DISCIPLINES AND IDEAS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

Quarter 1: Module 4
(Week 6-7)

Lesson 4 – Positivist Social Science

BEGIN !!
In the previous chapter, we have learned about the emergence and essence of the Social
Sciences, as well as the distinction between the Social Sciences on the one I hand and the
Natural Sciences and Humanities on the other hand. We have also discussed the different Social Science disciplines which all aimed at
the study of society using scientific method but with different domains, subjects of inquiry, and techniques. In this chapter, we will
take a look at the dominant approaches and ideas used in the scientific study of society. These dominant approaches and ideas offer
various ways of looking at society and also offer various ways of explaining the things that are happening in it. These approaches also
serve as guides or frameworks in doing research in the social sciences. The dominant approaches that will be discussed in this chapter
will be classified into three, namely positivist social science, interpretive social science, and critical social science. Under positivist
social science, we will discuss structural-functionalism, rational choice, and institutionalism.

YOUR TARGETS !!
This module will help you to:
1. explain positivism as one of the paradigms in the Social Science;
2. determine manifest and latent functions of sociocultural phenomena as well as social dysfunctions based on structural-
functionalism;
3. predict the social consequences of decision-making based on scarcity according to rational choice theory
4. examine the constitutive nature of informal and formal institutions and their actors and how it constrains social behaviour.
5. evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches under positivist paradigm..

TRY THIS !!

Directions: Identify the concept being described in each number.

_________________1. A particular way of observing, measuring social reality.
_________________2. Considered as the oldest and the most widely used paradigm among the dominant paradigms in the social
sciences.
_________________3. An experience brought by something that you feel with your senses.
_________________4. Refers to a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.
_________________5. Refers to the ideology that structures is more important than function.

DO THIS !!

Social Functions – refers to results or effects for the operation of the society in general. For instance, education has a number of
significant purposes in a society, such as socialization and learning. The family can be treated as having essential functions for society
such as providing sexual, reproductive, economic, and educational needs for its members. Media provides the social function of
mirroring the concerns of the audience. Religion contributes to the well-being of society by teaching morality thus providing social
stability and order. Social functions may be intended or unintended consequences, thus they can be classified into manifest or latent
functions.

 Manifest and Latent Functions. American sociologist Robert Merton emphasized the importance of manifest and latent
functions in structural-functionalism for a better understanding of society. In his Social Theory and Social Structure (1968),
he used the example of a rain dance, whose manifest function is to produce rain, while the latent or unintended function of
the rain dance is to provide a regular opportunity for the members of a group to meet and share a common activity.
According to him, manifest functions are those that are intentional or known, referring to functions which people suppose and
anticipate to be fulfilled by the institutions. Meanwhile, latent function are the unexpected effects of institutions. Merton
believes that sociologist should look out for latent functions for an increasing understanding of society, and not rely solely
on the manifest functions or the reasons given by individuals for their actions
Social Dysfunctions – dysfunctions may also be manifest or latent, and have a negative effect on society. Manifest dysfunctions are
expected disruptions of social life. For instance, a manifest dysfunction of heavy migration from rural to urban areas might include
overpopulation and unemployment. Latent dysfunction might include rise in crime rate due to massive unemployment generated by
the said migration.
“#DealOrNoDeal”
Directions: Write “DEAL” if the statement is a MANIFEST FUNCTION and “NO DEAL” if it refers to LATENT FUNCTION.
Write your answer on the space provided below.
1. Schools provide education for children.
2. Schools provide day care services for children of working parents.
3. Religion provides courtship opportunities for single churchgoers.
4. Religion provides moral standards for society.
5. Sports clubs provide opportunities for social interaction among people.
 EXPLORE !!

“I CAN FILL IT”

Directions: Imagine yourself as the image below. Choose one scenario from the ones listed below and share your own personal and
social experience or knowledge of them using one of the theories discussed in this lesson. On the spaces provided, write a reflection
about it.

