Breads

TR Moore, AIB International, Manhattan, KS, USA

ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Topic Highlights early on, only two ingredients are necessary to make palatable
bread, those being flour from grain and water. Almost by
• The simplest bread can be made from just wheat flour and accident, it was learned that what we now recognize as yeast
water. added desirable flavor and lightness to bread. Later, it was
• Bread types vary greatly across the globe due to differing discovered that salt added more flavor. Today, additional
expectations of the consumer. ingredients are used in bread to meet the demands of the
• Consumer requirements for longer shelf life have intro- modern-day consumer, namely, better keeping qualities, better
duced new ingredients to the bread formulation. flavor, softer (or firmer) texture, and other physical and sen-
• High-speed equipment has allowed modern-day bakers to sory improvements. As mentioned previously, geographical
produce many types of bread in large quantities to meet and cultural differences exist between breads, meaning that
increasing demand. ingredients that are commonly used in North American, Brit-
• Bread can be made with any of several different dough- ish, and Australian pan breads may not be used in German rye
making processes, each tailored to produce the desired bread, French baguettes, or Arabic bread, for example. See
baked product attributes. Table 1 for common ingredients and their functions.

Learning Objective Equipment

• Attain knowledge of bread types, ingredients used, and The modern commercial bakery houses many pieces of special-
process steps. ized equipment. The goal of using modern automated equip-
ment is to carry out the basic steps of the dough production
process in bulk quantities and to do it profitably. The design,
Introduction construction, and usage of machinery to make bread are truly
global, with bakers all over the world buying and using equip-
Bread, in all its various forms, has served as humanity’s staff of ment made in foreign countries. See Table 2 for an overview of
life for centuries. Its ability to provide nourishment to the the equipment used for modern bread production. While auto-
human body is undeniable, and the pure enjoyment of eating mated (or semiautomated) production is common throughout
fresh bread is unquestioned. While many people around the the world, it must not be forgotten that suitable types of bread
globe think of bread as simply a small part of their daily diet, it can also be made using nothing more than a bowl and a hot
is much more than that to many others. To the wheat breeders, stone.
farmers, millers, and bakers of the world, bread is a means of
providing for themselves and their families, a product to be
proud of, and practically a way of life. Dough-Making Processes
As would be expected of a product that has been in existence
for so long, bread has evolved over the years such that it means Whether bread is made by hand or by machine, certain steps of
different things to different people. Indeed, the geographical and the bread-making process are the same. Mixing of the dough,
cultural differences in the product known as ‘bread’ are quite for example, can be done either mechanically or manually, and
broad, as evidenced by the tremendous array of bread varieties good bread can result. Bread owes its uniqueness not only to
available today in the developed economies of the world. Pan the ingredients and equipment used in its manufacture but
breads, hearth breads, buns, rolls, and flat breads are increasingly also to the different processes by which dough is made. Most
available around the world, even if they are not indigenous to the of these processes are of geographical or cultural origin and are
consumer’s homeland. Simply stated, the differences between still used in the regions of their invention today. However, with
breads are largely a function of the ingredients used and the globalization of trade and world travel, consumers now
manner in which those ingredients are processed into the final demand products that were not familiar to them in the past.
product. Consumers enjoy the bread products they eat, whether It is not difficult to find authentic French bread in America,
they were made using an ancient process or came from the most flour tortillas in Australia, or pita bread in Hong Kong. How-
modern high-speed production bakery. ever, achieving the unique characteristics of different breads
often requires that a specific dough-making process be used.

Ingredients
Straight Dough Process
Various ingredients are used in bread formulas to manipulate As noted in Figure 1, this is an uncomplicated process whereby
the characteristics of the finished product. As humanity learned all the ingredients are loaded ‘straight’ into the mixer. The

8 Encyclopedia of Food Grains, Second Edition http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394437-5.00116-9

 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Breads 9

Table 1 Functions of bread ingredients products, which are used extensively by supermarket bakeries
in North America, Europe, and elsewhere.
Ingredient Function(s)

