). Impact of labour turnover on organizational effectiveness in selected industries in
Lagos State, Nigeria. Journal of Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (Ghana. 8(2), 58-67.
5. Akintayo, D.I. (2003). Analysis of correlates of labour turnover behaviours in work organization: Journal
of Industrial Education, 4, (2), 46-54.
8
Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2010 Volume 5, Number 4

6. Armknecht, P.A. and Early: (1992). Quit in manufacturing industries. A study of their causes. Monthly
Labour Review, 95:31-37.
7. Billups K.A. (2002). A meta analysis of why workers remain in organizations. Harvard Review, 46, 19-27.
8. Brayfield, A.H. and Crockelt, W.H (2005). Employee attitude and employee performance. Psychological
Bulletin, 52, 396-424.
9. Burton J.F. and Parker J.E. (2003). Inter industry variation in voluntary labour mobility. Industrial Labour
Relations Review, 22, 199-216
10. Derek, R. (2006). Turnover intentions: The mediation effects of job satisfaction, affective commitment and
continuance commitment. Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Waikato.
11. Hulin, C.L. (2002). Effects of changes in job satisfaction levels on employee turnover. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 52:122-126.
12. Lornu, D.L. and Grissmer, P.M. (1993). Workers‟ decision to quit: Whose fault . Journal of Occupational
Psychology, 21 (2), 41-52
13. Magione, W. (2003). Turnover: Some psychology and demographic correlates. The 1969-1970 survey of
working conditions (eds.) Robert P. Quim and Thomas, W. Mangione. Ann Abbor: Final report to
employment standard admin., U.S. Dept. Labour, survey research center, University of Mich.
14. Marso, R. & Pigge, F. (1995). Characteristics associated with teacher attrition: Pre-and post-preparation
teaching concerns of candidates teaching or not teaching five years after graduation. Paper Presented at the
Aannual Meeting of the Midwestern Educational Research held at Chicago, Illinois.
15. Mobley, W. H. Horner, S. O. & Hollingworth, A. T. (2002). An evaluation of precursors of hospital
employee turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 408-414.
16. Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W. Steers, R. M. (1999). When employees feel betrayed: A model of how
psychological contract violation develops. Academy of Management Review, 22, 226-256.
17. Muchinsky, P. M. Tuttle, M. L. (1979). Employee turnover: An empirical and methodological assessment.
Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 14, 43-77.
18. Onimode, B. (1999). The effects of labour turnover on individual organization and society, Paper
Presented at the 34th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Seattle.
19. O‟Driscoll, M. P. & Brough P. (2003). Job stress and burnout. In M. O‟Driscoll, P. Taylor, & T Kalliath
(Eds.). Organizational psychology in Australia and New Zealand (p 188-211). Melbourne, Australia:
Oxford University Press.
20. Panes, A.C. (2001). Is all well with teachers in public school? Journal of Educational Research, 21 (1), 88
– 96.
21. Paton, I.C. Jackson, Y.O. and Johnson, E.T. (2003). Organizational, work and personnel factors in
employee turnover and absenteeism. Psychological Bulletin, 80,151-176.
22. Porter, L. W. Steers, R. M. (1973). Organizational commitment, job satisfaction and turnover among
psychiatric technicians. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59:603-609.
23. Price, J.L. (1992). A Handbook of organizational measurement. Lexington: D.C. Health.
24. Price, J.L. (1977). The study of turnover. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.
25. Raut, R.S. (2005). Organizational leadership: Theory and practice. New York. Johnhalt House.
26. Richard, D.O. (2004). Investigation of teachers‟ behaviour in schools. Journal of Social Studies and
Development. 23, 98-112.
27. Shadare, D.A. (2008). Labour turnover and organizational effectiveness: moderating effects of job
classification, career mobility and job complexity. Journal of Management, 9 (2), 77-86.
28. Soyibo, S.A. (2002). Ecological correlations and labour turnover, American Sociological Review. 15:341-
347.
29. Soyibo, S.A. (2000). Economic factors in worker turnover behaviour. Journal of Economic and
Development, 16 (2), 71-83.
30. Staw, B.M. (1980). The consequences of turnover. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, (1) 253-273.
31. Steers, R.M. and Mowday, R.T. (1981). Employment turnover and post decision accommodation process.
In B.M. Shaw and L.L. Cummings (Eds) Research in organizational Behaviour. London: Prentice Hall.
32. Wanous, J. P. (1980). Organization entry: Recruitment, selection and socialization of newcomers. Reading
mass: Addison – Wesley.

9
Journal of Diversity Management – Fourth Quarter 2010 Volume 5, Number 4

NOTES

10