Scenario:
1. Being a member of a particular religious organization
2. Deciding where to eat during lunch break
3. Role of your family in shaping your norms and values

Your Name

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KEEP
We are now THIS
ready toIN MIND !!in discussing our new lesson in this module
engage

Lesson 4 : Positivist Social Science

Positivism
The English word positivism is derived from the French word postivisme which means “imposed by the mind by experience”.
Positivism refers to the philosophy of science that asserts that the only source of trustworthy knowledge is the information obtained
from rational conducts and reports of sensory experience. The concept of empirical evidence, or the established data received from the
sense, is important in positivism.
The French sociologist August Comte is considered the “Father of Positivism” when he asserted in the 19 th century that society, like
the physical world, operate according to absolute laws, and that it is the duty of the sociologist to discover these laws in order to
understand the nature of society. Positivism is related to certain social theories such as structural-functionalism, rational choice, and
institutionalism.
POSITIVISM
Asserts that every claim can be
scientifically verified

STRUCTURAL- RATIONAL CHOICE INSTITUTIONALISM

FUNCTIONALISM Assumes that society is Views society as made up of
Sees society as a complex made up of individuals who individuals who are
System whose parts work always make logical influenced by institutions,
together to promote decisions that provide them which are also humanly
solidarity and stability with the greatest benefit at created constraints that shape
the lowest cast political, economic, and
social interactions

Figure 1. Social Science Theoretical Approaches under Positivist Paradigm

STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM
Structural-functionalism is a dominant approach in the social sciences that sees society as a complex system whose parts work
together to promote solidarity and stability. In this theory, society is seen as running effortlessly like a fit life form, composed of many
parts concocted in large systems, and these systems each with its own particular use or function, operating together with the others.

government

Church (religion)
SOCIAL STRUCTURES
(pattern social relations)
School (education)

media
STRUCTURAL-
FUNCTIONALISM

MANIFEST FUNCTIONS
SOCIAL FUNCTIONS/ (intended functions)
DYSFUNCTION
(effects for the operations
LATENT FUNCTIONS
of society)
(unintended functions)

Figure 2. Important Concepts in Structural Functionalism

STRENGTHS AND CRITICISMS OF STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM

strength
o Reminds of the need for Order and
stability
o Each instuon serves a funcon
o Reminds us people have roles to play
in society
o Order and stability is important for
society
o Tells us how to create order an
stability
o
weakness
o It fails to address big changes in
society.
o Does not recognize the di+erences in
society among power
o Not everyone agrees with order and
stability of society, for instance the
minories in society
and that this order and stability does not
work for everyone
o Sees some social problems as
funconal.
o Does not propose ways of dealing with
rapid change but rather focuses on
reform
strength
o Reminds of the need for Order and
stability
o Each instuon serves a funcon
o Reminds us people have roles to play
in society
o Order and stability is important for
society
o Tells us how to create order an
stability
o
weakness
o It fails to address big changes in
society.
o Does not recognize the di+erences in
society among power
o Not everyone agrees with order and
stability of society, for instance the
minories in society
and that this order and stability does not
work for everyone
o Sees some social problems as
funconal.
o Does not propose ways of dealing with
rapid change but rather focuses on
reform
strength
o Reminds of the need for Order and
stability
o Each instuon serves a funcon
o Reminds us people have roles to play
in society
o Order and stability is important for
society
o Tells us how to create order an
stability
o
weakness
o It fails to address big changes in
society.
o Does not recognize the di+erences in
society among power
o Not everyone agrees with order and
stability of society, for instance the
minories in society
and that this order and stability does not
work for everyone
o Sees some social problems as
funconal.
o Does not propose ways of dealing with
rapid change but rather focuses on
reform.
strength
o Reminds of the need for Order and
stability
o Each instuon serves a funcon
o Reminds us people have roles to play
in society
o Order and stability is important for
society
o Tells us how to create order an
stability
o
weakness
o It fails to address big changes in
society.
o Does not recognize the di+erences in
society among power
o Not everyone agrees with order and
stability of society, for instance the
minories in society
and that this order and stability does not
work for everyone
o Sees some social problems as
funconal.
o Does not propose ways of dealing with
rapid change but rather focuses on
reform.
Strength
 Reminds of the need for Order and stability
 Each institution serves a function
 Reminds us people have roles to play in society
 Order and stability is important for society
 Tells us how to create order an stability

Weakness
 It fails to address big changes in society.
 Does not recognize the differences in society among power
 Not everyone agrees with order and stability of society, for instance the minorities in society and that this order and stability
does not work for everyone
 Sees some social problems as functional.
 Does not propose ways of dealing with rapid change but rather focuses on reform.

“RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY”

It is a general theory of action and is considered one of the three overarching meta-theoretical paradigms in the social sciences, with
structural-institutional theories and cultural theories constituting its main competitors. Rational choice theory explains social
phenomena as outcomes of individual choices that can—in some way—be construed as rational. Choices are “rational” if they meet
some consistency criterion as defined by a decision theory and are suitable to achieve specific goals, given the constraints of the
situation. Rational choice theory comes in many varieties, depending on the assumptions that are made concerning preferences,
beliefs, and constraints—the key elements of all rational choice explanations. Decision-making under conditions of uncertainty means
that each individual takes full advantage of the likely worth of his own payoff. Decision-making, according to rational choice, often
takes place under conditions of uncertainty since the focus is on the expected rather than actual usefulness.

STRENGTHS AND CRITICISMS OF RATIONAL CHOICE

strength
o Reminds of the need for Order and
stability
o Each instuon serves a funcon
o Reminds us people have roles to play
in society
o Order and stability is important for
society
o Tells us how to create order an
stability
o
weakness
o It fails to address big changes in
society.
o Does not recognize the di+erences in
society among power
o Not everyone agrees with order and
stability of society, for instance the
minories in society
and that this order and stability does not
work for everyone
o Sees some social problems as
funconal.
o Does not propose ways of dealing with
rapid change but rather focuses on
reform
strength
o Reminds of the need for Order and
stability
o Each instuon serves a funcon
o Reminds us people have roles to play
in society
o Order and stability is important for
society
o Tells us how to create order an
stability
o
weakness
o It fails to address big changes in
society.
o Does not recognize the di+erences in
society among power
o Not everyone agrees with order and
stability of society, for instance the
minories in society
and that this order and stability does not
work for everyone
o Sees some social problems as
funconal.
o Does not propose ways of dealing with
rapid change but rather focuses on
reform
strength
o Reminds of the need for Order and
stability
o Each instuon serves a funcon
o Reminds us people have roles to play
in society
o Order and stability is important for
society
o Tells us how to create order an
stability
o
weakness
o It fails to address big changes in
society.
o Does not recognize the di+erences in
society among power
o Not everyone agrees with order and
stability of society, for instance the
minories in society
and that this order and stability does not
work for everyone
o Sees some social problems as
funconal.
o Does not propose ways of dealing with
rapid change but rather focuses on
reform.
strength
o Reminds of the need for Order and
stability
o Each instuon serves a funcon
o Reminds us people have roles to play
in society
o Order and stability is important for
society
o Tells us how to create order an
stability
o
weakness
o It fails to address big changes in
society.
o Does not recognize the di+erences in
society among power
o Not everyone agrees with order and
stability of society, for instance the
minories in society
and that this order and stability does not
work for everyone
o Sees some social problems as
funconal.
o Does not propose ways of dealing with
rapid change but rather focuses on
reform.
Strength
 Generality; This means that one set of assumptions relating to each type of actor in a given circumstance, is compatible with
any set of structural assumptions about the environmental setting in which the actor is present.
 Parsimony; The common knowledge of rationality assumption, the assumption of isomorphic and self-regarding utility
function, when combined with the rational optimization model, allow rational choice theories to treat variations in choices
among actors and by an actor over time as entirely a function of their structural position. Preferences and beliefs are simply
perceived as the only relevant variables for determining action.
 Predictive; Assumptions of the rational choice model have been used to produce a wide variety of decisive theories, whose
predictions about the measurable real world phenomena rule out a much larger set of outcomes than what is already
generally accepted to be unlikely. The decisiveness of rational choice theories depends on structural as well as the individual
actor’s assumptions.

Weakness
 Problems associated with inadequate information and uncertainty. This may make it difficult for individuals to make rational
decisions. As a result, they may rely on other ways of making decisions.
  Human social action and interactions are complex, and many of the theories examined earlier may provide better guides to
how these take place.
 Theorists of rational choice argue that macro level structures and institutions can be explained from the models of individual
social action. But there are problems of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review (Nigerian Chapter) Vol. 1,
No. 3, 2013 98 aggregation of individual to societal level phenomena. These same difficulties exist in well developed
economic models.
 Norms and habits may guide much action, and once these take root people may not question them but use them to pursue
meaningful social action.
 One problem of RCT is that some theorists argue that almost everything humans do is rational, even philanthropy and self-
sacrifice. By expanding to include all forms of action as rational, action that is non-rational or irrational becomes part of the
model. By including every possible form of action in rational choice, it is not clear how the standards of what is rational and
what is not are constructed.