Wheat flour Forms structure and provides body

Contributes gluten-forming proteins Sponge–Dough Process
Contributes starch for heat-induced formation of
crumb This process is dominant in North America for the production
Water Hydrates flour protein and damaged starch of pan breads and buns and also finds use in other countries
Acts as solvent for other ingredients where pan breads are popular. The sponge is a thick stiff mass,
Controls dough temperature ‘plastic’ in texture, which contains most of the formula flour,
Contributes pan flow water, and yeast. After mixing, the sponge is allowed to ferment
Contributes to shelf life
for 3–4 h and is then remixed with the remaining dough
Salt Enhances flavor of product
ingredients added. A short rest period, or ‘floor time,’ is given
Strengthens gluten network
Controls fermentation rate to the finished dough before it proceeds to the makeup stage,
Yeast Provides leavening as shown in Figure 2. Breads made in other parts of the world
Metabolizes fermentable sugars into CO2 and can use a similar process, but the names are different. For
alcohol example, Italian breads such as ciabatta and pugliese can be
Fermentation products contribute to bread flavor made with a biga, which is very similar to a North American
Sweeteners Serve as food source for yeast sponge except for the longer fermentation time it is given.
Enhance flavor of product French breads, including baguettes and batards, can be made
Contribute to crust coloration with poolish, a liquid version of the sponge that actually
Act as product tenderizer
originated in Poland, or with levain, a sourdough-like starter
Contribute to shelf life
used as a leavening and flavoring agent.
Shortening Lubricates dough system
Facilitates easier expansion of gas cells in dough
Tenderizes crust
Facilitates easier slicing Liquid Sponge Process
Contributes to shelf life
Dairy products Contribute to nutrition profile of product This is a close relative of the sponge–dough process, but as the
Provide dough buffering name implies, it is liquid in form, containing at least as much
Enhance flavor of product water as flour. This enables the fermentation process to take
Contribute to crust coloration place in stainless steel tanks, as shown in Figure 3, with the
Wheat gluten (dry) Strengthens dough
chilled liquid sponge pumped to the dough mixer, a great
Increases water absorption
production advantage. The fermentation time is shorter for
Provides greater baked loaf volume
Yeast food Enhances fermentation process liquid sponges than for plastic sponges, usually on the order
Provides yeast nutrients of 60 min to 3 h.
Acts as water conditioner
Conditions dough (with optional oxidant)
Enzymes Improve production process and finished product
quality
Continuous Mix Process
Convert starches into fermentable sugars This process enjoyed great popularity in North American com-
Shorten dough mixing time mercial bakeries in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly for sliced
Strengthen dough
white pan bread. As the name implies, this process produced
Provide greater baked loaf volume
bread dough continuously, rather than in individual batches.
Preservatives Retard mold growth
Contribute to shelf life Ingredients were metered into a high-speed developer head,
which mixed the dough and deposited it into baking pans. This
process, while economical, eventually fell out of favor due to
dough is mixed and then allowed a bulk fermentation period the lack of flavor and crumb strength in the bread. See Figure 4
of 60 min to 4 h, during which the dough is ‘punched down’ or for a schematic representation.
purposely deflated to control expansion. After the fermenta-
tion period, the dough proceeds to ‘make up,’ a bakery term for
the process of cutting and forming smaller dough pieces.
Chorleywood Bread Process
Developed by the British Baking Industries Research Associa-
tion at Chorleywood, England, this process is used around the
No-Time Straight Dough Process
world to produce bread from lower-protein flours. For this
This process is a variation of the straight dough method. It does reason, it has not gained great acceptance in North America,
away with the bulk fermentation period, substituting in its where higher-protein flours are the norm. It relies on a short-
place chemical dough development, or the use of oxidizing time, intensive mixing, sometimes with partial vacuum in a
agents and mix time reducers. A slightly modified version of Tweedy mixer, after which the developed dough is sent to the
this process is used for the manufacture of frozen dough makeup stage, as depicted in Figure 5.
10 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Breads

Table 2 Common wholesale bread bakery equipment

Equipment Purpose Comments

Dough mixer Imparts mechanical shear to flour proteins and water to form Capacity of up to 1400 kg. Can be horizontal or vertical.
gluten and develop dough mass Mixer bowl can be refrigerated
Divider ‘Divides’ large dough mass into loaf-sized pieces Types include ram and knife, rotary, single pocket, vacuum,
extrusion
Rounder Forms divided dough piece into smooth, tight ball Skin on exterior of dough ball helps to retain gas
Intermediate Relaxes rounded dough balls Dough balls ride on trays or belts
proofer
Sheeter–molder Expels gas from and flattens dough balls with sheeting rollers, Straight grain, cross grain, and curling molders all commonly
curls dough sheet into cylinder, and seals seam used
Panner Drops molded dough pieces into pans on conveyor below Can index dough pieces into pans with seams on bottom
Proofer Allows panned dough to rise to proper height prior to baking Employs controlled temperature and humidity
Oven Bakes dough, kills yeast, gelatinizes starch, and colors the Tunnel, lap, rotary, deck, rack steam required for hearth bread
crust
Cooler Cools baked loaves prior to slicing Traveling tray, belt, spiral, rack
Slicer Slices loaves prior to packaging Band, reciprocating
Bagger Pulls poly bag over sliced loaf Bags closed with tie or clip

Horizontal
All mixer Divider Rounder
Bulk
ingredients fermentation

xx
1–4 h
10–25 min

Intermediate
proofer
Oven Proofer Molder Sheeter

16–30 min 50–60 min Panner

2–15 min
Figure 1 The straight dough process. Adapted from AIB Science of Baking Correspondence Course, Module III Breads and Rolls (2001) Dough Mixing
and Development, pp. 6–8. Manhattan, KS: AIB International.

