Hydrographic surveying determines depths and terrain of bodies of water like rivers, lakes, and oceans. It involves making soundings to measure depths using equipment like sounding poles, lead lines, echo sounders, multibeam sonar, and sidescan sonar. Horizontal and vertical control is also established to locate where soundings are taken and develop contour maps showing depth variation. Tunnel surveying similarly establishes horizontal and vertical control to align the tunnel centerline underground using methods like plumb lines or gyrotheodolites.
Hydrographic surveying determines depths and terrain of bodies of water like rivers, lakes, and oceans. It involves making soundings to measure depths using equipment like sounding poles, lead lines, echo sounders, multibeam sonar, and sidescan sonar. Horizontal and vertical control is also established to locate where soundings are taken and develop contour maps showing depth variation. Tunnel surveying similarly establishes horizontal and vertical control to align the tunnel centerline underground using methods like plumb lines or gyrotheodolites.
Hydrographic surveying determines depths and terrain of bodies of water like rivers, lakes, and oceans. It involves making soundings to measure depths using equipment like sounding poles, lead lines, echo sounders, multibeam sonar, and sidescan sonar. Horizontal and vertical control is also established to locate where soundings are taken and develop contour maps showing depth variation. Tunnel surveying similarly establishes horizontal and vertical control to align the tunnel centerline underground using methods like plumb lines or gyrotheodolites.
Hydrographic surveying determines depths and terrain of bodies of water like rivers, lakes, and oceans. It involves making soundings to measure depths using equipment like sounding poles, lead lines, echo sounders, multibeam sonar, and sidescan sonar. Horizontal and vertical control is also established to locate where soundings are taken and develop contour maps showing depth variation. Tunnel surveying similarly establishes horizontal and vertical control to align the tunnel centerline underground using methods like plumb lines or gyrotheodolites.
Hydrography is the branch of applied science which deals with the measurement and description of the physical features of oceans, seas, coastal areas, lakes and rivers, as well as with the prediction of their change over time, for the primary purpose of safety of navigation and in support of all other marine activities.
Hydrographic surveys determine depths and terrain configurations of the bottom of
water bodies. Bodies of water surveyed include rivers, reservoirs, harbors, lakes, and oceans. ASPECTS OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING
Coastal Hydrography: Concerned with the development of ports and harbors,
coastal erosion and conservation, safety of navigation in coastal waters.
Offshore Hydriography: Concerned with hydrographic data for development of
mineral mining projects, fisheries management.
Oceanic Hydrography: Concerned with acquisition of data for depiction of sea
floor characteristics. Steps in hydrographic surveying
1) Reconnaissance 2) Locate Horizontal Control 3) Locate vertical Control
Field procedures for hydrographic surveys
Field procedures for hydrographic surveys are similar to those for topographic work; There are some basic differences in procedures used by surveyors since the land area being mapped cannot be seen, and the depth measurements must be made in water. Two basic tasks involved in hydrographic surveys are: (1) Making soundings (measuring depths) from the water surface to bottom (2) Locating the positions where soundings were made. Techniques used to perform these tasks vary depending on the water body’s size, accuracy required, type of equipment to be used, and number of personnel available. • Equipment for Making Soundings • The size of a water body and its depth control the type of equipment used to measure depths. • For shallow areas of limited size, a sounding pole can be used. This is usually a wooden or fiberglass staff resembling a level rod. • Direct depth measurements are made by lowering the pole vertically into the water until it hits the bottom, and then reading the graduation at the surface. • Equipment for Making Soundings • Lead lines can be used where depths are greater than can be reached with a sounding pole. These consist of a suitable length of stretch-resistant cord or other material, to which a heavy lead weight is attached. • In use, the weight is lowered into the water, being careful to keep the cord vertical. The graduation at the surface is read when the weight hits the bottom. • Deep Water Depth Measurement • In deep water, or for hydrographic surveys of appreciable extent, electronically operated sonic depth recorders called echo sounders are used to measure depths. • These devices, transmit an acoustic pulse vertically downward and measure the elapsed time for the signal to travel to the bottom, be reflected, and return. • Electronic depth sounders provide continuous profiles of the surface beneath the boat’s path and can be used in water of virtually any depth. • Equipment for Making Soundings
