URBAN

INDICATORS
FOR MANAGING
CITIES
CITIES DATA BOOK

Editors:
Matthew S. Westfall
and Victoria A. de Villa
© 2001 by the Asian Development Bank
August 2001

This publication was prepared under the

Asian Development Bank’s Regional Technical
Assistance No. 5846: Development of the
Cities Data Book for the Asian and Pacific Region
by the Bank’s Water Supply, Urban Development
and Housing Division (East) of the Agriculture and
Social Sectors Department (East). The findings,
interpretations, and conclusions expressed do not
necessarily represent the views of the Bank or
those of its member countries.

ISBN 971-561-312-8

Publication Stock No. 090100

In this publication, the term ‘country’ does not

imply on the part of the Asian Development Bank
any judgement as to the legal or other status of any
territorial entity.

Please address inquiries for copies of this publication

to the Chief, Office of External Relations, Asian
Development Bank, P. O. Box 789, 0980 Manila,
Philippines.
Contents

Terms and Abbreviations vii

Foreword ix
Preface xi

Chapter 1: Urban Indicators for Asia’s Cities: From Theory to Practice 3

I. The Theoretical Problem 3
II. Applying the Theory: Measuring Human Development 5
III. Realities of the Contemporary Asian City 6
IV. Interpreting the Cities Data Book 13
Table 1.1 Urban Population 7
Table 1.2 Megacities, 1995 and 2015 8

Chapter 2: Urban Indicators and the Management of Cities 15

I. Data Collection 15
II. Urban Indicators Frameworks 16
III. Selection of CDB Urban Indicators 31
IV. Digital Information and the Internet 35
Table 2.1 Indicators Frameworks 19
Table 2.2 Spatial Themes of Eighth Thai Plan 1996:
Summary of Population Issues 20
Table 2.3 Neighborhood Revitalization Performance Targets for 2020,
Los Angeles, California 22
Table 2.4 Urban Metaphors as Sources of Urban Indicators 23
Table 2.5 Competitiveness Input Factors 25
Table 2.6 City Index Formulas Used in The Cities Data Book 35
Figure 2.1 The Data Triangle 17
Figure 2.2 Spatial Scales and Indicators 18
Figure 2.3 Policy Indicator Model 19
Figure 2.4 DPSIR Causal Indicators Framework 26
Figure 2.5 Extended Urban Metabolism Model Framework 26
Figure 2.6 Sustainable Development Indicators Framework 27
Figure 2.7 Domain Model for Environmental Health 27
Figure 2.8 Domains and Indicators Within the Framework of
ADB’s Urban Sector Strategy 31

Chapter 3: The CDB Process: Developing and Applying Urban Indicators 37

I. A Toolkit for Urban Managers 37
II. The Case Study of Asiaville 38
III. Linking Urban Indicators to City Goals 39
IV. Follow-on Work, Replication and Scaling Up 42
Table 3.1 ADB’s Urban Sector Goals, Strategies and Targets, and
Cities Data Book Indicators 43

Figure 3.1 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities 40

Chapter 4: The CDB Database 47
Urban Indicators 47
Summary Tables of Urban Indicator Data 93

Chapter 5: Comparing the Cities Data Base 129

I. The Context of the Cities Data Book 129
II. Developing a Framework for Analysis 131
III. Data Comparisons 137
IV. Towards Sustainable Cities 145
Table 5.1 CDB Cities Forming Part of UN-Defined Agglomerations 130
Table 5.2 Hologram Indicators 135
Figure 5.1 Cities Ranked by CDI 133
Figure 5.2 CDI vs. Local Government Capital Expenditures 133
Figure 5.3 CDI vs. Household Size 133
Figure 5.4 CDI vs. Floor Area Person 134
Figure 5.5 CDI vs. Households Below Poverty Line 137
Figure 5.6 CDI vs. $1 a day 138
Figure 5.7 Clustering Analysis of CDI 138
Figure 5.8 Rate of Population Increase 138
Figure 5.9 City Size 139
Figure 5.10 Women-Headed Households 139
Figure 5.11 Life Expectancy at Birth 139
Figure 5.12 City Product 139
Figure 5.13 Households Below Poverty Line 140
Figure 5.14 Informal Employment 140
Figure 5.15 Household Expenditure on Food 140
Figure 5.16 Persons per Hospital Bed 140
Figure 5.17 Internet Hosts per 1,000 Population 141
Figure 5.18 Automobile Ownership 141
Figure 5.19 Source of Revenue Transfers 141
Figure 5.20 Hologram for Dhaka 142
Figure 5.21 Hologram for Ulaanbaatar 143
Figure 5.22 Hologram for Cebu 144
Figure 5.23 Hologram for Melbourne 145
Figure 5.24 Hologram for Kathmandu 146
Figure 5.25 Hologram for Lahore 146
Figure 5.26 Hologram for Bangalore 146
Figure 5.27 Hologram for Colombo 146
Figure 5.28 Hologram for Medan 146
Figure 5.29 Hologram for Phnom Penh 146
Figure 5.30 Hologram for Bishkek 147
Figure 5.31 Hologram for Hohhot 147
Figure 5.32 Hologram for Hanoi 147
Figure 5.33 Hologram for Mandaluyong 147
Figure 5.34 Hologram for Naga 147
Figure 5.35 Hologram for Suva 147
Figure 5.36 Hologram for Hong Kong 148
Figure 5.37 Hologram for Seoul 148
Chapter 6: City Profiles 149
Bangalore 151
Bishkek 155
Cebu 161
Colombo 165
Dhaka 169
Hanoi 175
Hohhot 179
Hong Kong 185
Kathmandu 191
Lahore 197
Mandaluyong 203
Medan 207
Melbourne 211
Naga 215
Phnom Penh 221
Suva 225
Ulaanbaatar 231

Chapter 7: Notes and Sources 237

Bangalore 238
Bishkek 246
Cebu 258
Colombo 264
Dhaka 277
Hanoi 283
Hohhot 287
Hong Kong 293
Kathmandu 303
Lahore 313
Mandaluyong 327
Medan 342
Melbourne 347
Naga 359
Phnom Penh 380
Seoul 394
Suva 408
Ulaanbaatar 417

Appendixes 427
Appendix 1 Resources on the Internet: A Directory 428
Appendix 2 The CDB Workshops 430
Appendix 3 Cities Data Book Worksheet 432
Appendix 4 Calculations and Statistical Methods 446
Appendix 5 A Summary of the ADB’s Urban Sector Strategy 453
Appendix 6 City Hologram Ranking Scale 456

References 458
Abbreviations and Acronyms

Organizational Terms DHS Department of Health Services (Nepal)

ADP Annual Development Program (Bangladesh) Digitel Digital Telecommunications Philippines, Inc.
ARMM Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (Philippines) DILG Department of Interior and Local Government (Philippines)
Bayantel Bayan Telecommunications Corporation (Philippines) DOH Department of Health (Philippines)
BIR Bureau of Internal Revenue (Philippines) DOLE Department of Labor and Employment (Philippines)
BDA Bangalore Development Authority DOR Department of Roads (Nepal)
BRTC Bangladesh Road Transport Corporation DOST Department of Science and Technology (Philippines)
BTTB Bangladesh Telegraph and Telephone Board DOT Department of Tourism (Philippines)
CAR Cordillera Autonomous Region (Philippines) DPWH Department of Public Works and Highways (Philippines)
CB (BSP) Central Bank of the Philippines EHDAG Environment Health Development and Advisory Group
(Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas) (Nepal)
CBOs community-based organizations EMB Environmental Management Bureau (Philippines)
CBS Central Bureau of Statistics (Nepal) ENRO Environment and Natural Resources Office (Philippines)
CCP China Communist Party EPD Environment Protection Department (Hong Kong)
CDPS Central Department for Population Studies (Nepal) ERLTS Elevated Light Rail Transit Systems (India)
CEA Central Environment Authority (Sri Lanka) ESAs external support agencies
CHED Commission on Higher Education (Philippines) EU European Union
CIS Commonwealth of Independent States FEZ Free Economic Zone (Kyrgz republic)
CMC City Municipal Council (India) GOI Government of Indonesia
CMC Colombo Municipal Council GSIS Government Service Insurance System (Philippines)
Comelec Commission on Elections (Philippines) GTZ German Agency for Technical Cooperation Ltd.
CONCERN Estimation of Concern for Children in Nepal GUO Global Urban Observatory
CPN-UML Communist Party of Nepal Unified Marxist-Leninist HART Housing Assistance and Relief Trust (Fiji)
CPPCC Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference HCDC Housing and Community Development Council (Sri Lanka)
CSC Civil Service Commission (Philippines) HKSAR Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
CSD Commission on Sustainable Development HLURB Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board (Philippines)
CSCE Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe HMDF Home Mutual Development Fund/Pag-IBIG Fund
CSSA Comprehensive Social Security Assistance (Philippines)
CUP Coalition of Urban Poor (Bangladesh) HUDCC Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Committee
CWHKTT Cable and Wireless HKT Telephone Ltd (Philippines)
(formerly Hong Kong Telephone Company Ltd) ICIMOD International Center for Integrated Mountain Development
CWIN Child Workers in Nepal ICLEI International Council on Local Environmental Initiative
DAEP Depressed Area Electrification Project (Philippines) IMAR Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (PRC)
DECS Department of Education, Culture and Sports (Philippines) IMF International Monetary Fund
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources ISIC International Standards Industry Classification
(Philippines) Islacom Island Communications, Inc. (Philippines)

vi
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural SP Sangguniang Panlungsod (Philippines)
Resources SSS Social Security System (Philippines)
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency STP Sustainable Township Program (Sri Lanka)
KCRC Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation (Hong Kong) SWS Social Weather Station (Philippines)
KHB Kartanaka Housing Board TEPA Traffic Engineering and Planning Agency
LGA local government area TGC Titas Gas Company (Bangladesh)
LGC Local Government Code (Philippines) TMC Town Municipal Council (Bangalore)
LGUs Local government units (Philippines) TNCs Transnational Corporations (Hong Kong)
LTO Land Transportation Office (Philippines) TUGI The Urban Governance Initiative (UNDP)
MERALCO Manila Electric Company UES Urban Environmental Sanitation (Pakistan)
MHPP Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning (Nepal) UK United Kingdom
MMDA Metro Manila Development Authority (Philippines) ULCs Urban Local Councils (Pakistan)
MTR Mass Transit Railway Corporation (Hong Kong) UN United Nations
MUDHC Ministry of Urban Development, Housing and Construction UNCHS UN Commission on Human Settlements
(Sri Lanka) UNCHS-Habitat UN Centre for Human Settlements – Habitat
NAIA Ninoy Aquino International Airport UNDP United Nations Development Programme
NC Nepali Congress UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
NCR National Capital Region (Philippines) UNESCO United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural
NCSO National Census and Statistics Office (Philippines) Organization
NEA Nepal Electricity Authority UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
NGOs non-government organizations UNTAC United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
NHMFC National Housing and Mortgage Finance Corporation USA United States of America
(Philippines) USAID U.S. Agency for International Development
NTC National Telecommunications Commission (Philippines) USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
NTC Nepal Telecommunication Corporation VSNL Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (India)
NTL National Trading Limited (Nepal) WASA Water and Sanitation Agency (Pakistan)
NSCB National Statistical Coordination Board (Philippines) WAPDA Water and Power Development Authority (Pakistan)
NSO National Statistics Office (Philippines) WB World Bank
NSSO National Sample Survey Organization (India) WECS Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (Nepal)
NWFP Northwest Frontier Province (Pakistan) WHO World Health Organization
NWSC Nepal Water Sewerage Corporation
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Technical Terms
PADS Port and Airport Development Strategy (Hong Kong) ACP Airport Core Program
PAG-ASA Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical Astronomical Service AMPS/DAMPS Advance Mobile Phone Service/
Administration Digital Advance Mobile Phone Service
PESO Public Employment Services Office (Philippines) BOD Biological Oxygen Demand - measure of amount
Piltel Pilipino Telephone, Inc. (Philippines) of organic pollution in water
PLDT Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company BOT build-operate-transfer
PNP Philippine National Police CBD central business district
PNR Philippine National Railways CDB Cities Data Book
POPCOM Population Commission (Philippines) CDI City Development Index
POs people’s organizations CEROI Cities Environment Reports in the Internet
PPA Philippine Ports Authority CNG Compressed Natural Gas
PMDFC Pakistan Municipal Development Fund Company CO Carbon Monoxide
PRC People’s Republic of China CO2 Carbon Dioxide
PTC Pakistan Telecommmunications Corporation CPI consumer price index
RAJUK Rajdhani Unnayan Kartripakha or Capital Development DMCs developing member countries
Authority (Bangladesh) EIA Environmental Impact Assessment (Hong Kong)
SLTelecom Sri Lanka Telecommunications EMRs extended metropolitan regions
SMART Smart Communications, Inc. (Philippines) EO Executive Order (Philippines)
SOEs state-owned enterprises (Vietnam, PRC Cambodia) EUMM Extended Urban Metabolism Model Framework

vii
GCP gross city product (Philippines) Measurement Units
GDP gross domestic product cu m cubic meter
GIS geographical information system Gj gigajoules
GIS global information system Hz AC alternating current in hertz
GNP gross national product kltr kiloliter
GSM Global Satellite for Mobile kWhr kilowatt hour
HDI United Nations Human Development Index ug/m 3
micrograms per cubic meter
IDD International Direct Dialing mld million liters per day
ISPs Internet Service Providers mt/mT metric tons
IRA Internal Revenue Allotment m2 square meter
LPG Liquid Petroleum Gas m 3
cubic meter
LRT Light Rail Transit mwh megawatt hour
MRH medium rise housing t/annum tons per annum
NDD National Direct Dialing teu twenty-foot equivalent units
NO2 Nitrogen Dioxide v volts
NOx Nitrogen Oxide v/c volume per capacity
O3 Ozone vph volume per hour
PABX Private Automatic Branch Exchange
Pb Lead
PD Presidential Decree (Philippines)
PM10 Particulate Matter with a mass medium aerodynamic
diameter less than 10 micrometers (um)
PMI Performance Measurement Indicators
POS point of sales
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
RA Republic Act (Philippines)
RETA Regional Technical Assistance
SAR Special Administrative Region
SCATS Sydney Coordinated Adaptive Traffic System
SO2 Sulfur Dioxide
SPM Suspended Particulate Matter
SRP South Reclamation Project
STD Standard Telephone Dialing
TNCs Transnational Corporations
SWM solid waste management
UPS Uninterrupted Power Supply
VOC Volatile Organic Compound

viii
Foreword

T
he fast pace of urbanization in the administrators to maintain adequate provi- In many cities in Asia,
Asian and Pacific region is a criti- sion of services. Other trends are exacerbat-
cal element of life in the Asian ing the situation. Increasing decentralization rapid growth has
Development Bank’s developing and complexities of management are extend-
member countries (DMCs). Already ing the responsibilities of local governments, outpaced the abilities
one third of the region’s population of some but without the necessary additional finan-
3.5 billion is living in urban areas and the cial or human resources. Moreover, the ex- and resources of city
share is forecast to increase by 54 percent by pectations of residents and other customers
2020. In fact, the majority of the new urban concerning lower cost and higher quality administrators to
growth will be in Bangladesh, People’s Re- services are increasing, but the required level
public of China, India, Indonesia, and Paki- of resources may not be available. In part an- maintain adequate
stan. Another feature of urbanization in Asia swer to the resource gap, private sector par-
is the growth of megacities, urban areas of ticipation in the provision of services is in- provision of services.
ten million or more population, in many creasing. At the same time, governments’
cases surrounded by extended metropolitan roles are moving away from directly provid-
regions extending up to 100 kilometers from ing services to an enabling role that empha-
the central built-up area. There are already sizes coordinating, regulating, monitoring,
nine megacities in the region, and 17 are and supporting the private sector.
forecast by 2015. This massive transformation Social and economic development of
of societies is having both positive and nega- urban areas is increasingly focused on local
tive effects. On the positive side, growing government management, with private sec-
urban centers can take advantage of agglom- tor participation. Consequently, local govern-
eration economies and globalization trends ments are expected to be an important focus
to generate jobs and increase incomes. It is of ADB’s governance and capacity building
forecast that over 80 percent of Asia’s eco- work during the next decade. However, most
nomic growth will come from its urban ar- cities in its DMCs are suffering from inad-
eas. On the negative side, some cities un- equate data and information, which has un-
dergoing rapid growth are suffering from dermined their ability to understand the com-
inadequate infrastructure and services, severe plex forces shaping their cities and to de-
environmental degradation, increasing traf- velop and test effective urban policies.
fic congestion, and proliferation of slums and These inadequacies affect many elements
squatter settlements. of urban management, strategic and sector
In many cities in Asia, rapid growth has planning, private sector involvement and
outpaced the abilities and resources of city more. For example, major economic data that

ix
 measure the health of an urban economy, to measure and evaluate the efficiency of
such as city product, investment, income dis- urban service delivery, and a network to ex-
parity and financial status, are seldom col- change information on the quality and effi-
lected. Data on population growth, rural– ciency of service delivery and urban manage-
urban migration, infrastructure and the en- ment between cities.
vironment are not available in a single loca- The outputs of the RETA are summarized
tion, or in a consistent format. Other data in this publication. A workshop was held in
are not collected at all, such as distribution September 1999 attended by city officials and
of job opportunities and city spatial struc- agency heads of the 18 participating cities,
ture. Scant information is available to help ADB staff, and observers and guests from a
understand the relationship between policy number of multilateral and bilateral devel-
initiatives and urban outcomes, or between opment agencies. The workshop participants
the performance of specific subsectors and agreed on the choice of indicators and data
broader social and economic development. to be collected in the selected cities. A sec-
City managers are missing out on opportu- ond workshop was held in February 2001,
nities to improve coverage and targeting of which explored how the exercise may be
services, and operational performance in carried forward and integrated into ADB’s
urban management. Cities can use the data operations. In addition to the publication
to establish performance benchmarks for set- of the book, production of a CD-ROM and
ting service standards or objectives, become installation of a website that highlights CDB
more customer–focused, identify best prac- RETA outputs have been undertaken.
tice, exchange information, and compare We are pleased to commend the Cities
progress with other cities. Data Book: Urban Indicators for Managing
While the World Bank, the United States Cities to all those involved in managing the
Agency for International Development, and urban sector, in Asia and throughout the
the Global Urban Observatory program of the world, particularly to those interested in the
United Nations Center for Human Settle- use of indicators and benchmarking. Cities
ments have been involved in developing in Asia and the Pacific face a host of chal-
urban indicators, a large gap has remained lenges to urban management and we are
until now. Recognizing the urgent need to confident that this report, and the network-
fill the gap, ADB approved this regional tech- ing that will take place among the cities, will
nical assistance (RETA) on Development of the be important tools for meeting those chal-
Cities Data Book for the Asian and Pacific lenges.
Region in June 1999. The RETA recognized
the need to focus on the role of improved
data, indicators, and benchmarking in man-
aging fast growing cities in the region and
to work closely with some of those cities to
improve their operational efficiency. The NIHAL AMERASINGHE
project was designed to remedy the endemic Director
data shortfalls and to demonstrate the appli- Agriculture and Social Sectors Department (East)
Asian Development Bank
cation of indicators to urban policy formula-
tion and implementation.
The objective of the RETA was to estab-
lish a policy-oriented urban indicators data-
base for research, policy formulation, moni-
toring of the development impact of inter-
ventions in the urban sector, comparison of
performance between cities, and improving
the efficiency of urban service delivery. The
RETA developed methodologies and criteria

x
Preface

T
he regional technical assistance ■ Melbourne (Australia) The Cities Data Book:
(RETA) for the Development of the ■ Phnom Penh (Cambodia)
Cities Data Book for the Asian and ■ Seoul (Republic of Korea) Urban Indicators for
Pacific Region was approved in ■ Suva (Fiji Islands)
June 1999 and consultancy services ■ Ulaanbaatar (Mongolia) Managing Cities is
were provided from August 1999 to Febru- In Phase II, lasting over six months, the
ary 2001. The work was undertaken in four main fieldwork of data collection was car- designed firstly for
phases, which necessarily overlapped. ried out, including checking of sources and
In Phase I, lasting five months, prepara- data by the CDB team at ADB headquarters policymakers and urban
tions were made for an initial workshop with in Manila.
participants from the 18 participating cities, In Phase III, three senior resource per- managers of cities in the
ADB staff, and resource persons. An indica- sons were recruited to prepare papers on (i)
tors questionnaire was prepared and pilot- Asia’s Urban Future, (ii) Urban Indicators and Asian and Pacific region.
tested in selected cities in the Philippines. the Management of Cities, and (iii) Compar-
The shortlist of participating cities was final- ing the Cities Data Base. In parallel, a sum-
ized before the workshop, while recruitment mary of ADB’s policy in the urban sector was
of domestic consultants in ADB’s develop- prepared and commentaries made on data
ing member countries was completed in Feb- presented in the book. Data collected from
ruary 2000. Officials from the cities assisted the cities were tabulated and organized for
the CDB team in drawing up the shortlist of further comparison and analysis. This phase
domestic consultants. was carried out over three months.
The selected participating cities in the Phase IV, covering the editing, publish-
region are as follows: ing, printing, and distribution of the book,
■ Bangalore (India) was completed in over four months. This
■ Bishkek (Kyrgyz Republic) phase was capped by a dissemination work-
■ Cebu, Mandaluyong, Naga (Philippines) shop in February 2001, where city officials
■ Colombo (Sri Lanka) and urban managers met to discuss the rel-
■ Dhaka (Bangladesh) evance of urban indicators in city manage-
■ Hanoi (Viet Nam) ment and learn from cities that have under-
■ Hohhot (People’s Republic of China) taken a similar exercise.
■ Hong Kong (People’s Republic of China) The Cities Data Book: Urban Indicators
■ Kathmandu (Nepal) for Managing Cities is designed firstly for
■ Lahore (Pakistan) policymakers and urban managers of cities
■ Medan (Indonesia) in the Asian and Pacific region. It should also

xi
 be valuable to the work of community-based affairs; and consultants Giles Clarke and Joe
and nongovernment organizations, busi- Flood. Special thanks goes to the CDB staff
nesses, as well as ADB staff, consultants, and Lora Lynn de Leon, Michelle Tan, Jennifer
other professionals involved in using urban Vicedo, Karen Guzman, Ram Cabrera who
indicators and performance benchmarking. was responsible for the layout and design of
The exercise intended to establish a cadre the book, and Stuart Sell who edited the
of city-level information resource persons publication.
and a network of city managers who are pre- We are also particularly honored by the
pared to devote at least some resources to participation of theme paper writers, nota-
using urban indicators and benchmarking in bly Sir Peter Hall, Professor of Planning at
their work, and to trigger reforms in their University College London; Terrence Gary
city environment. The network will act as the McGee, Professor at Institute of Asian Re-
information and dissemination point for best search, University of British Columbia; and
practice, contacts for other organizations in- Peter Newton, Chief Research Scientist, Com-
volved in the use of indicators, and advice monwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
to urban management professionals and oth- Organization and Associate Director of the
ers in civil society. Australian Housing and Research Institute.
Being an initial effort in collecting city In conclusion, I thank all those who have
level data, the results may not be statistically contributed to the success of the RETA, in-
foolproof. Despite the RETA team’s efforts cluding the mayors, city managers and staff
to standardize definitions of the indicators, of municipal offices, the local consultants
certain city nuances and local practices have based in each city, utility companies, and the
emerged. For this reason, the “Notes and many other organizations in the public and
Sources” section of this book explains the private sectors. I hope this will be the first
figures. The Notes may also provide a fuller phase of a sustained structure for research,
understanding of how the city manages its capacity building, and dissemination of
urban affairs. knowledge on the use of urban indicators
The RETA, its two workshops and this in city management so urgently needed in
report would not have succeeded without the region.
the hard work, professionalism, and enthu-
siasm of the participants from the 18 cities.
ADB expresses its appreciation to all partici-
pants and resource persons. We express our
thanks for the hard work and dedication of
the members of the RETA team—Matthew ASAD A. SHAH
Westfall, Senior Urban Development Special- Manager
ist/RETA Coordinator who conceptualized Water Supply, Urban Development
and Housing Division
and led this intensive exercise; Victoria de
Agriculture and Social Sectors Department (East)
Villa, who managed the RETA’s day-to-day Asian Development Bank

xii
URBAN INDICATORS FOR MANAGING CITIES
CHAPTER 1:

URBAN INDICATORS
FOR ASIA’S CITIES:
FROM THEORY
TO PRACTICE
Peter Hall

T
he Cities Data Book (CDB) for the Its ultimate expression, Pareto optimality, was Should policy try to
Asian and Pacific region is the lat- notably criticized by Amartya Sen:
est step on a long road. Economists If preventing the burning of Rome would encourage growth,
and others have wrestled for nearly have made Emperor Nero feel worse off, then
half a century with the problem of letting him burn Rome would have been making everyone richer
measuring human development, sometimes Pareto-optimal. In short, a society or an
loosely equated with quality of life, in na- economy can be Pareto-optimal and still be but maybe more unequal,
tions and in cities. They have faced massive perfectly disgusting (Sen 1970, 22).
problems in doing so, both in developing a This relates to a much more contempo- or should it worry about
strong theoretical underpinning, and in mea- rary debate raging among economists in lead-
suring the key variables. This introductory ing development institutions: should policy distribution?
chapter to the CDB first discusses the theo- try to encourage growth, making everyone
retical, conceptual, and measurement prob- richer but maybe more unequal, or should it
lems (Sections I and II). The CDB’s achieve- worry about distribution?
ment in addressing these problems is shown Amartya Sen has wrestled with these
in Section III, including a summary and over- paradoxes and has developed a fresh ap-
view of the main conclusions that are treated proach: there is a single universal definition,
in detail in Chapter 5. Finally, various prob- not of money, but of “capabilities” and
lems of interpreting the data are discussed “functionings.” People all have the same
in Section IV. 24 hours of the day. Subject to certain con-
straints, they can spend this time any way they
like. And they could do many more things,
I. THE THEORETICAL PROBLEM but this would depend on their potential,
Traditional neoclassical economics never which many of them fail to realize. As one
addressed such issues adequately. First, its commentator has written, for Sen, “The poor
scheme of utilities, or satisfactions, rarely dis-
tinguishes between the value of individual 1
Strictly, Bentham did allow that the marginal utility of income
utilities and all are to be treated as of equal diminished. He wrote: “The effect of wealth in the production of
value, so that (in Bentham’s immortal words) happiness goes on diminishing, as the quantity by which the
wealth of one man exceeds that of another goes on increasing:
pushpin is truly as good as poetry. Second, in other words, the quantity of happiness produced by a particle
it takes no account of income distribution, of wealth (each particle being of the same magnitude) will be
less and less at every particle; the second will produce less than
so that a gain in utility to a rich person must the first, the third than the second, and so on” (Pannomial Frag-
count the same as a gain to a poor person.1 ments, IV. 5). But this was not the way he was understood.
Sen’s focus throughout are poor because their set of capabilities is shows in his empirical examples, “income
small—not because of what they don’t have, levels may often be inadequate guides to such
is on the possibilities for but because of what they can’t do. In other important matters as the freedom to live
words, they can’t do very much with their long, the ability to escape avoidable morbid-
people, particularly poor time” (Desai 2000, 49). ity, or the opportunity to have worthwhile
Central to Sen’s theory, in the title of employment, or to live in peaceful and
people, to develop their his 1999 book, is the concept of develop- crime-free communities. These non-income
ment as freedom. The conventional view of variables point to opportunities that a per-
own lives; as he puts it, development, he argues, misses the fact that son has excellent reasons to value and that
substantive freedoms (such as access to basic are not strictly linked with economic pros-
“to favor the creation of education or health care or a job) do not perity” (Sen 1999, 291).
only contribute indirectly to growth of GDP There is a basic question about such
conditions in which (though of course they do); they are among indexes: do we ask people to measure their
the constituent components of development own conditions subjectively, or do we use
people have real (Sen 1999, 5). This ability to do valuable objective measures? Economists always argue
things simultaneously makes you free, and that the only true measure of someone’s
opportunities of judging also helps you achieve valuable outcomes; welfare is what that person feels: a “subjec-
Sen says it has a “generic similarity” to the tive” approach. But this gives problems.
the kind of lives they notion of “quality of life” (Sen 1999, 24). People may not be fully aware of their state:
This of course is particularly important poor people may not know how sick they
would like to lead.” for the development of poor countries. But are, for instance. They would certainly find
Sen points out that richer countries, too, it difficult to measure their own state against
often have deeply disadvantaged people, that of much richer people (Bliss 1993, 418-
who lack basic opportunities to get health 9). Even among people at about the same
care, or functional education, or gainful em- income level in a rich country, it would be
ployment, or economic and social security. hard for a member of the career-obsessed,
Sometimes such groups may have a life ex- consumer-oriented mainstream to judge the
pectancy no higher than that in much poorer state of a dropout in pursuit of an alterna-
countries. And women in many countries are tive lifestyle—or vice-versa (Bliss 1993, 428).
worse off than men (Sen 1999, 15). So an objective measure may be preferable.
Sen’s focus throughout is on the possi- But there is a specific problem with Sen’s
bilities for people, particularly poor people, concept of “capabilities”: it refers both to
to develop their own lives; as he puts it, “to what a person does get, and to what that
favor the creation of conditions in which person could get (Cohen 1993, 10). Sen
people have real opportunities of judging writes a lot about basic freedoms: to have
the kind of lives they would like to lead” enough to eat, to have good health. But, as
(Sen 1999, 63). This is essentially a theory of one critic writes, “being free from malaria is
empowerment, which he sums up in the not something that one does” (Cohen 1993,
word “functionings.” These, basically, are 21). It is not a freedom; it just happens to
things that people care about: they range from you. Sen’s real concern, it appears, is not
basics, like having enough to eat, to com- lack of capability as such: it is lack of food or
plex things like playing a valuable role in shelter or good health, which are much more
one’s community (Sen 1999, 75). We need basic. It is true that by being well-fed, one
to ask how far people are able to do these can do more things. But they are two differ-
things. This means that processes, such as ent things, and very often Sen is concerned
participation, are not just a means to an end; with the first (Cohen 1993, 23).
they are part of the end of development (Sen This problem might seem, literally, aca-
1999, 291). demic. But it becomes quite serious in soci-
Such freedoms may correlate only poorly eties above the level of satisfying their most
with conventional measures of economic de- basic needs. Here, as Sen recognizes, indi-
velopment, such as GDP per capita. As Sen vidual tastes enter (Cohen 1993, 26).

4 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Is there a resolution to these basic di- these deal with things that may be provided All this suggests that it
lemmas? One, perhaps, is that there must be for people, but are valued by virtually all
a set of basic capabilities common to all hu- people: life, health, lack of avoidable suffer- may be much easier to
man beings: to move about freely, to mate ing, the ability to read and write, and basic
with the partner of your choice, and to live shelter. It may become much harder later on develop objective indexes
a healthy and productive life (Desai 2000, in the development process, where larger
49). Beyond that, it may depend on the stan- differences in incomes often emerge, and at a fairly basic level on
dards of the society you live in: different in where the effects of different tastes loom
the Lao People’s Republic (Lao PDR) and larger. Here, value judgments may prove un- the development scale,
Singapore. In fact, Amartya Sen’s theory is a avoidable: we may determine that more edu-
very dynamic notion of freedom, based on cation is good, even though some people where these deal with
positive choice. may be disinclined to take the opportunity,
If we apply this to cities above the poor- or that drug or alcohol abuse are bad, though things that may be
est level, we find many people who have little some people think they are enjoying either
choice, whether or not they fully realize it. or both. And indeed, most indexes of hu- provided for people, but
They are well nourished and adequately man development do make such basic value
housed and in reasonable health. But beyond judgments, whether implicitly or explicitly. are valued by virtually all
this, their options are quite limited, even non-
existent. Consider poor children who drop people: life, health, lack
out of school. Their education (or the lack
II. APPLYING THE THEORY:
of it) will deny them the “capability” of a wide MEASURING HUMAN of avoidable suffering,
choice of jobs, or maybe of getting any job
DEVELOPMENT
at all. They will perhaps have the “capabil- Sen’s theory has been very influential in fram- the ability to read and
ity” to get into taking drugs or even dealing ing the concept of human development, now
in drugs, and perhaps getting into jail. Bad the subject of an annual report from the write, and basic shelter.
health may reduce their choice even further. United Nations Development Programme
If we consider their sisters, finding them- (UNDP).2 The United Nations (UN) Human
selves with a small child, without adequate Development Index (HDI), first published in
income, will certainly reduce their capabili- 1990, is designed to produce “real” indexes
ties quite massively. Living in an area which of development by using a variety of inter-
is dangerous, or dirty, or noisy may be physi- nationally comparable, and therefore “objec-
cally uncomfortable and psychologically dam- tive,” indexes. Slightly different sets are used
aging. Further, many of these happenings are for developing and developed countries; for
cumulative, piling constraints one on the developed countries they include
other. People may find themselves in a kind I longevity: life expectancy at birth (fe-
of snakes and ladders game where the lad- male/male); percent not expected to sur-
ders seem short and the snakes endless. And vive to 60;
choices, made without much forethought (or I knowledge: adult literacy rate; enroll-
any thought at all), early in life, may prove ment ratio; female and male rates; adult
to have fatal consequences later on. functional literacy rate; female and male
So these points are far from academic. combined enrollment ratio; and
People’s “capabilities” and “functionings,” in I decent standard of living: adjusted per
an advanced welfare state at the beginning capita income in purchasing power par-
of the 21st century, can mean that things have ity in US$, male and female shares; per-
been done for them, without much con- centage of people living below the in-
scious effort on their part. But in another come poverty line (50 percent of median
sense, they have very little of either: their personal disposal income) (UNDP 1999,
“life chances” are hugely circumscribed. 127).
All this suggests that it may be much 2
UNDP Human Development Report. Sen confesses that he was
easier to develop objective indexes at a fairly originally skeptical about the idea of a single human develop-
basic level on the development scale, where ment index, but now accepts it (UNDP 1999, 23).

Urban Indicators for Asia’s Cities: From Theory to Practice 5

In developing the As Sen suggested, the UNDP indexes sional, involving different aspects which
show no clear relationship to the conven- have different indicators, or may be ex-
indicators for the CDB, tional index of income per capita. Spain, pressed as indexes or linear combina-
Singapore, Georgia, Turkey, Morocco, and tions of indicators; and
ADB considered a Lesotho all fall within the HDI range between I the systems approach of the Organisation
0.894 and 0.582, yet real GDP per capita in for Economic Co-operation and Develop-
number of objectives. Spain is 8.5 times that of Lesotho (UNDP 1999, ment (OECD), now used to support
129). Countries with similar GNP per capita, Agenda 21 and other environmental
The book must appeal to such as Sri Lanka and Côte d’Ivoire ($700- sustainability agendas. This differs from
800/head), can show huge variations in HDI: the policy-driven approach because it
urban managers and life expectancies that range from 46.7 to 73.1, begins with a simple, but explicitly physi-
adult literacy rates ranging from 42.6 to cal, model or systems diagram of the city
urban development 90.7, and overall HDI ranging from 0.422 or the environmental system, within
to 0.721 (UNDP 1999, 129, 135-7). It seems which the various actors operate, and in
practitioners, so the that such general worldwide indexes may be which linkages and causality between
better at exposing differences at the lower end various sectors are delineated.
indicators should of the development scale, than at the top. In developing the indicators for the
But the UNDP indexes are not the only CDB, ADB considered a number of objec-
measure policy kind. As Chapter 2 shows, the three separate tives. The book must appeal to urban man-
approaches to indicator construction being agers and urban development practitioners,
outcomes. applied by different agencies are so the indicators should measure policy out-
I a policy-related approach originating in comes. Specifically, they should address
the social indicators movement of the late ADB’s major strategic objectives, as expressed
1960s, and now used in the World Bank/ in its current Urban Sector Strategy, and there
United Nations Centre for Human Settle- should be consultation in establishing them.
ments (UNCHS) Indicators Program and Because of these considerations, it was felt
the Global Urban Observatory. Such in- that the policy-based approach of the UNCHS
dicators typically stem from government Urban Indicators Program and World Bank/
or community concern in a particular UNCHS Housing Indicators Program would
area, and so are closely related to the be most appropriate. It could provide a com-
process of establishing urban strategies prehensive set of indicators, directly related
and policies. They work by developing to policy concerns and developed in full con-
a comprehensive inventory of major sultation. In addition, it has been shown ca-
social goals or norms, and then devising pable of producing a large collection of indi-
indicators to measure progress towards cators at affordable cost. Its main disadvantage
these goals. They are holistic, looking at is that, because it is produced through partici-
the health of cities or sectors as a whole; pation, the issues and the indicators both de-
inclusive, covering areas beyond the pend on the expert group that chooses them.
realm of a single management structure; There is no systematic scheme that underlies
and pluralist, intended to foster or in- the selection; nor will new indicators be gen-
form a dialogue between the different erated. But these were not felt to be particu-
parties involved in urban development; larly decisive in the present exercise.
I a thematic/index approach used by UNDP
and in State of the Environment report-
ing. This works by establishing broad III. REALITIES OF THE
themes or concepts rather than specific CONTEMPORARY ASIAN CITY
policy goals, and is not necessarily di- Asia’s Urban Challenge
rectly associated with a strategy. Such
broad themes, livability, sustainability, or Nowhere is the urban challenge more starkly
good governance, are not directly ob- evident than in Asia. Today, 38 percent of
servable, but are either multidimen- the population is urban; by 2020, the per-

6 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 By 2015, the UN predicts
Table 1.1. Urban Population

Urban Population (%) Urban Population Growth Rate (%) there will be 358

1980 2000 2020 1980-85 2000-05 2020-25

‘million-person’ cities,
World 39 47 57 2.6 2.2 1.7
Africa 27 38 49 4.4 4.0 3.0
cities with a population
Europe 69 75 80 0.8 0.3 0.1
North America 74 77 82 1.2 1.0 0.9
Central America 60 67 73 3.1 2.0 1.5 of one million or more,
South America 68 80 85 3.1 1.8 1.1
Asia 27 38 50 3.6 2.8 2.0 in the world: no less
Oceania 71 70 72 1.4 1.3 1.3
Developing Countries 29 41 52 3.8 2.9 2.1
than 153 will be in Asia.
Developed Countries 71 76 81 0.9 0.5 0.3

Source: World Resources 1998-99. And of the 27

‘megacities,’ with ten

centage will be 50 (Table 1.1). There will be corridor, and Japan’s Tokaido corridor. In million people or more,
a doubling of the urban population between several of these, the problems that arise from
2000 and 2025 with an urbanization rate of sheer size, like supplying basic services, trav- predicted for the year
around 3 percent per year. Already, there are eling from home to work and disposing of
an estimated 200 million surplus workers in waste, already prove daunting; they are cer- 2015, 18 will be in Asia.
the rural areas of the People’s Republic of tain to multiply in the coming decades.
China (PRC); during the 1980s and 1990s, These realities are compounded by there
this surplus labor joined in one of the most being no simple or easy relationship between
massive migrations in world history; perhaps size, complexity, and level of wealth. Emerg-
100 million have moved from farm to city ing megacities, like Asia itself, cover the whole
(Anon 1994). gamut of development, from very advanced
By 2015, the UN predicts there will be city-states (Hong Kong, Singapore) to very
358 ‘million-person’ cities, cities with a popu- low-income cities that are just beginning on
lation of one million or more, in the world: the development path (Dhaka, Phnom Penh).
no less than 153 will be in Asia. And of the Further, many, though not all of them, exhibit
27 ‘megacities,’ with ten million people or great internal differences in income and liv-
more, predicted for the year 2015, 18 will ing standards: the classic general rule, enun-
be in Asia (Table 1.2). Urban experts now ciated long ago by Williamson (1965) (that
identify a new phenomenon among these income differentials increase during the early
megacities: an agglomeration of perhaps a stages of development, before narrowing
score of cities of different sizes, formerly sepa- again) certainly appears to apply to many of
rate, still retaining a physical identity, but con- these cities.
stituting a population mass of 20, even 30 Applying the earlier theoretical argu-
million people, and highly networked. ments to this situation, it can be concluded
Dejan Sudjic describes the Pearl River Delta that for many inhabitants of these cities, ba-
between Hong Kong and Guangzhou as “... sic measures will prove robust. Having
the world’s newest metropolis—a sprawling enough food to eat, living reasonably long,
monster city still in the throes of a violent enjoying a decent level of health, learning
birth” (Sudjic 1995, 27). By 2005, he suggests, to read and write, all are measurable and all
on present trends it may have 40 million provide measures of basic quality of life. But
people, the largest urban agglomeration in beyond basic levels, for some people in many
the world (Sudjic 1995, 30). Other such ag- cities and for almost all people in some cit-
glomerations include the Jakarta-Surabaya ies, it increasingly becomes a matter of lifestyle

Urban Indicators for Asia’s Cities: From Theory to Practice 7

After more than three
Table 1.2. Megacities, 1995 and 2015
decades of economic Urban Agglomeration Population (thousands) Annual Growth Rate (%)

1995 2015 1985-1995 2005-2015

growth in Asia, the
Africa
region remains home to Lagos 10,287 24,437 5.68 3.61
Cairo 9,656 14,494 2.28 1.97
70 percent of the Asia
Tokyo 26,836 28,701 1.40 0.10
world’s poor, numbered Bombay 15,093 27,373 4.22 2.55
Shanghai 15,082 23,382 1.96 1.85
Jakarta 11,500 21,170 4.35 2.34
at 900 million.
Karachi 9,863 20,616 4.43 3.42
Beijing 12,362 19,423 2.33 1.89
Dacca 7,832 18,964 5.74 3.81
Calcutta 11,673 17,621 1.67 2.33
Delhi 9,882 17,553 3.80 2.58
Tianjin 10,687 16,998 2.73 1.91
Metro Manila 9,280 14,711 2.98 1.75
Seoul 11,641 13,139 1.98 0.32
Istanbul 9,316 12,345 3.68 1.45
Lahore 5,085 10,767 3.84 3.55
Hyderabad 5,343 10,663 5.17 2.83
Osaka 10,601 10,601 0.24 -
Bangkok 6,566 10,557 2.19 2.51
Teheran 6,830 10,211 1.62 2.30

South America
Sao Paulo 16,417 20,783 2.01 0.88
Mexico City 15,643 18,786 0.8 0.83
Buenos Aires 10,990 12,376 0.68 0.50
Rio de Janeiro 9,888 11,554 0.77 0.84
Lima 7,452 10,526 3.30 1.32

North America
New York 16,329 17,636 0.31 0.39
Los Angeles 12,410 14,274 1.72 0.46

Source: United Nations 1996, 451-456.

and of taste. As argued earlier, this is where ing economic opportunities for females;
the problems arise. I social protection, assisting individuals,
Take poverty, for example. After more households, and communities to man-
than three decades of economic growth in age risks and ensure economic security
Asia, the region remains home to 70 percent through old age pensions, unemploy-
of the world’s poor, numbered at 900 mil- ment and disability insurance, social
lion (ADB 1999). Poverty, once measured sim- safety nets against disasters, economic
ply by income, is now seen as embracing mul- crises, or civil strife; plus policies to
tiple dimensions of improve labor mobility and enforce la-
I human capital development, measured bor standards;
by access to basic education, primary I good governance, ensuring that essential
health care and other essential services; assets are equitably distributed, public
I gender equality, by ensuring universal policies and programs are appropriate
education for girls, providing accessible to human needs, and that there are full
reproductive health services and increas- opportunities for participation;

8 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

I lack of discrimination, whether ethnic, population (population, both resident and International statistical
cultural, or gender-based; and working; net migration; age structure; house-
I geographic location (rural vs. urban) in hold size; household formation rate; and comparison is notori-
relation to access to jobs, services, etc. household type). They also include some
In practice, some formidable problems measures of housing condition (population ously difficult even at
have to be overcome. International statisti- and households in informal settlements). The
cal comparison is notoriously difficult even 18 cities range enormously in size, from the national level; but at
at the national level; but at the city level, fur- Melbourne with a resident population of
ther problems emerge. One is a simple lack only 44,500, to Hong Kong with 6.69 mil- the city level, further
of data: the Cities Data Book exercise has lion, and this immediately introduces a
been able to collect data for 18 cities. The major problem of comparison. Like most Aus- problems emerge.
majority of these achieved collection rates tralian cities, Melbourne covers only a
of over 75 percent but in a few cities the minute part of the total metropolitan area,
collection rates were poor. Definitions of cit- whereas Hong Kong includes the entire city-
ies vary from country to country; cities in tran- state. Generally, with exceptions, the less-
sitional economies, between a socialist developed cities have higher rates of overall
planned economy and a market one, exhibit growth and net in-migration from other parts
all kinds of unusual distortions in their eco- of the country (though the use of absolute
nomic and social structures (McGee 2000, 17). numbers can mislead). Also densities appear
However, some indicators remain fairly to vary according to local circumstances, in
robust and directly comparable: demographic particular the way boundaries are drawn, so
data (total population, birth, and death rates), that Hong Kong anomalously appears almost
some measures of economic development, at the bottom of the range. The age distribu-
and basic health and educational achieve- tion, again expressed in absolute numbers,
ments. Among the 140 indicators in the CDB is difficult to interpret. Household size
exercise, many concentrate on such mea- clearly relates to level of development, as
sures, some of them basic inputs (like popu- does household formation rate, with high
lation), some primary economic outputs. But levels in less developed cities. Particularly
many other indicators measure processes in notable are the large variations in women-
the market or the public sector and their headed households, where Hanoi at the top
outcomes: these include indicators on con- of the range demonstrates the continuing
nectivity, on housing and urban land, on effect of Viet Nam War deaths; Phnom Penh,
municipal services, on urban environment in second rank, also reflects drastic levels of
and transport, and urban governance and male deaths a generation ago. Household
management. Quality-of-life measures are structures again relate to development pat-
distributed throughout the tables: they in- terns, with Melbourne showing high levels
clude homelessness, household utility con- of one-person households characterizing the
nections, water consumption, air pollution modern western inner city, and Bangalore
concentrations, noise complaints, disasters, or Hanoi demonstrating largely family-based
transport fatalities, and crime rates. structures. Particularly notable, finally, are the
huge numbers in informal settlements in
The CDB Database some of the poorer cities such as Dhaka and
Lahore.
The 140 indicators are grouped into 13 main
divisions, each of which includes a variety Income Disparity, Unemployment,
of indicators measured in different ways. and Poverty
A second group of indicators include mea-
Population, Migration, and Urbanization sures of economic deprivation including
This first group contains a series of indica- income distribution, poverty, child labor, in-
tors which describe basic demographic and formal employment, and unemployment. It
socio-demographic characteristics of the city also includes a policy measure of expendi-

Urban Indicators for Asia’s Cities: From Theory to Practice 9

It is notable that many ture on poverty reduction. Here, the most lack of relationship between these sets of
notable features are the differences in in- indicators. Family planning appears more
of the cities with the come spread between relatively egalitarian closely related to the level of economic de-
cities like Kathmandu and Seoul, where the velopment, as is adult literacy, but the latter
highest proportions in top 20 percent averages only three times the shows encouragingly high levels generally,
bottom 20 percent, and Lahore, where the as does primary school enrollment (with an
poverty are least able to ratio is 31 to one, and the very low income anomalous 117 percent in Naga, presumably
levels of the bottom 20 percent in Hanoi and caused by re-enrollment of older groups).
spend money on Phnom Penh (reflecting the many women- School children per classroom show predict-
headed households). As a result, the percent- able variations according to development
reducing it. age below the poverty line varies from a low levels, though with many anomalies and
of 1.2 in Seoul to a high of 47.7 in Dhaka. there seems to be little relationship with
Particularly notable is the very high propor- outcome measures.
tion of women-headed poor households in
Kathmandu (97 percent) and Naga (53 per- Urban Productivity and
cent), the large numbers of child workers in Competitiveness
Dhaka and Lahore, and the high percentages A fourth group of indicators directly ad-
of informal employment in Bangalore (54 dresses measures of economic development
percent), Lahore (60 percent), Dhaka and including city product per capita, the struc-
Suva (63 percent). Predictably, most of these ture of employment, household expenditure
cities have low rates of formal unemployment; on main items, investment by sector (basi-
the exception is Dhaka, where a 23 percent cally the public sectors of infrastructure,
rate produces the extraordinary total (assum- housing, and services), tourism, a list of ma-
ing no overlap) of 86 percent lacking formal jor investment projects, the cost of a day’s
employment. Finally, it is notable that many stay, and the number of corporate headquar-
of the cities with the highest proportions in ters. Clearly, the indicators measure differ-
poverty are least able to spend money on ent things like the general level of economic
reducing it; Dhaka, for example, spends just development, the efficiency of the private
under $3.2 per poor person annually. sector, the effect of national macro- and
micro-economic policies, and special char-
Health and Education acteristics such as might attract tourists and
A third group of indicators specifically mea- corporate headquarters. The city product per
sures the society’s achievements in health capita is the basic index here, and shows large
and education covering persons per hospi- variations, from a low of $246 in Phnom Penh
tal bed, child mortality, life expectancy, mor- to a high of $26,369 in Hong Kong; but most
tality from infectious diseases, family plan- cities appear in a narrower range from $500
ning, the adult literacy rate, school enroll- to $2,000 per head. Figures on employment
ment rates, graduates from tertiary education, are difficult to interpret and compare because
median years of education, and school chil- they appear as absolute numbers, not per-
dren per classroom. This group marks a mix- centages; household expenditure, easier to
ture of indexes, some reflecting the level of interpret, shows characteristic variations ac-
economic development and social evolution, cording to income; investments show many
some more directly addressing the effective- missing data. The data for tourism show some
ness of urban (and national) policies in these interesting variations, with some very poor
fields. Consequently, there are some inter- cities (Hanoi, Kathmandu, Phnom Penh) at-
esting and unexpected results: key health in- tracting significant numbers.
dexes show quite small variations from rich
cities to poorer ones (though Phnom Penh Technology and Connectivity
falls well behind the others); in places this The fifth group of measurements also deals
may relate to a lack of hospital bed provi- with economic development, especially in
sion, but otherwise there is a conspicuous information and communications technol-