Remaining
ingredients
Horizontal
Sponge mixer
Flour, Yeast, Sponge
mixer Divider
water fermentation
Floor time

xx
2–4 min 3–4 h 8–20 min 0–30 min

Intermediate
Oven Proofer Molder Sheeter proofer Rounder

Panner
16–30 min 50–60 min 2–15 min
Figure 2 The sponge–dough process. Adapted from AIB Science of Baking Correspondence Course, Module III Breads and Rolls (2001) Dough Mixing
and Development, pp. 3–5, 7. Manhattan, KS: AIB International.
 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Breads 11

Remaining
ingredients
Horizontal
Flour, yeast, Liquid sponge Fermentation Heat Refrigerated mixer
water mixer tank exchanger holding tank

xx
1–3 h 8–20 min

Intermediate
Proofer Molder Sheeter proofer Rounder Divider

50–60 min Panner

2–15 min

Oven

16–30 min
Figure 3 The liquid sponge process. Adapted from AIB Science of Baking Correspondence Course, Module III Breads and Rolls (2001) Dough Mixing
and Development, pp. 5–7. Manhattan, KS: AIB International.

Remaining
Water, yeast, ‘Brew’ ‘Brew’ Heat ingredients
flour or sugar mixer tank exchanger
Premixer

xx

Oven Proofer Developer/divider

1 min
16–30 min 50–60 min Panner

Figure 4 The continuous mix process. Adapted from AIB Science of Baking Correspondence Course, Module III Breads and Rolls (2001) Dough Mixing
and Development, pp. 6–7. Manhattan, KS: AIB International.

All
Divider
ingredients Tweedy mixer
Rounder

xx 3–5 min

Intermediate
proofer
Oven Proofer Molder Sheeter

16–30 min 50–60 min Panner 2–15 min

Figure 5 The Chorleywood process. Adapted from AIB Science of Baking Correspondence Course, Module III Breads and Rolls (2001) Dough Mixing
and Development, pp. 7, 9. Manhattan, KS: AIB International.
12 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Breads

Sourdough Process made with a blend of white and whole-wheat flours (Table 4).
These types of pan breads often need to be supplemented with
This is the oldest and most time-consuming of the methods
dough strengtheners, as the inclusion of significant amounts of
discussed and is used to produce breads with rich and complex
whole-wheat flour weakens the gluten network and results in
flavor and texture. More European in nature, sourdough breads
bread of lower baked volume. Other types of pan breads fall
are leavened with a sour ‘starter,’ which consists only of flour
and water. The starter is allowed to ferment spontaneously,
that is, with only the naturally occurring microorganisms pre-
sent in the flour (mainly wild yeast and lactic acid-producing
bacteria). There is no added bakers’ yeast. To keep the starter
active for daily use, it must be replenished or ‘fed’ periodically
with added flour and water. Given proper feeding, a starter can
last many years.

Bread Products

As mentioned, bread can take many shapes and sizes and can
have fairly diverse sensory characteristics. In addition to the
ingredients, equipment, and processes just mentioned, the
various physical and organoleptic differences between bread
products available today are attributable to cultural, Figure 6 A round-top ‘strap’ pan, background; sliced white bread, left;
geographical, and philosophical differences between the peo- unsliced white bread, center; sliced cracked wheat bread, right.
ple who consume them. Generally, certain bread types are
prevalent in certain cultures and not in others. This is chang-
ing, however, with the world gradually becoming smaller with
the advent of jet travel, wireless communication, and interna-
tional trade.