• The reference plane from which depth soundings are measured is the water surface. Because of surface fluctuations, its elevation or stage at the time of survey must be determined with respect to a fixed datum. • Equipment for Making Soundings • Multi beam Sonar Sound Navigation and Ranging (Sonar), is helpful for exploring and mapping the ocean because sound waves travel farther in the water than do radar and light waves. Scientists primarily use sonar to develop nautical charts, locate underwater hazards to navigation, search for and map objects on the sea floor such as shipwrecks, and map the sea floor itself. • Multibeam sonar measures the depth of the sea floor by analyzing the time it takes for sound waves to travel from a boat to the sea floor and back. It provides amazing detail of the sea floor, especially in rocky and rough terrain, where it gives a complete picture of the bottom. • Multibeam sonar is very useful in areas where the sea floor is complex and often strewn with thousands of rocks. • Equipment for Making Soundings • Equipment for Making Soundings • SIDESCAN SONAR • Side scan sonar creates a picture or an image of the sea floor. It measures the strength of how "loud" the return echo is, and paints a picture. • Hard areas of the sea floor like rocks reflect more sound and have a stronger or louder return signal than softer areas like sand. Areas with loud echoes are darker than areas with quiet echoes. Objects or features that rise above the sea floor also cast shadows in the sonar image where no sound hit. The size of the shadow can be used to guess the size of the feature. • Singlebeam and multibeam sonar measure ocean depth whereas a sidescan sonar can produce an image of the ocean floor. • Equipment for Making Soundings • Horizontal and vertical control in hydrographic surveying
• Vertical control in hydrographic survey means determination of depth of
floor of water body at various locations. This is carried out by different methods discussed previously. • Horizontal control implies the location of different points in the horizontal plane where the vertical depths were observed. It follows the same principles of ground survey where horizontal coordinates and corresponding reduced levels of various points are determined in order to develop contour map of an area.
• By gaining horizontal and vertical control in any water body, hydrographic
maps can be develop which depict variation in water depth across the area. • Horizontal control for sounding • Any of the traditional ground-surveying procedures including GPS can be used to locate positions where soundings are taken. • If ground-surveying techniques are used, some horizontal control must first be established on shore. The coordinate positions of the control points can be established by traverse, but triangulation and trilateration are also well suited for this work. • Kinematic surveying methods are ideal for establishing sounding locations for hydrographic surveys and also for guiding the boat along planned range lines on larger water bodies. • Horizontal and Vertical Control • Hydrographic Mapping • Procedures for preparing hydrographic maps do not differ appreciably from those used in topographic mapping. • Depths are plotted in their surveyed positions and contours drawn. • In addition to depth contours, the shoreline and other prominent features are also located on hydrographic maps. • Hydrographic Mapping
• . • Hydrographic Surveying Applications • Hydrographic surveys and maps are used in a variety of ways. For example • Engineers employ them for planning and monitoring harbor and river dredging operations, and to ascertain reservoir capacities for flood control and water supply systems. • Petroleum engineers use them to position offshore drilling facilities and locate underwater pipelines; navigators need them to chart safe passageways and avoid reefs, bars, and other underwater hazards; biologists and conservationists find them helpful in their study and management of aquatic life. • TUNNEL SURVEYING • Tunnels are used in road, sewer, and pipeline construction when the cost of working at or near the ground surface becomes prohibitive. • For example, sewers are tunneled when they must be at a depth that would make open cut too expensive, Roads and railroads are tunneled through large hills and mountains in order to maintain optimal grade lines. • TUNNEL SURVEYING • Tunnel control surveys use precise traverse survey methods or global positioning system (GPS) techniques and allow for the computation of coordinates for all key points. But the GPS cannot work inside the tunnel.
• If the tunnel is long, intermediate shafts could be sunk to provide access
for materials, ventilation, and alignment verification.
• The basic procedure of tunnel surveying is to align the center line in the ground and transfer that to the tunnel. • TUNNEL SURVEYING • A number of methods are employed to transfer centerline from ground surface to tunnel. • 1) Use of plumb lines from tunnel shafts
• 2) Modern survey practice favors the use of precise
optical plummets to accomplish the line transfer. These plummets are designed for use in zenith or nadir directions, or in both zenith and nadir directions. • TUNNEL SURVEYING • 3) Gyrotheodolites have also been used successfully for underground alignment control. A gyroscope attachment is mounted on a theodolite and the arrangement is called gyrotheodolite
• GYROtheodolite • an instrument composed of a gyroscope mounted to a theodolite. It is used to determine the orientation of true north. It is the main instrument for orientation in mine surveying and in tunnel engineering, where astronomical star sights are not visible and GPS does not work. • Gyroscope • A gyroscope is a device used for measuring or maintaining orientation and angular velocity.
