SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT

INTRODUCTION TO
SOCIOLOGY (HISO 100)
NOTES

2020
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION

What is sociology?
The term sociology is a combination of two words, socius and logos, which mean
respectively society and study. Sociology has been defined differently by many scholars.
However, it may be taken to be the scientific study of human behaviour and how the group
influences it and in turn how human behaviour influences society. It is the study of human
behaviour or human interaction in any society. Sociology is sometimes referred to as the
science of society or the study of human societies. Ritzer (2015:5) defines sociology as “the
systematic study and the ways in which people are affected by, and affect, the social
structures and social processes that are associated with the groups, organisations, cultures
societies and the world in which they exist”.

Giddens (1993:08) defines sociology as the systematic study of human societies, giving
special emphasis to modern industrialized societies. Sociology studies industrialised societies
with an aim of understanding and predicting the future. Sociology tries to understand the
individual’s place in society, and society’s effect on the individual. Sociology studies human
social interactions at both micro and macro levels. The discipline came into being in order to
explain the social transformations and upheavals that took place in Europe in the 19 th century.
Auguste Comte a French philosopher coined the term sociology in 1838. In as much as
sociology is said to be a science, following Comtean positivism and the objectivity of a
science, it is also distinguished by its grounding in humanism through “the sociological
imagination”.

Sociology and other disciplines

Sociology has a lot of similarities and differences with a lot of other disciplines, amongst
those discussed below:

 Sociology generally differs from journalism, which is often based on non-

corroborated, and often sensationalised stories which at times may even be personal
opinions, whilst sociologists have to corroborate and verify their information for it to
be accepted as scientific evidence. However, journalism is also broadening its scope
in the contemporary era to incorporate what is now called ‘investigative journalism’-
an approach closer to sociology with emphasis on facts rather than opinions.
  Sociology is very closely related to but differs from anthropology. Cultural
anthropologists for example largely study different or “other” societies, with their
main thrust being on lengthy studies of cultures to produce qualitative accounts,
whilst sociologists may do relatively shorter studies, focusing mainly on modern
societies, but also looking at their cultures.

 The two disciplines however, borrow from each other and share certain theorists e.g.
Karl Marx. In a way, anthropology helps sociologists in understanding the different
forms of human social life that exists.

 Sociology is different from history, which looks at the past, although history is still
important in the shaping of sociology and human behaviour as well.

 While psychology focuses on mental processes and how they influence human
behaviour, sociology looks at how structures and cultures influence human behaviour.

 Economics is referred to as the study of how societies use scarce resources to produce
valuable commodities and distribute them among different people. Sociology on the
other hand does no narrow down its focus just to economic interaction, but takes a
wider focus on the impact of economics on the society and the individual.

 Philosophy on the other hand is referred to as the study of general and fundamental
problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and
language. Whilst al these are found in the subject matter of sociology, which is the
society, the focus in sociology will be on how individuals and societies are affected
by these matters, and vice versa.

However, it is important to note that generally, most disciplines classified as social sciences
all study human behaviour, whether it be sociology, psychology, political science, economics,
human resource studies etc, it is usually either the focus, method, theories or philosophical
underpinnings which differentiate one discipline from the other. One just needs to master the
discipline specific ones for what they will be studying.

Why study sociology?

  Helps us to understand how human behaviour is shaped by the group/society,
and how individuals may also to some extent affect societies. Sociologists are
concerned with the relationship/continuum between the micro (small scale,
face to face) and macro (groups, organisations, culture) phenomena.
 Sociology offers a sociological imagination. The term sociological
imagination was first used by sociologist CW Mills (1959). The sociological
imagination is the ability to situate personal troubles and life trajectories
within an informed framework of larger social processes. Ritzer (2015:17)
defines the sociological imagination as a way of linking private troubles with
public issues. It is a distinctive way of looking at data and reflecting on the
world around them. Early thinkers such as Marx and Weber tried to
understand the larger processes that were affecting their own personal
experiences of the world. An example that distinguishes private troubles from
public issues is given by Mills (1959:9) in Matthewman et al (2013: xiii) is
that “when in a city of 100 000 only one man is unemployed, that is his
personal trouble, and for its relief we properly look to the character of the
man, his skills and immediate opportunities. But when in a nation of 50
million employees, 15 million men are unemployed, that is an issue and we
may not hope to find its solution within the range of opportunities open to any
one individual”. Therefore the sociological imagination helps us to understand
where personal troubles end and public issues begin and to be able to offer
solutions to these.
 Prediction in order to control – sociological research helps us predict how the
future will be like and thus gives us the “possible” ability to control the future.
 Helps by providing a means of increasing our cultural sensitivities. In terms of
social policy, it helps by enabling policy makers make suitable and culturally
appropriate societies.
 In terms of human resource management sociology helps managers to be able
to formulate appropriate policies that are acceptable within certain cultures.

Basic concepts in sociology

Culture
According to Tylor (1871 in Cheater 1989:103-123) culture is “that complex whole which
includes knowledge, beliefs, morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society.” This definition can be criticized for being vague
because it has been applied to a wide range of phenomena (It is too broad).
 Giddens (1993:08) argues that culture is the way of life of the members of a society or
groups within a society. Culture differs from society in that while culture looks at the
way of life of a group, society refers to the system of interrelationships connecting
individuals within a group. However, the difference is not really great and the two are
connected.
 Keesing (1974:80) defines culture as a set of shared meanings and values. Thus
culture can be viewed as a cognitive system where it consists of standards for
deciding what to do about it and for deciding how to go about doing it
 Popenoe (1994) defines culture as shared values, language, knowledge and material
objects. People learn culture over time.

Culture as a resource – culture can be liked to a super market where people pick and choose
the things they want. Thus people pick and choose the norms and values to use in everyday
life. Men and women use several aspects of culture either to attack others or defend
themselves.
Culture as an instrument of domination
(Bourdieu 1984) maintains that culture plays a major role in maintaining social inequality.
Based no their social origins, individuals acquire capacities for interpreting and using culture
codes that affect their opportunities to maintain or change their social position. In a
patriarchal situation, it is culture that upholds the position of men over women. Cheater
(1986:06) goes on to argue that culture can be viewed as a set of ideological precepts that can
be mobilized into socio-political interacts.
Culture as a way of life
O’Connor and Downing (1995:03) highlight that culture is the essence of a people’s way of
life, e.g. how they dress, their marriage system, religion etc
Culture industries
These include newspapers, books, art, music who maintain/perpetuate a people’s way of life.