Pan Breads
Loosely defined, these are simply breads that are baked in pans,
either open or closed. These breads are very common in North
America, Eastern and Western Europe, Australasia, and other
industrialized areas of the world. Most of the pan bread baked
on these continents is produced in large wholesale baking
plants, using automated or semiautomated equipment. It is
almost always sold presliced in polyethylene bread bags and
can be found in supermarkets, convenience stores, and other
retail outlets.
In many of the aforementioned regions, pan breads are
available as either ‘round-top’ or ‘Pullman’ loaves. Round-top Figure 7 A Pullman ‘strap’ pan and lid, background; sliced white
sandwich bread, left; sliced honey bran sandwich bread, center; sliced
bread is baked in a pan with an open top, so that the baked loaf
multigrain sandwich bread, right.
has the characteristic round crown when viewed in profile
(Figure 6). Pullman bread, commonly called ‘sandwich’
bread, is baked in a rectangular pan, usually longer in length Table 3 Sponge and dough white pan bread
than a round-top pan, and has a lid placed over it after proof-
Ingredient Sponge (%) Dough (%)
ing and before baking (Figure 7). The lid prevents expansion of
the dough in the oven and results in a baked loaf having a Bread floura 70.0 30.0
nearly square profile. This bread is usually sliced slightly thin- Water 40.0 22.0 (variable)
ner than round-top bread for the North American market, the Yeast, compressed 3.0
thought being most sandwich consumers want more of the Salt 2.0
filling per bite and less of the bread. Sweetener (solids basis) 8.0
Both round-top and Pullman loaves are available in several Shortening 3.0
different varieties in most global markets. The most common Yeast food 0.5
include white bread, made with white refined wheat flour Milk replacer 2.0
Fungal protease 0.5
(Table 3), and wheat or ‘whole-grain’ bread, made with
Mono- and diglycerides 0.5
whole-grain or whole-meal wheat flour. In the United States, Calcium propionate 0.2
‘whole-wheat’ bread may be made only with 100% whole-
wheat flour, while the more generic ‘wheat’ bread may be All ingredients are given in bakers % (flour ¼ 100%).
a
 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Breads 13

under the ‘variety’ bread category – including multigrain bread, higher-quality ingredients, a richer formula, possibly the use
made with several cereal grains in whole-wheat dough; fiber of a pan with a slightly different shape, and more elaborate
bread made with varying types of high-fiber ingredients; and packaging graphics.
the ever-popular raisin bread (Figure 8). To respond to the
consumer’s desire for greater selection and to gain market
share, bakers have developed pan breads that contain a wide Hearth Breads
array of specialty ingredients, including oats, crushed wheat,
Historically, hearth breads, also referred to as artisan breads or
flaxseed, sunflower seeds, cinnamon, fruit, honey, and nuts.
rustic breads, have been made from relatively stiff and dry
Additionally, toppings can be added to the surface of the
doughs so that they could be baked directly on the hearth, or
proofed loaves prior to baking. Some of these include wheat
floor, of the oven, without the benefit of a pan to impart shape
bran, wheat flour, crushed wheat, sesame seed, flaxseed, sun-
or structure to the loaves. Today, the best-quality hearth breads
flower seed, and other differentiating ingredients. A common
are still made this way, especially by European bakers. While
practice for North American round-top breads is to split the
French and Italian bakers have traditionally been recognized
surface of the proofed dough lengthwise with a water jet and
for excellent hearth bread quality, a similar product can
apply melted butter in the cavity, thus creating the ‘butter top’
increasingly be found in all corners of the world. In North
variety (Figure 8).
America, this type of baking has enjoyed a true renaissance,
Pan breads can be formulated to be lean, rich, or some-
with hundreds of small- and medium-sized bakeries turning
where in between, depending on the consumer’s taste. Most
out French baguettes, batards, and boules, Vienna bread, and
white breads tend to be soft and somewhat sweet, containing
crusty hard rolls. Bakeries in Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, and
high amounts of water, shortening, and crumb softeners, along
Thailand offer their customers a similar product, as do those in
with higher sweetener levels. Whole-meal breads tend to be
Ireland, Israel, and Argentina.
slightly dryer than white bread, chewy, and not as sweet. Com-
The best known of the hearth breads is generically referred
mon in many markets around the globe is the practice of
to as French bread. However, the term does not do justice to
producing similar bread varieties at different price points, or
the broad array of bread products produced in France. Indeed,
perceived quality levels, for supermarket sale. Terms such as
the French take their bread so seriously that the government
‘value priced,’ ‘private label,’ ‘branded,’ ‘premium,’ and ‘super
found it necessary to legally define baguette and to regulate the
premium’ illustrate the practice. The differences are usually
various methods of bread making that are employed there. In
France, French bread is made with wheat flour, salt, and water,
Table 4 Sponge and dough wheat pan bread with fermentation carried out by levain, direct addition of fresh
yeast, or the addition of prefermented dough. In North Amer-
Ingredient Sponge (%) Dough (%)
ica, certain compromises have been made to adapt French
Bread floura 60.0 bread to the consumer’s palate and to the producer’s balance
Whole-wheat flour 15.0 25.0 sheet. For example, shortening and a small amount of sweet-
Water (variable) 42.0 18.0 ener are sometimes added to make the bread softer and sweeter
Yeast, compressed 2.5 tasting and to extend the shelf life beyond the usual few hours
Yeast food 0.5 (Table 5). Interestingly, the inclusion of these two ingredients
Salt 2.0 in French bread is not legal in France.
Shortening 3.0
True French bread, whether it is made in France or else-
Molasses 4.0
where, is available in several shapes and sizes. Baguette is the
Sweetener (solids basis) 4.0
Vital wheat gluten 2.0 term for a long, narrow loaf with rounded ends, measuring 60–
Calcium propionate 0.2 70 cm in length and weighing 250 g. It has seven characteristic
slashes applied to the top surface after the proofing step, which
Wheat flour þ whole-wheat flour ¼ 100%.
a
helps control bursting during baking. A batard is similar to a
baguette in weight but measures only 35–40 cm in length and
carries only three slashes. Ficelle is smaller still, weighing 125 g
with a length of 40–45 cm. It usually has five surface slashes.

