CEB 711_Structural Design II

Semester 2, 2020
Lecture 3
Loads and reactions, sizing the base area, soil
pressure distribution, general design procedure
 Loads for designing foundations
It is not simple to set up general rules for all the loads for designing
foundation , the difficulty to set up general rules for the loads of the
considered for designing foundation is due to the differences in local
conditions such as earthquake , winds , ice pressure etc. ., and the special
characteristics of structure such as a different type and system of
buildings, bridges , dams etc. .. However , the designer who deals with
the study and the design of foundation must be familiar to the loads that
may act upon the foundation either transmitted by the superstructure or
applied directly on the footing . If the engineer has enough knowledge
about all the forces that may act upon the footing at least once during the
service life of a certain structure , then he may reach a decision about the
forces which have to be taken into consideration in the design , and the
forces which might be neglected without making a considerable error in
calculation . It is the general understanding that on able engineer is a
person who selects major forces and factors , and eliminates minor ones.
Because the forces may act upon the foundations in groups of various
combinations , the engineer has to study the most possible combination
of forces.
In general the loads and forces that may act upon foundation directly
or by the superstructures are going to be discussed below.
1. DEAD LOAD : Dead loads are in general the most important
loads in foundation design particularly for the structures whose footings
rest on soft cohesive soils. Dead loads being permanent forces action
upon the structures may cause considerable settlements or dangerous
shear failures. Dead loads is the weight of the structure and its
permanent parts. The weight of the foundation itself and the weight of
the soil on the footing are also dead loads. In estimating dead loads for
purposes of foundation design the actual weights of construction
materials must be used .
 In making a preliminary estimate of the dead loads on the foundation
of the certain structure , the commonly accepted practice is to use
approximate weight per unit area of the roof . Floors and walls . The
approximate unit weight of such elements of a building may be obtained
from the local codes or handbooks . It is also common practice to make
reasonable assumptions as to the distribution of weight to the various
parts of the foundation .If the weights are not uniformly distributed , care
must be taken in the evaluation of the distribution of foundation loads .
For the final design , the actual weight of various part of the structure
and the distribution of loads must be evaluated considering the nature of
building frame and the system of any other structures .
2. Live LOAD : the weight of the structure may be assumed as live
loads if they act temporarily or intermittently during service life , For
example , human occupancy , some partition walls , furniture , some
stock material and mechanical equipment in residential and office
buildings are live loads , Wind and snow loads are not considered as live
load and they will be studied separately within their specific paragraphs .
The weights of cars, trucks and pedestrians are major live loads that
must be included in the design of bridge foundation. In some special
industrial buildings some truck load will also be considered as live load
on the same floors. Cranes in industrial buildings may also cause very
large live loads.
In general ( with exception of some industrial buildings, silos, oil
tanks etc. ..), live loads act for a short time during the service life of
structure or they act intermittently or alternately. If a multistory office
building is considered, for example, it is not expected that every floor
will be loaded with the maximum live load at the same time. It is
observed that maximum live loads practically do not occur
simultaneously on all floors of tall residential or office buildings.
Structural Loads
The Loadings Standard – AS/NZS 1170
The loads and forces to be used in structural design are specified in the joint Australia/New
Zealand Loadings Standard AS/NZS 1170 "Structural Design Actions". This document has
been produced in 5 parts. In New Zealand, the term load is generally used to describe a gravity
effect, for example permanent and imposed loads. The term force applies to lateral actions
such as wind, earthquake etc. In AS/NZS 1170 the term actions is used to describe both
forces and displacements that may arise from loading.

A “Limit State” approach is used for most structural design in New Zealand. Two limit
states are considered in design:
1) serviceability limit
2) state ultimate limit
state
In some material design standards (Timber Structures Standard) and overseas codes, the term
strength limit state is used instead of ultimate limit state.

The design of a reinforced concrete member is often governed by the requirements of the
ultimate limit state, and the serviceability limit state is only subsequently checked to
ensure compliance when the structure is in service

Permanent Actions (Referred to as Dead Loads)

Structural permanent loads are dependent on the geometry and density of the structure as well
as any plant and fixtures permanently attached to the structure. Permanent loads are significant
in the design of concrete structures. For reinforced concrete, it is typical to assume a concrete
density of γc = 24 kN/m3.

Imposed Actions (Referred to as Live Loads)

Distributed and concentrated imposed actions, Q, are listed in Table 3.1 of AS/NZS
1170.1:2002. The distributed imposed action may be reduced by an area reduction factor, ψa,
to obtain the reduced imposed action (still referred to as Q). The ψa factor reflects the
probability of the entire floor area being fully loaded. This factor varies depending type of
occupancy and structural member being considered. For assembly areas (occupancy types
C3, C4, and C5) and for light and medium traffic areas (occupancy types F and G), the area
reduction factor is taken as unity, therefore ψa = 1.0. Area reduction factor of 1 is used for
one way slab as well.
When combined with wind and earthquake actions (see section 1.2), the reduced imposed
action is further modified by the use of the combination factor, ψc, to obtain the ultimate limit
state imposed action, ψcQ. The ψc factor reflects the probability of the structure or structural
member being subjected to the full imposed action when other forces such as earthquake and
wind actions are at their peak. The ultimate limit state combination factor, ψc, is given in Table
4.1 of AS/NZS 1170.0:2002 for various situations.

