Human body processes

Biology

06
Biological processes in
human body
Many different biological processes take place in the human body. We will discuss
about those processes and the systems specialized to perform them.
6.1 Digestion of food
Energy is required for different biological processes that take place in human
body. Energy is obtained through food that we take into the body. These food
contain nutrients such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Carbohydrates, lipids
and proteins are complex organic molecules that do not dissolve in water. These
compounds cannot be absorbed into the human body. Threfore they should be
broken down into small particles.
The process by which the complex organic compounds are converted into
simple organic products to be absorbed into the human body is called digestion
of food.
Food digestion takes place in two prosesses namely mechanical and chemical
processes
During mechanical process the physical nature of the food is altered,
E.g. :- Breaking down of food into small pieces by teeth inside mouth.
During chemical process, the insoluble complex compounds are broken down into
simple molecules by the action of enzymes.
E.g. :- Starch is converted into maltose by ptyalin (salivary amylase) enzyme
inside mouth.
There are some nutrients, that can be used by the body without any digestion, such
as mineral salts, some vitamins, glucose, fructose and galactose.
The organs involved in food digestion, are collectively called as digestive system.
Human digestive system
Human digestive system is a single tube, that runs from mouth to anus. According
to the requirement, the structure has changed at different places, and the glands
(salivary glands, pancreas, liver) that supply enzymes and other substances (bile)
connect at different sites. The functions take place in the digestive system are food
digestion, absorption of digested end products and removal of undigested
materials from the body.
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Let us see the structures that belong to the digestive tract.

Mouth cavity Salivary glands

Epiglottis

Oesophagus

Diaphragm
Liver
Gall bladder Stomach

Pancreas

Large intestine
Small intestine

Appendix
Rectum
Anus

Figure. 6.1 - Human digestive system

Assignment - 6'1

yy Identify the parts of the human digestive

tract in the human torso
yy Concerm about the nature, size and
location of those parts

Figure. 6.2 - Human torso

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Let us observe the changes that occur in food at first part of the digestive tract, the
buccal cavity.
Digestion in the buccal cavity
Mouth opens the buccal cavity to the environment. It is surrounded by muscular
lips at the bottom and top. The buccal cavity is made up of upper and lower jaws.
Only the lower jaw can be moved. Teeth are present in both jaws. Buccal cavity
is surrounded by cheeks. The tongue is attached to the floor of the buccal cavity.
Three salivary glands are present and these secrete saliva and the tongue helps in
identification of taste, mixing of food with saliva and swallowing.
A sweet taste is sensed when chewing rice or bread for sometime. Let's discuss why
it is sweet?
The ptyalin enzyme (salivary amylase), acts on starch in digestion of food. Starch
will be partially digested into maltose. Digestion of food is start in the mouth.
Ptyalin
Starch Maltose
When rice or bread is chewed for sometime starch is digested into maltose. As
maltose is sweet, we sense the sweet taste.

Initially digested food is formed into a bolus and pushed to the posterior part of the
buccal cavity. Next food is pushed into the pharynx.
Pharynx is a common area to both respiratory and digestive systems.
There is a movable organ called epiglottis found just above the opening of trachea.
When bolus is swallowed the epiglottis moves down to close the opening of trachea.
Then bolus enters into oesophagus without entering into trachea.

Nasal cavity
Mouth cavity

Pharynx
Epiglottis Epiglottis
Food bolus

Oesophagus
Trachea
Figure. 6.3 - Trachea is closed with epiglottis when food enter into oesophagus

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Epiglottis helps to prevent entering food into the trachea. When food enters to
pharynx, respiratory track is blocked by epiglottis. This prolong blockcage of
trachea may cause death. If the food is not removed instantly, the person may die
due to blockage of respiratory tract.
Oesophagus is a constricted tube. How is food moved along a constricted tubule?
The bolus passes through the oesophagus
by peristaltic movements. As oesophagus
is a muscular structure, due to
contractions and relaxations of it's wall
the peristaltic movements appear as
waves. These peristaltic movements
provide the force to propel the bolus
forward.

Figure. 6.4 -How the food pass through

oesophagus

Then food is moved into stomach by peristaltic movements.

Digestion in the stomach
The stomach is a dilated sac like organ. Due to the peristaltic activity of muscles in
the stomach wall the bolus is broken down and mixed well into a chyme. Several
secretions ooze out into the stomach. It is collectively called the gastric juice.
The gastric juice contains mainly hydrochloric acid (HCl) and pepsin enyme. HCl
activates pepsin and pepsin starts the protein digestion to produce polypeptides.
Renin present in infants causes coagulation of milk.
Chyme containing partially digested proteins, digested and undigested carbohydrates,
undigested lipids, water, minerals and vitamins are released into the proximal part
of small intestine, duodenum part by part.
When the stomach is empty, it continues to contract. When the stomach is empty
for a longer time period, the rate of contraction is also high. So it causes a pain. It
gives a sense about hunger. Hunger is a signal that indicate the need of food.

Digestion in the small intestine

The chemical digestion of food mainly takes place in the small intestine. Pancreatic
enzymes as well as intestinal enzymes involve in this digestion.

The small intestine is about 7 m in length. The proximal part of the small intestine
is C shaped and known as duodenum.The duct of the pancreas and the gall bladder
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opens into the duodenum via a single pore. Pancreatic juice is secreted into the
duodenum through pancreatic duct. It contains three main enzymes. They are
trypsin, amylase and lipase. The bile carried through the bile duct is added to it.
Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
Bile contains bile pigments, bile salts, bicarbonate ions and water.
Due to mixing of bile with food at duodenum, the lipids in food are broken down
into small droplets by the process called emulsification. Due to this action, enzymes
get a greater surface area to act on lipid food.
Intestinal juice secreted by the wall of the intestine contains, maltase, sucrase,
lactase, peptidase and mucous. Mucous lubricates food and then helps to move
along the digestive tract.
Let us summarize food digestion takes place in small intestine (See table 6.1)
Table 6.1 - Enzymes in food digestion in small intestine
Organ Enzyme Substrate/food End products
Pancreas trypsin Protein Polypeptides
(Pancreatic amylase Starch Maltose
juice) lypase Lipids Fatty acids and
glycerol
Small intestine Maltase Moltose Glucose
(Intestinal Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and Fructose
juice)
Lactase Lactose Glucose and galactose
Peptidase Polypeptides Amino acids

These are the end products of digetion

Carbohydrates Monosaccharides (Glucose $ Fructose / Galactose)
Protein Amino acids
Lipids Fatty acids ¬ Glycerol

Proteins in wall of stomach and intestine is protected by the protein digestive en-
zymes as there is a layer of mucous on the wall.
What happens to the end products of food digestion?
The absorption of digested end products into body takes place mainly in the small
intestine. The small intestine is adapted to increase its efficiency of absorption in
different ways.

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yy Being a long tube
yy Presence of circular folds in the inner wall
yy Presence of finger like projections called villi in the circular folds
yy Presence of microvilli in the epithelial cells of villi
yy Thin epithelial lining on villi
yy Villi are highly vascularised

Blood capillaries
Epidermal cells
Micro villi

Lacteal

Figure. 6.5 - Structure of villi in small intestine

The digestive end products given below are absorbed into the blood capillaries of
villi.
yy Amino acids
yy Vitamins
yy Mineral salts
yy Monosaccharides (Glucose/ Galactose/ Fructose)
Fatty acids and glycerol formed by digestion of lipids are absorbed into lacteals.
Finally they enter into blood circulatory system when there is high amount of
glucose in blood, they are converted into glycogen and stored in liver. In the same
way when the concentration of glucose is dicreased, glycogen breaks down to
form glucose and is added to blood. The unabsorbed materials are sent to the large
intestine.
Processes in the large intestine
Length of the large intestine is about 1.5 m. It starts with caecum and ends up at
anus. The dialated part of the large intestine is the rectum. The opening of it, is the
anus. The materials entering into the large intestine contain a very small amount
of nutrients. Mainly it contains undigested cellulose and water. A small blind ended
tubular structure starts at the end of the caecum. It is known as the appendix. It is
very small in humans and it may be infected and become swollen. This disease is
known as appendicitis.
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The main function is to absorb water from received matter by ileum. Thereby
making it into semi solid.
When large intestine fills with faecal matter it passes out from the rectum.
The diseases and disorders associated with digestive system
The chance of getting infections to the digestive tract is high as materials are entered
into it from outside frequently. Therefore digestive tract catches many diseases and
disorders.
Engage in the following assigment to get knowledge about the diseases and disorders
associated with digestive system.
Assignment - 6'2
Prepare a booklet about the diseases and disorders associated with digestive
tract and how to prevent them. Discuss with doctors and refer news papers,
magazines for information.