“INSTITUTIONALISM”
Institutionalism, in the social sciences, an approach that emphasizes the role of institutions. The study of institutions has a long
pedigree. It draws insights from previous work in a wide array of disciplines, including economics, political
science, sociology, anthropology, and psychology. The reappearance of interest in institutions in the early 1980s followed a familiar
pattern: it was a reaction to dominant strands of thought that neglected institutions, historical  context, and process in favour of general
theorizing. Accordingly, institutionalism is frequently characterized by the attention it gives to history. The institutionalism that
emerged in the 1980s is called new institutionalism (NI), but it is less “new” than it is a restatement of previous scholarship. The
following discussion traces the development of institutionalism from the 19th century to the emergence of NI in the last decades of the
20th century.

Figure 3. Key Concepts in Institutionalism

Some key concepts in institutionalism are: institutions, formal institutions, and informal institutions. According to Lace Professor
Douglas North, institutions are often referred to as the “rules of the game” (North, 1991). They are humanly-devised constraints that
affect human interaction, devised by people to be able to gain control over their environment for the purpose of bringing about
certainty in an uncertain world. It is also seen as way of minimizing transaction costs or the costs of relations between people. The
government for example, constrains human behaviour by imposing laws which must be obeyed by the citizens. The Catholic Church,
through its doctrines, constrains behaviour by imposing morality on its followers. Thus, through institutions, people are not free to do
everything they want to do since there are sanctions awaiting them for not abiding by the norms being imposed by institutions. When
classified according to degree of formality, they may be divided into formal and informal institutions. See Figure 3.
Informal institutions refers to governing behaviour outside official channel (or formal institutions such as the government and the
church), which may have constitutive and regulative effects on human behaviour. Constitutive effects refers to aspects of culture that
affects economic behaviour while regulative effects refers to the ways in which values and beliefs of society are manifested through
social norm and behaviors which regulate behaviour.
Formal institutions, on the other hand, refers to those officially established, often by governments. They are legally introduced and
enforced by the state. An excellent example of formal institutions are government laws.

APPLY WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED !!

Instituitions as a Symbol…
(Draw two object that symbolizes the formal and informal institutions): Briefly explain how
the symbol would constrain
behaviour as a member o
society
 REFLECT !!

Congratulations on the finishing the supplementary learning module! You have just had
an amazing learning journey and for sure, you will also do the same on the succeeding modules.
To sum up what you have learned. Complete the following phrases

3 Thoughts I have learned…

__________________________________________

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

2 Things I want to remember…

___________________________________________

____________________________________________
__________________________________________

1 Question I have in mind…

___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________

ASSESS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED !!

Part I - Directions: Write RTC if what is being referred to, is part of Rational Choice Theory and SF if it is
reflects ideas of Structural-functionalism.
_____________1. People are motivated by their personal desires and aspirations and they make decisions related to their goal and the
means for attaining those goals.
_____________2. Society is a system of interdependent parts with specific function for the benefit of the entire society.
_____________3. Complex social phenomena can be explained in terms of the elementary individual actions of which they are
composed.
_____________4. Society is multifaceted scheme whose part work mutually for the promotion of harmony and constancy.
_____________5. The basic unit of social life is individual human deed.

Part II. Triple Bottom Line (TBL)

Objective: Compare and contrast Structural-functionalism, rational choice, and institutionalism

Directions:
1. Using the Triple Venn Diagram, compare and contrast Structural-functionalism, rational choice, and institutionalism.
 2. Answer the guide questions that follow.

Guide Questions:
1. What are the similarities of Structural-functionalism to rational choice and institutionalism?
2. How does Structural-functionalism differ from rational choice?
3. How does Social Science differ from institutionalism?

Reference:
Google Drive. ALL – IN – MODULE SENIOR HIGH. Accessed on August 20, 2020.
https://www.facebook.com100002442267884/posts/3233431426748234/?app=fb/