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 Table 1.1 (Table 4.1 AS/NZS 1170.0:2002)
Short-term, Long-term and Combination factors, ψc, for Ultimate Limit State
Character of imposed action Short-term Long-term factor, Combination
factor, ψs ψl factor, ψc
Distributed imposed actions
Floors, residential and domestic 0.7 0.4 0.4
Floors, offices 0.7 0.4 0.4
Floors, parking 0.7 0.4 0.4
Floors, retail 0.7 0.4 0.4
Floors, storage 1.0 0.6 0.6
Floors, other 1.0 0.6 0.6
Roof used for floor type activities 0.7 0.4 0.4
All other roofs 0.7 0.0 0.0

Concentrated imposed actions

Floors 1.0 0.6 As for distributed
Floors of domestic housing 1.0 0.4 floor action
Roofs used for floor type activity 1.0 0.6
All other roofs 1.0 0.0 0.0
Balustrades 1.0 0.0 0.0
Long-term installed machinery 1.0 1.0 1.2

The reduced imposed action is also factored by ψs and ψl for the short term and long term load
factors, primarily for use at the serviceability limit state.

Seismic Weight
NZS 1170.5 is the part of AS/NZS 1170 that describes the earthquake actions to be used in
design for New Zealand . Section 4.2 of NZS 1170.5 specifies that the seismic weight W is
determined from:

W = G + ΨE Q

where ψE = 0.3 for all applications, except for storage (ψE = 0.6). The seismic weight is used
to determine the horizontal seismic force Eu.

Ultimate Limit State

Design for the ultimate limit state is concerned with both the strength of the structure, and the
ability of the structure to deform under the application of the ultimate limit state actions without
collapsing. The ability to deform without collapsing is known as ductility, and providing
adequate ductility is an important feature of structural design. The ultimate limit state load and
force combinations are set at a target level so that there is a 5% probability of the specified
loading being exceeded within a 50-year period (1000 year return period).

Combinations of actions that are considered for ultimate limit state design include:

(a) 1.35G permanent action only (does not apply to prestressing forces)
(b) 1.2G & 1.5Q permanent and imposed action
(c) 1.2G & 1.5ψlQ permanent and long-term imposed action
(d) 1.2G & Wu & ψcQ permanent, wind and imposed action
(e) 0.9G & Wu permanent and wind action reversal
(f) G & Eu & ψcQ permanent, earthquake and imposed action

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(g) 1.2G & Su & ψcQ permanent, snow/liquid pressure/rain water ponding/ground
water/earth pressure combination (see section 4.2.3 of AS/NZS
1170.0) & imposed action

The subscript u indicates the ultimate limit state, which may be expected to be present during
an ultimate limit state earthquake or wind storm. The value of ψcQ is considerably smaller
than Q, which is the imposed action used for combinations with permanent actions. An
ampersand, &, is used in the combination of actions to indicate that the action may be in a
positive or negative direction and that the action might or might not be present. For example,
the imposed action should only be applied where its application makes the design action being
considered more critical.

Serviceability Limit State

In design for the serviceability limit state, the performance of the structure under loading
conditions, which may be expected to occur several times during the life of the structure, is
considered. The magnitudes of actions used for serviceability limit state design are taken such
that there is a 5 % chance of the magnitude of the action being exceeded in any year (20 year
return period).

Many different combinations of actions need to be considered for the serviceability limit state.
Typical combinations of actions for the serviceability limit state include:

(a) G & ψs,lQ

(ii) G & ψs,lQ & Es
(iii) G & ψs,lQ & Ws

together with any internal strain effects, such as creep, shrinkage, temperature, or settlement.

The subscript s stands for the serviceability limit state. The imposed action for the
serviceability limit state is obtained by multiplying the reduced live load, Q, by the short term
factor, ψs, or the long term factor, ψl, as appropriate for the duration of loading.

In these combinations the live load, Q, should only be applied where its application makes the
design actions more critical. For example, when considering stability of the beam shown below
the live load should be omitted from the span A-B.

WQ
WG
A B A B A B

CA CB TA CB CA CB

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The “&” used in the combinations signifies that the live, wind, or earthquake actions do not
need to be present if their absence makes the load combination more critical. However, the
dead load must always be present.