The 3 symbols that constitute culture

Peterson (1979:137) argues that norms, values and beliefs are the symbols that constitute
culture:
 a) Values – these are choice statements that rank behaviour or goals. They are
abstract ideals held by members of a given society. Values can also be defined as
ideas shared by people about what is desirable, acceptable and right.
b) Norms – these are more specific than values. They refer to the “dos” and “don’ts”
of social life. These are the rules governing social life which people are expected
to observe. Norms can be formal/ written down or informal. Three types of norms
are folkways, mores and taboos. Folkways are norms of little strength that may be
easily broken without any formal sanctions. Mores (pronounced MO-RA-YS) are
strong norms whose violation leads to formal punishment. Taboos are the
strongest proscriptive norms considered sacred governing what one must not do.
They spell out acts considered unimaginable and unthinkable. Violation of taboos
has serious consequences.
c) Beliefs – these are existential statements about how the world operates that often
serve to justify norms and values. Popenoe (1994) defines them as any statement
that purports to describe some aspect of collective reality. Beliefs are what people
hold to be true or have confidence/faith in. They help us construct our reality and
matters of spirituality and cosmology.
Culture therefore refers to the norms, values, beliefs, and material goods created by people in
society. Norms can be divided mores, folkways and taboos.
Subculture- a distinctive culture of a small group existing within mainstream culture
Counterculture- a culture of a group that directly challenges mainstream culture
NB Students to research on culture shock, culture ethnocentrism, culture hybridisation and
acculturation.
What are sanctions?-rewards and punishment for particular conduct. So sanctions can be
positive and negative.
What is a social institution? - A relatively stable cluster of social structures that is intended to
meet the basic needs of societies. Examples include families, schools, and churches.
What is society? – Ritzer (2015:7) defines it as a complex pattern of social relationships that
is bounded in space and persists over time”. Lenski and Lenski (1995) define a society as
people who interact in a defined territory and share culture.

Lenski and Lenski’s (1995) theory of the evolution of society

These authors differentiate societies by forms of technology. Societies with simple
technology (e.g. hunter gatherers) have little control over the nature and therefore can support
a few number of people. Societies with complex technology are not better but can support a
large number of people who live highly specialised lives. They described 5 types of societies.
(a) Hunting and gathering societies
These are the simplest forms, using simple tools to hunt animals and gather fruits and
vegetation. They consist of small bands of a few dozen people who are nomadic, moving on
as they deplete vegetation in an area or follow migratory animals. They rarely form
permanent settlement. Everyone’s life is much the same and is focused on getting the next
meal. They only have spiritual leaders. Women are the primary providers of food. The
societies existed around 12 000 years ago. Examples include the Pygmies of central Africa
and Bushmen of southern Western Africa.

(b) Horticultural and pastoral societies

-people discovered the use of hand tools and started raising crops. They also engaged in
pastoralism (domestication of animals) e.g. the Tuaregs. These groups remain nomadic but
had more populations than the hunter gatherers. Social inequality emerged as societies
engaged in slavery, protracted warfare and even cannibalism. Such societies existed between
10-12 000 years ago.

(c) Agrarian societies

These societies had discovered agriculture. They engaged in large cultivation using
ploughs harnessed by animals or more powerful machines. There are high levels of
social inequality compared to the previous two, landowners are more important than
everyone else. Agriculture propels men into a position of social dominance.

(d) Industrial societies

These started around the 1750s. They are based on industrialisation (the production of
goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery. Industrial societies
emerged as a result of the industrial revolution, with the building of railway lines,
discovery of machines and creation of factories. They are characterised by
occupational specialisation, loss of traditional values and kinship ties, changes in
family organisation, (such as divorce and single parenting) and huge populations
concentrated in cities.

(e) Post-Industrial societies

 The term post-industrial society was coined by Daniel Bell (1973). These societies are
based on post industrialism (technology that supports an information based economy).
There is a move from an economy based on factories and machinery to that based on
computers and other electronic devices that create, process, store and apply
information. This is also referred to as the information society which is also
characterised by the growth of the service industry (ranging from high status service
providers such as doctors and lawyers to lower status house cleaners and those who
work behind the counters of fast food restaurants).

What is socialisation?
When children are born into society they are socialised into the way of life of that group.
Socialisation is a process of inculcating societies’ norms and values into an individual.
Socialisation takes place in two levels: primary and secondary.
Primary socialisation is a process whereby an infant/child acquires the skills/ways of life of a
society into which he/she is born. It mainly takes place at home and is done by the parents or
family of the young child.
Secondary socialisation happens in schools, workplaces, universities, etc. where individuals
continually learn to adjust to the demands of society.
Socialisation is a life-long process that starts from birth and end in the grave or death
Roles
As an individual is socialised into society’s norms and values, he/she learns to take a role.
Roles are socially defined expectations that a person in a given status or social position
follows. It is the duty one carries out whether at home, in the workplace or at school. For
example, my role is to lecture and yours is to be attentive students. Roles are allocated to
individuals by society. Where these roles become too many for an individual they can cause
role strain/role conflict/role confusion. For example, where one is a student, father, brother,
worker, husband, boyfriend, son and an uncle.