10 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

ogy. They include research and development solute areas, not percentages; some cities The measurements
expenditure, telephone traffic (distinguish- (Lahore, Phnom Penh) show large amounts
ing local, international, and mobile), and of land awaiting development, presumably reflect a mixture of
Internet hosts per 1,000 population. The mea- reflecting lack of demand, and some of these
surements reflect a mixture of state and pri- also have large areas of vacant government state and private
vate investment as well as the general level of land. Most cities process planning applica-
economic development; they provide an im- tions within one to two months, but Banga- investment as well as the
portant set of measures of a city’s linkages to lore and Medan are conspicuous exceptions.
an increasingly networked urban world. While Prime rentals vary hugely, but this is by no general level of economic
somewhat difficult to interpret, being expressed means clearly related to the level of economic
in absolute numbers, this group demonstrates development; the Melbourne figure is domi- development; they
some of the starkest contrasts to be found any- nated by the CBD.
where in the series, from minimal (Mandalu- provide an important
yong) to highly developed (Hong Kong). Municipal Services
Here are several sub-series of indicators for set of measures of a
Housing water, electricity, sewerage/wastewater, tele-
Housing represents one of the most basic of phone, and solid waste collection that mea- city’s linkages to an
human needs, but this group of measure- sure the delivery of basic services, whether
ments is concerned less with measures of hous- by the public or private sector. They are pre- increasingly networked
ing size or quality (which are partly addressed sented as far as possible uniformly: statistics
in the next series); it is concerned more with are given, where available, for connections, urban world.
land use and land costs, including the ease of investment per capita, operations and main-
obtaining land for development. tenance expenditures, cost recovery, produc-
Included in this group are basic hous- tivity of staff, providers, unaccounted deliv-
ing measures, including dwelling type, ten- ery and service interruptions, consumption,
ure type, house prices and rents, available and median prices. These measures are quite
area, financing of house purchase, the pro- heterogeneous including very basic indica-
duction of new housing, treatment of squat- tors (like connections and per capita con-
ter settlements, government expenditure, sumption) as well as a much wider variety
and homelessness. These partly measure gov- which measures the efficiency and effective-
ernment policies and commercial activity, ness of the providers. Water consumption
and partly outcomes in housing quantity and varies significantly, from a low of 32 liters
quality. Notably single-family homes domi- per day in Phnom Penh to a high of 302 li-
nate in a few cities (Cebu, Hanoi, Medan, ters in Melbourne; there appears to be no
Naga), but apartments dominate in Bishkek, clear relationship to levels of development,
Hohhot, and Hong Kong. Particularly no- to the percentage of households connected
table is the high proportion of owner-occu- (which, with the exceptions of Dhaka,
pied housing in many cities, both rich and Medan, and Ulaanbaatar, is generally high),
poor. Generally, house prices and rents are or to price (which is extremely low in some
within an acceptable range of income (un- transitional cities, and high in Cebu, Dhaka,
derstandably, given the poverty of many cit- Lahore, and Naga). Electricity, like water,
ies), but there are some anomalously high reaches the great majority except in Phnom
values in a few cities, notably Phnom Penh. Penh. However, the performance of electricity
More sophisticated housing indexes are of- utility organizations varies startlingly, with
ten lacking; homeless people are not gener- cost recovery figures ranging from 0.02 per-
ally significant in number, with the stark ex- cent (Bishkek) to 213 percent (Hong Kong),
ception of the 70,000 in Dhaka. while productivity shows equally startling
(and inexplicable) variations. Finally, though
Urban Land supply is generally reliable, three cities
The land use data are again very difficult to (Bishkek, Cebu, and Lahore) report outages
compare because they are expressed in ab- of more than 100 hours a month. Sewage

Urban Indicators for Asia’s Cities: From Theory to Practice 11

Car use for the work trip and wastewater connections show much ture on roads, road congestion, cost recov-
greater variations, from a low of zero in Naga ery from fees, and transport fatalities. As might
varies from zero in Hanoi and Cebu, to a high of 98 percent and over be expected, there are some large variations
in Hong Kong, Melbourne, and Seoul. In- related to level of development. Car use for
and Kathmandu, to vestments are also highly uneven, and cost the work trip varies from zero in Hanoi and
recovery and productivity measures again Kathmandu, to nearly 55 percent of trips in
nearly 55 percent of trips show large variations from city to city. Melbourne, and is clearly related to car own-
Telephone services, also reported ear- ership which ranges from one per thousand
in Melbourne, and is lier, vary greatly in percentages connected, in Hohhot to 341 per thousand in
from a low of 9 percent in Hohhot and Dhaka, Melbourne. Public transport conveys 87 per-
clearly related to car to 99 percent in Hong Kong and Melbourne. cent in Hong Kong, 86 percent in Medan,
However, some of the variations are difficult 80 percent in Bishkek, and 75 percent in Co-
ownership which ranges to explain by development level. Solid waste lombo. Bicycles carry 91 percent in Hohhot
collection is more widely available, save in and 29 percent in Hanoi but zero in some
from one per thousand Bangalore, with a number of cities reporting cities (Colombo), where significant use might
100 percent collection; cost recovery again have been expected. The great majority of
in Hohhot to 341 per varies, as does productivity. median travel times fall in the 25–45 minute
range. Finally, accident rates are generally low
thousand in Melbourne. Urban Environment except for Ulaanbaatar. Figures for freight traf-
This group of indicators relates closely to the fic are largely lacking.
last, since it includes measurements of solid
waste generated, solid waste disposal, house- Cultural
hold sewage disposal, and wastewater This is the most unusual group of measures.
treated. It also includes measurements of air As distinct from seeking to provide compa-
pollution, energy use, noise complaints, and rable statistical indexes (though participation
damage from natural disasters. It is again a in sports is included for some cities), it sim-
heterogeneous group, partly measuring the ply lists attendances at each city’s leading
scale of the problem, and partly the effec- attractions during the year. Some of these
tiveness of public services in handling it. Solid are ongoing, others (such as national inde-
waste generation does not show major varia- pendence days) are time-limited. Because of
tions; most households in most cities are its nature, this group is difficult to compare.
connected (as already noted), and the few
exceptions appear to use septic tanks. Most Local Government Finance
cities use landfills as the main means of dis- This group of indicators measures a variety
posing of their solid waste; incineration of input and output measures, including
records zero values, but the three cities sources of city revenue, capital and recur-
(Dhaka, Melbourne, and Seoul) succeed in rent expenditure, collection efficiency for
recycling 30 percent and more. Unfortu- property taxes, debt service charge, employ-
nately, most environmental indicators are ment, wages, and measures of computeriza-
lacking for most cities, so comparison is dif- tion of city government functions. These
ficult. relate to other indicators that analyze the per-
formance of local government, and they re-
Urban Transport veal sharp differences. Taxes range from over
This group of indicators basically measures 85 percent of total revenues to zero in
traffic, both of people and goods: it includes Kathmandu, with most cities falling into the
data on mode of travel to work, median travel 40–65 percent range; a few (Kathmandu,
time, car ownership, port and air activity, and Naga, Phnom Penh) depend for a majority
goods carried by different modes. It also in- of their revenue on transfers. Capital spend-
cludes some indicators that effectively mea- ing per person shows extraordinary varia-
sure the impact of public policies: expendi- tions, from negligible levels to over $1,000

12 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

annually. However, most cities fall in a nar- representatives at all. Particularly notable is Finally, most cities, rich
rower range of between $3 and $20 a year; the low proportion of women members in
likewise, recurrent expenditure is mainly in most cities. Colombo and Lahore make spe- and poor alike, have
the $25–$150 range per head, with cific provision for representing minorities.
Melbourne and Hong Kong spending $680 Unfortunately, most quality-of-life data computerized most of
and $3,171, respectively. Reported collection (business satisfaction, consumer satisfaction,
efficiency ranges from lows of between zero and perception of the city as a place to live) their functions; the
percent and 10 percent (Kathmandu, Lahore, are mostly unavailable. It was not possible
and Mandaluyong), to highs (for most cit- with the resources available to carry out a intriguing anomaly is
ies) of 70 percent and more. Employment perception survey to improve on the qual-
and percentage of wages in budget show con- ity-of-life data. Reported crimes show great Bangalore, India’s
siderable variations, with some cities (Co- variations, for reasons that sometimes may
lombo, Lahore, Phnom Penh, Suva) spend- be statistical artifacts (thus, Melbourne’s high-tech capital.
ing more than 50 percent of their budget on anomalously high figure of 449 per thousand
wages. Finally, most cities, rich and poor must reflect its domination by the CBD). Oth-
alike, have computerized most of their func- erwise, with a few exceptions (mainly involv-
tions; the intriguing anomaly is Bangalore, ing drug-related offenses), crime levels in
India’s high-tech capital. most cities show little variation, with the ex-
ception of Suva.
Urban Governance and Management Contact with the public varies from zero
The final group of measures is again large to extraordinarily high levels (and the atten-
and highly heterogeneous; it includes data dance levels in Mandaluyong, 840,000 in a
about local government functions, voter par- single year, are highly unusual). Generally
ticipation, independence from higher lev- the levels are modest.
els of government, council members, repre-
sentation, planning applications, a variety of
indexes directly related to quality of life (busi-
IV. INTERPRETING THE
ness and consumer satisfaction, perception
CITIES DATA BOOK
of the city as a place to live, reported crime), The CDB interprets the statistics in two main
indexes on access to city information and ways. First, it seeks to correlate the different
contact between city administration and the indicators and the results are fully reported
public, and the existence of decentralized in Chapter 5. There are some significant cor-
district units. relations. The City Development Index (CDI)
Local government functions vary greatly. seeks to aggregate all the different measures
Bishkek, Hohhot, Hong Kong, Mandaluyong, into five groups (Infrastructure, Waste, Edu-
and Medan are responsible for all listed ser- cation, Health, and Product), then dividing
vices. At the other extreme, Melbourne has the result by five. Predictably, the results show
minimal responsibilities. Most cities appear a close correlation with average household
to offer the majority of services. Voter par- income (R=0.846) and with the UN’s HDI
ticipation varies greatly, from 100 percent in (-0.895),3 as well as with a number of other
Hanoi, Hohhot, and Melbourne (where it is indicators which are related to income, includ-
compulsory) down to 14 percent (12 per- ing household structure, housing floor area,
cent for women) in Lahore. Data from higher and Internet access.
government is sketchy; in general, few cities Second, the CDB has sought to produce
have much independence, though Colombo a statistical cluster analysis of the 18 cities.
and Hohhot are exceptions. Rather predictably, perhaps, this produces
In most cities councilors are elected, four groups of cities: three highly-developed
though in Bishkek, Hong Kong, and
3
The CDI gives high values to places at the top of the scale, the
Kathmandu they are exceeded by nominated HDI the reverse; therefore, the negative value of the correla-
council members, and Phnom Penh has no tion.

Urban Indicators for Asia’s Cities: From Theory to Practice 13

Assembling and then (Melbourne, Hong Kong, and Seoul); four Assembling and then synthesizing a da-
medium-development cities (Mandaluyong, tabase of this kind is a massive enterprise,
synthesizing a database Naga, Suva, and Cebu); four transitional- involving huge practical problems: of basic
economy cities (Bishkek, Hohhot, Hanoi, definition and comparability, of data avail-
of this kind is a massive and Ulaanbaatar); and seven low-development ability, and of aggregation and synthesis. Dif-
cities (Kathmandu, Lahore, Bangalore, ficult enough in the most advanced cities pos-
enterprise, involving Colombo, Medan, Dhaka, and Phnom Penh). sessing the largest and most sophisticated
Particularly evident, in this grouping, is the data, the task becomes next to impossible in
huge practical problems: close relationship between the CDI and the trying to introduce cities that have less-
UN’s HDI. Further, many of the individual developed statistical systems. The authors of
of basic definition and measurements cluster neatly within the this volume deserve the plaudits of the
categories, though with some anomalies as worldwide community of urban observers,
comparability, of data reported in the commentary above. For in- first for having the temerity to try to achieve
stance, the percentage of households below this near-impossible task, and then for suc-
availability, and of the poverty line is higher in medium- ceeding—not marginally, but rather bril-
development Mandaluyong and Naga than liantly.
aggregation and in low-development Colombo and Phnom
Penh; and the percentage in informal em-
Peter Hall is Professor of Planning at the Bartlett
synthesis. ployment is higher in medium-development School of Architecture and Planning, University Col-
Suva than in low-development Kathmandu lege London. He has received the Founder’s Medal of
or Colombo. As already observed, many the Royal Geographical Society for distinction in re-
search, and is an honorary member of the Royal Town
other indexes (health, education) are now
Planning Institute. Professor Hall is a Fellow of the
reasonably uniform between cities at differ- British Academy, and from 1991 to 1994, he was Spe-
ent levels, and therefore do not provide a cial Adviser on Strategic Planning to the Secretary of
solid basis for statistical clustering. Better cor- State for the Environment. He was a member of the
Deputy Prime Minister’s Urban Task Force (1998-
relations, of course, exist with obvious mea- 1999), and was a founding member of the Regional
sures of development like car ownership and Studies Association and the first editor of its journal
use, and telephone or Internet hosts per Regional Studies. He was Chairman of the Town and
Country Planning Association from 1995 to 1999. Pro-
1,000 population, and these clearly have fig- fessor Hall is author or editor of nearly 30 books on
ured largely in the clustering process. urban and regional planning and related topics.

14 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

CHAPTER 2:

URBAN INDICATORS AND

THE MANAGEMENT OF CITIES
Peter Newton

of the expense and complexity involved, and A serious problem for

T
I. DATA COLLECTION the incapacity to identify the best uses of the
he enormous challenges for those data. Finally, data may be collected by differ- urban policy making has
who manage cities include provid- ent agencies in a variety of often incompatible
ing adequate urban services and forms and without the knowledge of other been the lack of
amenities, alleviating urban pov- parties; duplication of effort is common.
erty, designing new infrastructure, appropriate data at the
establishing systems of governance, and re- The Need to Build Capacity
vitalizing slum neighborhoods. These chal- city level...
lenges are multiplied when growth is rapid There is an urgent need to build indicators
and continuous, where there are critical capacity at all levels of government The lack of data is
shortages of capital, skills, and information, I to collect useful information on urban
and where levels of poverty and inequality conditions and trends; especially frustrating for
are extreme. All these factors exist in Asia. I to analyze this information to improve
access to and coverage of basic services the typical situation
Shortfalls in Data Collection and Availability and other urban infrastructure;
I to improve targeting and operational where city staff are
A serious problem for urban policy making performance of services; and
has been the lack of appropriate data at the I to apply that knowledge in formulating trying to manage rapid
city level. Major economic data for measur- and implementing urban policies and
ing the health of the urban economy, like programs. growth with few human,
city product, investment, income disparity, This needs to be coupled with a growth
and financial status and other data for mea- in local capacity and advocacy, a cadre of technical, and financial
suring the living condition of the city, like development professionals responsible to
infrastructure service levels and environment, the local level and equipped with a full suite resources.
are not available or are seldom collected in of tools and techniques. It also requires a
comparable frameworks. The lack of data is move from central control towards monitor-
especially frustrating for the typical situation ing and accountability under agreed national
where city staff are trying to manage rapid targets and priorities.
growth with few human, technical, and fi- The development of indicators systems has
nancial resources. been a prime response to the need for moni-
In many places data collection has not toring in devolved systems within the context
been coordinated with policy needs. Expen- of national or regional plans or international
sive statistical collections undertaken in many agreements. Developing policy with respon-
countries are seldom used, while key infor- sive indicators for all stakeholders has been a
mation for policy is rarely collected. In other cost-effective solution to monitoring in the
cases, an “information glut” may occur, where devolutionary context, with the adoption of
large quantities of data sit unanalyzed because enabling responses to local problems.
With private sector Within the context of urbanization and cluding sectoral benchmarking studies
decentralization, the need for improved ca- and assessments of the impact of the
participation expanding pacity at the local level coupled with im- Asian crisis;
proved systems of urban data and indicators I Agenda 21 and sustainability indicators
in the operation of has become essential. As control moves to supported by environmental agencies;
lower levels, it is increasingly more impor- and
infrastructure and tant to monitor performance to ensure di- I health indicators and urban governance,
rections follow national planning goals and as well as other initiatives in monitor-
services, there is that sufficient information is available for ing, evaluating, and setting policy.
local and central planning decisions. Devel- There are many other national and local
increased need for oping capacity to provide a range of func- indicators initiatives relating to funds alloca-
tions at the local level is an important ad- tion, policy evaluation, competition for in-
performance indicators junct and prerequisite for a successful de- vestment, or local empowerment. The pri-
centralization strategy. With private sector vate sector is involved in indicators in re-
as an input for participation expanding in the operation of porting to shareholders and customers, and
infrastructure and services, there is increased through the industry regulatory functions
regulating private need for performance indicators as an input already noted. Benchmarking and quality
for regulating private companies. control movements arose originally in the
companies. How to begin to meet these challenges private sector.
in an integrated and coherent manner has There is also a wide range of other indi-
become a focus for key international devel- cators initiatives under way in many countries,
opment agencies, national governments, which seek to provide a quantitative basis for
municipalities, nongovernment organiza- I needs-based resource allocation from
tions and others across the public–private higher to lower levels of government;
spectrum. Assembling information for deci- I performance evaluation and organizational
sion making is a key starting point. management, including benchmarking and
Performance measurement and monitor- minimum performance standard setting;
ing for citywide and metropolitan develop- I local indicator sets arising from various com-
ment trends and strategies is relatively new. munities’ desire to empower their citizens,
The importance of cities and metropolitan or from public organizations to inform their
regions in economic terms within the global clients and other stakeholders; and
economy is leading many national and mul- I comparative reports on the performance
tinational agencies to realize that the ben- of various cities, which are useful in at-
efits of world trade, technology, and inno- tracting investment and establishing
vation can only be captured if cities and credit security for local borrowing.
metropolitan regions are well placed to ex- These more ad hoc approaches are now
ploit them. Consequently, there is a grow- widely entrenched in government circles in
ing need to monitor and evaluate metropoli- developed countries, with most government
tan performance in a comparative context as agencies’ annual reports now containing
a mechanism to improve city competitiveness performance criteria and an assessment of
and functioning. progress toward meeting these objectives.

Indicator Initiatives
II. URBAN INDICATORS
Some international indicator initiatives un-
FRAMEWORKS
der way include Definitions
I the United Nations Centre for Human
Settlements’ (UNCHS) and the World In Arabic the word for indicator means pointer,
Bank’s (WB) Global Urban Observatory; which describes how an indicator is intended
I the Asian Development Bank’s (ADB) and to point towards some desirable state or course
WB’s urban development strategies, in- of action. Each indicator is actually a kind of

16 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

small model in its own right, implying ele- price index (CPI), gross domestic product The main difference
ments of cause and effect, of social norms (GDP), and Human Development Index
that constitute progress, and of policy actions (HDI) are all well-known indexes. between indicators and
and outcomes. Indicators are not data, rather they are
The main difference between indicators models simplifying a complex subject to a other kinds of data is
and other kinds of data is that the connec- few numbers which can be easily grasped and
tion with policy is, or should be, explicit. understood by policymakers and the public. that the connection with
Indicators are about the interface between They are required to be user driven, and are
policy and data. Much more time is usually generally highly aggregated, so that changes policy is, or should be,
spent working out what kind of data to col- or differences in the value of an indicator
lect and why during indicator activities than may be more important than its absolute level. explicit. Indicators are
in purely statistical exercises. The people The main types of indicators usually en-
developing and collecting the indicators are countered in policy are about the interface
more often operational data users and policy I performance indicators, which measure
analysts rather than statisticians. aspects of the performance of organiza- between policy and data.
The relationship between data, statistics, tions, sectors, or cities, and are intended
and indicators is shown in Figure 2.1. to identify which departments, districts,
At the bottom level of the data triangle or policies are meeting desirable aims;
are raw data, or information. These data are I issue-based indicators, which are in-
usually assembled into statistics, which of- tended to draw attention to particular
ten take the form of tables, or other partially issues. Common examples of issue-based
organized data frameworks. These tables are indicators include crime and safety, un-
not generally of much value in their own employment, urban sprawl, air quality,
right for policy, since a majority of people etc.; and
cannot read large tables or perceive the im- I needs indicators, which measure need
portance of the results; and they require fur- or deprivation, and generally aim to al-
ther interpretation and analysis. locate resources to the most needy tar-
The next step of organization is indica- get groups. Poverty and deprivation in-
tors, which are usually single numbers, dicators are major examples of needs
mostly ratios, such as the unemployment rate indicators.
or the economic growth rate, which permit Indicators are also classified according
comparisons over time and space and have to the framework being used to construct the
normative and policy implications. Finally at indicators system. A number are in common
the top level of data organization are indexes, use.
which are combinations of indicators de-
signed to measure the overall health or Conceptual Approaches
progress of the object of study. The consumer
The Choice of Indicator
The major initiatives for developing indica-
tors have used three main conceptual ap-
proaches. These are
I a policy-based approach that had its roots
Indexes
in the social indicators movement of the
late 1960s, and was subsequently modi-
fied and developed by the WB/UNCHS
Indicators Indicators Programme and the subse-
Statistics quent Global Urban Observatory;
I the thematic/index approach used by
Data United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) and in State of the Environment
Figure 2.1. The Data Triangle reporting; and

Urban Indicators and the Management of Cities 17

 a set of units and processes seeking best
Macro performance?
Global (World Bank, UNDP, UNCHS/GUO, CSD, etc.)
I What is their scope? Do individual records
European, Asia-Pacific, etc. apply to particular organizations or tar-
(OECD, EU, ADB etc.)
get groups, to themes, to socioeconomic
National sectors, or to the whole city? Is the city
Key level confined to the central municipality, the
City 1, . . . . . City N metropolitan jurisdictions, or the func-
tional urban region? What is the cover-
Sector 1, . . . . . N age of the full collection? A number of
the major collections have sampled the
Municipality 1, . . . . . N
whole world, particular regions, coun-
Micro Neighborhood 1, . . . . . N tries, and single cities or municipalities.
Figure 2.2 shows the range of indicator
Individuals
applications at macro and micro levels.
(Source: OECD 1997 p86)
I What is the political and organizational
Figure 2.2. Spatial Scales and Indicators context? Do the indicators form part of a
political dialogue between different par-
ties? Are they intended to measure and
There is a whole range of I the systems approach originally pro- compare development progress? Or are
moted by the Organisation for Economic they intended for various internal orga-
potential users for every Co-operation and Development (OECD) nizational processes, such as perfor-
and used widely to support Agenda 21, mance review, budget setting, or process
class of indicator, State of the Environment reporting, and improvement?
environmental sustainability agenda. I By whom are they developed and imple-
including city and There is, however, a range of frameworks mented? Are the indicators issued by fiat,
employed within and outside these main- by groups of experts, or generated
national policymakers, streams (see the review by Maclaren (1996), through a consultative process involving
for example). One way of categorizing these stakeholders? Is it a top-down or bottom-
citizens, researchers, the indicators frameworks is by asking six ques- up process?
tions about the environment in which indi- Table 2.1 shows the main frameworks and
private sector, and cators development takes place: how they relate to these questions.
I Who are the indicators for? There is a These frameworks are described in suc-
international agencies whole range of potential users for every ceeding sections, along with examples show-
class of indicator, including city and na- ing their strengths and weaknesses.
tional policymakers, citizens, research-
ers, the private sector, and international Policy-Based Systems
agencies (UNCHS 1994, Vol. 1, contains Strategic policy-based frameworks are associ-
a stakeholder analysis). However, there ated with issue and goal-based indicators, typi-
tends to be a dominant class of user who cally emerging as a consequence of govern-
will own or use the indicators. ment or community concern in an area. The
I What are the indicators for? What is the earliest systems of social indicators such as
principal use and rationale for develop- those developed by Bauer (1966) and other
ing these indicators? authors involved preparing a comprehensive
·I What is the urban perspective? Is the city inventory of major social goals or norms, and
regarded largely as a political entity of devising indicators to measure progress toward
interacting stakeholders, as a develop- these goals. Many subsequent indicator devel-
ing entity meeting goals associated with opment exercises follow a similar procedure,
broad themes, as a physical system in as applied to cities or economic sectors.
which the stakeholders operate, as a sys- The key features of these broad policy-
tem of control and accountability, or as based indicators systems, as opposed to the

18 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Table 2.1. Indicator Frameworks

Framework For whom Purpose Scope Context By whom Example

Policy-driven City planners, Dialog between City or sector Political, Stakeholders, UNCHS
Policymakers policymakers and pluralist experts. Ideally,
stakeholders both directions

Theme- or index- Development Comparative Theme or Develop- Experts UNDP

driven professionals metaphor ment Top down

Systems Experts advising Sustainability City or theme Physical Usually top State of the
policy down by experts Environment

Performance Policymakers Accountability Sector Managerial Bureaucracy

Top down Program budgeting

Needs-based Central policy- Resources for Target groups Budget setting Bureaucracy Asian Crisis
allocation makers target groups Top down, Thailand
may be negotiated

Bench-marking Middle management Efficiency Organization Units Employees Best practice

Bottom up

These frameworks will be described in succeeding sections, along with examples showing their strengths and weaknesses.

management performance indicators systems improving or meeting targets for the indica- A key aim of the
discussed below, is that they are holistic, or tor values.
intended to look at the health of cities or sec- This management by objectives method- indicators approach is
tors as a whole, inclusive, covering areas be- ology has become widespread and under-
yond the realm of a single management struc- lies most strategy documents (though the in- to ensure the seamless
ture, and pluralist, intended to foster or in- dicators are not always made explicit). A key
form a dialogue between the different parties aim of the indicators approach is to ensure integration of indicators
involved in urban development. They are also the seamless integration of indicators with
largely driven or integrated with the process policy; no policies without indicators, and with policy; no policies
of establishing urban strategies and policies. no indicators without policies.
It is usually a fairly straightforward task without indicators,
Indicators and Strategic Planning to integrate indicators with existing strategy
The relationship between indicators and stra- documents. An example of the method used and no indicators
tegic plans is represented in Figure 2.3. in the context of the Thai Eighth Plan is
The methodology has been formalized shown in Table 2.2. without policies.
in indicators development activities such as The lessons to be drawn from this exer-
the UNCHS/WB urban indicators system cise are that
(UNCHS 1994-96). A set of underlying norms I most goals in a strategic plan have some
can be established which represent the per- sort of performance criteria attached, to
spective of the owners of the indicators; for
example, at the broadest level “poverty is bad,”
“people should have a good quality of life,”
or “cities should be managed well”; or at the Norms
narrower level, “people should have enough
food to sustain life,” “crime should be elimi-
Policy Action
nated,” or “decentralized management is pre- Objectives Plan
ferred.” These norms can be used to draw up
a system of objectives and indicators which
can then be developed to measure progress Indicators
towards the objectives. An action plan is also
developed, to operationalize the strategy,
with the aim of meeting the objectives and Figure 2.3. Policy Indicator Model

Urban Indicators and the Management of Cities 19

One of the major Table 2.2. Spatial Themes of Thai Eighth Plan 1996: Summary of Population Issues

requirements of an Goal Indicator *

Population geographically distributed in concert with I population distribution

indicators system is development potential I assessed development potential *
Family planning where birth rates remain high I family planning rate
I birth rate
comprehensiveness, but Youth provided with occupational skills I expenditure on training
I youth unemployment

indicators taken from Credit services and funds developed in rural areas I number and amount of funds
I rural/urban borrowing per person
Information on jobs and commodities widely I expenditure on awareness programs
policy documents are disseminated I survey of awareness
Hospital networking system I percent patients treated in institutions with
appropriate facilities
rather ad hoc compared Financially assist children in disadvantaged areas I retention rate
to stay at school I amount of payments
with, say, annual reports Note: (*) These indicators are not part of the Thai Eighth Plan, but are purely for demonstration purposes.
Source: Taken from Flood (1999b), based on Norconsult (1997).

