1100 Basic Design Principles
Abstract
This section introduces the general design concerns addressed in the design guide-
lines contained in Sections 1200 through 1300.
Contents Page
1110 Process Hazards Review 1100-2
1120 Design Objectives 1100-2
1130 Basic Considerations 1100-2
1131 Siting
1132 Spacing
1133 Drainage
1134 Isolation of Equipment
1135 Protection of Equipment
1136 Fire Control
1137 Safe Access/Egress During Fire
1138 Continuity of Service
1140 Economic Justification of Fire Protection Expenditures 1100-5
1141 Economic Analysis
1142 Estimation of Frequency
1143 Estimation of Loss
1150 Fire Protection Checklist 1100-6
1160 Quick Reference List 1100-8
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1110 Process Hazards Review
Before proceeding with plans for a new plant or part of a plant, management should
consider the major fire causes and evaluate the adequacy of the fire prevention
features of the plant. Similarly, before approving additions or alterations to a plant,
management should study the effects of the proposed changes on fire causes and
consider the resulting arrangement from the standpoint of fire hazards.
1120 Design Objectives
Specifically, this study should answer the following questions:
• Spacing. Do spacing, fire walls, and fire doors adequately divide the plant,
building, and large structure(s) to limit the spread of fire? Are ways provided
to stop the flow of fuel and to drain fuel and fire water?
• Access. Will personnel who respond to a fire have safe access to important
equipment? Are evacuation routes adequate?
• Fire resistant materials. Will fire resistant materials be used for plants or
units under construction, and where economically justified?
• Flammable vapors. Have practicable steps been taken to minimize the escape
of flammable vapors and, where release of vapors is necessary, to guard against
hazards of ignition?
• Ignition sources. Have sources of ignition in potentially hazardous locations
been identified and reasonable safeguards provided?
• Fire control. Are provisions made for controlling fires and for protecting adja-
cent facilities?
1130 Basic Considerations
Although fire protection designs are often unique to a given facility, depending
upon the type and condition of material handled, certain design considerations are
common to all facilities. These include:
• Siting
• Spacing
• Drainage
• Isolation of equipment
• Protection of equipment
• Fire control
• Safe access/egress during fire
The site design evaluation should include, as a minimum, a review of these
elements, each of which is briefly discussed below.
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Fire Protection Manual 1100 Basic Design Principles
Fire prevention through design is also based on proper selection and installation of
reliable, high quality equipment in accordance with industry codes and standards.
The designer should be familiar with applicable Company design manuals and stan-
dards, which are available from individual operating companies or from Chevron
Research and Technology Company (CRTC).
1131 Siting
Depending on the type of materials handled, facility location may influence specific
fire protection designs. Site-specific conditions include:
• Local conditions, such as hurricanes, lightning, or severe freezing
• Proximity to populated areas
• Proximity to public ways
• Risk from adjacent facilities
• Storage quantities
• Present and predicted development of adjacent properties
• Topography of the site, including elevation and slope
• Access for emergency response
• Utilities
• Requirements for the receipt and shipment of products
• Local codes and regulations
1132 Spacing
Proper spacing of facilities can be a strong ally in both preventing and fighting a
fire. Spacing prevents fire by reducing the risk of exposure to, and from, nearby
facilities. If a fire occurs, good spacing limits the spread of the fire.
Proper spacing of equipment is one of the most important design considerations.
When a fire occurs, adequate spacing is often a major line of defense in limiting the
loss. See Section 1300.
1133 Drainage
Proper drainage ensures that spills of flammable materials are carried away from
equipment and potential sources of ignition. A well designed drainage system also
provides rapid removal of fire water at full application rates. Hydrocarbons are
often released during a fire and, being lighter than water, will float on top of any
pools of water, potentially spreading around the affected unit and to adjacent units.
See Section 1400.
1134 Isolation of Equipment
The most effective way to extinguish a hydrocarbon fire is to remove the source of
fuel from the fire. This is often done with isolation valves that are remotely oper-
ated or manually accessible to operators during a fire. Isolation valves either stop
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the flow of fuel to the fire, as with remotely operated fire-safe valves in pump
suction lines, or they direct the inventory of hydrocarbon to a safe location, as with
emergency depressuring valves.