Gastritis
Inflammation of inner lining of mucosa is known as gastritis. It is a common disease
among people. Generally known as acidity. The symptoms are, regurgitation of
acid to mouth, burning feeling and pain in stomach. When the condition becomes
worse, ulcers appear in stomach or duodenal wall. Bleeding can take place.
The reasons for this disorder are as follows,
”” Skipping of meals
”” Consumption of acidic and spicy food
”” Excessive smoking and alcohol consumption
”” Mental stress
By following healthy food diets and good habits one can avoid the above disease.
Constipation
Difficulty in defaecation due to hardening of faecal matter is known as constipation.
Faeces remain in the large intestine for a longer time period and absorption of water
takes place excessively, Thereby this condition may occur.
Reasons for constipation are as follows,
yy Consumption of food with low dietary fibres
yy Not taking required volume of water
yy Postponing of defaecation

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By avoiding above bad habits one can avoid this disease. Some medicine may cause
constipation. Due to forceful defaecation, the anal canal may damage and bleeding
can occur.
Typhoid
Typoid is caused by a bacterium. The pathogen is transmitted through food. The
bacterium can enter into the body through mouth while swimming and bathing in
contaminated water. Pain in arms and legs, headache and fever are main symptoms.
It is a disease which gradually becomes worse. Constipation can occur at initial
stages. Tongue is covered by a plaque. After sometime stomachache and diarrhoea
can occur. Ulcers can form in the small intestine and cause bleeding. Therefore
blood is released with faecal matter. Due to ulcers, the wall can be damaged. Disease
can be identified by a blood test or stool test.
Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea occurs when the intestines are infected with a virus, bacteria or a parasite.
This disease is transmitted by the faeces of an infected person. The main symptom
is release of faecal matter in liquid state. Absorption of water in the large intestine
will not occur properly. Dehydration may occur due to loss of fluid. due to the
difeare spready contaminated food or water.
The above two diseases can be avoided by taking preventive measures given below
yy Consumption of boiled water
yy Removing fly breeding places and cover is food to prevent entering of flies
to food
yy Avoid consumption of food which are sold in open places
yy Use of water seal latrines
yy Wash hands well with soap after using the toilet
yy Get a vaccine for typhoid.
If dehydration becomes worse due to diarrhoea, it may be fatal. So it is better to
consume more water and consult a doctor.
6.2 Process of respiration
Respiration is a biological process. Inhaling and exhaling can be observed in some
animals.
Respiration in a human is a complex process and it occurs in three stages.
1. Gas exchange between external environment and lungs
2. Gas exchange in alveoli
3. Cellular respiration
Intake of oxygen into lungs and removal of gaseouse waste in cells occurs in
ventilation.
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Engage in the following activity to demonstrate external gas exchange
Activity - - 6'1
Demonstration of gas exchange using a model
Materials required :- Small bell jar, gas tube, a cork
bore, two rubber balloons, balloon membrane or
polythene sheath, several rubber bands
Method :- Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
Push and release the balloon membrane and observe the
condition of balloons
^A& ^B&
Figure - 6.6

According to the above activity when rubber membrane is pulled down the volume
inside the bell jar increases. Then external gas enters and balloons get inflated.
When rubber sheath is released, gas inside balloons go out as the volume of bell jar
decreases. Likewise gas exchange between external environment and lungs occurs
due to changes of volume of lungs.
The system involved in entering O2 into lungs and release of gaseous waste products
produced during biological processes is the respiratory system.
The diagram given below shows the human respiratory system.

Nasal
kdiacavity
l=yrh
Buccal
uqL cavity
l=yrh Pharynx
.%iksldj

Trachea
iajrd,h
Larynx
Yaajdikd<h
dikd,h

Sternum
Wr;,h

Bronchi
jï Ya
jï Yajjdikd,s
dikd<slldj
dj
Ribs
m¾Y=

Bronchioles
wkq
wkq Ya
Yajjdikd<s
dikd,sllddj

Diaphragm
uyd m%dÖrh

Figure6'2'1
6.7rEmh
- Human respiratory
¡ ñksidf.a Yajik moaO;ssystem
h

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Nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli are the
main parts of respiratory system.
Internal surface of nasal cavity is covered with mucus. Due to the presence of mucus
in the nasal cavity, the lining of it is moist. There are numerous cilia present on the
lining of the nasal cavity. The bacteria, dust and other wastes found in inhaled air
stick onto the mucus. This prevents the entry of them into the lungs. By rhythemic
movement of cilia the waste materials are sent out. The materials that are collected
at pharynx are removed out with saliva.
The changes that take place when inhaled air passes through the nasal cavity are as
follows.
yy Moisturizing/ Humidifying inhaled air
yy Warming up of inhaled air
yy Removal of wastes from inhaled air
Inspiration
During inspiration, air enters into
lungs. For that, the volume of the
lungs should increase. To increase
the volume of the lungs volume of
the thoracic cavity should be
increased
Inter-costal muscles contract,
therefore ribs move up and sternum
Figure 6.8 - Inspiration moves forward.
At the same time the diaphragm
contracts and reduce its curvature.Due to above activities the volume of the thoracic
cavity increases and with that volume of lungs increase. So air enter into lungs
through the nose.
Expiration

For expiration to occur, the volume

of the thorasic cavity should decrease
to reduce the volume of the lungs.
Inter-costal muscles relax. So the
sternum and ribs move into its
original position. The diaphragm
Figure 6.9 - Expiration relax and becomes curved. Due to

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these activities the volume of the lungs decreases, thereby gas inside lungs move
out through trachea and then nasal cavity.

The gas exchange that takes place in alveoli

The inhaled air finally reach the alveoli, through nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi, and
bronchioles. The O2 concentration in alveoli is greater than that of the blood capillary
network around it. Therefore O2 diffuse out of the alveoli into the blood capillaries.
Similarly CO2 and water vapor concentration is greater in blood capillaries than air
inside alveoli, diffuse into the exhaled air.

Cartilages
ldáf,a c uqÿ
Sub
wkq bronchi
Yajdikd,sld
Blood
reêr
capillaries
fla Ykd,sld Accordingly, the respiratory
surface of human is the wall
of alveoli. The exchange
Alveoli
.¾;

Figure
6'2'2 rEmh
6'2'2 6.10
rEmh
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- Air,
¡ fmkye,s ;=<sacs,
- fmkye,s
.¾;
we;s
capillaries
we;s
u;reêr
;=<
in
we;sfla
š
reêr
Air

alveoli
jd;flda
sac Ih
jd;flda

and blood
I" .¾;
we;s jd;flda
Ylungs
kd,s
fla
Iyd
lId kd<sld
" .¾;
of gases takes place by
diffusion.

Blood

Water vapour

CO2
O2

Oxygen diffuse Carbondioxide

to blood diffuse from blood
Figure 6.11 - Air exchange between alveoli and blood capillaries

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Characteristics of a respiratory surface
The adaptations of the respiratory surfaces for efficient gas exchange are as follows.
yy Surface should be moistened and permeable for gas exchange
yy Surface should be thin for diffusion of gases
yy A larger surface area to exchange large volume of gas according to the
needs of animals
yy Surface should be highly vascularized
In many animals body cover acts as the respiratory surface and gases exchange
through the body cover. The respiratory surface of human is the wall of alveoli and
the adaptations of the alveoli for efficient gas exchange are as follows.
yy Presence of a blood capillary network around alveoli
yy Thin alveolar wall
yy Moist alveolar surface
yy Presence of large number of alveolar sacs
Cellular respiration
Oxygen moved through alveoli reacts with simple organic compounds (glucose) in
cells. In this chemical reaction energy is produced, therefore respiration is the
process of oxidation of simple foods within living cells.
Let us build a word equation for respiration
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
The balanced chemical equation for respiration is given below.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy

According to the requirement of oxygen two types of respirations can be identified.