Table 5 Sponge and dough white hearth bread and hard roll

Ingredient Sponge (%) Dough (%)

Bread floura 60.0 40.0

Water (variable) 30.0 25.0
Yeast, compressed 3.0
Yeast food 0.5
Salt 2.0
Sweetener (solids basis) 2.0
Shortening 2.0
Nondiastatic malt 1.0
Figure 8 Left to right: raisin bread, split and topped seven-grain bread,
double-split and topped fiber bread, butter top wheat bread. All ingredients are given in bakers % (flour ¼ 100%).
a
14 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Breads

Parisian is a large loaf weighing 400 g and measuring 60– States to capitalize on the growing consumer demand for this
70 cm in length. It has five to seven surface slashes. Boules product. As the name indicates, the bread is made with a sour
are circular loaves and can be of varying weights and diameters. starter, also called a mother sponge (Table 6).
Various surface designs are applied via slashing in order to give Another type of hearth bread is rye bread, which takes its
the boule a distinctive appearance (Figure 9). The crust of these name from the inclusion of flour from the cereal grain rye. Rye
breads should be relatively thin, crispy, and blister-free, cour- bread has been produced around the world for centuries and
tesy of the steam introduced into the oven chamber during has gained great popularity for its distinctive flavor and dense,
baking. Crust color can vary from pale brown to practically chewy crumb. In Northern and Eastern Europe, rye bread is a
black, depending on the region and consumer taste. highlight of the meal, rather than an accompaniment. The
Internal characteristics are just as unique as the external types of rye bread are many, including American rye, Jewish
appearance. The crumb color is usually creamy to pale yellow, rye, German rye, Russian rye, and Swedish rye, to name a few
with a very open and irregularly shaped cell structure. There are (Figure 10). The differences are largely due to the ingredients
normally several moderately sized holes in each slice, giving and consumer taste indigenous to the producing region.
the crumb surface a rough texture. The crumb will be slightly Rye flour differs greatly from wheat flour in that its protein
chewy in the mouth. Flavor will be characteristically well does not form gluten. As such, it contributes nothing to the
rounded, fermented, and slightly salty. strength of the dough or the volume of the bread. Therefore,
Several different processes can be used to produce French the amount of rye flour that can be used in rye bread dough is
bread, including the previously mentioned straight dough, limited, with the majority being wheat flour. Rye flour is
sponge–dough, and sourdough processes. available as light rye, medium rye, and dark rye; rye meal, rye
In the United States, a close relative of French bread origi- flakes, and cracked rye are also available. Generally, rye breads
nated in the San Francisco, California region, during the gold are differentiated based on the amount of wheat flour used and
rush period of the late 1840s and early 1850s. Called San the type of rye flour that is chosen (Table 7). This creates rye
Francisco sourdough bread, it was a mainstay of the diets of breads having different crumb color, crumb density, and fla-
gold miners. Today, it is still a fairly unique product in the vor. In some types, it is common practice to include ground or
American marketplace, in that it has a very characteristic sour whole caraway seed in the formula to further accentuate the
flavor, open grain, and substantial crust (Figure 10). Many flavor of the bread.
specialty sourdough bakeries have opened across the United Rye bread is generally made with the sponge–dough pro-
cess. The traditional pumpernickel bread, a dark and heavy
version of rye bread, uses a sour made of whole rye meal.
German sour rye bread is also produced with a sour.

Buns and Rolls

These are simply small individual units of baked bread, nor-
mally eaten with a meal or as the bread component of a
sandwich. In North America, buns are usually sweeter and
richer in formulation than white pan bread (Table 8), while
rolls tend to be made from leaner formulas (Table 5). Both
products can be panned and baked either as single units or in
clusters, depending on the intended users’ desires. Buns and
rolls can be made from the same types of dough as used for
Figure 9 French-style stick loaves and boule. bread loaves. White, wheat, rye, and sourdough buns and rolls
are common. The most popular usage of buns is for the ubiq-
uitous hamburger and hot dog, as their respective buns are
shaped and sliced specifically to accommodate those specialty
meat items (Figure 11). Hamburger and hot dog buns are most

Table 6 Sourdough bread

Dough starter Dough

Ingredient Amount (kg) Ingredient Amount (kg)