The issue of equipment isolation is best considered in the early stages of a project,
as Process and Instrument Diagrams (P&ID's) are developed. As existing facilities
are reevaluated, critical equipment should be reviewed to see that suitable isolation
is provided. See Section 1800.
1135 Protection of Equipment
Careful use of fire resistant materials, such as fireproofing and high temperature
wiring, can help to prevent a fire from spreading and limit its damage. Typically,
fireproofing is provided for critical structures, vessel and column skirts and
supports, exposed pipeway columns (including essential crossmembers), and
control and power leads necessary for safe plant shutdown. See Section 1700.
1136 Fire Control
Hydrocarbon fires are most frequently attacked by applying cooling water streams
to the fire and to surrounding exposed equipment while simultaneously attempting
to stop the flow of fuel to the fire. Fire water systems, complete with hydrants, first-
aid hose stations, and fixed monitors, are commonly installed in larger facilities.
Fixed water spray systems have proven effective for certain applications, such as to
remove heat from a hot-oil (600°F) pump fire, thus protecting nearby equipment.
Dry chemical extinguishers are used extensively for quick extinguishment of small
fires. Other agents, such as foam and Halon, also provide extinguishment capa-
bility. For specific applications, see Section 1600.
1137 Safe Access/Egress During Fire
When designing a facility, take care to provide suitable access for firefighting equip-
ment, such as wheeled extinguishers and fire trucks. See Section 1300.
1138 Continuity of Service
Reliable continuous service in water, steam, and electric power distribution systems
is another factor of plant layout. It can minimize fire hazards in two ways:
• By minimizing operating interruptions and occurrence of abnormal conditions
that increase fire risk.
• By ensuring that firefighting crews have utilities services when they need them.
Water storage and pumping facilities, power and steam plants, electrical distri-
bution centers, etc. should be centrally located, yet isolated from operating
units which, in event of a fire, would endanger them.
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Main distribution systems for water, steam, and electric power should be looped,
with block valves (or disconnect switches on electric lines) at appropriate points so
that, if any part of the system is damaged, supply can be obtained from another
source. Branch lines should have block valves (or disconnects) near the point of
take-off from mains so that they can be isolated if ruptured or damaged. Normally,
electric power lines should not traverse areas where fires are likely to occur. In
some cases, buried cables may provide the best protection against damage and loss
of critical power. See Section 2300.
1140 Economic Justification of Fire Protection Expenditures
1141 Economic Analysis
The general principles governing capital expenditures are printed on the back of
GO-36-C. Try to follow these principles in analyzing the economic justification for
proposed capital expenditures with the object of reducing fire losses. Evaluation of
fire protection proposals requires:
• Estimating the decrease in annual fire losses resulting from proposed invest-
ments. Such estimates are speculative; however, basing them on fire records
and the experience of those involved with fire protection work gives more reli-
able results than basing estimates solely on precedent, local experience, or
personal judgment.
• Considering intangible factors, such as the effect of fires on public and
employee relations, possible injury or death of employees, and serious loss of
productive capacity.
Estimate the “earnings” resulting from proposed fire protection investments in
terms of the resulting annual reduction in fire loss. Estimating such reduction
involves two factors—fire frequency and fire loss.
1142 Estimation of Frequency
The economic analysis should consider how frequently fires may occur in the struc-
ture or plant. Also consider the fire history of similar installations and local factors
that might influence the start of a fire. Examples of local factors are the chemical
nature of the process or materials involved, supervision, housekeeping, weather
conditions, surrounding properties, and the likelihood of arson or sabotage.
In analyzing complex units such as refineries or major plants within refineries, the
frequency with which fires occurred in the past may be of little help, because some
fires that do little damage may occur rather often. Factors that might permit small
fires to grow into conflagrations are usually not recorded. Where the fire record
covers a number of properties or structures of comparable size or complexity
(service stations, bulk plants, petroleum storage tanks, etc.), a record of fire
frequency, where available, furnishes a valuable guide.
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Frequency factors for tanks. The API has collected data on tank fires over a
number of years. Figure 1100-1 shows the relative risk from fire for three types of
steel roof tanks storing oils of different grades. The fire frequency factors range
from 0.00001 (one fire per 100,000 tank years) for heavy oils stored under floating
roofs, to 0.004 (one fire per 250 tank years) for oils having relatively high hazard
from ignition by static electricity, when stored in steel roof tanks having non-gas-
tight roofs or open appurtenances. Intermediate values are assigned for other combi-
nations of stock and type of roof. Because of the wide range of susceptibility to
ignition, considerable discretion must enter into the choice of an appropriate fire
frequency factor.