Aerobic respiration and Anaerobic respiration
We discussed the respiration that takes place inside cells in the presence of oxygen.
It is called aerobic respiration.
Organisms can respire without O2 . Respiration carried out by organisms without O2
is known as anaerobic respiration.
Anaerobic respiration that takes place in plants is known as alcohol fermentation.
The anaerobic respiration that takes place inside plant cells can be given by the
following word equation.
Glucose Ethyl alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
When Yeast carries out anaerobic respiration during fermentation, CO2 and Ethyl
alcohol is produced. This process is an example for alcohol fermentation.

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Animals including human cells also perform anaerobic respiration. The anaerobic
respiration that takes place within animal cells is referred to as lactic acid
fermentation. The products of that is given in the equation given below.

Glucose Lactic acid + Energy

Have you faced an incident of muscle pain and cramp due to an instant
activity like 100m race. That is due to lactic acid, collected in muscles. That is a
result of anaerobic respiration.
Energy produced during aerobic respiration is higher than energy produced during
anerobic respiration. This is because of the incomplete break down of glucose in
anerobic respiration and complete break down of glucose in aerobic respiration.
Energy is produced during anaerobic respiration as well as in aerobic respiration
and part of this energy is lost as heat and rest will be deposited in ATP (Adenosine
Tri - Phosphate) as chemical energy.
The energy needed for biological processes is produced during formation or break
down of ATP
Functions of ATP
”” Storage of energy
”” Release of energy
”” Act as an energy carrier

wledge
Extra kno
The energy stored in ATP is used for the following requirements

yy Movement of muscles
yy Active transportation
yy Chemical reactions that take place within
organisms
yy Synthesis of complex compounds from simple
compounds (E.g.:- Amino acids Proteins)
yy Production of new cells
yy Illumination of some organisms. (E.g.:- firefly)
yy Generation of electricity in some organisms
(E.g. :- Electric eel)

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Diseases associated with respiratory system
Assignment - 6'3
Collect information about diseases associated with respiratory system and
preventive measures to prepare a small booklet.

yy Common cold
Causative agent is a virus. Headache, sneezing, running nose, cough are the
symptoms. There is no medical treatment as it is a viral infection. But can treat
for symptoms. By avoiding dust and mist like conditions which are good for viral
growth can recover quickly.
yy Pneumonia
This disease occurs due to a bacterium or a virus. The lungs are infected and a fluid
may accumulate in the lungs. Prolong cold and cough are the main symptoms for
pneumonia.
yy Asthma
Asthma is an inflammation that occurs in the body. Dust, pollen, saw dust, fur,
smoke are some causative agents. Due to those substances, the bronchioles get
inflammated and the cross area of them are reduced causing difficulty in breathing.
yy Bronchitis or bronchiolar inflammation
The bronchioles swell up due to inflammations that occur by viral or bacterial
infections. Heavy cough and difficulty in breathing are symptoms. Other than
bronchioles, larynx may get infected. As a result, voice may not exit properly.
yy Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium. Due to multiplication of the particular
bacterium within the lungs, the tissues are damaged. Mainly, the lungs are infected.
But it may affect other parts in the body too. Parts of tissue can be released with
phlegm. The lungs are deteriorated and get perforated. Blood release with phlegm
due to breakdown of blood vessels.
Symptoms of tuberculosis

”” Tiredness ”” Release of blood during coughing

”” Loss of apetite ”” Weight loss
”” Fever
Tuberculosis can be prevented by vaccines and proper treatment

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Diseases associated with smoking

Smoking cause, lung cancer, bronchitis and some other diseases. Sometimes it may
cause death.
Carbon monoxide (CO) in cigarette smoke is absorbed into blood. CO readily binds
with haemoglobin and avoid binding of O2 with haemoglobin. Therefore O2 carrying
capacity of blood reduces.
Nicotine found in cigarette smoke increases the heart rate temporally.
Due to destruction of cilia in the respiratory tract, bronchioles may swell up due
and get inflammations, and it may cause difficulty in breathing. As these epithelial
cells expose to cigarette smoke, they may form abnormal cells which develop into
cancers.
Passive smokers also get same ill effects due to cigarette smoke.
Silicosis
Workers work in quarries, coal mines and glass industry expose to silicon containing
componds. When these people inhale air with those componds, they accumalate in
alveoli. So lung tissues get deteriorated gradually
Asbestosis
This disorder occurs due to inhalation of air containing asbestos particles and fibres.
Due to accumulation of these particles tissues of respiratory tract get destroyed.
6.3 Process of excretion
Summation of bio chemical reactions that take place in the living body is known as
metabolism
Examples for several metabolic activities are given below
²² Production of carbondioxide, water and energy during cellular respiration
²² Production of urea, uric acid in protein catabolism in liver
When metabolic processes occur in the cells, necessary as well as unnecessary
materials are produced. These unnecessary materials should be removed from the
body.
The waste products that are produced during metabolic process are called excretory
materials. Removal of excretory products produced during metabolism from
the body is called excretion.
Different excretory materials, organs through which the excretory materials are
excreted and the form of excretion is shown in the table below.
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Table 6.2 - Different excretory materials
Excretory Form of
Excretory material
organ Excretion
CO2, water vapour Lungs Exhale air
Urea, uric acid, Salts, water Kidney Urine
Urea, uric acid, NaCl, water Skin Sweat
Why faecal matter is not an excretory substance?
Faeces is the undigested materials of the digestion process. Digestion takes place
within the digestive system. Digestion of food is not a bio chemical reaction that
takes place in the cells. So faeces is not considered as an excretory material. The
bile pigments that is released with faeces is an excretory substances.

Urinary System
Renal vein

The main organ that carries out

Kidneys nitrogenous excretion is the kidney.
Renal artery A pair of kidneys and other organs are
Systematic artery organized to form urinary system.
The main parts of the urinary system
Inferior vena cava are as follows

Ureters yy Pair of kidneys

yy Pair of ureters
Bladder yy Urinary bladder
yy Urethra
Urethra
Figure 6.12 - Human urinary system

The waste materials in blood enter through renal arteries are filltered inside the
kidney. This filterate is known as urine and it is transported through ureters and
released out of the body through urethra.

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Activity - 6'2
Observation of internal structure of a kidney
Required materials :- A specimen or a model of a kidney of a goat or a cow
Method :- ² Observe the above specimem carefully (get the assistance
from your science techaer)
² Use the diagram below to identify the parts of kidny

Capsule
Cortex
Pyramids

Cortex
Renal artery
Renal vein Nephrone
Pelvis
Medula
Ureter

Figure 6.13 - Longitudinal view of kidney Figure 6.14 - Location of nephrons in kidnay

The structural and functional unit of kindney is nephron. Nephron is microscopic and there are about
one million of them in a kidney. The parts of a nephron can be identified as in the diagram given
below.
Distal convoluted
tubules

Glomerules
Bowman's capsule

Renal artery
Proximal convoluted Collecting duct
tubules

Renal vein

Desending limb
Asending limb
Bood capillaries Loop of
Henle
Figure 6.15 - Structure of a nephron

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Process of urine formation
Urine formation in kidney follows three main processes,
1' Ultra filtration
2' Selective reabsorption
3' Secretion
Ultrafiltration

ole
rteri Effe
Each afferent arteriole enters into
nt A rent
ffere Art
A erio each Bowman's capsule, where they
le
further divide forming a dense
network of capillaries. It is known
as glomerulus.The blood flow
through the glomerulus is having a
Bowman's
high blood pressure because the
capsule
diameter of efferent arteriole is
smaller than diameter of afferent
glomerular filterate
arteriols. So blood gets filtered
through the wall of glomerulus and
tubule the inner wall of the bowman’s
capsule and collected into the cavity
Figure 6.16 - Glomerular filterate collected of Bowman’s capsule. This process
into the cavity of bowman’s capsule is known as ultrafiltration. This
filtered fluid is referred to as
glomerular filterate. Large molecules like plasma proteins and blood cells are not
filtered into the glomerular filterate. Glomerular filterate is as same as blood plasma.
The constituents of glomerulur filterate are water, glucose, amino acids, vitamins,
medicine, various ions, hormones and urea.