High gluten 45.4 High gluten flour 136.0

flour
Water (variable) 22.7 Water (variable) 81.6
Starter 11.4 Starter 25.0–34.0
Salt 2.7
Yeast, compresseda 0.17
Figure 10 San Francisco sourdough boule, left; European sour rye
a
bread, right. Optional.
 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Breads 15

Table 7 Sponge and dough rye bread usually made in wholesale bakeries on automated high-speed
equipment in large quantities. Also popular in North America
Ingredient American (light) Swedish Jewish are the kaiser rolls, made from a lean bread dough formula
Sponge (Figure 11). The dough balls are flattened slightly after form-
Flour: cleara 70.0 66.0 ing, with a characteristic ‘star’ pattern subsequently stamped
Patent 40.0 into the top surface. The proofed rolls are baked with steam
Light rye 20.0 injected into the baking chamber to form the light, slightly
Water 34.0 36.0 36.0 crispy crust that is expected of the product.
Yeast, compressed 2.5 2.5 2.0 As opposed to the North American preference for soft rolls,
Yeast food 0.5 0.5 0.25 European rolls are traditionally of the hard type, made with
Diastatic malt 0.5 0.5 0.5 lean formula dough and baked with steam in the oven to
facilitate the formation of a crispy crust (Figure 12). Hard
Dough
rolls are also available in other areas of the world and are of
Flour: clear 5.0 10.0
Light rye 25.0 24.0 30.0 good quality as long as two things are present in their manu-
Dark rye 10.0 facture – strong protein flour and oven steam.
Water 30.0 28.0 32.0 Other types of rolls include croissants and brioche, both of
Yeast 0.25 which are of European origin and very popular all over the
Salt 2.0 2.0 2.0 world. The croissant (Figure 12) is made with laminated Dan-
Shortening 3.0 4.0 1.0 ish pastry-type dough, that is, the dough is actually composed
Molasses 2.0 of many individual layers of dough and fat, usually unsalted
Caraway seed 1.0 butter. The dough is continually reduced in thickness through
Syrup 12.0
a series of sheeting steps, after each of which, it is folded and
Nonfat milk solids 4.0
sheeted again. This procedure is repeated until the proper
Wheat flour þ rye flour(s) ¼ 100%.
a number of laminations has been obtained. It is common for
croissant dough to have anywhere from 36 to 72 dough/fat
layers. These layers serve to trap moisture and carbon dioxide
produced during fermentation. On exposure to oven heat, the
moisture turns to steam that, in conjunction with the carbon
Table 8 Sponge and dough hamburger and hot dog buns dioxide gas, causes the croissant dough to ‘bloom’ in the oven.
This blooming action results in the formation of the light and
Ingredient Sponge (%) Dough (%)
flaky texture for which croissants are known.
Bread floura 70.0 30.0 Brioche is a light, sweet, yeasted roll that is made from a rich
Yeast, compressed 3.5 formula high in eggs, sugar, milk, and butter. As such, it finds
Water 40.0 24.0 favor as a dessert item and is popular for holiday celebrations.
Sweetener (solids basis) 12.0 It is usually made with the sponge–dough process but can also
Salt 2.0 be made with either the straight dough or sourdough method.
Vegetable oil 4.0 As the term ‘brioche’ can apply just as easily to the dough as to
Protease enzyme 0.5 the individual baked product, the rolls can take on many
Yeast food 0.5
different shapes and sizes. In Europe, the appearance of bri-
Vital wheat gluten 2.0
oche is often based on the regional preference of the baker and
Crumb softener 0.5
Calcium propionate 0.3 his clientele.

All ingredients are given in bakers % (flour ¼ 100%).

a

Flat Breads
These are the most widely consumed of all bread types, eaten
daily by many millions of people all over the globe. While this

Figure 11 ‘Cluster’ hamburger buns, left rear; ‘cluster’ hot dog buns,
right rear; assorted kaiser rolls, front. Figure 12 Assorted hard rolls surrounded by croissants.
16 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Breads