1143 Estimation of Loss
An estimate of the anticipated loss takes into account the physical conditions of the
plant/equipment and the behavior of the particular fuels involved. Factors to
consider are:
• Susceptibility of the equipment to fire damage that could cause the release of
fuel
• The total amount of fuel that may be released
• Methods for shutting off or controlling the release of fuel
• Fire control measures and the chance that fire will spread to adjacent plants or
structures.
Methods for estimating the consequences of a major release, fire, or explosion are
discussed in Section 1200.
Loss experience. Another way to estimate probable annual loss is to review loss
figures published by insurance companies, the API, and similar agencies for compa-
rable structures or plants. While average figures do not necessarily apply directly to
a specific problem, they are of value in checking the order of magnitude of the esti-
mated probable annual loss.
The CRTC Fire & Protection Safety Team can provide information on the
Company's fire loss experience for various types of equipment (e.g., pumps and
exchangers).
1150 Fire Protection Checklist
The Fire Protection Checklist in Appendix B asks questions to help you evaluate
the effectiveness of local fire prevention and emergency response programs. The
size and value of the installation and the organization of the operating company or
department may influence the applicability of the items in the checklist.
The checklist also gives local management a guide for performing periodic compre-
hensive analyses of their operating center's fire preparedness without relying
entirely on visits of fire protection specialists.
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Fig. 1100-1 Fire Frequency Factors for Various Stocks
Fire Frequency Factors
Classification of Stocks Steel Roof Tanks
Gas-Tight with
Breather Non-Gas-Tight
Floating Valves or One or with Open
10% Point A.S.T.M.(1) Typical Examples Roofs(2) Open Vent Appurtenances
100°F or below (Stocks likely Natural Gasoline, 18 lb. .002 .0001 —
to boil in storage under Reid vapor pressure
normal conditions) and above
100°F –185°F(3) Gasolines; Volatile .0001 .0002 .001
Thinners; Most
Gasoline-bearing
Crudes
185°F – 300°F
(Vapors normally in
EXPLOSIVE RANGE) (Flash
point about 20°F – 100°F)
a. Oils with relatively low Some Intermediate .0001 .0006 .003
electrical resistance Crudes
(little static hazard)
b. Oils with relatively 250, 300 Thinners; .0001 .002(4) .004(4)
high electrical resis- Jet Fuel B
tance (greater static
hazard)
300°F – 425°F(5) Jet Fuel A; 350 Thinner; .00005 .0001 .00008
(Flash point about 100°F – Light Diesel Fuel; Non
150°F) Gasoline-bearing
Crudes
Above 425°F(6) Heavy Diesel Fuel, Fuel .00001 .00005 .00005
Oils, Lubes, etc.
(1) The flash point is the best indication of flammability, but since it is not normally determined for many products,the 10% A.S.T.M. distilla-
tion point is used as the basis of classification.
(2) Frequency factors shown for floating roofs do not include seal fires which do not progress to fully involved tank fires.
(3) Some stocks in this class will boil under floating roofs (particularly pan-type roofs) when exposed to high atmospheric temperatures or
radiant heat from the sun, or when the temperature of the stream entering the tank is abnormally high. When these conditions are likely
to exist for a considerable part of the time, use the factors in the classification above.
(4) Factors shown assume that tanks storing these stocks are provided with either (a) automatic tape gages and sample drawing facilities,
or (b) a slotted gage well in which both gaging and sampling are done. In the absence of such safeguards—which eliminate manual
operations favoring the chance of producing a static spark at the oil surface—factors several times those shown above should be used.
(5) Frequency factors shown for this class apply when stocks will be stored at or near atmospheric temperatures. If under special condi-
tions they should be stored at temperatures at or above their respective flash points, the factors for oils with relatively high electrical
resistance Group B above should be used.
(6) In this case, also, the factors shown apply when stocks are stored at atmospheric temperatures. When stored stocksmay be heated
above their flash point (e.g., in asphalt shipping tanks, hot tar run-down tanks, etc.) multiply factors by 5.
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1160 Quick Reference List
Section 1000 of this manual is a quick reference guide to help you find Company
fire protection information on specific topics.
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