Selective reabsorption
When glomerular filterate moves along the nephron most of the constituents absorb
again into the blood capillaries associated with nephron. This is called Selective
reabsorption. 90% of the water, all glucose, part of amino acids, vitamins, salts,
urea and uric acid and medicine reabsorb into blood. The composition of glomerular
filtrate change with selecteve reabsorption and then the glomerular filterate is
referred to as urine.

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Urine is released into collecting

ducts and then to the pelvis. The
Bood flowing out of volume of glomerular filterate
glomerular
kidney formed during one minute in a
filterate
healthy adult is about 120 cm3.
But 95% of the glomerular filterate
reabsorb when it moves along the
Water (90]) nephrone.
Glucose ^100]& 100% of glucose is reabsorbed
Collecting duct in a healthy adult. But in di-
Minerals
(Some amount& abetes patients glucose is not
Urea totally reabsorbed. The remaining
(Some amount&
glucose is released with urine.
Amino acids
Vitamins Secretion
Some of the materials in the
Figure 6.17 - Materials reaborsobed blood capillaries associated with
during urine formation nephrone, are secreted into the
tubules of nephron.
+
E.g (¡ Hydrogen ions (H+), Potasium ions (K+), Ammonium ions (NH4 ), Creatinine,
Medicine, Vitamin B
Removal of urine from the body
Urine released into the pelvis is transported along ureters into bladder and is
temporally stored in bladder. Release of urine takes place according to the need of
urination.

The composition of urine in a healthy person is given below in the table 6.3

Table 6.3 - Composition of urine in a healthy person

Constituent Composition
Water About 96%
Salts About 0.2%
Urea About 0.2%
Uric acid Trace
Creatinine Trace

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Diseases associated with urinary system
Assignment - 6'4
Write a report on diseases associated with urinary system to make aware the
society about them.

Let us discuss some of the diseases associated with urinary system.

Renal failure
The weakening of urine filteration process in nephrons is renal failure. Infections
by micro oganisums, heavy metals (mercury, arseric) various medicine and carbon
tetrachloride (CCl4) may cause renal failure. The basic symptom is oedema and
increase of blood pressure due to accumulation of water and salts. pH of blood
decreases due to accumulation of urea and other excretory materials. By taking
immediate treatments and healthy life style one can maintain a healthy kidney. If
treatments are not taken immediately after the symptoms, acute renal failure may
occur within 8-14 days. Then blood is filtered by a machine in a process called
dialysis. When both kidneys are failed, a healthy kidney from a donor should be
transplanted.
Nephritis
Nephritis or swelling of kidney occurs due to infections and toxins. Infections in
ureters and other changes that occur in the body are reasons for nephritis. During
nephritis, it affects glomerulus and also uriniferous tubules. Due to damages occur
in glomerulus the volume of blood flow through it reduces. So the amount of urine
formed also reduces. Therefore the waste materials remaining within the body
become high. Sometimes due to damages that occur in glomerules, filtering process
is affected and as a result red blood cells can be passed into the glomerular filtrate.
Similarly proteins also can be filtered and due to loss of these essential proteins,
strokes may occur. Medical advice should be taken immediately for this condition.
Calculi in kidney and bladder
Crystalization of calcium oxalate in kidney and bladder is the reason for this
condition. When these stones block ureters, a terrible pain would occur. The
removal of these stones can be done by drugs or a surgery.
These stones can be crushed by applying laser rays, and this technique is called
Lithotrypsy technology.
The feeding habit of a person is also a reason for these stones. Postponing of
urination is also a reason for the above disorder.
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6.4 Process of blood circulation

Glucose and oxygen are the main components to produce energy in the body. Blood
is the transport medium of both the above components to the cells and the waste
out of the cells.
Blood is a special connective tissue. It is a red
Plasma 55] colour fluid. When blood is centrifuged and
(Pale yellow colour fluid) kept aside, there will be two different layers.
Corpuscles 45] The dark red layer consists of blood
(Dark red colour materials) corpuscles while the pale yellow layer contains
Figure 6.18 - Blood corpuscles and plasma
the plasma. On this basis, blood which is seen
as a homogenous fluid, contains a plasma and
a suspension of corpuscles. When a slide with a blood smear observed under the
microscope there will be several types of corpuscles in it.
Blood

Corpuscles Plasma

Red Blood White platelets

cells Blood cells

Granulocytes Non-Granulocytes

Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils Lymphocytes Monocytes

Red Blood cells (Erythrocytes)

One cubic milimetre of human blood contain
about five million of red blood cells. These red
coloured and biconcave disc-like cells are clearly
visible among the other corpuscles. They form in
red bone marrow.The life span of RBC is about
four months. Absence of nucleus in red blood
cells provides a large surface area to absorb more
oxygen. A pigment called haemoglobin is present
Figure 6.19 - Red blood cells in red blood cells. Haemoglobin absorbs oxygen
under electron microswpe and form oxyhaemoglobin to transport oxygen to
cells.

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White Blood cells (WBC)

A type of corpuscle, larger than the size of red blood cells, but smaller in number is
present in blood. They are with nuclei and form in bone marrow. They are colourless
and known as white blood cells. The ratio between red blood cells to white blood
cells is 600:1
Two Types of WBC present in blood
”” Granulocytes
”” Non-granulocytes
Granulocytes are further divided into three types,
”” Neutrophils ”” Eosinophils ”” Basophils
Non-Granulocytes are in two types,
”” Lymphocytes ”” Monocytes
One cubic milimeter (1 mm3) of human blood contains 4 000-11 000 number of
WBC.
The following table shows the percentages of WBC in a healthy person.

Table 6.4 - Percentages of WBC in a healthy person

Types of corpuscle Variety and morphology Percentage ]
Granulocytes

Neutrophils
50 - 70

1-4
Eosinophils

0-1
Basophils

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Non-granulocytes

Lymphocytes 20 - 40

Monocytes 2-8

WBC destroy infectious particles that entered the body by phagocytosis. Therefore
percentages of WBC increase above normal levels. Invertigation of WBC counts in
blood helps to diagnose diseases.
The function of WBC is to protect the body from infectious particles entered the
body. This is done by phagocytosis and by producing antibodies.
Platelets
In addtion to RBC and WBC there are fragments of cells that cannot be considered
as cells in human blood. These corpuscles without nuclei are known as platelels.
One cubic milimeter of blood contains 150 000-400 000 platelels. They form in
marrow bone. Life span of platelets is approximately 5-7 days. Due to diseases
like Dengue and Leptospirosis, platelet count drops drastically. Platelels contain
thromboplastin which help in coagulation of blood.
Blood plasma
92% of blood plasma is water. Other than it the second most abundant compound
is protein. Nutrients, nitrogenous waste, hormones, enzymes, gases and ions are
present in blood plasma.
Blood Plasma

Water protein Nutrients Ions Nitrogenous Gases

Hormones
Anibiotics
Antigens

²² Albumen ²² Monosaccharides ²² Na+ byproducts ²² O2

²² Globulin ²² Amino acids ²² K+ ²² Urea ²² CO2
²² Fibrinogen ²² Fatty acids ²² Ca2+ ²² Uric acid ²² N2
²² Glycerol ²² Mg2+ ²² Creatinine
²² Vitamin ²² Cl-
²² PO43-
²² SO42-
²² HCO-3
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Function of blood
yy Transportation of materials (digested end products respiratory gases,
excretory byproducts, hormones, platelets, mineral ions and proteins)
yy Protect body against pathogenic microbes
yy Maintenance of chemical coordination and homeostatis among tissues and
organs
Blood Circulation
Do the following activity to observe blood circulation of cappillaries.