Status
This refers to a position that one occupies in the society. It is linked to roles in that for one to
perform a certain role they have to occupy a certain social position. For example, to be a
teacher you have to occupy a certain position. It can either be achieved or ascribed. An
achieved status is not that an individual puts some effort or strives to achieve, e.g. being a
teacher, nurse, doctor etc. One is not born in that position. The ascribed status does not
require any effort form the individual. One finds herself/ himself in that position, mostly by
birth. For example, being a prince, chief, woman, man.
Topic 2: THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
Sociology and other social sciences emerged from a common tradition of reflection of social
phenomena and an interest in the nature of human social behavior and society. There was a
growing inquisitive movement that questioned culture debunking it from a fixed and ‘natural’
entity. This view gradually was replaced by more rational explanations beginning from the
17th century especially in Western Europe. The sociological issues, questions and problems
had been raised and discussed by the forerunners starting from the ancient Greek and Roman
philosophers' and Hebrew prophets' times. The discipline of sociology can be said to have
developed as a result of the following factors:
1. The enlightenment thinkers
2. Industrialization
3. Urbanization
4. Growth of communism
5. The French Revolution
6. The influence of Auguste Comte

The enlightenment thinkers: Philosophical foundations

The general arguments pursued by enlightenment thinkers were:
a) Belief in empiricism – they believed that everything must be empirical, that is, proved
through experiments or other methods. It is through empiricism that knowledge is
increased. If one said the earth is spherical then one had to prove their claim.
Empiricism was an attempt to depart from explaining things using the supernatural
“eternal verities” to explain social reality using reason and science.
b) Rejection of Papal infallibility – they rejected the view that the pope is infallible/does
not sin and argued that everyone responsible for his/her actions. They also rejected the
point that the new pope was appointed by God and argued that people had the right
elect presidents into office, that is, to remove and install governments into office.
c) Social and moral progress through science.
d) Individualism- seen as the starting point of all knowledge.
e) The search for general laws and freedom.

Rousseau and Montesquieu: the 2 thinkers we shall study in detail

Montesquieu (1698 – 1755)
In his book, Spirit of the laws, he sought laws social and historical development. He argued
that social institutions have an interdependent and correlative relationship with one another
and are dependent on the form of the whole. Therefore, the whole is greater than the sum of
its parts. Montesquieu studied forms of government such as the republic, aristocracy,
monarchy and despotism. He can be credited for being the first to use the comparative
method of social research (where he compared several governments from different societies).
He also used the ideal type method that was later adopted by Weber on bureaucracy. On
power – Montesquieu argued that power should not be concentrated in the hands of one man
but be distributed among individuals and groups of society. He believed that liberty is best
preserved where interest groups check on the government and where laws provide for such
checks.
His perception of individuals
Montesquieu looked at people not as a multitude of individuals but as a society that could be
distinguished from others by its customs and institutions. He can be regarded as one of the
founders of the sociology of knowledge. Because he argued that the way individuals perceive
customs and ideas of society depends on the social position one occupies and hence on the
cultural perspective one adopts (which is the whole essence of the sociology of knowledge)

Rousseau (1712 – 1778)

“Individuals are born free but are everywhere in chains.” His main objective was to find a
social order whose laws were in harmony with fundamental laws of nature. He sought an
alternative to the prevailing order, which, to his mind, precluded man’s perfectibility and
even deformed and violated his nature. Culture, for Rousseau, is an invention of man and it
suppresses man’s freedom. On government – he argued that governments originated in order
to protect the property of the rich. Karl Marx later adopted this idea in his study of class
struggles.

Why Rousseau is the forerunner of sociology

a) He was among the first philosophers to address systematically the origins, forms and
consequences of inequality in society.
b) He saw clearly that inequality is the main cause of strife and war within and among
societies
On gender
In his writings of Emile and Sophy Rousseau argued that “men should be strong and active
while women should be weak and passive.” This view influenced how he looked at
education, for example, where he argued that a woman’s education must be planned in
relation to man. Women, in as far as he was concerned, existed in order t be pleasing in
man’s sight, to win his respect and love. These are the ideas heavily criticized by feminists.
The ideas of E.T led to an uproar among French conservatives who not only regarded them as
dangerous but also as leading to the French reverend and the general upheavals that took
place in Europe in the 18th century.

The Conservative Reactions de Bonald & de Maistre (French)

These men were disturbed by the ideas of the E.T, which they regarded as destructive. They
therefore developed a catholic counter – revolutionary philosophy that called for a restoration
of the old order/regime (ancient regime) that had been destroyed by the Rev. of 1789. They
yearned for the golden past and tried everything in their will to turn back the hands of the
clock.
These philosophers advanced several propositions on how society should operate. It is those
propositions that directly influenced Auguste Comte, Durkheim who were the founding
fathers of sociology.
Their Propositions were as follows:
a) They argued that society is greater than the individuals who comprise it. This was a
direct attack on the view held by E.T who stated that only individuals exist and that
society is simply the name one gives to those individuals in their interrelationships.
b) Far from individuals constituting society, it is society that crates the individuals by
means of moral education or what Durkheim later called social facts.
c) Every institution in society is positively functional – no institution disrupts or is bad
for society. They also argued that institutions are parts of a society, which are
interdependent and interrelated.
1. Importance of religion and rituals – unlike the E.T who viewed religion, rituals, and
ceremonies and worship as irrational practices of the past, the C.Rs viewed all these
as necessary for the unity of society.
Conclusion
The discipline of sociology developed as a reaction to the ideas of E.Ts. It developed mainly
as counter reaction to the enlightenment era. There are; however, some ideas or notions that
were adopted by classical sociologists such as Saint Simon and Comte that directly came
from Rousseau and Montesquieu.

Urbanisation and industrialisation

Industrialisation greatly changed Europe and its people. The discovery and invention of
machines such as the Spinning Jenny, led to the construction of factories and workhouses.
This led to changes in the laws enacted e.g. the Corn Laws of England 1832 and the factory
laws etc. The enclosure act led to the grabbing of land from peasants thus greatly changing in
their lifestyles. Poverty increased and there was need to explain all these in sociological
terms. It can be argued then, that sociology as a discipline developed in order to explain,
describe and understand the social upheavals that took place in Europe. The social reforms
had to be understood and an attempt to predict the future made. This led to the people such
as German theorist, Ferdinand Tonnies who described the change from traditional societies
into modern societies as the move from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft. It was the move from a
community to a society. Durkheim in his book Division of labour and Marx in his Das
Kapital depict the changes brought in by the new capitalist system. A social satire was also
presented by Charles Dickens in Oliver Twist (where he depicted the effects of the British
poor laws of 1834).