of government agencies,

which normally have which indicators can often be readily as- sive goals and monitoring criteria such as
signed. These indicators are invaluable performance indicators.
specific, comprehensive in determining whether progress is be-
ing made and whether the strategy is Stakeholder Consultation Model
goals and monitoring working or is based on sound premises; A stakeholder consultation approach asks,
I some goals are of the “motherhood” type, “What is a well-functioning city”? and estab-
criteria such as and cannot be operationalized since they lishes a list of norms as part of a facilitated
are either too vague or outside the ambit meeting of stakeholders. The procedure is
performance indicators. of government control. Indicators may then to establish a comprehensive list of con-
provide a useful screen to eliminate cerns and associated policy objectives, to
these goals; and prioritize these concerns by various means,
I some goals are of a process nature, re- to develop policy aims associated with these
quiring setting up particular structures concerns, and ultimately to integrate the in-
or improving coordination. These types dicators with the process of policy develop-
of goals can be monitored through a ment, monitoring, and revision.
checkbox approach, a list of outcomes, The approach seeks to represent all ma-
or a description (as with some indica- jor concerns or norms in human settlements
tors in the CDB). Other goals may only from the viewpoint of each major group of
be monitored through demonstration stakeholders in the arena, and to develop
projects. indicators which will measure progress to-
Overall, strategy documents are useful as ward achieving each policy norm. This has
guides for indicators, but are usually too the advantage of taking a community-based,
broad-based to devise complete indicators holistic approach to indicators which explic-
collections. This is because they are vision itly recognize the distinct views of different
documents rather than summaries of the most actors. The methodology is also very explicit
important issues, and tend to ignore the about including only indicators for which
more mundane concerns that are essential some policy action may be taken.
to monitoring. One of the major require- This indicators framework is driven
ments of an indicators system is comprehen- largely by the policy process, by the need to
siveness, but indicators taken from policy incorporate the often conflicting views of
documents are rather ad hoc compared with, different players in the policy arena, and by
say, annual reports of government agencies, utilizing indicators during policy and strat-
which normally have specific, comprehen- egy development, during monitoring of out-

20 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

comes, and during strategy reformulation residents with comparative performance Many state and local
and redirection. The advantages of the model assessments such as the following goal.
are the highlighting of possible alternative governments and
viewpoints, the association of particular in-
dicators with particular strategies and out- GOAL 1: Albertans will be healthy agencies are involved in
comes, and the incorporation of indicators
Core Measure: Life Expectancy at Birth
as part of general policy development. publishing indicators
The methodology has been extended Target: The life expectancy of Albertans will
and refined to use standard facilitated meet- be among the highest in the world. In 1996,
that cover the broad
Japan had the highest life expectancy for
ing procedures, including brainstorming,
both females (83.6 years) and males (77
prioritization, and small groups in a variety years). sectors in which they are
of contexts, usually as expert group meet-
Results: In 1997, the life expectancy of
ings or more broadly-based participative involved and these are
Alberta females was 81.3 years and for
workshops of stakeholders and policymakers. males it was 76.1 years.
The methodology was used to construct an occasionally associated
urban indicators reporting system for Habi-
tat II. Subsequently, the Global Urban Obser- I The City of Calgary, at the metropolitan with urban strategies.
vatory at UNCHS (Habitat) is attempting to level, releases a separate report,
create a worldwide network of local urban Performance Measures, with each annual
observatories which would conduct locally- city budget. The objective is to present a
driven indicators activities and document balanced scorecard of the city’s
best practices in local governance. performance.
I The performance indicators were a key
Other Policy-Based Indicators component addressing a different set of
There are examples of broad policy-driven objectives of neighborhood revitalization
indicators systems at the international, na- initiatives in Los Angeles, California
tional, and local levels, and many of these where a long range strategic plan was
can be located on the Internet (see Appen- established in 1995 to improve both the
dix 1). Many state and local governments and residential and business climate of the
agencies are involved in publishing indica- downtown area (Table 2.3).
tors that cover the broad sectors in which Other local initiatives are described
they are involved and these are occasionally under Sustainability Indicators.
associated with urban strategies:
I The Auditor-General’s Department of Theme and Index Approaches
Canada, for example, has established a
framework for developing performance Related to the policy-driven systems are a
measures for sustainable development range of indicator initiatives which are es-
strategies which stresses policy corre- sentially based on establishing broad themes
spondence and the principle of align- or concepts rather than specific policy goals,
ment—the idea that there must be di- and are not necessarily directly associated
rect linkages between the strategic ob- with a strategy. These broad themes such as
jectives set by the department and the livability, sustainability, or good governance
objectives, action plans, and measures of are not directly observable, but are either mul-
each of its work units. tidimensional, involving different aspects
I The provincial government of Alberta, which have different indicators, or may pos-
Canada, publishes an annual report Mea- sibly be expressed as indexes or linear com-
suring Up, which contains 25 core per- binations of indicators.
formance measures related to 17 govern-
ment goals and the Government’s three Index-Driven Approaches
core businesses: people, prosperity, and Deriving indexes of national or city perfor-
preservation. The report provides mance and using these as a framework for

Urban Indicators and the Management of Cities 21

Urban metaphors have
Table 2.3. Neighborhood Revitalization Performance Targets for the Year 2020, Downtown Los Angeles, California

also emerged in recent Goal Strategy Performance Measure Performance Target

Strengthen Downtown Increase available Number of new mixed- 18,000 units built on the
years as a source of as a mixed-use housing units near and income housing units outskirts; 24,000 built within
neighborhood within Downtown built Downtown proper

Create job opportunities Cut unemployment rate Number of new jobs 110,000 jobs created
powerful city-based through neighborhood created through investment
investment in infrastructure, marketing,
and promotion
goals, and are frequently
Strengthen the local Attract new businesses Percentage of office 30 percent vacancy rate
business economy or help existing vacancies
featured in city business expand

Strengthen the local Increase local retail Additional square feet 2.4 million square feet
promotional literature. retail economy space available of retail space added

Source: Council for Urban Economic Development (1999).

Metaphors are often A number of other local initiatives are described under Sustainability Indicators in Appendix 1.

abstract representations
collecting indicators has become an impor- niques. An early example of the latter is from
of complex phenomena tant methodological approach which receives Brian Berry (1980) who categorized world
wide publicity. and US cities using factor analysis. Flood
(such as cities) designed An important index-driven approach is (1997b) extended HDI in this manner to form
from UNDP, which has been publishing its a City Development Index (CDI) which as
to deliver a message with Human Development Report since 1990 (see well as the usual HDI subindexes of income,
Appendix 1) The report initially began with health, and education includes subindexes
maximum impact upon a a single index of HDI, which was intended for infrastructure and waste management.
to simulate the social welfare function of a CDI, along with several other indexes, is used
particular audience. city and measure what Amartya Sen has called in this book.
“capability poverty” (Chapter 1). The HDI has
components (subindexes) of income, edu- Urban Metaphors
cation, and health and has been increasingly Urban metaphors have also emerged in re-
simplified. Countries are ranked by their in- cent years as a source of powerful city-based
dex value, which is compared with a rank- goals, and are frequently featured in city pro-
ing based on GDP alone. Subsequently, a motional literature. Metaphors are often ab-
range of other indexes and statistics has been stract representations of complex phenom-
included, including a poverty index and a ena (such as cities) designed to deliver a
gender equality index. Each of these repre- message with maximum impact upon a par-
sents a single theme or concept for which ticular audience (Siber 1995). Spatial meta-
policymakers seek to have a single value for phors have been used to powerful effect in
comparison. Human development reports the market, in public policy, and in academic
for individual countries have sometimes used polemics. Examples include “information
the same methodology (for example, the superhighway,” “better cities,” and “livable
Human Development Report of Thailand city.” Their heritage is well established in
(UNDP 1999) calculates indexes of human urban analysis, where metaphors represent
development for all 75 Thai provinces). important guides for thinking about the
Other indexes have been commonplace present and likely future working of cities.
in providing city comparisons, such as They frequently attract considerable debate
Asiaweek’s competitiveness index, which and the rich content of the associated litera-
compares some major Asian cities, and ZPG’s ture can be explored to provide new insights
(1990) Urban Stress Test in the United States into how a city functions. A representative
(US). Indexes are generally derived ad hoc, sample of urban metaphors is presented in
or by using statistical data reduction tech- Table 2.4.

22 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Various cities, for example the City of
Table 2.4. Urban Metaphors as Sources of Urban Indicators
Melbourne, have developed reporting and
indicators systems under headings such as Key Issue Urban Metaphor
I a human city, Environment Ecological City (OECD 1995)
I a sustainable city, Sustainable City (Newman et al. 1998)
Exploding City (Devas and Rakodi 1993)
I a prosperous city, Megacity (Hall 1998)
I an innovative city, and Compact City (Jenks et al. 1996)

I an efficient and effectively managed city. Economy Human Innovation City (Maillat 1991)
In developing countries, the concerns Information City (Castells 1991)
Entrepreneurial City (Gaye 1996)
have tended to be more direct and basic, like Competitive Cities (Brotchie et al. 1995)
how to reduce poverty, improve incomes,
infrastructure, and governance. Indicators Social well-being Livable City (Pressman 1981)
systems have tended to follow these clearly Multicultural City (Sandercock 1998)
Health City (see Appendix 1)
identified concerns. Safe City (Oc and Tiesdell 1997)
Whose City (Pahl 1975; Harvey 1973)
Divided Cities (Fainstein et al. 1992)
Poverty, Governance, and Likable City (Nasar 1998)
Competitiveness Indicators Convivial Cities (Peattie 1998)

The two concepts of poverty and governance Governance Designer Cities (Corden 1977)
are of paramount concern in development, Intentional Cities (Jensen 1974; Troy 1996)
and substantial effort has been expended in Creative Cities (Hall 2000)

developing measurement and recording sys- Source: Newton et al. 1998.

tems for poverty in particular (see Flood
(1999a) for a recent review of the poverty
literature, and Kakwani (1980) for a techni- purchasing power parity, has also been esti- The two concepts of
cal coverage of estimation issues). Most of mated for the cities.
the indicators in this book are related either Other procedures range from, at one poverty and governance
to poverty reduction or to improved urban extreme, defining poverty as being below the
governance, however defined, and it is in- starvation line or being malnourished, some- are of paramount
tended that both indicators and the urban pro- times referred to as absolute poverty, to
files should guide readers on these topics. widely-drawn definitions which seek to in- concern in development,
clude a lack of empowerment or access to
Poverty Indicators basic human rights, within the ambit of pov- and substantial effort
Poverty reduction is now the principal ob- erty. For example, Amartya Sen’s “capability
jective of the key multilateral finance and poverty” approach, which looks more at a has been expended in
developed organizations, including WB, long-term inability to gain the necessities
UNDP, and ADB. However, unless a clear through lack of education or ill-health, a lack developing measurement
understanding of poverty can be given, it is of access to basic services, and diminished
difficult to ascertain whether antipoverty pro- quality of life, has been adopted by UNDP as and recording systems
grams are effective. Poverty can be simply a rationale for its HDI.
defined as a lack of the basic necessities of Governance Indicators for poverty in particular.
life, but this begs a number of questions such Governance is an even more elusive concept
as, what are the basic necessities, and how is to measure, and attempts to develop gen-
a lack of such necessities to be defined? The eral governance indicators, apart from nor-
most common way is to use income as the mal organizational performance measure-
measure of poverty, to set a poverty line and ment and benchmarking activities, have not
define those households, families, or indi- been particularly convincing. It is proposed
viduals below the line as being in poverty. that governance is about the way things are
Country-specific definitions of poverty and done rather than what is done or even what
poverty lines are used in this book. The level are the outcomes. The components of good
of extreme poverty, defined as an income governance, which are somewhat subjective,
level of a dollar a day per person at local are generally taken to be

Urban Indicators and the Management of Cities 23

Some highly I transparency (no corruption, public dexes as well as an overall competitiveness
scrutiny of decisions); scoreboard, and engages in considerable
industrialized countries, I accountability (taking responsibility for analysis and simulation, for example, on the
decisions); best place to locate various facilities and ac-
most notably Canada, I participation (mechanisms to involve tivities.
people in the decisions that concern Companies such as Fortune magazine and
the Scandinavian them); Asiaweek annually rank cities on their per-
I planning and predictability (a statutory formance across a range of indicators that
countries and Australia, regulatory framework and forward relate to “what is best for business.” Fortune
plans); and indicators include workforce (flexibility, qual-
as well as various I efficiency and effectiveness (achieving ity), proximity to markets, local attitudes to
desirable results with minimum re- business, quality of local education, air con-
communities in the US, sources). nectivity, costs (housing, labor, taxes,
Stability and the rule of law, fairness and floorspace), and efficiency of transport and
have established systems equity, planning and predictability, empow- highway systems (Huey 1991).
erment, and progressiveness may also be in-
of indicators for cluded. Sustainable Development
Only efficiency and effectiveness are eas- Some highly industrialized countries, most
sustainable development ily measurable; the remaining components notably Canada, the Scandinavian countries
require data that are of their nature difficult and Australia, as well as various communi-
or livability. This has to gather, or are subjective. Some attempts ties in the US, have established systems of
to do this have been made, for example, indicators for sustainable development or
been part of a move away Transparency International’s Corruption livability. This has been part of a move away
Index (see Appendix 1), the result of ques- from purely economic definitions of well-
from purely economic tioning businessmen, or Estes (1988), A So- being toward a more holistic or sustainable
cial Progress of Nations, which attempts to approach.
definitions of well-being list procedures and breaches of governance. Sustainability, often taken as a much
broader concept than simply maintaining the
toward a more holistic or Competitiveness Indicators environment, is used to reflect the whole over-
Competitiveness is another theme that has lay of economy, society, and environment.
sustainable approach. had great appeal to city managers in attract- Themes such as population, poverty, labor
ing business, as well as to international de- market conditions, crime, and governance have
velopment agencies and the private sector. been considered to fall under the sustainable
WB maintains a useful Competitiveness Da- urban development umbrella, to the point
tabase as well as a Poverty Monitoring Data- where it can actually be used as an encom-
base (see Appendix 1). passing framework for all urban indicators (but
Many city websites contain indicators always with an environmental slant).
considered to be of advantage to firms wish- Sustainability has also been associated
ing to locate there. However, the most sub- with nonmonetary measures of national
stantial competitiveness methodology can be product and poverty, including “green ac-
found in the annual World Competitiveness counting.” Sweden, for example, has devel-
Yearbook from the International Institute for oped various indexes of livability which move
Management Development (see Appendix away from the old poverty-line approach of
1), which ranks 47 countries by 290 criteria measuring well being. More economically
using hard data collected through partner advanced Asian countries such as Japan; Hong
institutions, and subjective data from an opin- Kong, China; Singapore; and Republic of Ko-
ion survey sent to over 3,200 executives rea have also felt that it is time to move away
worldwide. The types of indicators are struc- from a production or normative approach
tured by competitiveness input factors and in issues such as housing, to a “quality of
subfactors, as shown in Table 2.5. life” approach that looks at the impact of gov-
The Yearbook calculates various subin- ernment policies or community activity on

24 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Table 2.5. Competitiveness Input Factors

Domestic Economy Internatio- Government Finance Infrastructure Management Science & People
nalization Technology

Value added Current account National debt Cost of capital Basic Productivity R&D Population
balance expenditures character-
istics

Investments Exports of Government Availability Technological Labor costs R&D personnel Labor force
goods & services expenditure of capital characteristics

Savings Imports of goods Fiscal policies Stock markets Business Corporate Technology Employment’
& services dynamism performance management

Final consumption Exchange rate State efficiency Banking sector Energy Management Scientific Unemployment
efficiency efficiency environment

Economic sectors Portfolio State Environmental Corporate Intellectual Educational

performance investments involvement culture property structures

Cost of living Foreign direct Justice and Quality of life

investments security

Adaptiveness National Attitudes and

protectionism values
Openness

Source: World Competitiveness Yearbook 2000.

the whole person. Thailand also is working velopment by introducing the idea of cause
at present on a livable city concept. and effect relationship covering human pres-
No country is as yet using a formal sys- sures on the environment, actual states of
tem of sustainability or livability indicators the environment, and the responses which
to be applied generally to urban areas, al- may be undertaken to alleviate environmen-
though in many cases such indicators are tal damage. The categories include
embedded in policy. Such a general system I pressure, which relates to policies, pro-
will be unlikely in the developed countries, grams, or activities (generally human) that
because of a change of emphasis away from affect the environment like mode of travel,
centralized control and toward citizen em- housing density, and price of energy;
powerment. But many individual cities have I state, which is the observable condition
embraced the concept and are putting for- of various aspects of the environment for
ward sustainability plans, practices, and in- a defined place like categories of air pol-
dicators (Appendix 1). lution and vehicle kilometers traveled; and
I response, which is action taken to re-
The Systems Approach spond to impediments to sustainable de-
The systems approach differs from the policy- velopment. They may reduce or inten-
based approach in beginning with a simple sify the impacts like car parking charges,
but explicit physical model or systems dia- and air quality standards.
gram of the city or the environmental sys- The P-S-R model has been subsequently
tem, within which the various actors oper- revised and extended:
ate, and in which linkages and causality be- I driving forces include major socioeco-
tween various sectors are delineated. nomic activities (Kjellstrom and Corvalen
1995, p. 149), or what Newton et al. 1998
Pressure-State-Response have termed exogenous or macro influ-
The framework developed and popularized ences on human settlements, for ex-
by OECD (1994) for State of Environment re- ample, industrial structure of nation/re-
porting has emerged as the most widely used gion, technological sophistication, and
indicator framework for environmental re- capital flows; and
porting. The P-S-R framework represented I implications involve making quite spe-
an advance in environmental indicators de- cific statements about the economic, so-

Urban Indicators and the Management of Cities 25

 sure, state, and response, and depends
D P S I on the underlying policy direction. For
example, “New Housing Starts” is a pres-
sure from the perspective of use of re-
R sources, a condition when assessing the
D: driving forces of changes state of the housing industry and a re-
P: pressure on the environment
S: state or condition of the environment sponse from the perspective of housing
I: implications shortages or homelessness;
R: response of society
I it lacks the inter-generational perspec-
Figure 2.4. The DPSIR Causal Indicators tive and normative (goal-orientated) ap-
Framework
proaches to future paths of development
cial, and ecological implications of con- inherent in sustainability frameworks; and
tinuing the identified environmental I it applies uneasily to human settlements
trends (Yencken and Wilkinson 2000), because of their dual character (Newton
extending in some cases to suggested et al. 1998). Settlements constitute a sig-
policy responses. nificant environment in their own right
A diagrammatic representation of the with a range of human livability dimen-
causal model is given in Figure 2.4. sions in addition to the physical dimen-
While the P-S-R model is a useful frame- sions. These can be intrinsic to the im-
work to apply to any environmental indica- mediate urban setting, its hinterland
tors set, with its focus on human causes and (like receiving waters, or regional
responses, it has some acknowledged short- airsheds), or wider ecological footprints.
comings because
I it accommodates human but not ecologi- The Extended Urban Metabolism Model
cal responses (Hamblin 1998); Several of the limitations of the P-S-R model
I it distinguishes vaguely between pres- for urban indicator development have been

Livability

Housing Quality,
Affordability
Resource Inputs
Transport Access,
Population and Congestion
Human Capital Urban Systems and Processes Social and Economic
Land Stocks Well-being, Equity
Urban Governance Environmental Health
Housing Stocks
Technological Sophistication Culture and Heritage
Indusrtial Infrastructure
Urban Design and Development
Transport and
Utility Stocks Industrial and Organizational Processes
Energy Supply and Demand Waste and Emissions
Materials Stocks
Energy Stocks Water Supply and Demand
Solid, Liquid and
Water Stocks Food Supply and Demand Hazardous Wastes
Food Stocks Transport Supply and Demand Wastewater
Air Pollution,
Greenhouse Gases
Indoor Air Quality
Noise

Present Settlements Future Settlements

Livability Livability

Resource Urban Systems Resource Urban Systems

Inputs and Processes Inputs and Processes
Waste and Waste and
Emissions Emissions

Desired Reduced Improved performance of Reduced waste Greater livability

Changes: resource use urban systems and processes and emissions

Figure 2.5. Extended Urban Metabolism Model Framework

Source: Adapted from Newman et al. 1996.

26 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Endowments Processes Outputs
Economic Economic Economic
Environmental Environmental Environmental
Social Social Social

Figure 2.6. Sustainable Development Indicators Framework

Source: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Working Draft Framework for Selecting Sustainable Development
Indicators 1996.

addressed via the Extended Urban Metabo- flesh out in a comprehensive, almost theo-
lism Model Framework (EUMM) developed retical fashion, the key elements of each
by Newman et al. (1996), which makes ex- domain area and their interrelationship and
plicit the notion of livability and reinforces linkages. This process was followed in re-
the normative concept of improved environ- cent State of the Environment Reporting for
mental outcomes over time (Figure 2.5). Human Settlements in Australia (Newton et
The EUMM views cities as systems that al. 1998) and a report by Alberti (1996) in-
require inputs of key resources (stocks) volved with conceptualizing urban
which are drawn into their resident domes- sustainability. Figure 2.7 is an example of a
tic, industrial, and governmental urban pro- domain model developed for indicators of
cesses to produce two key sets of outputs. environmental health. It provides for a
One of these is a human-orientated built en- conceptualization of the domain into its
vironment, which can be characterized major components, giving guidance on po-
through a range of indicators that range from tential linkages between indicators. Indica-
adequacy of infrastructure, to environmen- tors can then be selected which represent
tal, health, and social well-being of the in- these causality chains.
habitants. Goals for this “livability” dimen- Development of domain models for the
sion are to improve over time. The second key development sectors has not been done
set of outputs relates to emissions and waste for this project, but would be a worthwhile
flows. The goals for this dimension are to next step.
diminish flows over time.
As such, the EUMM is more closely
INPUT MEDIATING OUTPUT
aligned with the concept or paradigm of sus- PROCESSES
Biophysical Human health
tainable development, where future orien- -air quality Public health system -mortality
tation, sustainability goals, targets, and link- -water quality -access to hospitals, etc. -disability
-food quality -health literacy -safety
ages among economic, social, environmen- -land contamination -morbidity -security
-public sanitation -child and aged care -mental illness
tal, and cultural factors are made explicit (Fig- -disease vectors -technology -hospitalization and
ure 2.6). The EUMM also has merit in ad- -radiation Lifestyle factors GP visit
Human biological -use of sunscreens, etc.
dressing most of the key domains for urban resilience factors -exercise
- genetic factors
indicator development. -herd immunity
-alcohol intake
-tobacco smoking
A related systems approach is used by the -pre-existing disease -travel
-nutritional status
WHO Healthy Cities Project which has a stra- Demographics
tegic policy element, but also uses an appre- -age structure
-population density
ciation of causality in health programs and Social factors
-housing
outcomes (see World Health Organization -cultural practices
1992. Twenty Steps for Developing a Healthy -family structure
-literacy, income, etc.
Cities Project. Copenhagen. WHO Regional -schools
Office for Europe) (see Appendix 1). Occupational
environment
-work and workplaces

Domains
Within industry sectors, a systems-type ap- Figure 2.7. Domain Model for Environmental Health
proach to indicators is to use domains which Source: Newton et al. 1998. p.48.