number may seem questionably large at first, it is put into and date syrup in certain types. Sourdough can be used in place
proper perspective by considering the wide selection of prod- of the yeast. It is baked into thin, oblong shapes.
ucts available, many of which are not familiar or available to Ciabatta is Italian in origin and in fact translates to ‘slipper
those outside of certain regions. Generally, flat breads can be bread.’ It has gained a large following in Europe and North
divided into the single-layered and double-layered types. America (Figure 14). It is baked from lean formula sponge–
Single-layered flat breads are consumed universally. For dough, usually consisting of wheat flour, water, yeast, and salt.
most North and Central Americans, the flat bread of choice is Olive oil is sometimes added, especially in Italy. High amounts
the tortilla. Indeed, for many people, it is the bread accompa- of water are added to the dough to give the baked bread its
niment at most every meal. While the corn tortilla is the more characteristic open and irregular crumb structure.
traditional product, wheat flour tortillas have gained great Similar to ciabatta, focaccia (Figure 14) uses the same basic
acceptance in the United States and Canada, especially for the ingredients but is prepared with the straight dough procedure,
fast-food trade (Figure 13). See Tables 9 and 10 for represen- often with a long bulk fermentation period for added flavor.
tative formulas. In many non-Hispanic homes in the United The dough is traditionally flattened in a shallow pan with the
States, tortillas have become as common as sliced white pan fingertips and then topped with various items such as onions,
bread. peppers, tomatoes, and seasonings. A short proof is given after
Tandoor bread is another single-layered flat bread that is which the dough is baked. Topped focaccia is seen as an
widely consumed, especially in parts of the Middle East, India, upscale type of pizza in North America and is a very popular
and Pakistan. While it may be given slightly different names in item in boutique bakeries and cafes.
different regions (taftoon in Iran and tanoori in Afghanistan), Pizza is a universally popular type of flat bread enjoyed all
it is essentially the same product, with similar ingredients and over the world. While pizza is usually distinguished by the
processes used. It is made of wheat flour, soda (sodium bicar- toppings applied to it, the crust itself is subject to variation in
bonate), yeast, and water, with optional ingredients being salt thickness, texture, and added flavorings, depending on the
particular geographical region in which it is served. Thickness
can range from very thin and cracker-like (0.5 cm) to thick and
hearty (upward of 5 cm). Crust texture is manipulated by the
ingredients chosen, including flour strength, and the process
used to manufacture the dough. Toppings vary widely and are
limited only by the imagination. Traditional US toppings
include tomato sauce, mozzarella cheese, olive oil, and various
herbs, vegetables, and meats.
Chapati, also known as roti, is estimated to be the most
widely consumed flat bread in the world. The people of Tibet,
India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and other countries eat it as their

Table 10 Corn tortilla

Ingredient %
Figure 13 Large and small wheat flour tortillas, left; corn tortillas, right. Yellow corna 85–100
White corn 0–15
Water 25–30
Table 9 Straight dough wheat flour tortilla Lime 1–2
Soy flour 0–10
Ingredient %
Sodium hydroxide 1–4
Bread flour a
100.0 Calcium hydroxide 0.25–1
Vital wheat gluten 0–5 Buffers/preservativesb Variable
Soy flour 0–5 a
Yellow corn þ white corn ¼ 100%.
Water 45–60 b
Monocalcium phosphate, sorbic acid, citric acid, fumaric acid,
Salt 1–2.5
calcium propionate, potassium sorbate, etc.
Shortening 5–12
Gums 0–4
Yeast, compressed 0.1–1
Baking powder 1–1.5
Oxidizersb,c Variable
Mold inhibitorsc,d Variable
a
All ingredients are given in bakers % (flour ¼ 100%).
b
Can include azodicarbonamide, potassium bromate, and/or ascorbic acid.
c
Please note that not all specified additives are permitted for food use in all countries.
d
Can include potassium sorbate surface spray, calcium sorbate, sodium propionate,
calcium propionate, and 100-grain vinegar. Figure 14 Ciabatta, left; focaccia, center; pita bread, right.
 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Breads 17

Table 11 Straight dough Arabic (pita) bread equipment design, product shelf life, and distribution tech-
niques will almost certainly give the bread baker advantages
Ingredient % his ancestors never had. Implementing this technology to cre-
Flour a
100.0 ate wholesome and appetizing breads that are also safe and
Yeast (active dry) 0.5 profitable will prove advantageous for bakers and consumers
Salt 1.5 alike.
Water 50.0
a
All ingredients are given in bakers % (flour ¼ 100%).
Exercises for Revision
daily bread. It is unleavened, round in shape, and made with
whole-wheat flour and water. • What differentiates the various types of pan bread
available?
The most recognizable double-layered flat bread is Arabic
bread, also known as pita bread (Table 11). This product is • What is a Pullman loaf, and how does it differ from round-
top bread?
lean in formulation and round in shape and has a characteris-
tic ‘pocket’ inside that defines the product (Figure 14). This • Are there any formulation differences between white pan
bread and hamburger buns?
pocket is formed largely by a second proofing (rising) step that
is not given to single-layered flat breads. The second proof • What is the most popular dough-making process currently
used?
allows the formed dough surface to dry slightly. The resultant
dough skin allows the product to balloon during baking, form- • What does sourdough bread rely on for its unique flavor?
ing the internal pocket. Baking is carried out at high tempera- • Structurally speaking, what is the most important ingredi-
ent in a loaf of pan bread?
tures, normally 400  C, for short periods of time, usually 90–
100 s. The combination of high temperature and short time • Is shortening an allowable ingredient in an authentic
French baguette (produced in France)?
helps emphasize pocket formation by quickly converting inter-
nal dough moisture to steam, which, along with residual CO2, • How is the ‘pocket’ formed in pita bread?
accentuates the separation between the top and the bottom of • What ingredients are called for in replacing wheat flour in
gluten-free bread?
the bread.