The French Revolution of 1789

It is mainly blamed on the E.T. whose ideas are said to have fuelled the Revolution. It
culminated in the overthrow of the ancient regime or the Catholic Church rule. This caused
much alarm among conservatives who feared the Rev might spread to other countries and
topple existing regimes. That is why, such philosophers as Comte and Durkheim were bent
on instilling order, progress and social control.

The influence of Auguste Comte (1789 – 1857)

He is credited for coining the word sociology, which to him meant a study in social physics.
Comte regarded sociology as the last science to develop but also as the most significant and
complex of all sciences. Comte was greatly influenced by Saint Simon and the conservative
reactionaries. He regarded sociology as a new religion of which he was the high priest. For
Comte sociology was a “positive philosophy” in the sense that it emphasized order, progress
and social control. His philosophy is positive in the sense that it opposes the views held
which Comte regarded as negative since they had resulted in the French Rev. Comte believed
that questioning time-honoured institutions was destructive and threatened to undermine all
social life. In terms of gender Comte despised individualism, which he believed was
destructive. He was against equality of sexes and he argued that the females or sex is in a
state of perpetual infancy therefore could not be equated to males. Moreover women knew
nothing about issues of state and governance therefore they should not be allowed to talk. He
argued that people who do not know anything about a certain topic should keep quiet and
leave everything to the intellectuals. If these people were allowed to talk they brought in
dangerous ideas that caused social anarchy.

His method of research

Comte emphasized his techniques as observation, experiments and comparative analysis as
the best of data collection and analysis. He wanted sociology to be modelled along the lines
of natural sciences and he believed that like the natural scientists, sociologists would
formulate laws to explain human behaviour.

Three stages of societal development identified by Comte

1. The theological stage (dominated by religious views)
2. Metaphysical stage (there is a move from religious society to viewing society as a
natural system)
3. Scientific stage- where there is application of scientific methods to understand
society.
TOPIC 3: CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGISTS AND PESPECTIVES

The traditional three main perspectives in sociology are functionalism (Structural

Functionalism by Radcliffe Brown), Conflict theory and Symbolic Interactionism/Interpretive
sociology. Haralambos and Holborn (2013:9) define a theory as “a set of ideas that claims to
explain how something works. A sociological theory is therefore a set of ideas that claims to
explain how society or aspects of society work.” They further highlight there are other recent
sociological perspectives such as feminism, critical theory, phenomenology, queer theory and
postmodernism.

Functionalism
Key terms. Organicism, structure, function, functional prerequisites, value consensus,
collective consensus, social cohesion, social order, social solidarity, social system
Functionalism was popularised by French philosopher Emile Durkheim and it gained
momentum in the US through scholars such as Talcott Parsons particularly in the 1940s and
1950s. Functionalism is the analysis of society in terms of function with regards to specific
institutions in a particular society. Examples of institutions include the family, church,
school, army police etc. Macionis and Plummer (2005:24) define it as “a framework for
building theory that envisages society as a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability”. Functionalism is not a unified body of knowledge but has
several strands to it, which include Structural Functionalism by Radcliffe Brown, ideas by
Parsons, B. Malinowski etc. Ritzer (2015:37) defines structural functionalism as a set of ideas
focused on social structures as well as the functions and dysfunctions that such structures
perform. It has a positive view of social structures- that they are desirable, necessary and
even impossible to do without. Giddens (1979) argues that functionalism has often been
closely associated with the idea that biology provides the appropriate model for sociology.
Functionalists argue that society is like a human body where every organ is functional and
works for the good of the whole. This whole is greater than the sum of its parts, that is, the
society is sui generis.

Talcott Parsons
He believed that society is a social system and he argued that the central task of sociology is
to analyse society as a system. This system has functionally interrelated variables. Parsons
(like Durkheim and Comte before him) was preoccupied with maintaining order in the social
system. For example during socialisation, the basic objective is the inculcation of norms and
values of the social system. Parsons assumed that individuals are passive during the
socialisation process and thus he concentrated in analysing how the system controlled the
individuals rather than how the individuals acted t create the social system. For Parsons,
institutions performed the following roles:
a) Adaptation – family or school
b) Latency/pattern maintenance – prisons, police
c) Integration – e.g. churches
d) Goal attainment – e.g. schools, universities, workplaces

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

Books on suicide, Elementary forms of religious life and Division of Labour.
 Was interested in knowing what holds people together. He was greatly influenced by
A. Comte
 He is best known for his view that sociology should study social facts as things –
meaning that social life can be analysed as vigorously as objects or events in nature.
 He was born in France but was a descendant of a Jewish Rabbi. He spent most of his
time teaching moral education in French universities. He was thus bent on
maintaining social order and repairing the social morality of society.

On social facts, Religion and Collective Conscience

For Durkheim the subject matter of sociology should be the study of social facts. These are
“things” external to the individual but constraining and overwhelming individual behaviour.
Norms, values and culture are good examples of non-material social facts. Other social facts
include social morality, collective conscience and religion.
Durkheim defined religion as: “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred
things. It is these beliefs and practices that unite people into a single moral community.
Various symbols are used in religion. Religion defines the sacred and the profane (everyday).
The various systems are, for example, totems which are represented by animals/material
objects. The totems symbolize sacred energy and serve as an identity for a clan/group e.g.
Shumba, Shiri, Nzou, Hove, etc. In religion men and women feel overpowered by a force
greater than themselves resulting from the collective nature of the ceremony (collective
effervescence). This collective conscience/morality was reported by Durkheim to be very
high in traditional societies e.g. belief in ancestors.
Mechanical and organic solidarity
Durkheim distinguished two types of morality that exist in traditional and modern society.
These are mechanical an organic solidarity. Mechanical solidarity is dominant in small-scale
societies while organic solidarity is dominant in industrial societies. Under mechanical
solidarity people in small-scale societies are unified because they are engaged in similar
activities with similar responsibilities. In mechanical solidarity individuals share a common
view of the world and a common collective conscience. They think feel and act the same and
therefore act in concert. The nature of the collective thoughts is limited to the immediate
surroundings while the kin group and tribe are the centre and limits of their universe. Such
groups tend to be very religious.
However, under organic solidarity people are held together by their differences (due to
specialization) in urban areas where a high level of interdependency exists e.g. a household in
a city needs a supermarket, baker, butchery, telephone etc.