Urban Indicators and the Management of Cities 27

Poverty indicators are Needs-Based Allocation mance measurement of public agency pro-
grams and projects (see Poister and Streib
the most commonly used The equitable and effective allocation of 1999, and Perrin 1998 for a review of earlier
funds is a key concern for central funding initiatives). The recent key drivers have been
form of needs identifica- bodies including multinational funding agen- the influential books Reinventing Govern-
cies. Some organizations have chosen to au- ment (Osborne and Gaebler 1992) and The
tion, and much work has tomate the allocation process using systems Gore Report on Reinventing Government
of indicators. Incentives may also be provided (Gore 1993), which call for developing out-
been undertaken on to firms to relocate to areas of perceived need come-orientated indicators systems capable
based on indicators, that is, areas of high of providing data for establishing and assess-
methodological issues unemployment. ing public sector goals and targets in the con-
Poverty indicators are the most com- text of agency management and accountabil-
and frameworks for monly used form of needs identification, and ity, strategic planning, economic develop-
much work has been undertaken on meth- ment program evaluation, customer satisfac-
developing them odological issues and frameworks for devel- tion, and city competitiveness (Council for
oping them (UNDP 1999). There are substan- Urban Economic Development 1999). This
tial programs of fund allocation which use movement corresponds with the growth of
such indicators. For example, some $4 bil- private sector participation in infrastructure
lion of Asia crisis funds from the International and service provision during the 1990s.
Monetary Fund and other donors was allo- The suite of indicators employed in per-
cated to provinces in Thailand in 1998 based formance measurement include
on poverty incidence indicators. I inputs, including budgets, staffing, etc.;
The European Union allocates large I outputs, including workload measures
amounts of regional funds based on poverty such as number of arrests, patrol miles,
and other needs-based criteria among and etc.;
within its member countries. Centrally I outcomes, including crime rate, resident
planned economies also allocate regional satisfaction, compliance rates, etc.; and
funds based on quasi-indicator systems, pos- I efficiency, including average time or cost
sibly combined with negotiation. Housing per inspection conducted per kilome-
funds are allocated spatially in the United ter of road, water, infrastructure, etc.
Kingdom and also in several programs in The agencies where such indicators have
Australia using needs indicators, and similar been applied are widespread. In local gov-
sectoral systems have been developed in ernment, performance measurement indica-
many parts of the world. Education funds tors (PMIs) have been employed across de-
have also been given to schools in many partments such as police, fire, solid waste,
places, for example, Australia, based on per- public transport, health, and social services
ceived deprivation, indicators of school fa- to assess areas such as workload, outputs, and
cilities, and measures of socioeconomically efficiencies. City governments have also de-
deprived students. veloped performance indicators to assist with
Local indexes of socioeconomic disad- assessing the rate of success of major projects,
vantage are regularly published in some such as urban revitalization programs (see
countries, usually based on factor analysis Austin’s 1998 case study of Cleveland’s “turn-
procedures (see Appendix 1). These indexes around,” where sets of indicators were de-
are used by policymakers to establish targets veloped to monitor progress around the four
and priorities, and by business to establish key themes of downtown development,
target localities for retail sites and marketing. neighborhood revitalization, economic re-
juvenation, and quality of life).
Performance Measurement Indicators At the international level, organizations
such as WB, UN, and ADB are at varying stages
Since the early 1990s there has been a resur- of developing and implementing perfor-
gence of indicators activity related to perfor- mance measurement programs for their ur-

28 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

ban sector activities. Cook et al. 1995, in a egies and management practices that can di- Extensive privatization
review of performance measurement in mul- rect efforts towards achieving desirable out-
tinational agencies, indicate that PMI systems comes. For example, reducing unaccounted and devolution for urban
should for water loss—as high as 63 percent in Hanoi
I use results or outputs rather than being and as low as 6 percent in Singapore; in- service provision in some
solely orientated to executing annual creasing coverage of water supply; reducing
operational work plans (assessing only consumption; and extending metering. countries have led to a
inputs and workload); The US Department of Transport has also
I involve host governments and contrac- developed PMIs to assist in managing the changed role for
tors to build understanding, consensus, nation’s transport, while at the same time
and commitment to common goals; providing a model which is useful for state government departments
I meet the needs of multiple stakehold- and local use. They monitor access (which
ers (citizens, governments, private sec- determines how easy it is for people to reach associated with that
tor, etc.); their destinations or business to reach their
I involve regular data collection and re- markets and suppliers); quality of service (via sector, in moving from
porting over time, and monitor, compare, measures such as travel time, speed, cost,
and benchmark; and reliability, safety) and efficiency (economic direct provision to a
I define clearly the objectives, targets, and use of resources including congestion, and
goals of the program at the outset. intermodal efficiency). facilitation, monitoring,
In Asia and the Pacific region, many or- Extensive privatization and devolution for
ganizations are employing PMIs. In those urban service provision in some countries have and regulating role
countries which have adopted full systems led to a changed role for government depart-
of program budgeting, such as Australia, vir- ments associated with that sector, in moving which requires compara-
tually every public agency annual report con- from direct provision to a facilitation, moni-
tains objectives, performance indicators, and toring, and regulating role which requires tive performance
other measures of whether objectives are be- comparative performance indicators. For ex-
ing met. ample, where social housing is now provided indicators.
in a community management model or
Sectoral Reviews through housing associations, in the United
There are increasing examples of PMI use at Kingdom (UK) and the Netherlands, a system
national, state (provincial), municipal, and of sectoral performance indicators has been
private sector levels. In some cases, rather developed which serves the accountability role
than a single organization, a whole sector of providing national monitoring data, as well
has been covered. Sectoral reports afford the as informing clients of the performance of
ability to drill down within a particular sec- their housing associations.
tor to establish how it is operating in rela- Some countries including New Zealand,
tion to key parameters of performance, and UK, and US have extensively privatized pub-
where possible make comparisons on per- lic utilities, requiring public watchdog or
formance over time and with equivalent sec- regulatory agencies to be established (see
tors in other countries. Appendix 1). For example, virtually all utili-
A prime example of a single sector indi- ties provision in the Melbourne Metropoli-
cators report is that conducted by ADB on tan Area is now contracted out to private
the water sector (Second Water Utilities Data companies or between wholesale and retail
Book ADB 1997). It compared private and suppliers, as in the US. A watchdog authority,
public water utilities in 37 countries, across the Regulator General gives annual indicator-
a set of over 40 indicators and for two peri- based reports on these suppliers’ financial and
ods. A similar report was also done on elec- technical performances.
tricity utilities. Some countries have national industry
Reports such as these constitute impor- review bodies tasked to make detailed
tant reference documents for utility manag- reports and recommendations on particular
ers to assess performance and establish strat- industry sectors, and in the case of the

Urban Indicators and the Management of Cities 29

A substantial research Productivity Commission in Australia, to able for those seeking best practice examples
conduct annual performance reviews by and information.
program of sector using a fixed system of indicators. The The benchmarking process involves lo-
Australian National Audit Office provides cating those areas needing improvement,
benchmarking in ADB is Better Practice Guides and financial informa- deciding on indicators to measure perfor-
tion for Commonwealth authorities (see mance, finding other organizations that have
looking at comparative Appendix 1). Performance indicators are better or the best performance on these in-
available (see Appendix 1). dicators, and adopting or adapting the prac-
local government Various other sectoral performance in- tices of these organizations that lead to the
dicators are maintained in the region, for better results.
performance in various example, schools in and judiciary statis- Benchmarking initiatives are being spon-
tics in Hong Kong (see Appendix 1). sored by international organizations to es-
aspects of service All broad indicator systems have of neces- tablish best practice in public utilities. A sub-
sity a sectoral emphasis, simply because the stantial research program of benchmarking
provision. sources of data are usually organized accord- in ADB is looking at comparative local gov-
ing to government departments; for example, ernment performance in various aspects of
transport and communication, housing, em- service provision.
ployment, health, social welfare, finance, en- Benchmarking is sometimes confused in
vironment, culture, and heritage. However, government agencies with setting minimum
recently, some major national indicator devel- performance targets for client groups. It is
opment efforts, such as attempts by the Austra- normally a bottom-up process related to qual-
lian and UK governments to develop strate- ity control that originates from the percep-
gies for sustainable development across sev- tion of management and employees as to
eral sectors, have specifically been organized which organizational areas need improve-
along sectoral lines (Productivity Commission ment, while minimum performance stan-
2000; Department of the Environment Trans- dards are for top-down evaluation and ac-
port and the Regions 1999), and involve sepa- countability.
rate reports for each sector.
The limitations of some sector-based re- The Choice of Indicators Framework
porting structures is their narrow focus, re-
stricted to those areas for which departments None of the urban indicators studies under-
are already accountable. This may fail to cap- taken and published are identical. The pos-
ture the complexity inherent in major urban sible exceptions are those major projects, of
areas and the interrelated nature of the sec- which this is an example, where there is a
tors, for example, the link between housing, common indicator set and methodology es-
location of jobs, travel/transport, energy use tablished for use by all participating agen-
and air quality. However, they usually detail cies or consultants. There is significant evi-
the operation of individual sectors which may dence of convergence, however. Notwith-
be absent from more holistic approaches. standing that most major indicators studies have
sponsoring agencies that reflect their identifi-
Benchmarking able strategic objectives, it commonly proves
necessary to use a “combination framework”
Benchmarking relates to best practice, and is which brings together key elements of two or
a method for organizations to improve their more of the “specialist” frameworks described
performance in key areas of practice. It origi- in earlier sections, consolidating the advan-
nated in the private sector for improving in- tages and minimizing the limitations of each.
ternational competitiveness, but has now The choice of indicators to be developed
extended to many public sector agencies and in the CDB reflects the decision taken to tar-
is often combined with elements of indus- get ADB’s Urban Sector Strategy, shown in
trial participation. There are now extensive Appendix 5. A summary of the Strategy’s stra-
benchmarking networks and resources avail- tegic objectives and the themes with which

30 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

indicators should be concerned is shown in
Figure 2.8. The overall objective can be Sustainable Urban Development
classed as sustainable urban development. In
summary, the preferred combination frame- Poverty Reduction

Indicators of Urban Development

work includes a policy-based framework, an
index-driven approach, and performance
Good
measurement indicators. The rationale for Promoting Quality of Life: Governance:
Economic Protecting the
this choice is as follows: Growth: Social and Human Financial Environment
Development Management;
I Policy-based framework gives the disci- Maximizing (gender equity Design and
Econony emphasis) Delivery of Urban
pline of management by objectives Efficiency Services
needed to implement urban strategies,
that is, no policies without indicators,
and no indicators without policies.
Priory Urban Sector: Water Supply and Sanitation, Urban Development
I Goals that are too vague or not within and Urban Management; Housing and Housing Finance; Solid Waste
Management, Urban Land Management; Urban Transport; Urban
government control can be eliminated Environmental Management; Municipal Finance; Health and Education;
Tourism Infusrtucture; New Technology; Municipal Services
through the policy-based approach.
I The policy-based approach allows for con-
sultation with a wide variety of stake-
Figure 2.8. Domains and Indicators Within the Framework of ADB’s Urban
holders. The approach seeks to identify
Sector Strategy
all major concerns of stakeholders, and
to develop indicators which will mea-
sure progress toward meeting each policy
III. SELECTION OF CDB URBAN
norm.
INDICATORS
I Cities are interested in comparing with Establishing the Urban Indicators System
other cities concepts and standards of liv-
ability, sustainable development, good Having determined the broad indicators In summary, the
governance, attraction to business, and frameworks for ADB’s Urban Sector Strategy
other themes. In such cases it will be im- as well as city managers and other users, the preferred combination
portant to develop index-driven approach next task was to select the indicators for the
in areas such as standards of infrastructure, CDB. The book itself grew out of policy con- framework includes a
socioeconomic conditions, congestion, cerns to create tools to monitor the perfor-
competitiveness, and connectivity. mance and decision-making capacity of in- policy-based framework,
I PMIs are becoming increasingly impor- dividual urban administrations. Its general
tant in both the drive for more efficient aims were (i) to develop a consensus with an index-driven
public services and the regulation of participating cities for which data would be
privatized industries and services. The most useful for policy setting and evaluation; approach, and perfor-
key components addressed in either case (ii) to establish key indicators for monitor-
are inputs (budgets, staffing), outputs ing and evaluating cities; and (iii) to estab- mance measurement
(workload measures), outcomes (resi- lish a network of cities that can communi-
dent satisfaction levels), and efficiency cate experiences and share best practices in indicators.
(average cost of inspection per kilome- the delivery of urban services, policy devel-
ter of infrastructure). opment, and data management.
I PMIs can also be used for detailed review As part of the Cities Data Book exercise,
and comparison of individual plant and ADB considered a number of objectives:
service levels (ADB’s water sector reports). I The outputs must appeal to urban man-
I PMIs can help build understanding, con- agers and urban development practitio-
sensus, and commitment to common ners, and contain information valuable
goals between the public and private sec- to their professions.
tors, using regular data collection and I All indicators should measure policy out-
reporting, as well as monitoring, com- comes and allow comparison among
parison, and benchmarking. cities.

Urban Indicators and the Management of Cities 31

The ultimate goal of I The book should be easy to read and well tives. The group first established the main
presented with graphical and descriptive sectors or themes to be investigated (through
creating such an urban elements. brainstorming and prioritization), and the cri-
I The indicators must be concerned with teria for indicator selection. Separate small
database then is to build ADB’s major strategic objectives, as ex- groups then drew up a list of indicators re-
pressed in the current Urban Sector Strat- lating to each question, often taken from a
capacity of the local egy (ADB 1999; ADB 2000). long list provided by the organizers, but new
I The indicators should be established indicators were sometimes suggested. A vote
governments, develop through consultation. was next taken by the whole group on which
I The number of cities involved should be indicators have the highest priority. Subse-
methodologies for limited to 18. For each city, a profile quently, the results were assembled by the
would describe the city, its historical, eco- organizers, generally following the directions
measurement and nomic, and political context, equity is- of the meeting, but also adding or modify-
sues, service provisions, and governance. ing indicators for completeness or ease of
evaluation, monitor I A wide range of city types should be in- collection, or to meet overall organizational
cluded to represent the varying condi- directions. Afterwards the resultant system
effectiveness and tions of Asian cities. was sent to the participants for review and
I The actual coverage of the indicators comment.
efficiency of service should cover all the main issues which Appendix 2 contains the report of the
would provide a full data review of the workshop held in September 1999. The re-
delivery, determine cities, subject to budget limitations. This port shows the sectors, the criteria used for
was agreed to and would provide expe- selection, and the prioritized indicators. The
effective investments rience and pointers for future editions. final set of indicators is organized into 13 the-
I The overall city performance in various matic groupings which are mainly sectoral.
and growth strategy, and sectors and across sectors should be mea- There are 140 indicators, including 16 lists or
sured by various indicators. descriptions, two checkbox questions, and 122
promote interaction and The ultimate goal of creating such an quantitative indicators, of which 29 require
urban database then is to build capacity of multiple answers for a total of 234 numeric
information exchange the local governments, develop methodolo- data items per city. Requiring multiple answers
gies for measurement and evaluation, moni- is slightly misleading for the effort involved,
among cities. tor effectiveness and efficiency of service as the multiple indicators generally contain
delivery, determine effective investments and information from the same source, whereas
growth strategy, and promote interaction and some of the single indicators require the con-
information exchange among cities. sultants to assemble multiple pieces of infor-
Creating the database had three phases. mation from multiple sources.
In the first, a preliminary version of the ques-
tionnaire designed to collect urban indica- Implementing the Data Collection Exercise
tors was used in Mandaluyong, Philippines.
The second phase involved an experts group Agreement to participate in the indicators
meeting of city administrators who gave in- collection exercise was obtained from each
puts for the final selection of the indicators city, and from national government focal
and the collection of data from the 18 cities. points where necessary. Consultants in each
This phase also involved a written report or city were usually selected from several sug-
city profile on various features of each city. gested by each local government, and were
The third phase involved presentation of the given materials to assist them to complete
data, formulation of the theme chapters on the indicators collection. They were also re-
measuring human development, the role of quired to provide some pictorial material,
urban indicators, and comparison of the city and to write a draft city profile, making use
database. A key phase in the preparation was of the indicators and other materials to pro-
conducting the experts group meeting con- vide a picture of the city and its operation.
sisting of city and stakeholder representa- With the greater penetration of computer

32 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

technology in developing countries over the lection is that they must be “good enough for The total picture of each
last five years, the materials provided differed policy purposes.” It is necessary to keep in
from the style of the two earlier collections. mind the multivariate characterization of the sector and of the city as
Instead of a single instrument which provided indicators. The total picture of each sector and
indicator descriptions and boxes to enter in- of the city as a whole is more important than a a whole is more
dicators and notes, the country consultants highly accurate value for any one variable, and
were provided with a kit which consisted of highly inaccurate values for all others. In most important than a highly
I an Excel worksheet in which the indica- cases, an approximate result or a best estimate
tors were to be entered; by a group of experts is very much to be pre- accurate value for any
I a Notes and Sources MSWord template to ferred over no result, and may guide improved
enter details about data sources, inter- future collection methods. The data should one variable, and highly
mediate data in calculations, time series, otherwise be the best and latest available, and
lists or definitions, explanations of why should be fully documented. inaccurate values for all
indicators could not be collected, and A major constraint on implementing the
any other explanations or caveats about indicators collection is the frequent absence others.
the numbers provided. Consultants were of current data at the city level, as noted in
also encouraged to comment about the Chapter 1. In some cases the exact territorial
process and any difficulties they encoun- limits of the city and administrative unit may
tered; not be precisely established. In addition, there
I a separate Instructions and Definitions may be important differences between cities
document which detailed each of the in responsibilities for data collection. For ex-
indicators tabulated under headings: ample data on landownership may be collected
Definition, Warning Trend, Significance, by city administrations but searches for data
Collection Problems, and Alternative on immigration or trade may have to rely on
Collection Methods; and national figures, reworked to indicate regional
I a small Visual Basic Calculations Assis- or local differences. Thus the shared respon-
tant program which performed more sibility for data collection between national and
complex calculations relating to four local government administrations may greatly
special indicators, showed how divisions affect the range and quality of data.
were to be performed in the large num- However, many indicators can be enu-
ber of indicators that involved standard- merated directly from existing surveys or
ization, and provided compounded an- from administrative city records, and most
nual growth rates. of the key indicators have been selected with
For more efficient communication, vir- this in mind. Other indicators can be readily
tually all communications with the consult- extrapolated from national figures or up-
ants were by e-mail rather than post or fax dated by varied approximation methods, and
through intermediaries. About half the con- these techniques are generally sufficient for
sultants were diligent and timely, present- policy purposes.
ing excellent results and detailed notes in Almost all the consultants are practitio-
accordance with instructions, along with ners and data users such as planners, gov-
well-constructed city profiles which made full ernment officials, and consultants, rather
use of the indicators. In some cases the con- than statisticians. This is in the spirit of the
sultants came forward with original sugges- data selection, which puts the possible ap-
tions for estimating indicators for which no plication of the data in front of the data it-
direct data were available. The data were as- self, and which often requires indirect esti-
sembled and corrected in an Excel database. mation methods or expert estimates rather
than official figures. This does, however, put
Constraints and Problems in Data Collection an extra load on the collection team, which
ultimately has to perform many of the stan-
Unlike standard statistical collections, the phi- dard statistical duties in assembling an accu-
losophy underlying urban indicators data se- rate and comparative collection, such as data

Urban Indicators and the Management of Cities 33

The quality or quantity verification and reconciliation with other port use or city product can only be cal-
sources. culated meaningfully at the level of the
of data in no way Every consultant initially produced some whole urban area.
estimates for some indicators that could not I history of the cities. It is important to
corresponded to the be maintained, which did not follow the understand the historical context of indi-
guidelines, or which involved inaccurate vidual cities in explaining differences. For
level of development of computation. The data and communication example none of the central Asia econo-
effort required to weed out extreme or inac- mies have yet permitted individual land-
the city. curate values and to fill in blanks was sub- ownership and therefore comparing their
stantial, first in locating the source of errors, land market situation with cities in the
second in completing indicators for which market economies is inappropriate.
the consultants did have sufficient informa- I political context of the city. There is a
tion, but had not made the final step in cal- need to recognize the political relation-
culating the indicators. The detailed Notes ship of the individual city with other ad-
and Sources proved invaluable in both cases. ministrative units. Thus ten of the 18 cit-
Following the dialogue with consultants, ies surveyed are capitals and as national
some missing data were filled from other centers enjoy various advantages in ur-
sources such as the ADB’s Second Water Utili- ban management.
ties Data Book or with national data from Another example is the degree of inde-
standard sources, particularly where it was pendent decision-making capacity at the level
desired to calculate indexes. Ultimately, of the urban unit.
about 85 percent (70 percent for Seoul and I poverty and the informal sector. For
60 percent for Dhaka) of all database items poorer cities that have a significant com-
were filled for the cities in the CDB. ponent of their population living or
The quality or quantity of data in no way working in the informal sector, there are
corresponded to the level of development real difficulties in generating reliable
of the city. High income cities tended to have data about this population. That many
more problems in meeting the requirements of the economic activities carried out in
of a harmonized collection, due to the idio- the informal sector are classified as ille-
syncratic nature of their developed statisti- gal means reliable figures may not exist
cal systems and the greater reluctance of con- for this sector.
sultants to make estimates. By contrast, in I different categories. The social variables
poorer countries where development agen- that have categories, such as housing ten-
cies are routinely involved, there tends to be ure and family type, tend to be collected
plenty of development-related data collected under different categories in different
which accord with international norms. places, and consultants were reluctant to
Potential sources of unreliability were make estimates of the missing data, of-
identified for each indicator in the Instruc- ten lumping under “Other” categories
tions and Definitions document. In general that did not appear to immediately match
the sources of error concern the stated definitions. “Households with
I geographical scope. It was decided at the children” and “women-headed house-
outset to collect data at the local gov- holds” caused some problems.
ernment level where possible. However, I different data collected. In some cases
in the cases of Melbourne and closely related data to that which was
Mandaluyong which form part of much required was collected, for example,
larger urban areas, and which have par- “minutes of telephone calls” rather than
ticular roles as CBD and outer business “number of calls,” or “total telephone
node, respectively, some indicators such connections” rather than “number of
as persons per hospital bed or local gov- houses with a telephone”.
ernment expenditure per resident may I more difficult concepts. Consultants had
be misleading, while others such as air- trouble with more abstract concepts,

34 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 such as “net migration,” often giving just weighted average. For meaningful ranking One of the principal
the gross figures. The relationship be- of cities, they require data which are essen-
tween city product and household in- tially complete and which are robust and functions of cities is to
come was poorly understood. precise, so not many variables are suitable.
The new formulas for the indexes used in act as a conduit for their
Indexes this book are shown in Table 2.6.
hinterland with the rest
There is increasing interest in using indexes The Congestion Index
for varied purposes by city governments, pri- The congestion index effectively measures of the world, and the
vate sector interests, research bodies, and crowding. It is uncorrelated with the CDI,
others. Creating indexes, either statistically favoring smaller, more dispersed cities with extent of this connection
or ad hoc, has always been part of indica- good transport networks (Table 2.6).
tors practice, whenever analysts have is one measure of their
sought a single number to measure a par- The Connectivity Index
ticular concept. One of the principal functions of cities is to success.
act as a conduit for their hinterland with the
The City Development Index rest of the world, and the extent of this con-
The CDI parallels the HDI at the city level, nection is one measure of their success. A
combining city product with health, educa- new cluster of highly correlated variables
tion, infrastructure, and waste management concerned with international connectivity has
components. It has been shown that the CDI been located. They include international
correlates very strongly with many variables flights, international phone calls, tourism,
of particular interest in development, better headquarters and Internet connections. A
than the national HDI or the city product. new index of connectivity, which ranks Hong
And it gives a meaningful ranking of cities in Kong paramount among the cities studied,
the development spectrum (see Appendix 1). has been developed. The index measures the
Because the variables used to make up extent to which the city is connected to the
the CDI are highly collinear, there are dif- rest of the world, outside of national bor-
ferent ways to calculate it that give almost ders (Table 2.6).
identical results. For this present book, rather
better and more extensive data have been
collected than for the original study, and a
IV. DIGITAL INFORMATION AND THE
new formulation of the index has been made INTERNET
which is better harmonized with UNDP’s The rapid growth of the Internet since the
current definition of the HDI, and mostly emergence of easy-to-use browsers in the
uses the same formulas as in UNDP (1999). mid-1990s together with a mix of interrelated
Indexes are formed by normalizing the information and communications technology
component variables (giving them values tools has created new opportunities for stor-
between zero and one) and then taking a ing, accessing, manipulating, and presenting

Table 2.6. City Index Formulas Used in The Cities Data Book
Index Formula

Infrastructure 25*Water connections +25*Sewerage +25*Electricity +25*Telephone

Waste Wastewater treated*50+Garbage collection*50
Health (Life expectancy-25)*50/60+(32-Child mortality)*50/31.92
Education Literacy*25 + Primary enrollment*25+ Secondary enrollment*25 + Graduates/350*25
Product (log City Product – log 400)*30/2.71+ (log Residential density –1.98)* 30/4.86 + 40*(log Population-2.78)/6.7
City development (Infrastructure index + Waste index + Education index + Health index + Product index)/5
Congestion (log Travel time-2.08)*30/2.71+0.3*(log Residential density-1.98)*30/4.86+40*(log Population-2.78)/6.70
Connectivity ((log Internet+.71)/6.34)+log Corporations/ 6.7+(log Tourism-3.42)/ 5.75+(log Flights-4.33)/5.27-0.07/3.3

Urban Indicators and the Management of Cities 35

At their most basic, GIS a variety of information, including those re- The world is also entering an era of tech-
lated to urban indicators. The Internet revo- nology convergence which is providing op-
are multilayered spatial lution is one of networked computing—the portunities for creating new systems and
linkage of a global array of individual (“dis- products. Relevant technologies are the
databases that provide tributed”) computers via communication Internet (distributed computing) and geo-
networks. Penetration, as the Internet indi- graphical information systems (GIS). At their
additional capabilities cators in this report suggest, is global, albeit most basic, GIS are multilayered spatial data-
currently slanted toward those economically bases that provide additional capabilities for
for those collecting and more advanced and wealthier regions and those collecting and maintaining local data
cities. As the Internet matures, opportunities collections. Data on population, land use,
maintaining local data that are emerging include housing, services, and routing analysis, can
I general city networks reporting best prac- be georeferenced to allow a much richer data
collections. tice and other information in more stan- analysis and representation. Base data can be
dardized formats than currently exist. satellite imagery, aerial photos, or digital
Joint programs, staff exchanges, and maps.
technology transfer can be arranged Higher level GIS functionality makes it
through remote interchange (e-mail) and possible for urban managers to
learning; I create their own indicators for subcity
I distributed indicators databases allow- areas, based on local maps, and ascer-
ing municipalities, as well as metropoli- tain the geographical effects and relation-
tan and state agencies, to build and main- ships of their policies;
tain their own sets of spatial indicators I construct time series and show in graphi-
databases. These indicators comprise a cal or map-based output the impact of
core set, common to all within some policies; and
agreed network of agencies (that is, via I create geographically based indicators
ADB, UN or some world cities associa- which can be standardized to offer more
tions) as well as a specialist set of par- insightful comparative analysis. This per-
ticular relevance to the locality and their mits comparative analysis to search for
concerns (for example, Sustainable Se- variations between cities which reflect
attle); differences in input endowments and
I improved data modeling and analysis levels of development and human be-
capabilities. The simple linking of docu- havior. It also reflects the way ahead.
ments and indicators via hypertext is a A compendium of web-based statistical
major advantage and a potential step for- collections and indicator resources is in Ap-
ward. If we create an indicator (for ex- pendix 1.
ample, Housing Affordability) as a single
document where links to other indica-
tors (documents) such as “Interest Rate”
and “Household Formation” are also
embedded, then it will be possible to
establish links to all cross-specified indi-
cators. This will assist in creating a model
comprising all inter-linked indicators
triggered by the initiating indicator; and Peter W. Newton is Chief Research Scientist, Com-
monwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organi-
I Internet portals providing urban indica- zation (CSIRO), and a member of Royal Australian Plan-
tor data as well as a range of “higher ning Institute. Dr. Newton currently directs a pro-
order” services, including electronic re- gram of strategic and applied research within CSIRO
on Planning and Design as it relates to the Built Envi-
ports, synthesized data from across the
ronment sector. He is also an Associate Director at the
distributed network of participating or- Australian Housing and Urban Research Institute. Dr.
ganizations, and software tools for data Newton is author of over 100 books and publications.
analysis.