Activity -- 6'3
Observation of blood circulation in blood cappillaries
Materials required:- A small live fish or tadpole, A glass slide, Wet
cotton, A microscope
Method :- yy Place the small live fish or
tadpole on the slide and cover
the gills with wet cotton
yy Observe the blood capillaries in
Figure 6.20 - A slide with tail area under light microscope
a tadpole yy Change the specimen in 10
minutes time to keep it live

You have observed the flow of blood within the blood vessels in the above activity.
The force generated by the heart helps to distribute blood through the body. Carry
out the activity below to understand the structure of the heart.

Activity -- 6'4
Observe the structure of the heart
Materials required:- A specimen or a model of a heart
Method :-
²² Observe the external struture of the heart
²² Observe it's internal chambers, connected arteries and veins, bicuspid and
tricuspid valves.
²² Observe that the atrial walls are thinner than vetricular walls and the
thickest wall in the left ventricle.
²² Use the diagram 6.21 to identify the parts.

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Superior vena cava

Aorta
Right pulmonary artery Left pulmonary
artery
Left Pulmonary
Right Pulmonary veins
veins
Right atrium Left atrium

Bicuspid valve
Tricuspid valve
(Mitral valve)
Semi lunar
Inferior vena cava valves

Right ventricle Left ventricle

Figure 6.21 - A longitudinal section of the human heart

Oxygenated blood
Head
Deoxygenatel blood

Lungs Artery that carries blood to head and hands

Pulmonary artery Pulmonary veins
Inferior vena-cava
Hepatic vein Hepatic artery
Liver
Hepatic portal vein Artery that supplies blood to the intestines
Intestine
Renal artery
Renal vein Kidney
Artery that carries
Artery that carries blood to lower
blood from lower
parts of the body and lags
parts to the heart

Figure 6.22 - Blood circulation of human

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Double blood circulation
The circulation where
Lungs
fmkye,s blood flows through lungs
is known as pulmonary
mqmaMPulmonary
qYSh Ouks artery
h Pulmonary
mq maMqYSh veins
Ysrdj circulation. The
circulation where blood
Superior vena cava
Inferior vena cava
Systemic
uyd Ouks h flows through the rest of
artery
wOr uyd Ysrdj
wOr uyd Ys r dj other organs is known as
Systemic circulation.
Right ventricle of the heart
Organs
wjhj
wjhj acts as the pump for the
pulmonary circulation, and
Figure 6.23 - Double blood circulation
left ventricle for the
6'4'5 rEmh ¡ oaú;aj reêr ixirKh systemic circulation. So it
is clear that blood flows twice through heart before entering into systemic artery. In
human, when the blood circulates once through the body it flows twice through the
heart. This is called as double blood circulation.

Heart beat and Cardiac cycle

Atria and Ventricles of heart contract to pump blood out of the heart. These
contractions and dialations of heart muscle are known as heart beat. The heart
beat rate of a healthy person at rest, is 72 beats per minute. Pulse rate is also similar
to heart beat rate. In one heart beat atria contract when ventricles dialate. Next
ventricles contract, atria dialate. Contraction of atria is known as diostole whereas
contracion of ventricles is known as systole. After that atria and ventricles are in
relax mode and it is known as intervening.
Cardicac cycle refers to a complete heart beat from its generation to the beginning
of the next beat. The stages of cardiac cycle are as follows;

1) Diastole - Atrial contraction

2) Systole - Ventricular contraction
3) Intervening - Atrial and Ventricular relaxation (complete cardiac diastole)

Electro cardio gram (E .C .G) is used to get information about heart function.
This tracing denote the potential changes take place in cardiac muscle cells during
heart funtion. Three stages of cardiac cycle can be identified in ECG

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Figure 6.24 - Electro cardio gram of a healthy person

P - Atrial contraction
QRS - Ventricular contraction
T - Intervening
ECG wave patterns deviate from normal patterns due to disfunction of heart.
Lub - Dup sound in heart beat can be heard by keeping ear or stethescope on
chest. Lub sound is longer than Dup sound. Lub sound is produced when
bicuspid and tricuspid valves close in atrial contraction. Next produce lup sound
and it is shorter. This lub sound is resulted when semi lunar valves close.
Blood pressure
When heart beats, it contracts and pushes blood through the arteries to the rest of
the body. This force creates pressure on the ateries. This is called systolic blood
pressure.

A normal systolic blood pressure is

110-120 mmHg. Diastolic blood pressure
is the pressure in the arteries when heart
rests between beats. A normal diastolic
blood pressure is between 70-80 mmHg.
Blood presure is measured in millimeters
Figure 6.25 - Measuring of blood pressure of mercury (mmHg).

Normal resting blood pressure is mentioned as follows

Blood presure (B.P) } 120$80 mm Hg

Ageing, stressful mentality, sex, diseases of a human are the factors that can increase
blood pressure.
Another transportation system closely linked with blood circulatory system is
present in human body and it is known as Lymphatic system.

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Lymphatic system
Heart Artery Blood capillaries transport
Network of capillaries blood through cells in the
tissues. Blood capillary cell
walls are very thin but only
Body tissuse WBC and blood plasma can
move through the capillary
wall. RBC and some plasma
proteins cannot move
Vein through capillary wall. This
Lymph vessels fluid moved to tissue is
Figure 6.26 ¡ Relationship between blood
known as tissue fluid.
circulation and lymph circulation
Materials exchanged within
body cells and blood occurs through this tissue fluid.

Right ol=
subclavian
Kq wfOdalaI vein
Ysrdj Left
jï wfOdasubclavian
laI
Right lymphatic
ol=Kq jid m%K duct
d,h veinYsrdj
Lymphjid nodes
.eá;s Thoracic
Wria m%Kd,hduct

Intestines
wka ;%h

Figure 6.27 - Human

6'4'9 rEmh ¡ ñksilymphatic
df.a jidsystem
moaO;sh
Tissue fluid is absorbed back to capillaries while 1/10 th of it remain within
intercellular spaces. This remaining tissue fluid connect with blood circulatory
system through a special tubular system known as lymphatic system.
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The tissue fluid flowing in the lymphatics is called lymph.
Lymphatic system consists of lacteals, Lumph capillaries and lymph nodes.
Lymph is flowing due to pressure caused by muscles around lymph vessels. All
the lymph vessels in the body form two main vessels. They are,Thoracic duct and
right lymphatic duct. Lymph empties into venous circulation at the junction of
internal jugular vein and sub clavian vein.
Main function of lymphatic system is destruction of infectious organisms like
bacteria. WBC in lymph nodes destroy them by phagocytosis. Then these lymph
nodes become more active and swollen. These swollen lymph nodes are known as
kuddeti. Lymph nodes can be found mostly around lungs, heart like organs, skin,
arm pits and throat.
Diseases associted with blood circulatory system
Assignment - 6'5
Prepare a booklet about diseases associated with blood circulatory system
and preventive measures to control them. Collect information about
following disorders and compare them with given facts.
²² Artherosclerosis
²² Heart attack
²² Hypertension
²² Thrombosis

Artherosclerosis
Cholesterol is an essential lipid compound produced by the liver. As cholesterol is
insoluble in water it is transported as lipo proteins by combining with proteins. Lipo
proteins are of two types. Low density lipo proteins ^LDL& and High density lipo
proteins ^HDL&. Excessive amount of low density lipo proteins deposit in coronary
arteries and other arteries. Thereby the size of the lumen in arteries reduces. The
lipid deposits like this in arteries are called Arthero and the condition that occur is
called Artherosclerosis.
Due to blocking of coronary arteries, the blood supply to heart is affected. Some parts
of the cardiac muscle will be failed to function causing angina (Chest pain). Due
to blockage of coronary arteries the region of the cardiac muscle will not recieve
blood and that region is failed. This condition is called heart failure.
The reason to increase LDL is consumption of food containg high amount of saturated
fatty acids (beef, pork, mutton, full cream milk, egg yolk, prawns, and liver). By
controlling such food types and regular exercises can control artherosclerosis.
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Hypertention and hypotention
Due to deposition of cholesterol inside arteries, the size of the lumen reduces.
Therefore blood supply to different organs get lowered. So to supply required
amount of blood, heart has to excert more pressure. The higher pressure excerted
onto the arterial wall is called hypertention pressure. Reduction of elasticity of the
artery or arterile wall also a reason for hypertention.
Reduction of consumption of saturated fatty acid is important to control this
condition. One has to avoid smoking, consumption of alcohol, mental stress, obesity
to control hypertension.
Hypotension is the low blood pressure. The blood become less than the normal.
Low blood pressure occurs mostly due to nurient deficiencies. During this condition
one has to get treatments to increase blood pressure to normal quickly.