Anomie
 A term coined by Durkheim to describe a state of normlessness (absence of norms). It
comes from the Greek word anomia meaning without law or without regulation.
 It is argued that the transition from small scale to industrial societies led to a decline
in common morality. Individuals are said to be experiencing anomie because they
sufficient moral restraints, because they have no clear concept of what is and what is
not proper behaviour. Durkheim went to an extent of arguing that extreme anomie
might lead individuals to commit suicide.

Critique of Durkheim’s social facts, Paradigm

1. On coercion vs. consensus - Durkheim’s emphasis on common morality as the force
that binds societies together has problems of its own. Societies are not necessarily
held together simply by consensus/common morality. Structures as forms of social
organizations are often held together by force or constraint. This creates tensions,
which in some cases results in revolutions e.g. the French Rev and the 2 nd
Chimurenga.
2. Sectional interests - Another major weakness is that it glosses over the importance of
sectional interests in creating the so-called common morality/conscience collective.
The sectional interests have various foundations/bases e.g. class, race, ethnicity, age.
Durkheim’s study of suicide (1952)
It was designed to show that certain kinds of social conditions were necessary for individuals
to want to continue living. While suicide may seem to be an individual act it is an act that is
socially caused by the level of integration one has to his/her society. He argued that people
whose integration into society is either too great or too little are more likely to destroy
themselves. Several types of suicide identified by Durkheim include:
i. Egoistic
ii. Anomic
iii. Altruistic
iv. Fatalistic
Egoistic – occurs because a person lacks strong supporting ties. Too much individualism
means less integration of an individual into society; suicide. Unmarried people more than
married or Protestants more than Catholics commonly committed this type of suicide.
Anomic – occurs due to individual’s normlessness. It is when society’s regulation of the
orientation of the individual was broken-down. The absence of norms leaves people without
rules to guide behaviour. This kind of suicide occurs during times of upheavals or great
transformations in the society / in times of general unrest/war.
Altruistic – caused by too much integration into society. It is found among strongly unified
social groups e.g. the military, the Moslems (fighting a holy war) where an individual loses a
sense of self /individuality and puts the interests of the groups before his or her own e.g. a
soldier fighting for his country or Indian women in suttee.
 However, Durkheim’s analysis can be criticized because he used government
statistics, which might have been manipulated by whoever collected them.
 Fatalistic suicide – happens in extremely oppressive societies people may lose the will
to live and prefer to die rather than continue in misery e.g. the inmates of
concentration camps during the World War 2.

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
Key terms Factors of production, means of production, relations of production, mode of
production, contradiction, historical materialism, exploitation, oppression,
contradiction, change, revolution, ideology, base, superstructure, infrastructure, false
consciousness,
Conflict theory or Marxism gained momentum in the 1970s. This perspective traditionally
included feminism and critical theory, which have now become stand-alone perspectives.
Def: “It is a framework for building theory that envisages society as an arena of inequality
that generates conflict and change” (Macionis and Plummer 2005:26). According to Ritzer
(2015:39) conflict theory is a set of ideas focusing on the sources of conflict within society:
this theory sees society as held together by coercion and focuses on its negative aspects.
Conflict theory is based on the works of Karl Marx though it involves other thinkers such as
Ralph Dahrendorf, Lewis Coser, Louis Althusser and W.E.B Du Bois.

KARL MARX (1818 – 1883): Conflict theory

 He was a renowned but poor philosopher who relied on the wealth of his friend
Engels. He was of Jewish descent and was born in 1818 and spent his time writing
about the evils of capitalism and suggesting how that system could be overthrown.
The main notions advanced by Marx include: alienation, mode of production, means
of production, ideology, class struggle and religion, historical materialism.
Marx on religion
He argued that religion is the opium of the mind (it numbs the mind). It is also the sigh of a
poor man. Religion is a form of ideology put in place by the ruling class in order to justify
their position.
Marx’s materialist conception of history (historical materialism)
For Marx social change is brought about by economic influences. These are linked to
conflicts between classes. It is these conflicts that provide the motive power of historical
development; therefore history is the history of class struggle. It is through class struggle than
one mode of production is displaced by another e.g. feudalism by capitalism. Marx argued
that in any one time there is a mode of production (system of productive relations) that is in
place. He identified several modes of production in the history of humankind. These are:
(a) Primitive communalism
(b) Slavery
(c) Feudalism
(d) Capitalism
(e) Socialism- resources and means of production are collectively owned. Transitory
phase towards communism.
 (f) Communism- an economic and political system where all societal members are
socially equal It is sometimes viewed as the same as socialism, however it is the finest
form of socialism.

Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system in which resources and means of producing goods and
services are privately owned (Macionis and Plummer 2005). The common characteristics of
capitalism are: private ownership of property, pursuit of personal profit (greed) and free
competition, consumer sovereignty and markets (laisseiz faire approach, no government
regulation and interference in the market).
Marx highlighted the problems of the capitalist mode of production and the classes that it
formed. He argued that capitalism sowed its own seeds for destruction “capitalism is its own
grave digger.” Marx also identified means of production, which include: land, labour, capital
(these are also referred to as factors of production). The bourgeoisie owned the land and
capital while labour was owned by the proletariat or the working class. Marx also stated that
the capitalist mode of production has two main features; the base and the superstructure. The
base contains all the economic factors of production while the superstructure is said to
contain institutions whose functions are governed by the relations found in the base. Such
institutions include: schools, hospitals, prisons, workplaces, the family, church etc.