36 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

CHAPTER 3:

THE CDB PROCESS:

DEVELOPING AND
APPLYING URBAN
INDICATORS
Matthew Westfall and Giles Clarke

I. A TOOLKIT FOR URBAN ful results. At the same time, as Peter New- “...you cannot properly
MANAGERS ton aptly noted in his workshop presenta-

P
tion, there are two basic truths to any indica- measure what you don’t
revious chapters have been de- tors exercise of this sort: (i) you cannot prop-
voted to the theoretical under- erly measure what you don’t understand; understand; and you
pinnings to measuring human and (ii) you cannot improve what you don’t
progress and reviewing of previ- measure. The CDB urban indicators exercise cannot improve what you
ous and ongoing indicators ap- was an exploration of these two truths, and
proaches and systems. For the CDB exercise, a search for a means to address them. don’t measure.”
a key intention has been to create a frame- For potential users of the CDB process,
work for an urban indicators system that can it is not expected that the full slate of urban Peter Newton
be easily replicated and applied by city ad- indicators will be either applicable or appro-
ministrators and urban managers on the priate in their entirety. This may present
ground in the fast growing cities of Asia’s some conflict over time in data gaps and com-
developing countries. The CDB, then, has parability of collected data between cities in
two primary outputs: an urban indicator for- the region and elsewhere—a function of the
mulation and collection exercise in 18 se- system that donor institutions and others
lected cities as a pilot of the process; and involved in comparative analysis are keen to
development of an urban indicator toolkit support—but participating cities should be
for replication—in whole or in part—in other driven by their own local demands and con-
cities in the Asian region. cerns. Users should distill from the CDB
The formulation of the CDB approach process the urban indicators that are most
attempted to incorporate real-world con- important for their respective cities, and
straints and issues that confront those tasked which address their city’s priority concerns
with policy making in Asia’s poorer cities. such as poverty reduction, job creation, and
To be sure, the demands of day-to-day city governance.
management in many of these resource-con- Before attempting to apply the process,
strained cities do not allow for wasteful or consider a few tips and pointers. At the city
pointless exercises that generate data for the level, everyone involved in the process
sake of data; any efforts, if they are to be suc- should understand clearly the reasons for es-
cessful and sustained, must be practical, tem- tablishing an urban indicators system. The
pered by reality, and must deliver meaning- system should support the strategic planning

The CDB Process: Developing and Applying Urban Indicators 37

The outputs of the process of the city, helping provide answers
to the important questions of “Where are II. THE CASE STUDY OF ASIAVILLE
exercise should be a we”?, “Where do we want to go”?, and “How
can we get there”? The system should be The following case study is presented to il-
stream of usable, useful developed based on local issues and condi- lustrate the CDB process and the steps
tions and established through intensive con- needed to link the urban indicators data col-
information that meets sultations with stakeholders. The urban in- lection effort to (specific) city goals and ur-
dicators system, and the performance mea- ban polices. Many of the indicators used are
a clear need and surement and benchmarking that can be de- presented in Chapter 4 with descriptions of
rived from it, will help make cause-and- their formulas and the significance of the
promotes improved and effect relationships visible by aligning goals data. A warning trend is provided to flag a
and policies with the programs, projects, and negative trend or concern that may grow into
more efficient urban external factors impacting the city. Senior a larger problem over time if not addressed.
management leadership and support will be The explicit connection to policy, as will be
management. vital. Buy-in and support by local government outlined, enables a city to highlight a goal,
staff and acceptance and ownership by dif- develop a core indicator to measure progress
ferent stakeholders of the process will be towards that goal, set a measurable target to
crucial to sustain the effort. monitor improvements or progress, and sup-
A key lesson learned from the CDB pro- port a process of results reporting to the se-
cess is that developing an indicators system nior management and city residents. The sys-
requires considerable time and effort. A ma- tem also promotes accountability by sharing
jor impediment to sustaining an effective with the city’s constituents the progress be-
urban indicators and performance measure- ing made by urban managers towards the city’s
ment in cities has been insufficient capacity strategic vision.
and resources, so it is recommended to start Consider for example “Asiaville,” a hy-
on a manageable scale, by starting small with pothetical medium-sized city of two million,
one or two sectors where data collection and growing at some 4 percent per year and lo-
analysis are reasonable and moving on to cated in the low-lying floodplain of a major
more complex topic areas at a later stage. river delta. Migration accounts for some 60
Once the system is in place, it should be re- percent of this growth, and contributes to a
fined as an ongoing, iterative task. Continual thriving informal economy located in poor
reassessment of the competing demands of environmental conditions in many areas.
cost and performance data precision, simplic- Asiaville is growing physically by both urban
ity, and timeliness will be required, while expansion and densification and is experi-
preserving the level of confidence in the encing air and water pollution and over-
comparative data. crowding. Garment and service industries are
The outputs of the exercise should be a fast expanding while the provision of ser-
stream of usable, useful information that viced land and institutional frameworks has
meets a clear need and promotes improved fallen behind so that the city’s administra-
and more efficient urban management. The tion is in disarray and budgets are pressured
exercise should support sustainable urban by many competing demands.
development by increasing efficiency, in- There has been a start to privatize solid
crease the involvement of people and com- waste collection and disposal services, but
munities in managing and developing their other services such as water supply and sew-
cities, and strengthen the linkages of eco- erage are still in the public sector and are
nomic, social, and environmental issues in inefficient. Despite the new companies pro-
decision making. To revert to the two basic viding employment, there are still some 20
truths, the CDB exercise should help illumi- percent of households living below the pov-
nate issues that are to be measured and point erty line. The lack of serviced land for com-
a way forward to improvements in the cities. mercial and residential use is a constraint on

38 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

efficient land use development, but the needs, but they still have to convince some Benchmarking the
Asiaville authorities are beginning to address key figures in the city administration. Sector
the problem through new forms of public– plans have been prepared for utilities, roads, performance allows the
private partnerships. and the electricity sector, but in each case
While there has been a start to discus- ultimate responsibility is with central govern- city to provide a
sions on urban management at the local level, ment.
in reality there is little interdepartmental li- standard or reference by
aison. Asiaville receives very little income
from local taxes, the bulk of which is de- III. LINKING URBAN INDICATORS which it can measure or
rived from very low and poorly collected real
TO CITY GOALS
property taxes. Instead, Asiaville relies on the The above conditions in a hypothetical city judge its own
sometimes erratic transfer of funds from cen- in Asia apply to varying degrees to most cit-
tral government. As a result, the city cannot ies in the Asian and Pacific region. For performance—against
arrange for a rational program of infrastruc- Asiaville to develop and apply the CDB ur-
ture investment, and there is little incentive ban indicators system, it would first review other cities, government
to generate forward-looking strategic plans. its priority concerns as outlined in their vari-
At the same time, the central government has ous strategic planning documents, and then averages, or even its past
initiated decentralization of various func- draw on the extensive list of urban indica-
tions, but the city has not yet been able to tors presented in Chapter 4. The importance performance.
take over these functions in a satisfactory way. of the strategic plan cannot be overempha-
Many mandates have been devolved without sized, in which both short- and long-term
the necessary resources, and while the city city performance goals and objectives need
is supposed to lead on the urban develop- to be identified.
ment front, it lacks the requisite capacity. Progress can be measured, for instance,
There has also been much discussion on in sectoral strategies, institutional reforms,
greater community involvement in decision and financial forecasting, depending on the
making at the local level, but as yet, improved city’s priority concerns. Benchmarking the
institutional procedures which could provide performance allows the city to provide a stan-
a forum for partnerships with nongovern- dard or reference by which it can measure
ment organizations (NGOs), community- or judge its own performance—against other
based organizations (CBOs), and civil soci- cities, government averages, or even its past
ety at large have not been established. performance. Resistance of city officials, de-
At a regional level, the Asiaville adminis- partment heads, and employees may prove
tration has now realized that with globaliza- to be the biggest obstacles to benchmarking,
tion trends, it must compete with neighbor- which can be overcome with strong leader-
ing cities for potential inward investment. ship and commitment to achieving goals and
So far it has had some success with the gar- improving city performance.
ment industry and some services sectors, but The following chart illustrates the tasks
now wants to attract other new industries by carried out under the CDB exercise. Once
forming public–private partnerships to pro- objectives are identified through a partici-
vide the high quality road, utilities, and other patory process, and a commitment from
infrastructure needed to attract such firms. It stakeholders is achieved, an appropriate ur-
also realizes that it should be providing bet- ban indicators system can be developed. The
ter communications, hotels, and information methodology is discussed in Chapter 2 for
on the city’s potential advantages for new identifying the long-list of indicators, the
investors. contents and method of using the
For the purposes of the case study it is consultant’s kit (consisting of a worksheet,
assumed that the city authorities have or are definitions and significance of indicators,
developing goals, strategies, and targets notes and sources, and calculation assis-
which will address these shortcomings and tance), and a summary of the potential

The CDB Process: Developing and Applying Urban Indicators 39

 Challenges Objectives CITIES DATA BOOK
PROCESS
Urbanization Assess situation of
Globalization individual cities Selection of
New technologies Provide comparative Indicators/Themes
information from
Intercity other Asian and
competition Collection of Indicators
Pacific cities
Worksheet
Definitions and
Significance
Need for Better Notes and Sources
Participatory
Process Information about Calculation
Cities Package
Consultation Assessment of
Consensual situation City Profiles
decision making
Prioritization
Information
sharing Policy-Based
Monitoring Policy Making Indicators
Decision Making

Monitoring

CITY CLUSTERS
High-ranked cities
Transition cities
Medium cities
Low-ranked cities

INDEXES
City Development Index COMPARATIVE
Congestion PERFORMANCE
Connectivity OF CITIES

CITY HOLOGRAMS

Other Methods

Figure 3.1. Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

40 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

WORKSHEET The worksheet on Excel ‘97 is CDB’s survey
instrument. Divided into 13 themes, the
worksheet provides data entry spaces for 122
quantitative indicators. A copy of the indicators
worksheet is found in Appendix 3.

DEFINITIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE

Definitions provides brief descriptions of the
indicators presented in Chapter 4.

Notes and Sources contains documentation of

NOTES AND SOURCES the sources of data for 18 cities as shown in
Chapter 7. CDB data are mostly for 1998.
Time series data and special methods for
calculating the figures are also noted here.
The Notes also provides a brief background or
distinction of the information provided
(e.g. cultural, geographic, etc.)

A simple Calculation Assistance package may

CALCULATION ASSISTANCE be used to calculate a few of the more difficult
indicators, e.g. rates of growth, house price to
income ratio, etc. See downloadable Calcula-
tion Assistant in the Consultants Kit under
CITY PROFILES Resources of the Cities Data Book on CD-Rom.

City Profiles in Chapter 6 contains basic

information about the city.

The CDB Process: Developing and Applying Urban Indicators 41

It should be emphasized problems in the collection of data for the will be important that the appropriate de-
CDB. Many of these resources are provided partment in the city administration, such as
that where city in the appendixes, and are available in CD- the strategic planning office, is clearly in
ROM and in the CDB website. charge of the work and can quickly decide
resources are limited it For the CDB exercise, a number of addi- on queries raised during the work.
tional outputs were pursued in each city, As an example of the application of in-
may be only realistic to such as the drafting of a city profile to place dicators to policy making and improved city
the data in context. While not necessary to management, Table 1 shows the relationship
collect data in two or the establishment of an urban indicators sys- of CDB urban indicators to the goals, strate-
tem, this narrative summary of the city’s re- gies, and targets needed to address the is-
three phases, starting sources, strengths, and concerns helped fo- sues affecting Asiaville. In this example, the
cus the CDB exercise. It also helped identify city authorities decided to comprehensively
with the most urgent which aspects are required in data collection review city development and planned to
as they relate to the analysis on the compara- collect data under eight headings. It is em-
data needs of that city. tive performance of cities. phasized that many of the figures are arbi-
The CDB process provides a comprehen- trary and not taken directly from the CDB.
sive approach to urban indicators for a city They do, however, illustrate how perfor-
administration to draw upon to meet its par- mance indicators can be used to measure
ticular needs. Thus, for example, City A in progress in achieving targets, which in turn
the low-income group of cities as described can realize strategies and goals. In addition,
in Chapter 4 may be prioritizing job creation much of this table is relevant to achieving
and appropriate infrastructure support, in the goals of ADB’s Urban Sector Strategy (see
which case it will be particularly interested Appendix 5).
in the indicators groupings on urban pro-
ductivity, new technology, and municipal
services. Poverty mapping exercises, for ex- IV. FOLLOW-ON WORK,
ample, may be assisted by the results of the
REPLICATION, AND SCALING UP
survey on income and poverty. City B how-
ever may be concerned with financial self- The CDB findings were presented at ADB
sufficiency and administrative reforms, in headquarters in February 2001 to participat-
which case it may be interested in the group- ing cities, and to representatives from inter-
ings addressing local government, urban national agencies. In discussions on the CDB,
governance, and indicators related to mu- there was general agreement that a more per-
nicipal services which measure efficiency and manent network of cities involved in the use
effectiveness. of indicators was necessary, and that broad
It should be emphasized that where city dissemination of the findings and outputs
resources are limited it may be only realistic of the CDB exercise should be undertaken.
to collect data in two or three phases, start- ADB prepared a CD-ROM version of the CDB,
ing with the most urgent data needs of that and installed a website with an interactive
city. In addition, such a phased program al- version of the book. These efforts will help
lows time for city officials to evaluate the to disseminate the findings, and make the
usefulness of the initial data collected, ap- approach accessible to a greater number of
ply the knowledge gained to subsequent candidate cities.
collection phases, and decide whether to Increasingly, as city governments
allocate more resources to a particular topic. throughout Asia concern themselves not just
Where the city plans to carry out wide– with what they do, but how well they do it,
ranging collection, it may be helpful to pub- policy-based urban indicators will become
licize the objectives and procedures that will commonplace. While modest, the CDB ex-
be used through the media, chambers of com- ercise puts forward a locally driven frame-
merce, NGOs, and CBOs. While the city may work for key urban indicators in a number
choose to hire a consultant to collect data, it of thematic areas of urban management and

42 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Table 3.1. ADB’s Urban Sector Goals, Strategies and Targets, and Cities Data Book Indicators

Goal Strategy Target CDB Performance Indicator

Alleviation of Uban Implement poverty Increase access to poverty ■ Expenditure on poverty reduction per head
Poverty reduction programs funds by city residents by 50% ■ No. of households below poverty line
■ Improvement in household income
distribution

Improve access to micro-credit Disburse $2 million in first year ■ No. and value of small business loans*

Strengthen gender equity Improve access by women to urban ■ Labor force participation of women*
services, employment, health and ■ Women’s housing loans
credit by 30% ■ Access to services by gender*

Develop public-private Allocate minimum of $0.5 million to ■ No. of formal and informal jobs created
community-based poverty antipoverty programs in first year ■ No. of public-private meetings held
programs per month
■ Program outcomes

Improved Quality Improve access to health and ■ Improve life expectancy by 10% ■ Life expectancy
and Quantity of education services over next decade ■ Child mortality rate
Social Infrastructure ■ Reduce deaths from infectious ■ Infectious diseases mortality
diseases by 20% over next decade. ■ Adult literacy rate (male and female)
■ Achieve full adult literacy over ■ School enrollment rates
next decade ■ No. of school children per classroom
■ Achieve full school enrollment of
eligible children over next decade
■ Reduce class size by 20% over
next decade

Promote social integration Achieve success in crime prevention ■ Reported crime

campaign with 25% drop in reported crime
over 3 years

Urban Productivity and Support measures to improve ■ Increase share of employment in ■ Change in employment share by sector
Competition competitiveness of city key areas of business services ■ City product per head
■ Increase inward investment in all ■ No. of corporate headquarters
sectors, with objective of minimum 5% ■ Volume of freight by road, rail and air
growth per year for city GDP ■ City investment by sector, including R&D
■ No. of commercial flights arriving per year
■ Cost of business overnight stay
■ No. of business permits granted per year
■ Level of business satisfaction with city and
wider urban area

Increase city attractions to Attract 25% more tourist visits and ■ No. of tourist nights per year
national and international extend average stay by one night over ■ Tourist expenditure per year
tourists next 3 years ■ List of attractions

Increase use of computerization Convert all departments to computer– ■ Level of computerization compared to
and automation in city based systems within 3 years agreed department standards
administration

Encourage investments in Create high quality working environment ■ R&D expenditure per year
R&D in the city for new/existing firms

Invest in high quality new Establish joint ventures for $20 million ■ Telephone calls per year
communications systems new systems in next 3 years ■ Growth of Internet connections per year

Urban Land and Housing Provide adequate land to help ■ Assist market to reduce cost of ■ Land development multiplier
improve the economic efficiency serviced land to no more than 3 times ■ Cost of m2 of land in prime commercial
and quality of life in the city the cost of unserviced land location
■ Reduce public sector housing ■ No. of business permits granted per year
expenditure in favor of infrastructure ■ Cost of business overnight stay
spending ■ Total net expenditure on housing by the
■ Assist market to stabilize cost of prime public sector
land through planning, controls etc., ■ Prime land cost
ditto for prime rental commercial space ■ Prime rentals
■ Ensure minimum of 2 years supply of ■ Amount of vacant land with planning
vacant land with planning permission permission
■ Reduce amount of unused public sector ■ Amount of vacant land held by the public
land by 50% over 3 years sector
■ Maximize share of infrastructure costs ■ Level of developer’s contribution
to be paid by developer ■ Proportion of public open space to built-up
■ Ensure minimum ratio of open space to area, per year
built-up areas of city

Improve systems for land Establish maximum time for land transfer, ■ Time for obtaining planning permission
regulation, land transfer, approval of subdivisions
structure planning, and planning /
building controls

The CDB Process: Developing and Applying Urban Indicators 43

Table 7 continued.

Goal Strategy Target CDB Performance Indicator

Establish or improve procedures Level of involvement of all stakeholders at
Amount of access to city information
for public participation each stage of planning process
Public meetings

Support innovative housing Increased share of legal, affordable
Distribution by dwelling and tenure type
schemes and owner/builder housing available for low-income
Distribution by tenure type
construction which incorporate households; better balance between
House price to income ratio
incremental standards and housing by dwelling/tenure type
House rent to income ratio
better compliance and affordability
Level of compliance with modified planning
and building codes

Floor area per person

Dwelling construction and investment

Recognize informal housing Legalize all informal housing (except
Informal housing, squatters, and dwellings in
areas as legitimate parts of those in dangerous locations) over next compliance
the city 3 years
No. of households regularized or resettled
per year

No. of homeless people

Leverage financial resources, Establish lending programs for housing
Ratio of total mortgage credit to all credit,
minimizing use of subsidies in community-based finance institutions per year
over next 3 years
Proportion of houses with mortgages

New loans*

Housing subsidies*

Urban Services (water, Improve quantity, reliability, and Undertake commercialization of
Number of household connections and ratio
electricity, sanitation, and quality of supply supply organization within 5 years, to number of households
solid waste management) including private sector participation,
Investment per head of population
increased institutional autonomy, and
Share of budget spent on operations and
improved finance resource management maintenance

Output of service per staff member

Consumption of service per head

Median price of water (and other services*)

Reduce unaccounted for supply Reduce unaccounted for supply by 50%
Amount of unaccounted supply and
and/or interruptions in supply over next 3 years disruptions over 3-year period

Improve financial resources Achieve break-even operations by year 3,
Level of cost recovery
with revised tariff and well trained staff
Level of investment
in place
Staff to output ratio

Recurrent expenditure

Environment Maintain qualities and quantities Establish standards for air, water, noise
Levels of air pollution concentrations
at safe levels and ground pollution to be achieved by
No. and type of noise‘ complaints
2005

Manage domestic solid and Achieve 50% sustainable domestic waste
Amount of solid waste generated, per year
liquid wastes collection and disposal within 3 years
Current levels of household liquid waste
disposal

Current levels of household solid waste
disposal

Current percentage of wastewater sub-
jected to some form of treatment

Current percentage of BOD removed from
wastewater

Provide for disaster mitigation Establish preparedness programs in all
No. and extent of disasters over past 10
city districts to help reduce losses during years
earthquakes, floods, severe weather,
accidents, and man-made disasters

Urban Transport Maximize benefits of transport Implement traffic management on existing
Expenditure on road infrastructure
infrastructure road network and use new transport
Extent of road congestion
infrastructure, particularly roads, to guide
Automobile ownership
urban expansion. Reduce congestion by
Median travel time
50% over 5 years
Existing mode of travel

Transport–related deaths

Generate competitive markets; Develop more equitable tariffs with prices
Cost recovery from fares
in particular develop market- reflecting as far as possible the full impact
based skills among state– of externalities
owned transport enterprises

Develop public transport Need to develop mass rail transport as
Transport mode
alternatives a vital tool in structuring city, but requires
associated property development to boost
incomes; an alternative solution is the use
of high capacity bus lanes

44 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Table 7 continued.

Goal Strategy Target CDB Performance Indicator

Urban Governance and Incorporate in city activities Set benchmark indicators for delivery of
Ratio of city employees per ’000 population
Management the four principles of good services by city and contracted out to the
Share of wages in city budget
governance: accountability, private sector (e.g., not less than 90%
Realization of annual plan/budget
predictability, transparency, of buses on service at any time)
Proportion of current expenditure spent on
and participation services contracted out

Revenue from city enterprises

Increase predictability in the Set standards and regulations, e.g., for land
Functions of local government
application of legal and transfer, which are clear and unambiguous,
City plans
administrative procedures, with particularly as they relate to the poor
particular application to the poor

Increase transparency in For example, make land market data freely
Extent of computerization of functions, e.g.,
public-private dealings available at local offices; computerization land registration
will assist transparency

Increase community participation, Establish procedures for ensuring all
Access to relevant information; authority
including demand management to stakeholders have the opportunity to given to stakeholders to make decisions and
improve service delivery participate in the development cycle act on them
Develop effective systems for
Extent of contact between city authorities
communication, replication, and feedback and public; e.g., public meetings, senior
management discussions, etc.

Voter participation rates

Promote decentralization as an Establish decentralization of key functions
Extent of decentralization, e.g., no. of local
instrument for achieving more within 3-year period, including private sector government units in wider urban area, and
effective service delivery and participation in some sectors no. of decentralized units in core local
increasing stakeholder government
participation
Functions carried out independently of
higher government

No. of elected and nominated councilors

Promote financial independence Increase share of city revenues from
Sources of local government revenues,
of local government property and business taxes, as well by year
as user charges. Assess potential for
Capital and recurrent expenditure per head
new sources of funds, including private
Costs of collecting property tax
capital, as well as city’s long term access
Level of debt service charge
to capital markets

Increase use of market–based
Extent of impact of more efficient financial

pricing of services in designated management on profitability and tariffs
service sectors such as water
supply, and allow for cross–
subsidy to maintain the poor’s
access to service

Define clear roles for public and Where possible assign roles for a service
Functions of local government
private sectors in strategic to one level of government, to the
planning, financing, and delivery community, or to the corporate private
of services; in particular, sector
consider new cross-sectoral
responsibilities for policy making

Give strong support for skills
Develop training programs, especially
Proportion of city staff undergoing training
training and other capacity- in urban management per year*
building initiatives
Review salary structure and status
of staff

Promote regional cooperation by
bringing city staff from different DMCs
together to share best practices,
problem solving, and networking.

Note (*) Not included in the current collection.