Thrombosis
When blood supply to a certain organ is affected due to a blood clot in a blood
vessel is called thrombosis. If blood supply to a part of the brain is affected due to a
blood clot, the organs that are controlled by that part of the brain fail. This condition
is normally called paralysis. If the function of heart is affected due to a blood clot
in the coronary artery it is called coronary thrombosis. Due to this, heart attack
may occur.
Thrombosis can be controlled by steps taken from child hood. They are as follows,
²² Avoiding alcohol and smoking
²² Reduction of consumption of food containing saturated fatty acids.
²² Consumption of food with more fibre
²² Reduce salt consumption
²² Control of diabetes
²² Reduce body weight by proper food habits
²² Regular physical excercises
²² Peaceful mental status

If there is a record about heart attacks, hypertension, diabetes in family history, one
has to be more careful about this condition.

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6.5 Coordination and homeostasis in human

Do you remember taking away your leg, when a thorn pricks your foot? This action
has taken place as living beings have the ability to respond to stimuli coming from
external and internal environments. That is known as irritability. Above response
is due to adaptation of body according to the changes of external and internal
environments. That is called coordination. The change that takes place in the
external environment which is detectable by the sensory organs is called a stimulus.
The organs that can detect (sense) the stimuli are called sensory organs (receptors).
Eye, nose, ear, tongue and skin act as sensory organs.

Assignment - -6'6
Complete the table using different receptor organs and the stimulus that can
be detected.
Sensory organ Stimulus that is detected
Eye Light energy
Ear '''''''''''''''''''''
Nose '''''''''''''''''''''
Tongue '''''''''''''''''''''
Skin '''''''''''''''''''''

The reaction for a stimulus is known as a response. The response is done by

effectors. Muscles or glands act as effectors.
Recall the incident about the thorn prick. The pain due to thorn prick is the stimulus.
The receptor of that stimulus is the skin. Taking the foot away is the response to
that stimulus. Responding is done using muscles of the foot and that is the effector.

Assignment - 6'7
When you sense smell of tasty food saliva is secreted into the mouth. State
the stimulus, sensory organ, response and effector in this action.

You will understand that there should be a proper communication between organs/
tissues to carry out body functions smoothly. Identification of the changes in the
external and internal environments and responding accordingly is done by the
coordination.

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For coordination, two inter connected but different systems present in the human
body.
²² Nervous system
²² Endocrine system
The coordination done by nervous system, is called nervous cordination, and
coordination by endocrine system is called chemical coordination

Nervous coordination
Due to an electro chemical change in the nerves, impulses are transmitted through
nerves. A proper coordination is maintained between the receptor and the effector.

The nervous coordination takes place with the involvement of the nervous system.

The structural unit of the nervous system is the neuron. There are three types of
neurons in the nervous system.
²² Sensory neuron
²² Motor neuron
²² Inter neuron
The nervous system is mainly composed of two components. They are the central
nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The structure of it can be shown by
the following simplified diagram.

Nervous system

Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system

Brain Spinal cord Cranial nerves Spinal nerves

Cerebrum (12 pairs) (31 pairs)
Cerebellum
Medulla oblongata

Central nervous system

Central nervous system is very important in controlling of activites and coordination.
Brain and spinal cord belong to central nervous system. Skull provides protection
to the brain and vertebral column to the spinal cord.

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Brain and spinal cord covered by meninges. There is a special fluid found within
the cavities of brain and between meninges. It is known as cerebro spinal fluid. The
functions of cerebro spinal fluid are given below,
²² Support brain and spinal cord
²² Absorption of shocks and jerks
²² Protection against microbial infections and dessication
²² Nourishing tissues

Brain
Brain is protected by the cranium and surrounded by three linings called meninges.
The brain is about 1/50 of the body weight. There are about hundred billion of
neurons. Other than neurons another accessory cells called neurogloea are present
in brain. The brain is composed of three main parts.
²² Cerebrum
²² Cerebellum
²² Medulla oblongata

Cerebrum

Cerebellum

Medulla oblongata

Figure 6.28 - External view of human brain

The peripheral region of the brain is composed of grey matter made up of cell
bodies and the interior with white matter made up of nerve fibres.
Assignment - 6'5
Take a model / live specimen of a mammalian brain and identify the parts of
it with the guidance of the teacher.

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Cerebrum

Cerebrum is the
Cerebrum
largest and most
highly developed
part of the brain. It is
Pituitary divided into left and
Cerebellum
Medulla right hemispheres.
oblongata Spinal cord The cortex of the
cerebrum is highly
convoluted to
increase the surface
Figure 6.29 -¡ Longitudinal section of human brain area. The left cerebral
hemisphere controls the right half of the body and the right cerebral hemisphere
controls the left part of the body.

Functions of cerebrum
²² Perception of impulses from receptors, identification of received sensory
information and storage of those information.
²² Perception of senses about pain, vision, temperature, taste and smell.
²² Perform high mental activities such as learning, intelligence and thinking.
²² Controlling of voluntary muscle contraction.
Cerebellum
This is located just below the latter part of the cerebrum. It consists of two
hemispheres. It is of grey matter in the outer layer and white matter in the interior
layer.
Functions of cerebellum
²² Maintenance of body balance
²² Control of voluntary muscle activity
²² Involve in maintenance of body movement
Medulla Oblongata
It is located anteriorly interior to cerebellum. It is an important centre in controlling
many life processes (all reflex actions and involuntary actions).
Functions of medulla oblongata
²² Control the rate of heart beat
²² Control the rate of respiration
²² Control reflex actions such as vomitting, caughing and swallowing.
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Spinal cord
It is a tubular structure
starting from medulla
White matter oblongata inferiorly
and runs through
Grey matter vertebral column.
Central canal
Peripherally white
matter and interiorly
grey matter is present
in the spinal cord. The
spinal nerves start
Figure 6.30 - Cross section of human spinal cord
symmetrically at either
side of the spinal cord.
Reflex arc

Sensory neurone Receptors receive

stimuli
Intermediate neurone
Effectors respond
Motor neurone to stimuli

Figure 6.31 - Reflex arc

Stimualtion of the pain Sensory Spinal cord Motor Effector

receptors in the skin Neurone (Intermediate neurone) Neurone (Muscles of leg)

We know that there is a proper co-ordination maintained by nervous system between

the receptors and effectors in the body. The impulses are sent from receptors to the
central nervous system and from central nervous system into the effectors. The
functional unit of the nervous system that maintains the coordination is called the
reflex arc.
Three types of nerve cells involve in a reflex arc. They are sensory neuron, inter
neuron and motor neuron. The reflex actions take place with the involvement of the
reflex arc.
Reflex actions
A sudden, involuntary response to a particular stimulus is called a reflex action.
They take place without the conciousness of the involvement of the brain.
The reflex actions are of two types, as spinal reflexes and cranial reflexes.
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Examples for spinal reflexes
yy Moving the hand away when it contacts with a hot surface
yy Lifting the leg when you step on a thporn
Examples for cranial reflexes
yy Sneezing
yy Salivation
yy Blinking eyelids
Assignment - 6'8
State the reflexes you encounter in day today life

Autonomic Nervous System

The nervous supply from the autonomous nervous system is to the internal organs
of the body which are involuntarily controlled. This nervous system coordinates
involuntary activities in the body.
The coordinating centres of the autonomous nervous system are hypothalamus and
medulla oblongata. The autonomous nervous system is composed of two parts.
²² Sympathetic nervous system
²² Parasympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems cause opposite effects. The
sympathetic system activates when a person is at emergency. It causes fight or flight
effects.