Superstructure (ideology, myths, laws, politics, cultural and educational institutions)

Base (also referred to as the infrastructure comprises the means of production and relations of
production)

 Basic argument= whatever happens in the area of politics, law, family, etc. it is
determined by the economic base. Therefore those will automatically wield political
power. The base determines the superstructure.
 For Marx the state reflects property relations and class differences. The political state
is the true mirror of various aspects of private interests and at its ultimate height the
state tends to be private property.
 Therefore, individual rights e.g. the right to association, freedom of expression etc,
are illusory. This is because in a capitalist system it is the propertied that often enjoy
these rights and not the property less. Because the lawmakers are recruited from the
 propertied class, it is the propertied that enjoy the rights enshrined within the
constitution.
 While Marx argues that order in society is a result of the dissemination of the ruling
class ideology and the suppression of weaker classes, Durkheim and the functionalists
believe that order is a result of the collective conscience.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Special emphasis will be laid on the ideas by GEORGE MEAD, CHARLES HORTON
COOLEY, GOFFMAN & BLUMER (theories of development and socialisation)
Def: a perspective that is concerned with the meanings that people place on their own and
other people’s behaviour. Ritzer (2015:45) defines it as a sociological perspective focusing
on the role of symbols and how their meanings are shared and understood by those involved
in human interaction [words, gestures and even symbols are symbols-they stand in for
things].
Aims and key assumptions of Symbolic Interactionism
 To show how individuals interpret and make sense of the social world in which they
live.
 To show that society’s institutions are ultimately created, changed and maintained by
people through interaction.
 To highlight that people do not act or react automatically but carefully consider and
even rehearse what they intend to do.
 People take into account other people involved and the situation in which they find
themselves. The expectations and reactions of other people greatly affect an
individual’s behaviour.
 People give meanings to things/ symbols and act or react on the basis of these
meanings. The symbolic meanings are intimately connected with our understanding of
what it is to be and to behave as a human being.
The looking glass self-concept by Cooley (1934)
It describes the three processes through which each of us develops a sense of self (who we
are). These are;
A. We imagine how our actions appear to others
B. We imagine how other people judge these actions
C. We make some sort of self-judgement based on the presumed judgements of
others
*Therefore other people become the mirror or looking glass that we use to judge our selves.
George Mead on the significant and the generalised others
Significant others = Individuals who are most important in our development, parents, friends
etc.
Generalised others=society at large
*Argument= we act or behave by taking into consideration the viewpoints, attitudes and
expectations of society as a whole or a community of people whom we are aware of.

The three stages of development by Mead

1. The preparatory stage (2yrs) stage of developing self-consciousness
2. The play stage (5yrs) = child tries to act out certain roles of other people especially
parents by behaving as they do. The significance of the play stage is that it is likely to
involve the child in a great deal of role-playing. Through taking the roles of others the
child is able to know who she is by being who she is not. The role in each case is
organised by norms as the child learns them.
3. The game stage (8years) -this is where the child learns to adjust her behaviour to the
expectations of the general others.
*Society becomes part of us because of our learned understanding of its expectations (norms)
that we internalise in our personality structure. We learn this understanding through language
(a symbol) and we integrate it into our personality through the use of language and role-
playing.

FEMINISM
Feminist theory is a set of ideas critical of the situation confronting women and offering
solutions for improving, if not revolutionising, their situation (Ritzer 2015:41). Unlike
Marxists, feminists see the exploitation of women by men as the most important source of
exploitation, rather than the working class by the ruling class (Haralambos and Holborn
2013). There are various strands of feminism, however feminists have certain common ideas,
such as the belief in male domination (patriarchy) and that sociology as a discipline has for a
long time been malestream/male dominated. Some of the feminist thinkers are Ann Oakley
(1974), Judith Butler (1990), Valerie Bryson (1999), Mary Daly (1978), Shulamith Firestone
(1972) Sylvia Walby (2011), Bell Hooks (1982 [writes on black feminism)] and Kate Millet
(1970).
POSTMODERNISM
This perspective began in the 1970s and gained momentum in the 1980s and 1990s. There are
various stands of postmodernism, however the main arguments include: a rejection of the
traditional theories of explaining behaviour (functionalism, Marxism and Interactionism-
these are the grand theories). Ritzer (2015:45) defines postmodernism as a set of ideas
oriented in opposition to modern theory, by, for example, rejecting or deconstructing the
grand narratives of classical social theory. It is sometimes referred to as Anti-modernism.
Haralambos and Holborn (2013) state that postmodernists believe that social behaviour is no
longer shaped as it used to be by people’s background and socialisation. They argue that
factors such as class, gender and ethnic group influence people a great deal less than they
used to, as people are much freer to choose their own identity and lifestyle. For example,
people have a choice as to whether to be heterosexual or homosexual, where they live, what
clothes to wear etc. Some of the thinkers are: Jean Baudrillard (1983) and Jean Lyotard
(1984). Lyotard believes that all attempts to come up with general theories (grand
explanations) of society are doomed to failure because society is too complex to be
understood from a single perspective. Baudrillard argues that society has been bombarded by
media images to the extent that individuals cannot distinguish between reality and media
image and characters. He writes about ‘the dissolution of life into TV” and says “TV watches
us, TV alienates us, TV manipulates us and TV informs us” (Haralambos and Holborn
2013:990). Thus society is characterised by simulation (an inauthentic or fake version of
something) and hyper-consumption (where we consume more than we really want or can
afford).
TOPIC 4: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
DEF: Social stratification refers to the ways in which the members of a society rank people as
superior or inferior to one another in social standing. All human societies even the simplest
have levels of social rank as one of the mechanisms influencing how their members relate to
one another. Social stratification is an example of social differentiation, a means by which
individuals distinguish themselves from one another. Giddens (1993) views stratification as
the structured inequalities between different groupings of people. According to Matthewman
et al (2013) social stratification refers to the systemic ways that groups of people are
organised unequally within a broad social hierarchy. Stratification ranks people in a
hierarchy.
Key notions
 Stratification is a characteristic of society that leads to differential access to
resources.
 It persists across generations as social positions shift from parents to their
children thus remaining in the same social position. However some people
may experience social mobility.
 Stratification is everywhere but varies from society to society.
 It sometimes involves beliefs.
 People belonging to a particular group or hierarchy share an identity.
 Stratification describes both a condition and a process (Matthewman et al
2013).