BOD - biological oxygen demand, DMCs - developing member countries (of ADB), R&D - research and development

governance. Its initial success may be in part Significant effort was spent on cleaning
to its limited scope; rather than a grandiose the data for comparability, avoiding the com-
scheme to generate an unsustainable laun- mon problem of data that is “apples-to-or-
dry list of indicators in numerous cities, a anges” and therefore unable to be compared.
limited array of indicators that are linked to In this first effort, the data can be character-
clear policy concerns were tackled in a man- ized as “apples-to-apples.” Whether problems
ageable number of cities. will emerge in the future depends on the

The CDB Process: Developing and Applying Urban Indicators 45

Truly successful manner in which the CDB process is scaled to help cities take stock of their endowments,
up, and for what purposes. Ideally, the pro- their role in the current production or ser-
replication of the CDB cess would remain locally driven, with the vice function, and to link outputs to choices
objective of generating information and pro- that may improve the city’s competitive po-
exercise in other Asian viding a toolkit for analysis to urban manag- sition. The CDS is both a process and a prod-
ers on the ground. Truly successful replica- uct, which together identify ways of creating
cities would be due to tion of the CDB exercise in other Asian cit- conditions for attaining sustainability, as well
ies would be due to the inherent strengths as priority areas for donor support and in-
the inherent strengths and utility of the urban indicators system as tervention. A recent assessment of CDS, how-
designed, which would be self-replicating on ever, has found that more work is needed
and utility of the urban its own merits and accord. This, of course, on monitoring and performance indicators,
remains to be seen. both as a guide to decision making and man-
indicators system as The CDB has noted the various distrib- aging cities, as well as to help the Cities Alli-
uted indicators databases already in place that ance gauge the impact of its efforts. The CDB
designed, which would will enable municipalities to establish their urban indicators process may be a readily us-
own sets of indicators databases. Such data- able tool to meet this need.
be self-replicating on its bases would include a core set of indicators,
common to an agreed network of cities and
own merits and accord. agencies in the region or further afield, as
well as a specialized set of relevance to a Matthew Westfall is a senior urban development
particular network member. For example, specialist in ADB’s Southeast Asia Department. An urban
there are some 75 organizations dealing with policy expert and environmental planner with over 17 years
of experience in the international development field, he
some aspects of urbanization in Asia, many
has developed parallel, and highly complementary,
of which have their own databases and would expertise as an award-winning documentary producer of
be likely candidates for networking with the television programming focused on development issues.
CDB. He is country coordinator for ADB’s urban sector projects
in the People’s Republic of China, and is currently mission
ADB will continue to explore the oppor- leader in several urban poverty reduction projects in the
tunity for follow-on activities to build on the Philippines. Since September 1999, he has been leading
network established to date, and to incor- the Cities Data Book exercise.

porate indicators in its operational lending Giles Clarke is an urban development specialist with
and technical assistance activities. An impor- particular interests and experience in urban management,
tant outcome may be the formulation of a sustainable urban development, land and shelter policy,
and capacity building. He has directed two strategic
core urban indicators system for cities in- planning projects in Asia and has developed urban
volved in ADB’s urban sector operations, expansion and upgrading projects in Asia, Africa and the
which would support baseline measurement Middle East. He has directed national shelter strategies
for Jordan, Nepal and Moldova. He served as co-team
and monitoring trends and intervention im-
leader during the first stage of the Urban Management
pacts over time. Programme and assisted UNCHS in a midterm review of
Another area for application of the CDB the Global Shelter Strategy, as well as in the start-up of
urban indicators approach would be in the the Sustainable Cities Program and in the use of urban
indicators in assessing urban policies. He was co-editor
city development strategy (CDS) planning of an ADB book on megacities management in Asia and
initiated in a number of cities in Asia under more recently drafted ADB’s Urban Sector Strategy.
the Cities Alliance, a multi-donor coalition Mr. Clarke is Managing Director of PADCO Europe Ltd.,
London, UK.
which has the primary objective of urban
poverty reduction. CDS is essentially a par-
ticipatory strategic planning process intended

46 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

CHAPTER 4:

THE CDB DATABASE

URBAN INDICATORS

T
he following presents the CDB in
dicators in detail. Each indicator
shows the indicator definition,
warning trend, and significance.
Charts and tables are shown for
each indicator and scattergrams have been
plotted as relevant. Sources of data, meth-
ods of calculation, and time period of the
indicator data are detailed in the Notes and
Sources of each city indicator in Chapter 7.
 Definitions and Significance City Development Index

Indexes City Development Index

CITY DEVELOPMENT INDEX Melbourne

The City Development Index ranks cities in the Hong Kong
Seoul
development spectrum and combines city product Mandaluyong
with infrastructure, waste management, health and Bishkek
education indicators. The CDI can be calculated Naga
Hohhot
using the following formula: Suva
Cebu
Formula = (Infrastructure index + waste index Hanoi
+ health index + education index + product Kathmandu
Ulaanbaatar
index) / 5
Lahore
Bangalore
Infrastructure 25* water connections + 25* Colombo
sewerage + 25* electricity + 25* Medan
Dhaka
telephone
Phnom Penh
Waste Wastewater treated* 50 + 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
garbage collection* 50
Percent
Health (life expectancy-25)* 50/60+ (32-
child mortality)*50/31.92
Education Literacy* 25 + primary enroll-
ment* 25 + secondary enroll- Clustering Analysis of the City Development Index
ment* 25 + graduates /350
Percent
Product (ln city product -4.61)*100/5.99 100

Mandaluyong Melbourne
Kathmandu Bishkek Naga
Lahore Hong Kong
80 Hohhot Suva Seoul
Bangalore Hanoi Cebu
Colombo Ulaanbaatar
Medan
Dhaka
60 Phnom Penh

40

20

0
Low Transition Medium High

48 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance City Development Index

CONNECTIVITY INDEX Connectivity Index

It includes: flights, international phone calls, tourism,
headquarters of large corporations, and internet hosts Melbourne
Hong Kong
per 1,000 population. The index measures the extent Seoul
to which the city is connected to the rest of the Mandaluyong
world. Bishkek
Naga
Hohhot
Formula = (log internet+.71)/6.34) + log corpora- Suva
tions/6.7 + (log tourists-3.42)/5.75 + (log flights- Cebu
Hanoi
4.33)/5.27-0.07)/3.3 Kathmandu
Ulaanbaatar
Lahore
Bangalore
Colombo
Medan
Dhaka
Phnom Penh
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent

Congestion Index
CONGESTION INDEX
The congestion index measures crowding. It is Melbourne
uncorrelated with the CDI, favoring smaller, more Hong Kong
dispersed cities with good transport networks. Seoul
Mandaluyong
Bishkek
Formula = (log travel time-2.08)*30/2.71 + 0.3*(log Naga
residential density-1.98)*30/4.89 + 40*(log popula- Hohhot
Suva
tion-2.78)/6.7 Cebu
Hanoi
Kathmandu
Ulaanbaatar
Lahore
Bangalore
Colombo
Medan
Dhaka
Phnom Penh
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent

The CDB Database 49

 Definitions and Significance 1. Population

Indicators Urbanization

POPULATION Melbourne
Urbanization. This covers the percentage of national Hong Kong
Seoul
population in urban areas. Urban areas are defined as Mandaluyong
settlements over 1,000 people. Warning trend: Overly Bishkek
rapid urbanization will lead to pressure on infrastruc- Naga
Hohhot
ture and resources. Negative urbanization generally Suva
corresponds to a fall in national income. Significance: Cebu
Rapid urbanization has been the major phenomenon Hanoi
Kathmandu
of the 20th century, which will continue into the 21st. Ulaanbaatar
Urbanization is the background against which other Lahore
changes to most cities in developing countries are Bangalore
Colombo
taking place. Medan
Dhaka
Phnom Penh
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent

City Population
City Population. This includes (a) the resident popu-
lation of the municipal area; (b) the population during Melbourne
Hong Kong
daytime working hours, if substantially different; and Seoul
(c) the annual rate population increase. Significance: Mandaluyong
Bishkek
Population is the denominator for many indicators, Naga
Hohhot
and is a measure of demand for services. Daytime Suva
populations of city centers can be much higher than Cebu
Hanoi
resident populations, because of the presence of the Kathmandu
workforce. This will affect demand for services. Ulaanbaatar
Lahore
Bangalore
Colombo
Medan
Dhaka
Phnom Penh
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,00
(’000) 0

CDI vs. Annual Population Rate Increase

Annual population rate
increase (percent)
7
Kathmandu Melbourne
6 Phnom Penh
5 Ulaanbaatar
Dhaka
4 Bangalore Hanoi
Lahore Mandaluyong
3
Colombo Hohhot Hong Kong
Naga
2 Cebu
Medan Suva Bishkek
1
NOTES
■ There is a need to distinguish population increase 0 Seoul
due to internal migration and natural increase.
-1
■ Women - headed households are defined in some 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
cities. CDI

50 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 1. Population

Population Net Density, Persons per Hectare. City Population Net Density
Population divided by Net Residential Land in hect-
ares. Net Residential Land includes all built-up land Melbourne
zoned as residential, including open space and roads. Hong Kong
Seoul
A proportion of mixed-use land has been added, ac- Mandaluyong
cording to an estimate of the relative floor space Bishkek
usage by business and residential. In estimating popu- Naga
Hohhot
lation net density, the land for the informal settle-
Suva
ments can be added to the residential land, and a Cebu
proportion of the mixed-use land based on floor space Hanoi
for residential and other uses. Warning trend: Too Kathmandu
Ulaanbaatar
high – crowding can lead to health risks, and pres-
Lahore
sure on transport and services. Too low – becomes Bangalore
expensive to provide services, and mass transit is Colombo
not viable. Significance: Urban density is a measure Medan
Dhaka
both of crowding and the viability of services. Phnom Penh
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000

NOTE
■ Data on net population density depends on what
has been netted from residential land, i.e., whether
informal settlements are included and how mixed
land use is handled.

The CDB Database 51

 Definitions and Significance 1. Population

Age Pyramid. This covers the number (thousands) Average Population by Age Bracket, Low-Developed Cities
of males and females in age categories: (a) Persons
0-14, (b) Persons 15-59, and (c) Persons over 60. Age group
The total matches with city population. The age dis-
60+
tribution is known as a pyramid because if, say,
numbers are expressed as a two-way bar chart for 15-59

5-year age groups, with the youngest at the bottom, 0-14

it usually shows a pyramid structure when the popu- KATHMANDU
lation is growing. Warning trend: High proportions of
60+
aged and children will put pressure on various ser-
vices and on the workforce, to support them. Signifi- 15-59
cance: Children and old people require special 0-14
services.
LAHORE

60+

15-59

0-14

BANGALORE

60+

15-59

0-14

COLOMBO

60+

15-59

0-14

MEDAN

60+

15-59

0-14

DHAKA

60+

15-59

0-14

PHNOM PENH
50 40 30 20 10 00 10 20 30 40 50
Males Females

52 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Definitions and Significance 1. Population

Average Population by Age Bracket, Medium-Developed Cities

Age group

60+

15-59

0-14

MANDALUYONG

60+

15-59

0-14

NAGA

60+

15-59

0-14

SUVA

60+

15-59

0-14

CEBU
50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Males Percent Females

Average Population by Age Bracket, High-Developed Cities

Age group

60+

15-59

0-14

MELBOURNE

60+

15-59

0-14

HONG KONG

60+

15-59

0-14

SEOUL
50 40 30 20 10 00 10 20 30 40 50
Males Percent Females

The CDB Database 53

 Definitions and Significance 1. Population

Average Population by Age Bracket, Transition Cities

Age group

60+

15-59

0-14

BISHKEK

60+

15-59

0-14

HOHHOT

60+

15-59

0-14

HANOI

60+

15-59

0-14

ULAANBAATAR

50 40 30 20 10 00 10 20 30 40 50
Males Percent Females

54 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 1. Population

Average Household Size. The city population is di- Average Household Size vs. Annual Population Increase
vided by the total number of households. If a full
8
census of households is not available, the number of
Average household size
households and number of occupied dwellings can 7
Annual population increase (%)
be taken as the same (presuming there are not too 6
many multi-household dwellings). Alternatively, a 5
survey is used to estimate average household size 4
between censuses. Significance: Attitudes to large
3
households are culturally determined; large house-
2
holds may be extended families, large numbers of
children, or overcrowding, depending on circum- 1

stances. Small households may be a sign of prosper- 0

ity, but may indicate a future problem of declining -1
population.
Ph

Dh

Me

Co

Ba o

La re

Ula

Ka atar

Ha

Ce

Su

Ho

Na

Bis

Ma

Se

Ho

Me
n

ho

thm

bu
lom

o
ng

va
no

hh

ng
ga
a
om

hk
da

nd

lbo
an

ul
ka

re
alo

ot

ek
n

alu
ba

Ko

urn
Pe

an
n

n
yo
du

e
h

g
ng
Average Household Size vs. Informal Household Size

Hong Kong
Average household size
Mandaluyong Informal household size
Bishkek
Naga
Hohhot
Suva
Cebu
Hanoi
Kathmandu
Ulaanbaatar
Lahore
Bangalore
Colombo
Medan
Dhaka
Phnom Penh
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Household Formation Rate

Household Formation Rate. This is the annual rate of
increase in number of households. Warning trend: If Melbourne
less than the population growth rate, an increase in Hong Kong
Seoul
household size is implied, which may imply crowd- Mandaluyong
ing, a lack of housing, and probably worsening eco- Bishkek
nomic conditions. Significance: It represents the Naga
Hohhot
implied demand for housing. If as is normal, it is Suva
increasing faster than the population, this represents Cebu
Hanoi
the division of existing households to form new ones.
Kathmandu
Ulaanbaatar
Lahore
Bangalore
Colombo
Medan
Dhaka
NOTE
Phnom Penh
■ Long intercensal periods used to calculate house-
hold formation rate may not reflect the current 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
situation. Percent

The CDB Database 55

 Definitions and Significance 1. Population

Women-Headed Households. This is the percent of Women-Headed Households

households headed by women. Warning trend: High Percent
proportions of women-headed households are indica- 40
tive of social breakdown or an absent male popula-
35
tion. Significance: Women-headed households have
special problems: in many parts of the world they are 30
significantly poorer, and if they are sole parent house- 25
holds, are more likely to have difficulty with rearing
20
children.
15

10

Bis
Ph

Dh

Me

Ba

La

Ula

Ka

Ha

Ce

Su

Ma

Se

Ho
Na
h
no

th

bu

ou
ng

va
no

ng
ak

hk
ga
da

nd
an
ore

ma
m

alo
a

l
i

ek
n

alu
ba

Ko
Pe

n
re

ng
yo
du
tar
n

ng
h

Household Types. Types of household include (a) Single-Person Households

single person; (b) adults only; (c) single parent fam-
ily, and; (d) adults and children. Significance: The Melbourne
Melbourne
Hong Kong
prevalence of different family types describes much
HongSeoul
Kong
of the social structure of a community. Seoul
Mandaluyong
Mandaluyong
Bishkek
Bishkek
Suva
Suva
Hanoi
Hanoi
Kathmandu
Kathmandu
Ulaanbaatar
Informal Settlements. For informal settlements (a) Ulaanbaatar
Lahore
population, (b) households, and (c) land occupied Lahore
Bangalore
Colombo
have been used to calculate persons per household Colombo
Medan
Medan
Dhaka
and population density. Warning trend: A large pro-
PhnomDhaka
Penh
portion of the population living in informal settlements Phnom Penh 0 5
2,000 10
4,000 15
6,000 20
8,000 25
10,000 30
12,000
may imply that much of the population is living ille- 0 2,000 4,000 6,000
(percent) 8,000 10,000 12,000
gally and in crowded, unhealthy conditions. Signifi-
cance: Informal settlements are a prime symptom of
rural-urban migration that is too rapid and cannot be Informal Population Net Density vs.Population Net Density
dealt with by urban management. Once established,
Mandaluyong
they can last for a very long time if ignored by the Po
Informal population net density
Bishkek In
establishment. Population densities and persons per Population net density
Naga
household are generally much higher in informal settle-
Hohhot
ments. This often corresponds to substandard living
Suva
conditions. There will be future pressure for regular-
Cebu
ization, upgrading or resettlement. On the other hand,
Hanoi
informal settlements provide genuinely affordable
Kathmandu
housing to poorer residents, particularly recent immi-
Ulaanbaatar
grants to the city, and have formed much of the core
Lahore
of older European cities in the past.
Bangalore
Colombo
Medan
NOTE
■ Definition and boundaries of informal settlements Dhaka
are not clear. 0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000

56 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 2. Equity

EQUITY Income Inequality Ratio

Income Distribution. This shows annual household
income by quintile: income range (maximum and mini- Melbourne 12.3

mum) and average income in the quintile, in US$. (a) Hong Kong 11.6

Seoul 4.4
Q5. Top 20%; (b) Q4. Next 20%; (c) Q3. Middle 20%; Mandaluyong 5.2
(d) Q2. Next bottom 20%, and; (e) Q1. Bottom 20%. Naga 11.3

Quintiles are obtained by dividing households into 5 Suva 6.1

Cebu 20.6
equal groups ordered by income. It is particularly Bishkek 16.7
important to know the average income of the top Hohhot 10.7

20%. Warning trend: Increasing inequality indicates Hanoi 10.3

Ulaanbaatar 17.2
that part of the community is not participating in Kathmandu 3.2
social wealth. Inequality is often associated with Lahore 31.3

social unrest and increases in crime. Significance: Bangalore 6.0

Colombo 17.2
This information can be used to calculate several Medan 5.5
different measures of income dispersion–the Gini In- Dhaka 10.0

dex, and the Income Inequality Ratio, which take the Phnom Penh 16.7

ratio of the income of the top 20% to the bottom 20%. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Note that the median household income can be taken Percent
as the average income in the third quintile–which is
useful for other indicators. Average Income per Quintile: Low-Developed Cities

US$ (’000)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Phnom Penh Dhaka Medan Colombo Bangalore Lahore Kathmandu

Quintile 5 Quintile 4 Quintile 3 Quintile 2 Quintile 1

Average Income per Quintile: Transition Cities

US$ (’000)
5

0
Ulaanbaatar Hanoi Hohhot Bishkek
Quintile 5 Quintile 4 Quintile 3 Quintile 2 Quintile 1

The CDB Database 57

 Definitions and Significance 2. Equity

Income Distribution. This shows annual household Average Income per Quintile: Medium-Developed Cities
income by quintile: income range (maximum and mini-
mum) and average income in the quintile, in US$. (a) US$ (’000)
Q5. Top20%; (b) Q4. Next 20%; (c) Q3. Middle 20%; 20
(d) Q2. Next bottom 20%; and (e) Q1. Bottom 20%. 18
Quintiles are obtained by dividing households into 5 16
equal groups ordered by income. It is particularly 14
important to know the average income of the top 12
20%. Warning trend: Increasing inequality indicates 10
that part of the community is not participating in 8
social wealth. Inequality is often associated with 6
social unrest and increases in crime. Significance: 4
This information can be used to calculate several 2
different measures of income dispersion–the Gini 0
Index and the Income Inequality Ratio, which take Cebu Suva Naga Mandaluyong

the ratio of the income of the top 20% to the bottom Quintile 5 Quintile 4 Quintile 3 Quintile 2 Quintile 1

20%. Note that the median household income can be

taken as the average income in the third quintile–
Average Income per Quintile: High-Developed Cities
which is useful for other indicators.
US$ (’000)
100

80

60

40

20

0
Seoul Hong Kong Melbourne
Quintile 5 Quintile 4 Quintile 3 Quintile 2 Quintile 1

58 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 2. Equity

HOUSEHOLDS BELOW POVERTY LINE Women-Headed Households in Poverty vs. Women-Headed Households
Women-Headed Households in Poverty. This refers
to the proportion of households below the poverty Percent
100
line. Households with income of US$ 1 a day. Warn-
Women-headed households
ing trend: Rising poverty means either greater in-
80 Women-headed households in poverty
come inequality or lower national incomes, and an
increase in all the major pathologies associated with
60
poverty. Significance: Poverty alleviation is a major
objective of all governments and the major objective
of development aid agencies. Poverty is associated 40

with malnutrition, illiteracy, social and economic ex-

clusion, and in some cases, crime and social break- 20

down. Women-headed households are considered

to be more vulnerable to poverty than other house- 0

Me

Ma
Ula

Bis
Ph

Dh

Ba

Ha
La

Ka

Su

Na
holds in many places.

ho
no

ng

thm

no
ak

hk
da

nd
va
an

ga
re
m

alo
a

ek
n

alu
ba

an
Pe

ata
re

yo
du
nh

ng
r

NOTES
■ Poverty lines can vary from one city to another. It
is important to clarify the basis for the poverty
line.

The CDB Database 59

 Definitions and Significance 2. Equity

Child Labor. This refers to the number of employed Child Labor

or economically active persons under 15 years of
Number (’000)
age. Children should be considered as employed if
800
they are working largely in producing goods or ser-
vices for sale, even where they are nominally in a 700

“school” or similar. Warning trend: Ideally, child labor 600

should be nonexistent under international treaties. 500
Significance: Child labor is used because it is cheap,
400
in occupations where children may be effective in
producing goods and services. However, this par- 300
ticularly vulnerable group is liable to exploitation, 200
and may not receive proper education.
100

Bis
Ph

Ula
La

Ka
Dh

Ba

Su

Na
Co

ho
no

thm

hk
ng

va
lom

ga
ak

an
re
m

ek
alo
a

ba
bo

an
Pe

ata
re

du
nh

r
Unemployment. This is defined as those above 15 City Development Index vs. Unemployment Rate
“without work, currently available for work and seek- Unemploment rate
ing work,” as a percentage of the full time workforce (percent)
30
(employed + unemployed). Warning trend: High
unemployment is a primary indicator of weakness in 25
Dhaka
the formal economy. Significance: In industrialized
20
countries, unemployment rates are probably the most
Mandaluyong
familiar indicators of all expressing the health of the 15
Medan
economy and the success of government economic Cebu
10 Colombo
Hanoi
policy. Unemployment is usually regarded as struc- Bangalore
Seoul
Kathmandu Suva Bishkek
tural (due to changes in the structure of economy, 5 Lahore
Ulaanbaatar Naga Hong Kong
Melboourn
firms closing, etc.), frictional (due to migration of Phnom Penh Hohhot
0
people, firms, etc.), and temporary (due to the short- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
term nature of some kinds of employment). CDI (Percent)

NOTE
■ Employable age groups and /or labor force partici-
pation rates may also vary and it is necessary to
understand local definitions which some cities tend
to adopt.

60 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 2. Equity

Informal Employment. This shows percentage of Informal Employment Rate

the total workforce whose major income earning
Percent
activity is part of the informal sector. The informal 70
sector “consists of persons engaged in the produc-
60
tion of goods or services with the primary objective
of generating employment and incomes to the per- 50
sons concerned. These units typically operate at a
40
low level of organization, with little or no division
between labor and capital as factors of production 30
and on a small scale. The informal sector includes (a)
20
all unregistered commercial enterprises, and (b) all
non-commercial enterprises that have no formal struc- 10
ture in terms of organization and operation.” Essen-
0
tially, it consists of unregistered enterprises, and
Dh

Co

La

Ul

Ka

Ce

Ha

Ho

Na

Bi

M
ed

sh
aa

an
ho
lo

bu
t

hh
enterprises with no formal structure. Warning trend:

n
ak

ga
hm

oi

ke
m
an

nb

da
re
a

ot
bo

an

k
aa

lu
A large informal sector is a sign of an undeveloped

yo
du
ta

n
r

g
economy. Significance: The informal sector has
played an increasing role in the expansion of produc-
tion in rapidly growing cities in developing countries.
The informal sector has great freedom of action,
being by definition free of government interference,
and will tend to deliver labor resources to productive
areas of the economy. Nevertheless it is typically
under-capitalized, with no access to business finance,
little access to the formal parts of the economy, and
lacking resources for export development or for ex-
pansion. Workers in the informal economy have no
legally defined rights, no access to government wel-
fare in the event of illness or old age, may work
under unsafe conditions, and are usually dependent
on their wits for survival.

Expenditure on Poverty Reduction. This covers capi- Households below Poverty Line vs. Expenditure on Poverty Reduction
tal and recurrent expenditure on poverty reduction US$
Percent
programs in 1998, all sources including government 70 700
and NGOs, per poor person. Capital expenditure in- Households below poverty line (%)
60 600
cludes building of housing, shelters, slum relocation, Expenditure on poverty reduction
service upgrading, etc. Recurrent expenditure includes 50 500
food, income, rent and medical assistance, operat-
40 400
ing expenses of shelters, etc. Only direct subsidies
are included. More general expenditures such as 30 300
basic education, primary health care, safe drinking
20 200
water, adequate sanitation, family planning, etc. ap-
plying to the whole community should be included 10 100
only if they are delivered primarily to the poor. Warn-
0 0
ing trend: Low expenditure per person ensures that
Ph

Dh

Co

La

Ul

Ha

Ce

Su

Ho

Na

Bi

Se
ed

an
sh
aa

poverty will continue; with other associated undesir-

ho
no

bu

ou
lo

v
n

ga
a

a
oi
ka

ho

k
an

da
nb
re
m

l
ek
bo

lu
aa

able effects such as illiteracy, diseases, malnutri-

Pe

y
ta

on
n

r
h

tion, etc. Significance: This expenditure is the primary

response to poverty.