Gluten-Free Breads Exercises for Readers to Explore the Topic Further

An emerging product category in North America and Europe,
gluten-free bakery products are formulated without the gluten • What pressures may be exerted on the wholesale bread
proteins found in wheat, barley, and rye. Ingestion of these industry in the future, regarding nutrition and health?
proteins by those suffering from celiac disease causes an • How can the wholesale baking industry continue to adapt
immune response in the small intestine. Over time, this reac- to the needs of those suffering from allergies and celiac
tion causes inflammation that damages the lining of the small disease?
intestine, preventing the absorption of nutrients. In children, • How is it that such divergent baked products can be made
malabsorption interferes with proper growth and development from just a few common ingredients?
patterns, and in adults, stomach pain, weight loss, and bloating
are common indications. Absent a cure, celiac sufferers can
avoid the symptoms only by adhering to a strict diet devoid See also: Food Grains: Intolerance, Allergy and Diseases:
of gluten. Celiac Disease; Wheat Processing: Analysis of Dough Rheology in
To the baker interested in serving the celiac customer, this Breadmaking; Bakeries: The Source of Our Unique Wheat-Based Food,
means that wheat flour, the very backbone of yeast-raised breads Bread; Frozen Dough; Milling and Baking: History; Wheat: Dry Milling;
and rolls, cannot be used in the product formulation. Instead, Wheat-Based Foods: Flatbreads of the World; Sour Dough
the current technology generally requires that a combination of Technology; Tortillas.
‘flours’ made from beans, sorghum, corn, white rice, brown rice,
and other sources be substituted for the wheat flour, along with
various starches, food gums, and other hydrocolloids. This
Further Reading
approach imparts a distinctly non-gluten-like characteristic to
the rheology of the dough, which is more correctly described as Bilheux R, Escoffier A, Herve D, and Pouradier J (1989) Special and Decorative Breads.
a batter. The resulting baked product, while acceptable to many New York: Van Nostrand.
celiac sufferers, does not approximate the visual or organoleptic Calvel R (2001) The Taste of Bread. Maryland: Aspen Publishers.
Doerry WT (1995a) In: Baking Technology. Breadmaking, vol. 1. Manhattan, KS:
qualities of its gluten-containing counterpart. American Institute of Baking.
Doerry WT (1995b) In: Baking Technology. Controlled Baking, vol. 2. Manhattan, KS:
American Institute of Baking.
Future Considerations Jenkins S (1975) Bakery Technology Book 1, Bread. Toronto: Lester and Orpen Limited.
Kulp K and Lorenz K (eds.) (2003) Handbook of Dough Fermentations. New York:
Marcel Dekker.
As it has with most things, technology will continue to affect Kulp K and Ponte Jr. J Jr. (eds.) (2000) Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology,
the baking industry. Further advances in ingredients, 2nd edn. New York: Marcel Dekker.
18 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Breads

Matz S (1999) Bakery Technology and Engineering, 3rd edn. McAllen, TX: Pan-Tech Today, the Institute’s influence is worldwide, with services ranging from seminars
International. and short courses to contract research facilities to food safety auditing.
Pyler EJ (1988) Baking Science and Technology, 3rd edn. Merriam, KS: Sosland. http://www.baking.ca – Baking.ca; The Baking Association of Canada serves members
Pyler EJ (1994) Bakers Handbook. Merriam, KS: Sosland. of the wholesale, retail, and in-store baking segments, as well as those in the allied
Qarooni J (1996) Flat Bread Technology. New York: Chapman and Hall. trades.
Williams A (ed.) (1975) Breadmaking: The Modern Revolution. London: Hutchinson http://www.bbga.org – Bbga.org; The website of the Bread Bakers Guild of America,
Benham. offering content of interest to artisan bakers, along with information and formulas
from the Team USA baking team which placed first in the 1999 and 2005 Coupe du
Monde de la Boulangerie, and second in the 2002 and 2012 competitions.
http://www.campden.co.uk – Campden.co.uk; Located in the United Kingdom, the
Relevant Websites Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association conducts research and
development on food and beverage products for clients worldwide, and is the UK’s
http://www.aibonline.org – Aibonline.org; AIB International, formerly the American largest independent membership-based organization.
Institute of Baking, located in Manhattan, Kansas, USA, was founded in 1919 as a
service and education organization for the American wholesale baking industry.