Theories of class and stratification

1. MARXISM 2. WEBERIAN 3. FUNCTIONALISM
Marxism
Main argument = history is the history of class struggles (workers have nothing to lose except
their chains).
An individual’s class position is determined by his/ her relationship to the means of
production. In capitalism there are two main classes that struggle for resources. Marx
predicted that eventually the working class would realise their exploitation by capitalists and
they would unite in a revolution to destroy the capitalist system. The working class would
institute a more benign form of economic system – the communist system.
Key points raised by Marx
1. He wanted to explain social inequalities brought in by different modes of production.
He however, concentrated on the differences in wealth brought in by capitalism.
2. He defined a class as a group of people sharing the same relationship to the means of
production. This is economic determinism (criticised by Weber as a monocausal
explanation).
3. Where individuals in a class realise their common situation and common enemy and
unite in order to change the situation, they are said to have class-consciousness.
Therefore they are a class for itself. However, where such realisation has not been
made (among peasants who are in competition with each other), the class is said to be
a class in itself (meaning that they are a class objectively but not in subjective).
4. Marx foresaw class polarisation that would ultimately lead to two great classes
fighting each other. Polarisation was defined as a situation where remnant classes
from past modes of production were either absorbed into the working class or the
capitalist class. Since classes are in perpetual conflict, a revolution is not only
inevitable but also necessary to remove inequality.
5. According to Marx the working class is a growing force and a nucleus for social
change. It is the working class that would lead the revolution against the capitalists.
6. With increasing mechanisation, specialisation and division of labour, workers would
become deskilled and lose their individual craftsmanship. They would no longer be
able to claim products as heirs but would become alienated and increasingly
replaceable. Because they are paid low wages workers would be pauperised.

Weber’s (1864-1920) theory of class

He was the first critic of Marx. While agreeing that the economic factors were a major
determinant of stratification, Weber also postulated that STATUS (prestige) and PARTY
(power) were important.
* Life chances and marketability (a recognised skill or capacity that is deemed to have a
particular value within the labour market.
Key points
1. He defined a class as a plurality of people sharing the same market situation or
market value. In short class = market situation. This definition would produce an
infinite number of classes since small differences exist between people. Weber’s
classes are not necessarily conscious of their situation.
2. He believed there are 3 sources of stratification, economic class, social status and
political power. A status group is defined as a group of people sharing the same
social honour or lifestyle. Status, unlike class is not objectively given but depends
on people’s subjective evaluations of social differences. It is based on prestige or
esteem. However, status groups are shaped by lifestyles that are in turn affected
by income, values and education. There is therefore a relationship between
economic class and social status since those in a high social status tend to have
greater economic power. However this is not always the case since an aristocratic
family may still have social honour but living in genteel poverty, in the same
manner that a rich person may be denied respect in society because of their
background or social ties. This is very true of the Jewish people in Europe who
own many businesses but lack political power. Soldiers and police officers of our
day also yield much legal power but have few or no property. This disputes Marx
argument that the base determines the superstructure.
3. Weber argued that society is not composed of two classes only but there is a
middle class that is divided into upper and lower middleclass. They belong to the
white-collar category though they also do not own property but they enjoy the
advantageous life chances that come with their skills. He also divided the working
class into unskilled manual workers, semi-skilled manual workers and skilled
manual workers. They all fall within the blue-collar category and own no property
they only have manual skills.
4. Weber therefore did not believe in the polarisation of classes since there are small
differences that exist among and between workers. The revolution was therefore
not inevitable but only possible according to Weber.
5. Because of advantageous life chances Weber argued that the middle class would
grow and workers would enjoy high-class positions and grow rich. Thus Weber
believed in the embourgeoisement of the middle class (doctors, lawyers) through
for example buying shares in organisation. This process would slowly make the
middle class owners of property. Because of this process it would now be difficult
for individuals to strike let alone unite in a revolution.
6. Classes perpetuate themselves through social closure (boundary formation and
difficult upward social mobility) and social reproduction (from one generation to
the other).
Similarities between Marx and Weber’s theorisation of stratification
1. Both argue that the bourgeoisie exploits the working class in order to have surplus
value/ profits
2. The worker must and is compelled by the whip of hunger to sell his labour for
survival.
3. The worker is a free human being in the sense that he is not a slave (he is paid for
services) and also that he does not own any property.
4. Group conflict is a basic ingredient of society.
5. People are motivated by self interest,
6. Those who do not have property can defend their interests less well than those
who own property.
7. Economic institutions are of fundamental importance in shaping the rest of
society.
8. Those in power promote ideas and values that help them maintain their dominance
9. Only when exploitation becomes extremely obvious will the powerless revolt.

THE FUNCTIONALIST VIEW OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

 Emphasis is mainly placed on the views of Kingsley Davis and Wilbert
Moore.

Key arguments
1. Stratification is functional and necessary. Some jobs are more important than others
and require hard training e.g. medical doctors, pilots etc. therefore after training the
individuals deserve better rewards for their efforts.
2. Class is universal in complex human societies because it serves to produce and
maintain division of labour that is believed to be necessary for any society.
3. Some tasks (such as farming and health care) are essential to the survival of society
and people must be motivated to undertake them. However, some of these essential
tasks are more difficult and require some skill and training.
4. Society must motivate people to take up these jobs and must also select the most
talented people and motivate them to take the jobs requiring their particular abilities.
5. This motivation is done by highly rewarding some tasks thereby making them more
attractive and ensuring an ample supply of applications. This system of differential
distribution of social rewards is social stratification.
 6. Social stratification persists even in democratic societies devoted to ideologies of
social equality because of the need to ensure that significant social positions will be
filled and conscientiously performed.