Figure 6.32 - Fight or flight effect caused by sympathetic system

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The changes that occur due to the activities of sympathetic system, will be neutralised
by the parasympathetic system.

Reduces size Increases size

of pupil of pupil
Stimulates Inhibits saliva
saliva secretion secretion
Increases heart
Reduces heart
beat rate
beat rate
Increases rate of
Decreases the rate aeration of lungs
of aeration of lungs

Increases
peristalysis

™
Parasympathetic nervous
system
Sympathetic nervous
š Decreases
peristalsis

system
Figure 6.33 - Parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous supply on body organs

Chemical co-ordination
Chemical co-ordination is also important as nervous co-ordination to the survival
of organism. Hormones secreted by endocrine glands are important in chemical
co-ordination. Endocrine glands or ductless glands secrete hormones, directly into
blood stream. So hormones are transported through blood.
Features of hormones -
yy Hormones are oraganic compounds
yy They are transproted through blood
yy Produced at one site and act on another site
yy Stimulate target organs or target cells
yy Small concetration is required

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The endocrine glands of human body
There are several endocrine glands
located in human body. The main Hypothalamus
endocrine glands are mentioned Pituitary gland
below.
²² Pituitary Thyroid
²² Thyroid
²² Hpothalamus
²² Pancreas
²² Adrenal gland Adrenal glands
Kidneys
²² Gonads (testes and ovaries) Pancreus

Ovaries

Testes

Figure 6.34 - Location of endocrine glands in human

body

Table 6.5 - Several hormones secreted by endocrine glands of human

Gland Location of gland Hormone Utility
Pituitary Below the Growth Increase protein synthesis.
hypothalamus hormone Growth of ordinary body
tissues. Growth of long
bones.
Thyroid Posterior to tracheal Reduce calcium level in
and dorsal part of Calcitonin blood.
neck
Thyroxin Control metabolic rate

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Pancreas In the bend of Insulin Canvert glucose into

duodenum between glycogen
stomach and large Glucogen Convert glycogen into
intestine glucose

Adrenal Above the kidneys Adrenaline Prepare body to activate

glands in an emergency

Testes Outside the Testosterone Development of

abdominal region secondary sexcual
Characteristics in boys
Induces
Spermatogenesis
Ovaries Below the kidneys Oestrogen Development of
secondary sexual
Progesterone Characteristics in girls
Maintenance of
pregnancy

Homeostasis
Maintenance of constant internal environment is called homeostasis.
The internal environment is the immediate surrounding of the cell which provides
medium for the cell to survive. The tissue fluid around cells, the plasma around
blood cells and lymph are included into the internal environment.
When internal environment is constant, the conditions inside cells is also constant.
If there is a small change in the internal environment it highly affects the cellular
activities. Therefore the internal environment should maintain stable conditions or
within a narrow range, which can be tolerated by the cells. If not, automatic control
system will be active with feedback mechanisms.
The factors in the internal environment that has to be regulated
²² Blood glucose level
²² Body temprature
²² Water balance

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Regulation of blood glucose level
The blood glucose level of a healthy adult is 80-120 mg/100 ml of blood. When
blood glucose level is greater than the normal level beta cells in islets of langerhans
in pancreas secrete more insulin. This hormone converts glucose into glycogen and
then glycogen store in liver. Further excess glucose is converted to fat and stored
in adipose tissue.
When blood glucose level is less than normal (when a person is starving) alpha
cells in islets of langerhans in pancreas are stimulated to secrete more glucogen.
This glucogen acts on glycogen stored in liver to convert it into glucose and release
into blood. The blood glucose level will be increased to normal level.
Due to the activities of insulin and glucogen. The blood glucose level is regulated.
Due to absence of beta cells or secretion of insulin will cause diabetes.
Regulation of body temperature
Human is a homoithermic organism. Homoithermic means maintenance of constant
body temperature irrespective to the fluctuations of temperature in the environment.
Normal body temperature of human is 37 0C. But it can vary from 36 0C to 37.5 0C.
The thermo regulatory centre of the human is present in the hypothalamus of
the brain. When environmental temperature drops to avoid the decrease of body
temperature, hypothalamus stimulates and carries out the activities below.
²² Reduce blood supply to skin to reduce heat loss, by contracting blood
capillaries in the skin.
²² Reduce production of sweat in sweat glands and reduce heat loss.
²² The hairs become erect and trap an air layer to act as a heat insulating layer.
²² If the heat loss is high, heat is generated by shivering.
When temperature of the internal environment increases, to prevent the increase of
body temperature, the hypothalamus stimulates to activate the processes as follows,
²² Dialate blood vessels in the skin and thereby increase blood supply to skin and
increase heat loss.
²² Increase sweat production by sweat glands. When sweat is evaporated heat is
absorbed by body and decrease body temperature.
Regulation of body temperature is done by the hypothalamus.
Regulation of water balance
When the water level of blood drops, pituitary secretes ADH (Antidiuresis hormone).
This ADH acts on kidney to increase reabsorption of water, thereby reduce the
amount of water released with urine.
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When water level in blood is high, the reabsorption of water decreases and the
amount of water released with urine increases. Accordingly water balance in the
body is regulated.

Summary

• Digestion, respiration, blood circulation, excretion and coordination are

several biological processes that take place in human body.
• Food digestion is the prossess by which the complex organic compounds
are converted into simple organic products which absorbs into the human
body.
• Enzymes are important in food digestion. Glucose from carbohydrates,
fatty acids and glycerol from lipids and amino acids from protein are the
end products of food digestion.
• Bile helps to emulsify lipids in lipid digestion.
• Several medicine, vitamins, alcohol and glucose are some of the materials
absorbed directly into blood, without digestion.
• Respiration is the prosses of oxidation of simple foods within living cells.
• Respiratory system involves in taking oxygen into lungs and release of
gaseous waste products out of lungs.
• Part of energy produced during anaerobic and aerobic respiration is lost and
rest will be deposited in ATP as chemical energy.
• Excretion is the removal of excretory products, produced during metabolism.
kidneys, skin and lungs are the organs which carry out excretion of human.
• The functional and the structural unit of kidney is nephon. The excretory
materials produced in nephrons is referred to as urine.
• Urinary system is the anatomical system which involves in the production
and removal of urine from the body.
• Circulating substances in the body and protecting the body from micro
orgamisms are the function of the blood circulatory system.
• Blood is composed of blood cells and plasma
• Heart functions as a pumping machine of the blood circulatory system.
It is a double blood circulation which consists of the systematic and
pulmonary circulation.
• The diastole, the systole and the intervening phase are the three major
stages of a cardiac cycle.

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²² In the lymphatic system, places where lymphatic vessels aggregate are

called lymph nodes. Germs that enter the body are distroyed within the
lymph nodes.
²² Maintaining proper balance between stimulus and response is called as
coordination.
²² The nervous system and the endocrine system involve in maintaining
coordination.
²² The structural unit of the nervous system is the neuron where as the functional
unit of nervous system is reflex arc.
²² Brain and spinal cord belong to central nervous system.
²² Reflex arc consists of motor neuron, sensory neuron and inter neuron.
²² Autonomous nervous system is important to control involuntary body
functions.
²² Autonomic nervous system is organized to control opposite actions via
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
²² Hormones which are secreted to the blood from the glands regulate the
chemical coordination of the body.
²² Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal enviroment free from
the changes in the external enviroment.
²² Regulating blood glucose, body temperature and water balance is important
in homeostasis.