In the serviceability limit state the designer is concerned with the performance of the structure
under normal working conditions. In this limit state it is important that the structure remains
elastic, or in the very worst case inelastic deformations must be limited. The following aspects
are normally considered at the serviceability limit state:

(i) Deflections and dynamic characteristics

(ii) Crack widths
(iii) Fatigue
(iv) Durability of structure.

Excessive deflections can be alarming, and designers need to be particularly aware of the
deflection control of structures in regular view of the public. To counter this effect it may be
necessary to design the structure with a biased initial shape, as shown below:

Deformed Shape Initial Precamber

As shown above, beams may require a precamber to mask deflections.

Deformed Shape Initial Setback

Similarly, retaining walls may need to be “set back” to mask deflections.

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Reactions/ Support Reactions
 Contents:
Introduction
Types of Beam
Types of Loads acting on beam
Types of Supports
Instrument used for finding “Support
Reactions”
 How to find “Support Reactions”
 “Support Reactions”

• Support :- A support prevents translation of

a body in a given direction, a force is
developed on the body in that direction.

• Reactions:- The forces and moments

exerted on an object by its supports are called
reactions.
 Introduction
• When designing buildings, frames, beams it is
important to know the magnitude and
direction of the load that resides within a
support.
• All of these supports can be located anywhere
along a structural element. They are found at
the ends, at midpoints, or at any other
intermediate points. The type of support
connection determines the type of load that
the support can resist. The support type also
has a great effect on the load bearing capacity
of each element.
 Types of Beam

Beam :- A beam is a structural element that is

capable of withstanding load primarily
by
resisting bending.
In engineering, beams are of several types:

1. Simply supported
Beam –
A beam supported on the ends
which are free to rotate and
have no moment resistance.
2.Fixed beam - a beam
supported on both ends and
restrained from rotation.
3) Cantilever :- it has one end fixed and
other end free.
4) Over hanging :– A simple beam extending
beyond its support on one end.
 5) Continuous Beam-
A beam extending over
more than two supports.
8) Propped cantilever
Beam
 Types of Loads acting on Beams
1) Point load(concentrated load)- w1 and w2
are point loads.
the load concentrated at one point is called
point load.
Unit of point load is n or kn.
eg. 20 kn,100kn,60n,etc

w1 w2
2) Uniformly Distributed
Load(U.D.L)- Load uniformly
distributed on certain length of
beam is called uniformly
distributed load.
it is written as u.d.l
unit of u.d.l is kn/m or n/m.
3) Uniformly Varying Load (U.V.L)-
this type of load is gradually increase Or
decrease on the length of the beam. it is also called triangular
load.
Types of supports
 Types of supports
1) Simple support :-
In this type of support,beam is simply
supported on the support.
There is no connection between beam and
support.
At this type of support,only vertical reaction will
be produced.
2) Fix end support :-
Beam is completely fixed at end in the wall or
support.
Beam cannot rotate at end.
Reactions may be vertical,horizontal,inclined and
moment.
3) Roller support:-
In this type of support,rollers are placed below beam and
beam can slide over the rollers.
Reaction will be perpendicular to the surface on which
rollers are supported.
This type of support is normally provided at the end of a
bridge.
Due to breaking forces of vehicles and temperature
forces,bridge slab can slide over the roller support and damage to
bridge pier can be avoided.
4) hinge support:-
Beam and support are connected
by a hinge.
Beam can rotate about the hinge.
Reactions may be vertical,horizontal
or inclined.
 Methods to calculate
Support Reactions

Analytical Method Graphical Method

Pressure Distribution Beneath the Foundation or Contact Pressure
Rigid Foundation in Clay

In case of clay soil, foundation

experiences the maximum shear
resistance at the edges. Hence the
contact pressure distribution is
maximum at the edges and minimum
at the center.

In case of cohesionless soil (sand and gravel) when foundation

load acts, the soil particles try to move away from the edge of
the foundation and therefore soil cannot offer resistance at the
edges of the foundation, so contact pressure zone is at the
edges.
Cohesionless Soil (Sand/Gravel)
At the center of the foundation, there exists
a lot of confinement in soil. Hence, more
resistance can be prevailed. Therefore, the
contact pressure is maximum at the center.

In Design, we consider average

uniform contact pressure
 The initial information needed is the type of structure proposed
as the foundation will be different for a multi-storey building, a
single storey warehouse, or a major bridge structure.

Next details of the site conditions, local geology, soil profile,

and ground water conditions are needed. Information about
foundation conditions, types, and performance of adjacent
FOUNDATION structures could be helpful if available.
DESIGN The third step is to estimate the loads (vertical load, horizontal load,
and moment) which the foundation will be required to carry.
PROCEDURE
At this point a decision, even if only a preliminary, is needed about likely foundation
types.

Now an assessment is needed of the foundation capacity (ULS)

and the settlement and other deformations (SLS) that will occur
under the applied loads. Usually there are a number of cycles
through this design process before a satisfactory solution is
reached.