Critique of the functionalist argument

i. There are problems in defining an important job. What is an important job? How
come some jobs are important for survival but they are lowly paid (e.g. farming).
ii. Not all highly rewarded positions are difficult or socially imperative (air hostesses,
movie stars) nor are all similar statuses rewarded similarly in all societies. Therefore
high rewards do not demonstrate the importance of the job or the degree of skill
needed to perform it.
iii. It is not necessarily true that the most talented and intelligent people occupy these
high rewarding jobs but sometimes, chance and opportunity determines.
iv. Class positions tend to be inherited from one generation to the other.
v. While division of labour is necessary, a class system is not necessary to carry it out
(see division of labour in pre capitalist societies).
Contemporary theories of stratification
(See arguments by Goldthorpe, Erik Wright, Ohlins and Runciman). Runciman (1990)
identified 7 classes existing in Britain: the Upper -Upper class (forming about 0,2%. Born
rich utilising ‘old money’), the lower Upper class (about 10%, the ‘working rich’), Upper
middle class (15%), lower middle class (20%), skilled working class (20%), unskilled
working class (30%) and the underclass (5%, they are politically and socially excluded or
marginalised, e.g. vagabonds, misfits, poor old people and single parents)

STARTIFICATION IN PRE-CAPITALIST SOCIETIES

Stratification in pre-capitalist or traditional societies was mainly in the form of Caste, slavery
and estates.
The caste system
Whereas class is a form of stratification based on wealth caste is based on birth. It is inherited
and therefore unchangeable, fixed at birth e.g. the ancient caste system in India. In Zimbabwe
there was stratification according to race/ colour. This also happened in the apartheid South
Africa. There were 4 main castes in India (called Varnas). These were (in order of
descending social standing) the (a) Brahmins (priests) (b) Kshatriyas (warriors) (c) Vaisyas
(artisans and merchants) (d) Sudras (menial labourers)
There were also large numbers of the untouchables (the pariah) that made up the fifth caste.
These did all the dirty and polluting work (e.g. grave digging).

General principles of a caste system

1. Caste is fixed at birth with the individual inheriting the caste standing of his/her
father.
2. It is closely related to the Hindu belief of reincarnation or rebirth where it is believed
that individuals who fail to abide by the rituals and duties of their caste will be reborn
in an inferior position in their next incarnation. The Hindu religion rationalised the
continuation of the caste system.
3. Principle of endogamy = legitimate marriages only took place within each caste
though non-marital sexual unions could take place across caste lines.
4. Every major social institution reflected the caste system for example residence was
geographically segregated. Even child rearing patterns and other family related
matters reflected caste distinctions.
A. There is no upward social mobility in a caste system. The caste acts as an absolute
break on the upward mobility of members of any caste except the highest. In
contemporary USA there is a caste like system where a non-white person cannot
climb the social ladder into the class of whites.

SLAVERY
It is the worst form of stratification where some individuals are literally owned by others as
their property. They can be bought and sold without their consent (see ‘A’ level history on
the Trans-Atlantic slave trade).
ESTATES
An estate is defined as a closed system of stratification in which a person is defined by law
and membership is determined primarily by inheritance.
It was common in feudal Europe. It consisted of several strata with differing obligations to
each other. These included the aristocracy, the clergy, the gentry, merchants, artisans
peasants, serfs etc. (see Victorian and Elizabethan literature). Unlike in the caste system a
degree of tolerance was there for intermarriages and individual upward mobility was
tolerated. For example commoners could be knighted for their special service to the
monarchy.
TOPIC 5
RESEARCH METHODS
Sociologists believe that knowledge about Society should be systematically researched using
scientific methods. From this perspective, Sociology is a Science. As a science, the primary
aim of sociology is doing research; to produce, accumulate, and disseminate scientific
knowledge on society and social phenomena. There are some scholars who would however
want to argue that Sociology is not a science since sociologists cannot apply strict scientific
approaches like what natural scientists do. Human behaviour, which is the subject matter of
Sociology is complex. What are your thoughts?
There are two schools of thought on which sociological inquiry is based i.e. positivism and
phenomenology.

Positivism
Based on the ideas of Auguste Comte. He believed that Sociology can employ Scientific
methods just like the natural sciences. Positivists argue that our knowledge about society can
be quantified and general laws about society can be established. Sociology is therefore
supposed to be a positive science of society. Human behaviour can be understood on the basis
of cause and effect just like the Social Sciences. They believe that human behaviour can be
objectively measured. Replicable human behaviour can be used to develop a theory which
can be tested. This research philosophy argues that human behaviour should be observable.
Hence positivists argue that human attributes that cannot be measured such as meaning,
purposes and feelings are insignificant to our understanding of social dynamics. For example,
it can be quantified and it is fact that people go to church but their reasons for doing so differ.
Hence for positivist the thrust should be for instance, to quantify the number of people going
to church since their reasons might be different if not misleading.

They also believe that the purpose of Sociologist is to observe, measure and explain human
behaviour in society in the same way that natural scientists engage in these activities. They
simply contact experiments, measure observe and explain reactions. Atoms and chemicals do
not explain why they do what they do. As such humans should not explain their meanings
and interpretations because natural sciences have proved that these are irrelevant.
Sociologists should therefore concentrate on Social Facts.

Functionalism, Marxism are based on this approach. Marxism is based on the premise that
individuals react to the economic stimuli. For functionalists, individuals act according to
functional prerequisites.
Phenomenology
Rejects the ideas of positivists. They argue that the subject matter of social and natural
sciences is different. Humans react differently to stimuli hence general laws and facts might
not be established. Natural sciences methods are therefore different to that of humans. Atoms
and matter do not have consciousness and feelings, meanings and purposes. On the other
hand, humans possess all those attributes. They do not only behave, they act. Man’s actions
are meaningful unlike atoms. Max Weber was an early proponent of this philosophy. In his
verstehen approach, Weber argued that social scientist should search for subjective meanings
to human action. Peter Burger also argues that humans are not little puppets but agents.
Symbolic interaction/ social interpretivism are based on these ideas.

Research Methodology
Social research is also grouped into quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. The
two are have their foundations in research philosophies highlighted above. Quantitative
methodology is embedded in positivism while qualitative methodology has its foundations in
phenomenology.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of
underlying meanings, reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the
problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper
into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-
structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions),
individual interviews, life histories and participation/observations. Since the thrust is to get an
he sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfil a given quota.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or
data that can be transformed into usable statistics. Such data is reffered to as inferential
statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables –
and generalize results from a larger sample population. Quantitative Research uses
measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data
collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods.
Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys – online surveys, paper
surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews,
longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations.
NB. Students to read on research methods in detail