Excercise
^1&
A part of the human digestive system is
1
shown in the figure. Answer the questions
raised on it.
Stomach I. Name the parts 1, 2, 3, 4
3
II. In the food that reaches stomach
4 a) Name one enzyme that could be
2 present in it.
b) Name two products of digestion
Duodenum
that could be present in it'

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Human body processes Biology

III. a) Name two enzymes which are added to the food in the stomach.
b) Proteins are digested partially in the stomach. Explain this using the
changes that occur in proteins.
IV. a) Name the enzymes which are in the digestive juice/ fluid secreted by the
organ No 2 to duodenum.
b) Name two secretions that influence lipid digestion.
c) Name the organs from which they are secreted.
V. Gastritis is a common disease of the digestive system. State three reasons
for this disease
VI. Why protein digestive enzymes do not digest the wall of the digestive
system.
^2& A
An organ which is related to
the respiratory process and its
B
internal structure is shown in
C the figures.

D
a) Answer the following questions.
i). Name the parts A, B, C, D
ii). What is the respiratory surface shown in the diagram.
iii). Write two adaptations of that respiratory surface for the efficient gas
exchange.
iv). What are the differences in blood composition of the vessels P and Q?
v). To which chamber does the blood flow through Q?
vi). What is the illness which shows symtom, swelling of B, C parts due to
bacteria or virus infections?
b) Choose the correct answer
i) What is the respiratory product produced only in animals?
1) Energy 2) CO2 3) Ethyl alchohol 4) Lactic acid

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ii)Which of the following is not produced using anaerobic respiration

1) Alchohol 2) Biogas 3) Bread 4) Yogurt
^3& A figure of the structural and functional unit of the kidney is shown below.
i) What is this unit called?
B ii) Name the parts A, B, C, D, E.
iii) Briefly explain the functions
that occur in D.
iv) Name two substances absorbed
D into blood capillaries from the
F fluid that flows through tube F.
v) A urine test of a person revealed
A that urine had sugar in it. What
is the disease that person is
C having. What are the reasons
for it?
E ^4& Following is a diagram of a
model of the human blood
circulatory system. Answer the
following questions regarding
that.
Head and i' Name the chambers A to D.
neck
Sub clavian Sub clavian ii Name the following blood vessels
vein artery
Arms a) E (c) G
b) F (d) H
iii In which form part of glucose is
G
E
A B
F stored in liver?
Inferior vena - cava

C D
Lung
iv Write the path of a glucose molecule
Lung
in blood from the liver to the kidney.
J K
Use symbols.
I v How many times does the glucose
Liver molecule pass through the heart when
H
transporting to the liver?
L
Intestine vi Write two differences in blood at E
and F.
M
Kidney

Legs

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Human body processes Biology

^5& i) Name the nurone which involve in the peripheral nervous system
a. Higher mental cognitive activities meta
b. Controlling the heart beat rate
c. Controlling swallowing
d. Controlling functions of the voluntary muscles
(ii) Name the nurons which involve in the peripheral nervous system.
(iii) What is the sub system of the autonomous nervous system that functions
mainly in an emergency.

Technical terms
Digestive system wdydr ÔrK moaO;sh \ª£õmkz öuõSv
Digestion ÔrKh \ª£õk
Pharynx .%iksldj öuõsøh
Oesophagus wkakfi%da;h PÍ®
Salivary glands fÄg .%kaÓ EªÌ }º
Epiglottis wmsýyaúldj ‰a_USÇÀÁõ´ ‰i
Bile ms; ¤zu®
Emulsification ff;f,daolrKh SÇ®£õUSuÀ
Peristalsis l%udl=xpkh _ØÖa _¸[PÀ Aø\Ä
Chyme wdu,ih Cøµ¨ø£¨ £õS
Appendix WKavql mqÉPh ShÀ ÁÍ›
Anus .=o ud¾.h SuÁÈ
Faeces u, ©»®
Constipation u, noaOh ©»a]UPÀ
Diaphragm uyd m%dÖrh Á°Ø÷Óõmh®
Respiratory system Yajik moaO;sh _Áõ\z öuõSv
Respiration Yajikh _Áõ\®
Lungs fmkye,s ~øµ±µÀ
Ribs m¾Y= »õöÁߦ
Intercostal muscles wka;¾ m¾Y=l fmaYs £ÊÄUQøh uø\PÒ

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Aerobic respiration ijdhq Yajikh PõØÖa _Áõ\®

Anaerobic respiration ks¾jdhq Yajikh PõØÔßÔ¯ _Áõ\®
Nitrogenous excretory khsg%ckSh nysiai%dú ø|uµ\ß PÈĨ ö£õ¸Ò
products øjH
Excretory system nysiai%dú moaO;sh PÈÁPØÓÀ öuõSv
Excretion nysiai%djh PÈÁPØÓÀ
Kidney jDlalh ]Ö}µP®
Ureter uQ;%jdysksh ]Ö}º
Renal vein jDlalSh Ysrdj ]Ö}µP |õÍ®
Renal artery jDlalSh Ouksh ]Ö}µP |õi
Bladder uQ%;%dYh ]Ö}º¨ø£
Urethra uQ;% ud¾.h ]Ö}º ÁÈ
Nephron jDlaldKqj ]Ö}µPzv
Glomerulus .=Éýldj ÷PõÍĸÁõÚøÁ
Reabsorption m%;sfYdaIKh «Ò APzxÔg\À
Glomeular filtrate .=Éýld fmrKh ©°ºxøÍ
Afferent arteriole wNsjdys Ouksldj EmPõÄ|õi
Efferent arteriole wmjys Ouksldj öÁÎUPõÄ |õi
Bowman capsule fndauka m%djrh ÷©õ©Ûß EøÓ
Collecting duct ix.%dyl kd,sldj ÷\P›US® SÇõ´
Blood circulation reêr ixirKh _¸v _Ø÷Óõmh®
Blood corpuscles foaydKqq S¸vU P»[PÒ
Blood plasma reêr ma,diauh S¸v vµÁÂøǯ®
Red blood corpucle r;= reêrdKq ö\[S¸vU P»®
lKslduh ]Ö©o öPõsh
Granulocytes
iqÿ reêrdKqq öÁsSȯ®
lKslduh fkdjk iqÿ ]Ö©o¯ØÓ öÁs
Non- granulocycts
reêrdKqq Sȯ®
Atrium l¾Ksldj Cu¯ÁøÓ
Ventricle fldaIsldj ÷\õøn¯øÓ
Bicuspid valve oaú;=Kav lmdgh C¸Tº ÁõÀÄ
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Human body processes Biology

Pulmonary vein mqmaMqYSh Ysrdj ~øµ±µÀ |õÍ®

Pulmonary cirulation mqmamqYSh ixirKh ~øµ±µÀ _Ø÷Óõmh®
Lymphatic system jid moaO;sh {n}ºz öuõSv
Systemic cirulation ixia:dksl ixirKh öuõSv _Ø÷Óõmh®
Blood capillaries reêr flaYkd,sld S¸v ©°ºxøÍU SÇõ´
Systemic artery ixia:dksl Ouksh öuõSv¨ ö£¸|õi
Arterial system Ouks moaO;sh |õiz öuõSv
Venous system Ysrd moaO;sh |õÍzöuõSv
Coronary thrombosis lsÍgl f;%dïfndaish •i²¸ xöµõ®÷£õ]ì
Co-ordination iudfhdackh Cø¯£õUP®
Homeostasis iuiaÓ;sh J¸^ºzvh{ø»
Reflex arc m%;Sl pdmh öuÔ¨¦ ÂÀ
Reflex actions m%;Sl l%shd öuÔÂøÚ
Central nervous system uOH iakdhq moaO;sh ø©¯ |µ®¦z öuõSv
Autonomic nervous iajhx idOl ußÚõm] |µ®¦z
system iakdhq moaO;sh öuõSv
m%;Hdkqfõ.S
Parasympathetic system £µõ£›Ä |µ®¦z öuõSv
iakdhq moaO;sh

Sympathetic system wkqfõ.S iakdhq moaO;sh £›Ä |µ®¦z öuõSv

Endocrine system wka;rdi¾. moaO;sh APg_µUS¢ öuõSv

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