The CDB Database 61

 Definitions and Significance 3. Health and Education

HEALTH AND EDUCATION Health and Education, Low-Developed Cities

Persons per Hospital Bed. This is the city population
divided by total number of hospital beds in the city. Children per Persons per Children per Persons per
Classroom: Hospital Bed Classroom: Hospital Bed
Includes both public and private hospitals. Warning
Secondary 4 Child Mortality Secondary 4 Child Mortality
trend: High ratios imply crowded hospitals and poor
Children per 3 Children per 3
health service. Significance: Primary measure of Classroom: Life Classroom: Life
Primary 2 Expectancy Primary 2 Expectancy
adequacy of health infrastructure. 1
at Birth
1
at Birth

Tertiary 0 Infectious Tertiary 0 Infectious

Graduates Diseases Graduates Diseases
Child Mortality. This refers to the probability that a Mortality Mortality
child will die before its fifth birthday, as a percentage.
Secondary Family Secondary Family
Significance: Child mortality is a primary outcome of Enrollment Planning Enrollment Planning
Rate Rate
inadequate health care and sanitation. Primary
Adult Literacy
Primary
Adult Literacy
Enrollment Enrollment
Rate Rate Rate Rate
Infectious Diseases Mortality per Thousand Popu- KATHMANDU LAHORE

lation. This can be computed as (Deaths from infec-

tious diseases x 1,000) divided by City Population. Children per Persons per Children per Persons per
Classroom: Hospital Bed Classroom: Hospital Bed
Infectious diseases include all those that can be Secondary 4 Child Mortality Secondary 4 Child Mortality
passed down from person to person. Warning trend: Children per 3 Children per 3
Classroom: Life Classroom: Life
Rising death rates imply that medical care is failing, 2 Expectancy 2 Expectancy
Primary Primary
sanitation is worse, or that an epidemic is under 1 at Birth at Birth
1
way. Significance: Infectious diseases are passed Tertiary 0 Infectious Tertiary 0 Infectious
Graduates Diseases Graduates Diseases
on mostly through water, food or insect vectors, and Mortality Mortality
reflect the quality of water and food, the control of Secondary Secondary
Family Family
insect pests, and the standard of medical care. Enrollment Planning Enrollment Planning
Rate Rate
Primary Primary
Enrollment Adult Literacy Enrollment Adult Literacy
Rate Rate Rate Rate

BANGALORE PHNOM PENH

Children per Persons per Children per Persons per

Classroom: Hospital Bed Classroom: Hospital Bed
Secondary 4 Child Mortality Secondary 4 Child Mortality
Children per 3 Children per 3
Classroom: Life Classroom: Life
Primary 2 Expectancy Primary 2 Expectancy
at Birth at Birth
1 1
Tertiary 0 Infectious Tertiary 0 Infectious
Graduates Diseases Graduates Diseases
Mortality Mortality

Secondary Family Secondary Family

Enrollment Planning Enrollment Planning
Rate Rate
Primary Primary
Enrollment Adult Literacy Enrollment Adult Literacy
Rate Rate Rate Rate
COLOMBO MEDAN

Children per Persons per

Classroom: Hospital Bed
Secondary 4 Child Mortality
Children per 3
Classroom: Life
Primary 2 Expectancy
1 at Birth
Tertiary 0 Infectious
Graduates Diseases
NOTES Mortality
■ It is important to consider past population as well Secondary Family
as current data. Enrollment Planning
Rate
■ Re “Infectious Disease Mortality,” note that not all Primary
Enrollment Adult Literacy
patients are necessarily residents of the city. Rate
Rate
DHAKA

62 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 3. Health and Education

Family Planning. This is the percentage of married Health and Education, Transition Cities
couples with females in the fertile age group that
practices family planning in some form. Warning
trend: Lack of family planning corresponds to high Children per Persons per Children per Persons per
Classroom: Hospital Bed Classroom: Hospital Bed
birth rates, large families and older mothers with Secondary 4 Child Mortality Secondary 4 Child Mortality
children who have higher rates of congenital defor- Children per 3 Children per 3
Classroom: Life Classroom: Life
mity. It may also correspond to the spread of vene- 2 Expectancy 2 Expectancy
Primary Primary
real diseases including AIDS. Significance: Family at Birth at Birth
1 1
planning is strongly encouraged in countries where Tertiary 0 Infectious Tertiary 0 Infectious
Graduates Diseases Graduates Diseases
the population is increasing faster than economic Mortality Mortality
capacity. Prevalence depends on family planning pro- Secondary Secondary
Family Family
grams, religious practices and the education level of Enrollment Planning Enrollment Planning
Rate Rate
women. Primary Primary
Enrollment Adult Literacy Enrollment Adult Literacy
Rate Rate Rate Rate

Adult Literacy Rate. This refers to the percentage of BISHKEK HOHHOT

adult population who are literate. Literacy is defined Children per Persons per Children per Persons per
Classroom: Hospital Bed Classroom: Hospital Bed
as being “able to read and understand a simple para- Secondary 4 Child Mortality Secondary 4 Child Mortality
graph in their first written language.” Warning trend: Children per 3 Children per 3
Classroom: Life Classroom: Life
High or increasing. Significance: Illiterate people are 2 Expectancy 2 Expectancy
Primary Primary
unlikely to be able to improve their economic or so- 1 at Birth at Birth
1
cial situation. A high illiteracy rate will mean that few Tertiary 0 Infectious Tertiary 0 Infectious
Graduates Diseases Graduates Diseases
people are available for modern economic activity or Mortality Mortality
administration. Secondary Secondary
Family Family
Enrollment Planning Enrollment Planning
Rate Rate
School Enrollment Rates. This covers percentage of Primary Primary
Enrollment Adult Literacy Enrollment Adult Literacy
children of eligible age, by sex who are enrolled in: Rate Rate Rate Rate

(a) primary school, and (b) secondary school. The HANOI ULAANBAATAR

ages at which enrollment for primary and secondary

education is expected to differ between countries,
but are generally 6-12 years and 12-17 years of age,
respectively. Warning trend: Low school enrollment
rates correspond to a lack of literacy and numeracy
in the population. Significance: The success in re-
taining children in school is a major measure of social
development and the ability of society to sustain
human resource investment. Many countries have
different enrollment rates for boys and girls, particu-
larly in secondary school, which reflects cultural at-
titudes and differential access to educational
opportunities.

NOTES
■ It may also be important to analyze type of gradu-
ates being produced (e.g., new technology -based)
by local universities aside from determining the
number of tertiary graduates.
■ Some cities employ shift arrangements, in which
case apparent classroom overcrowding may not
be so.

The CDB Database 63

 Definitions and Significance 3. Health and Education

School Children per Classroom. This covers the Health and Education, Medium-Developed Cities
total number of school children divided by total class-
Children per Persons per Children per Persons per
rooms: (a) primary, and (b) secondary for all kinds of Hospital Bed Hospital Bed
Classroom: Classroom:
school. Warning trend: Large class sizes indicate Secondary 4 Child Mortality Secondary 4 Child Mortality
crowding and lack of capital funding for educational Children per 3 Children per 3 Life
Classroom: Life Classroom:
2 Expectancy
facilities. Significance: It is difficult for children to Primary Expectancy Primary 2
at Birth
1 at Birth
receive a proper education when classroom sizes 1
Tertiary 0 Infectious Tertiary 0 Infectious
are very large. Graduates Graduates
Diseases Diseases
Mortality Mortality
Secondary Family Secondary Family
Enrollment Planning Enrollment Planning
Rate Rate
Primary Primary
Enrollment Adult Literacy Enrollment Adult Literacy
Rate Rate Rate Rate
MANDALUYONG NAGA

Children per Persons per Children per Persons per

Classroom: Hospital Bed Classroom: Hospital Bed
Secondary 4 Child Mortality Secondary 4 Child Mortality
Children per 3 Children per 3
Classroom: Life Classroom: Life
Primary
2 Expectancy Primary
2 Expectancy
1 at Birth 1 at Birth
Tertiary 0 Infectious 0 Infectious
Diseases Tertiary Diseases
Graduates
Mortality Graduates Mortality

Secondary Family Secondary Family

Enrollment Planning Enrollment Planning
Rate Rate
Primary Primary
Enrollment Adult Literacy Enrollment Adult Literacy
Rate Rate Rate Rate
SUVA CEBU
Health and Education, High-Developed Cities

Children per Persons per Children per Persons per

Classroom: Hospital Bed Classroom: Hospital Bed
Secondary 4 Child Mortality Secondary 4 Child Mortality
Children per 3 Children per 3
Classroom: Life Classroom: Life
Primary
2 Expectancy Primary
2 Expectancy
1 at Birth 1 at Birth
Tertiary 0 Infectious Tertiary 0 Infectious
Graduates Diseases Graduates Diseases
Mortality Mortality

Secondary Family Secondary Family

Enrollment Planning Enrollment Planning
Rate Rate
Primary Primary
Enrollment Adult Literacy Enrollment Adult Literacy
Rate Rate Rate Rate
MELBOURNE HONG KONG
Children per Persons per
Classroom: Hospital Bed
Secondary 4 Child Mortality
Children per 3
Classroom: Life
Primary
2 Expectancy
1 at Birth
Tertiary 0 Infectious
Graduates Diseases
Mortality
Secondary Family
Enrollment Planning
Rate
Primary
Enrollment Adult Literacy
Rate Rate
SEOUL

64 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 3. Health and Education

Life Expectancy at Birth. This refers to the expected City Development Index vs. Life Expectancy
age that a newborn child expects to reach. Warning Age (years)
trend: Low life expectancies are symptomatic of 90
Hong Kong
low quality of life. Increasing life expectancies will 80 Kathmandu
Colombo Hanoi Hohhot Melbourne
cause the population to increase, if the birth rate 70 Bangalore Naga Mandaluyong Seoul
Medan Suva Bishkek
Cebu
60 Dhaka
stays high. Significance: Life expectancy is consid- Phnom Penh
Lahore Ulaanbaatar

50
ered to be the best single indicator of human devel-
40
opment, reflecting levels of medical care, sanitation
30
and nutrition. 20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
CDI (Percent)

Tertiary Graduates. This refers to the proportion of City Development Index vs. Tertiary Graduates
tertiary graduates in the adult population, male and
Tertiary graduates (’000)
female. Defined as the proportion of male graduates
400
to all adult males, and female graduates to all adult
350
females. Tertiary graduates include graduates and Hong Kong

diplomats from universities and all other accredited 300

Mandaluyong
tertiary level institutions. It does not normally include 250 Melboourn

graduates from vocational private colleges unless 200

they are fully accredited. Warning trend: Low num- 150 Cebu
Naga

bers of graduates will provide only a small pool of 100

Suva
Bangalore
people for management, training, the professions, Medan Kathmandu Seoul
50 Phnom Penh
Lahore Bishkek
and for new technology. Significance: The indicator Dhaka Colombo
Ulaanbaatar
Hanoi Hohhot
0
measures higher level education achievement and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
human capital development. CDI (Percent)

The CDB Database 65

 Definitions and Significance 4. Urban Productivity

URBAN PRODUCTIVITY City Product per Capita

City Product per Capita. It is defined as total city
product per year divided by population. This figure is Melbourne
not usually directly available, despite its importance. Seoul
Hong Kong
It can be approximated from national figures by sev- Suva
eral fairly straightforward procedures. The city in- Mandaluyong
come person is usually substantially above national Naga
Cebu
GDP per person figures. If it is not, then an estimation Bishkek
error has probably been made. Warning trend: Fall- Lahore
Dhaka
ing city product per person. Significance: This indi-
Hohhot
cator is the most important single indicator of urban Kathmandu
productivity, being essentially the GNP of the city. It Hanoi
Colombo
will fall if economic growth fails to keep pace with
Ulaanbaatar
population growth. Bangalore
Medan
Phnom Penh

0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000

US$

Employment by Industry. This includes total employ- Employment by Industry

ment, for each category: (a) Secondary and infra- Percent
structure – Manufacturing, Construction, Utilities; (b) 100
Consumer services – Wholesale and retail, trans-
port, personal services; (c) Producer services – Fi- 80
nance and business services; (d) Social services –
Education, health government, and (e) Others – Agri- 60
culture, mining and defense. This is a version of
Singleman’s classification, which is generally re- 40
garded as the best way of organizing the services
sector. Significance: The services sector is the ma-
20
jor growth area in the world economy, and low levels
of participation, particularly in the key business ser-
0
vices sector, will not encourage growth.
Ph

Co

Se
Ba

Ula

Ka

Ha

Su

Bis

Ho

Me
Ho

Na
no

lom

ou
thm
ng

va
no

ng
hh

ga

hk

lbo
an
m

l
alo

ek
ot
ba

Ko
bo

urn
an
Pe

re

ata

n
du

e
g
nh

Secondary Consumer Producer Social

services services services services Others

NOTE
■ Data on household expenditures are usually at the
national or regional level. City surveys done by
business or private groups covered limited
samples and were not regularly done.

66 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 4. Urban Productivity

Household Expenditure. This refers to the proportion Household Expenditure: Low-Developed Cities
of average household income spent on (a) food, Food
(b) shelter, (c) travel, and (d) others. The breakdown Shelter
Travel
must be obtained from a recent household expendi- KATHMANDU LAHORE
Others
ture survey, usually for some higher jurisdiction. Warn-
ing trend: Increasing expenditure in any of the first 29.12
34.30
three categories indicates declining affordability. Sig- 41.20
nificance: Household expenditure on a range of com- 51.53
modities is a major determinant of demand. For lower
4.21
income households, the necessary costs of major
6.20
items in the budget may place the household below
15.14
the poverty line. 18.30

BANGALORE COLOMBO

35.60 37.50
38.10
47.70

3.70 7.10
10.50 19.80

MEDAN PHNOM PENH

4.92
12.00
10.00

10.00

40.44

55.08

30.00
37.56

Household Expenditure: Transition Cities

Food
Shelter
Travel
BISHKEK HOHHOT
Others

23.70

33.00
38.00
56.20
15.33

4.77
2.00 5.00

HANOI ULAANBAATAR
7.80
23.70
16.60

6.70 57.20 50.60

12.40
25.00

The CDB Database 67

 Definitions and Significance 4. Urban Productivity

Household Expenditure: Medium-Developed Cities

Food
Shelter
Travel
MANDALUYONG NAGA
Others

32.00
29.00
42.80
46.75

5.35
5.80

19.40 18.90
CEBU

28.40

44.50

6.90

20.20

Household Expenditure: High-Developed Cities

MELBOURNE HONG KONG

13.30

29.40
31.70

47.30

28.40

7.90

11.00 31.00
SEOUL

28.30

40.80

Food
Shelter
Travel
17.70 Others
13.20

68 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 4. Urban Productivity

Investment by Sector. These are funds invested per Investment by Sector per Capita per Annum
person by economic sector, US$ per annum, on (a)
physical infrastructure, (b) housing; (c) manufactur- US$
ing, (d) services, and (e) others. Warning trend: Fall- 2,000
ing investment indicates a lack of confidence in the 1,800
local economy, or a general lack of funds. Signifi- 1,600
cance: Investment is vitally necessary for economic 1,400
growth. 1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
Low Transition Medium High
Physical infrastructure Housing Services Other

Tourism Arrivals vs. City Product: Medium, Transitional and Low-Developed Cities
Tourism. This includes (a) persons (thousands) and
Tourism (’000)
(b) expenditure (US$ millions) of tourists visiting the 1,400
city, both international and national. Significance: Tour-
1,200 Bangalore
ism is a major growth industry and generator of for-
eign exchange. 1,000

800
Cebu
600 Hanoi
Kathmandu
400
Phnom Penh
200 Ulaanbaatar
Dhaka
Melbourne
Medan Bishkek Naga Mandaluyong
Hohhot
Lahore
0
5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
City Product per Annum (US$)

Tourism Arrivals vs. City Product: High-Developed Cities

Tourism (’000)
1,200

1,000
Hong Kong
800

600
Melbourne

400
Seoul
200

0
5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
City Product per Annum (US$)

The CDB Database 69

 Definitions and Significance 4. Urban Productivity

Cost of Stay
Cost of Stay. This includes the expected cost per
stay per day of executives visiting the city, including Melbourne
Hong Kong
normal hotel and living expenses. Significance: Many
Seoul
cities are quoting affordable costs as a means of Mandaluyong
attracting investors and expatriates away from the Bishkek
Naga
most expensive cities. Source: CDB has provided
Hohhot
this indicator from ADB and UN sources. Suva
Cebu
Hanoi
Kathmandu
Ulaanbaatar
Lahore
Bangalore
Colombo
Medan
Dhaka
Phnom Penh
0 50 100 150 200
US$

70 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance

NEW TECHNOLOGY headquarters indicates the city is being replaced as a Commercial Flights. This refers to the number of
Tourism. This refers to persons (thousands) and corporate center. Significance: A measure of the flights leaving per month, for national and interna-
expenditures ($ millions) of tourists visiting the city, extent to which the city is a business center. tional destinations.
both international and national. Significance: Tourism
is a major growth industry and generator of foreign Telephone Traffic. This refers to the number of Internet Hosts per 1,000. This refers to the number
exchange. telephone calls per annum per person: (a) local, of internet hosts per 1,000 population. Significance:
(b) international, and (c) mobile or cellular phone. The Internet is commonly regarded as the way busi-
Corporate Headquarters. This covers the number of Includes both private and business calls. Significance: ness will be done in the future.
major national and regional corporate headquarters Major indicator of technological connectivity.
of businesses with an annual turnover of US$100
million or over. Warning trend: Declining number of

5. New Technology

Connectedness

Telephone Traffic Commercial Flights

Tourist Large Households Internet
City Tourism Expendi- Corpora- Local Interna- Mobile connected Nat’l Int’l Total hosts per Connectivity Congestion
ture tions calls per tional calls phone to phone Flights Flights Flights 1,000 (%) (%)
($) person per person calls per (%)
person

Bangalore 1,200.00 300.0 25.00 130.0 2.00 1.40 66 690 52 742 8.00 48 74.8

Bishkek 59.36 2.4 NAV 270.0 3.20 0.04 73 386 269 655 4.30 16 51.6

Cebu 634.74 158.7 NAV 28.0 0.12 10.40 15 2,900 19 2,919 6.00 37 52.5

Colombo 381.00 45.7 NAV 64.0 1.20 5.00 53 150 250 400 9.63 26 62.6

Dhaka 182.00 56.0 5.00 17.0 0.40 0.50 9 NAV NAV NAV 9.23 34 86.2

Hanoi 500.00 85.3 13.00 88.0 1.20 1.00 37 2,645 245 2,890 6.30 47 61.4

Hohhot 39.60 126.0 NAV 55.0 0.19 7.00 9 155 8 163 0.85 NAV 67.4

Hong Kong 9,574.71 6,853.0 819.00 420.0 71.00 132.00 99 0 6,800 6,800 278.00 100 69.3

Kathmandu 463.68 152.5 NAV 100.0 0.40 0.60 52 1,905 395 23,00 15.40 39 57.4

Lahore 42.00 3.0 1.00 78.0 1.90 1.20 62 977 244 1221 16.60 24 73.1

Mandaluyong 140.00 48.0 2.00 210.0 3.30 4.40 87 332 1,170 1502 18.00 34 72.5

Medan 191.39 21.6 NAV 60.0 2.10 7.00 41 567 187 754 10.00 27 61.9

Melbourne 5,917.40 1,150.0 38.00 594.0 11.00 80.00 99 10,064 1,449 11,513 131.90 85 32.0

Naga 50.41 13.1 NAV 90.0 0.44 38.02 54 76 0 76 4.73 05 44.5

Phnom Penh 218.84 43.7 3.00 3.5 0.10 1.10 2 300 150 450 0.49 16 57.8

Seoul 3,188.00 1,912.8 120.00 340.0 11.60 84.00 95 6,450 8,310 14,760 150.00 88 83.3

Suva 30.60 15.3 NAV 76.0 2.10 2.80 40 240 28 268 26.64 17 40.1

Ulaanbaatar 150.70 27.8 NAV 63.0 0.80 1.00 34 121 42 163 4.14 13 53.3

NOTES
■ There should be a clear basis for definition of tele- ■ An alternative indicator for connectivity, i.e., the
phone traffic, e.g., does connectivity only relate to cost to the household of getting connected (phone/
calls outside the city, or all calls? internet), may be considered.

The CDB Database 71

 Definitions and Significance 6. Urban Land

URBAN LAND Urban Land

Urban Land. This covers land in hectares zoned as
(a) residential, (b) business, (c) services, (d) trans- Melbourne

port, (e) mixed use, (f) others, and (g) total area. Hong Kong

Mandaluyong
Prime Commercial Land Price. This refers to the Naga
cost of a square meter of land in a prime commercial
Hohhot
location, in US$. The most expensive was used.
Hanoi
Warning trend: High and rising prices indicate a very
Kathmandu
active pressure for commercial space; however, it
Ulaanbaatar
may also be a sign of excessive planning controls or
lack of land. Significance: The price is the measure Lahore

of demand vs. supply in commercial areas. Bangalore

Colombo
Prime Rental and Occupancy Cost. This refers to
Medan
the average costs of occupying prime commercial
space, per square meter, in constant US$. (a) prime 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent
rental per month, (b) operating costs per month, and
Residential Business Services Transport Mixed Others
(c) statutory charges per month. Warning trend: Ris-
ing prices indicate a shortage of office space. Falling
prices (particularly rentals) imply a glut and over-
building. Significance: The cost of occupying office
Prime Commercial Land Price; Prime Rental and Occupancy
space is a major concern of businesses wishing to per Month; Land Development Multiplier
locate in the city.
Prime Prime Land
Land Development Multiplier. This gives the ratio City Commercial Rental Cost per Development
Land Price Month Multiplier
between the median price of land in a developed plot (US$ per m2) (US$ per m2)
at the urban fringe in a typical subdivision and the
Phnom Penh 400.0 NAV 13
median price of raw, undeveloped land in an area
currently being developed (i.e., with planning permis- Dhaka 1,225.0 5.0 6

sion). The comparison should be raw and serviced Medan 199.7 15.0 3
land in typical urban fringe areas where residential
Colombo 875.0 11.6 2
development is allowed (i.e., where planning permis-
sion is given and zoning regulations for residential Bangalore 780.0 5.2 15

development is in effect). Prices refer to typical 50- Lahore 532.0 45.0 1

200 unit subdivisions on the urban fringe. This indica-
Ulaanbaatar 9.4 8.0 1
tor does not apply to local government areas that do
not contain part of the urban fringe. Warning trend: Kathmandu 714.0 7.3 3

High and rising ratios. Significance: The mark up on Hanoi 2,256.0 35.0 NAP
serviced land can be very much greater than the cost
Cebu 367.0 245.0 2
of the services provided–300% is typical–and re-
flects the slow pipeline for development and restric- Suva 553.7 32.7 3

tions in the planning process. Hohhot 108.0 0.3 3

Naga 1,222.7 10.3 5

NOTES Bishkek 10.5 12.0 4

■ There is a need to assess urban land figures from
Mandaluyong 1589.5 11.2 4
survey results, not from plans.
■ On “Prime Commercial Land Price,” data to be Seoul 23,253.0 NAV NV
obtained should be from a representative sample
Hong Kong 27,539.0 74.1 NAP
of locations.
■ On “Prime Rental and Occupancy Cost,” the defi- Melbourne 2,588.0 100.0 5
nition of operating costs should be laid down clearly.

72 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 6. Urban Land

Public Open Space. This refers to the proportion of Public Open Space (Percent to Total Land Area)
public open space in the built-up area (sometimes
known as “green space”). Should include public parks,
gardens, reserves, recreation areas, beaches (but
Seoul >20%
not private golf clubs and similar). Warning trend:
Low proportion of public open space. Significance: A
minimum level of public open space is regarded as 15-20%
Melbourne
necessary both for the quality of life and for environ-
mental regeneration.
10-15%
Phnom Penh

Suva,
Suva,Hohhot,
Hothot, Colombo
Colombo
Bishkek,Bangalore
Bishkek, Banglore 5-10%
Hong
HongKong,
Kong, Hanoi
Hanoi

Cebu, Kathmandu
Mandaluyong, Naga 1-5%
Ulaanbaatar

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Percent

NOTE
■ In calculating government landholdings, it may be
more useful to investigate all levels of govern-
ment.

The CDB Database 73

 Definitions and Significance 7. Housing

HOUSING Dwelling Type

Dwelling Type. This covers the percentage of (a) Percent
single family houses, (b) medium density, (c) apart- 100

ments, (d) temporary dwellings, and (e) others (insti-

tutions, hostels, etc). See the Glossary for a definition. 80

Tenure Type. This covers the percentage of house- 60

holds in housing tenures (a) owned or purchased.
These are households with a clear title or ownership 40
(formal housing) of the house and land they occupy,
possibly through a company structure or as condo- 20
miniums or strata title or long leasehold of land, and
possibly encumbered by a mortgage (purchasing). It 0
also covers (b) private rental. These are households
Me

Bis
Dh

Co

Ba

La

Ula

Ka

Ha

Ce

Ho

Ma

Se

Ho

Me
Na
ho

thm

ou
lo

ng

n
a

hk
da

nd

lbo
an

u
oi
ka

ho

gK
a
mb

re
alo

l
ek
n

alu
ba
in formal housing for which rents are paid to a private

urn
an

on
o

re

ata

yo
du

e
g
ng
r
landlord who is the legal owner. They include back- Houses Apartment and Temporary Others (institutions,
medium density hostels, etc.)
yard shacks, if the main property is owned. (c) So-
cial housing covers all housing in public, parastatal,
or NGO owned or operated housing, including gov- Tenure Type
ernment employee housing and housing owned or
Percent
operated by cooperatives or housing associations.
100
(d) Sub-tenant households are those renting from
another household who is renting the premises. (e)
80
rent-free. Households occupying housing formally
owned by someone else and who do not pay rent. (f)
60
Squatter – no rent households are in squatter hous-
ing, or housing that has no title to the land on which
40
it stands, and who do not pay rent. (g) Squatter –
paying rent are households in squatter housing who
pay rent. (h) Others includes nomads, persons in 20

institutions, boarding houses or hotels, and other

tenures. Significance: The tenure structure repre- 0
Ph

Se
Dh

Bis

Ho

Ha

Ula

Ma

Su

Ce

Ho

Me
Na

sents the legal relationship between households and

no

ou
bu
va
no
hh

ng
ak

ga
hk

nd

lbo
an
m

l
a

i
ot
ek

alu
ba

Ko

urn
Pe

ata

their dwellings.
ng
yo

e
nh

ng
r

Owned and purchased Private rental Social housing Tenant

Tenure Type
Percent
100

80

60

40

20
NOTE
■ Cities differ in their form and function and enough
flexibility should be given to capture these distinc- 0
tions, e.g. develop their own classification by form, Low-Developed Cities Transition Cities Medium-Developed High-Developed
Cities Cities
density or tenure.
Owned and purchased Private rental Social housing Tenant

74 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 7. Housing

House Price to Income Ratio. This refers to the House Price to Income Ratio vs. House Rent to Income Ratio
median house price divided by median household Percent
income. It is the ratio of the median free-market price 50
of a dwelling unit to the median annual household
income. Warning trend: Very high or rising ratios
40
imply either that there is no effective housing market
(as in the formerly socialist countries) or that land is
30
extremely scarce, generally due to regulatory ineffi-
ciencies or restrictions. Significance: This is gener-
20
ally regarded as the single indicator that gives the
greatest amount of information about housing mar-
10
kets.

0
House Rent to Income Ratio. This is the median
Me

Bis
Dh

Co

Ba

La

Ula

Ka

Ha

Ce

Su

Ho

Ma

Se

Ho

Me
Na
ho

th

bu
lom

o
ng

va
no

hh

ng
ak

hk
da

ga

nd

lbo
an

ul
annual rent divided by median annual renter house-

ma
re
alo
a

ek
ot
n

alu
ba

Ko

urn
bo

nd
re

ata

n
yo

e
g
u

ng
hold income. Expressed as percentage. Incomes are

r
House price to income ratio House rent to income ratio
median gross incomes of private and public renter
households. Rents are contract rents, or the amount
paid for the property alone and not for utilities such
as electricity, heating, etc. Warning trend: High val-
ues imply that supply is not keeping up with demand
and affordability is poor. Low values usually imply
controlled tenancies or a high proportion of public
housing. Significance: It is a key measure of housing
affordability.

Floor Area per Person. This is the median floor area City Development Index vs. Floor Area per Person
per person in m2. The floor area should include all
m2
living space, along with bathrooms, internal corri-
60
dors, and closets. Covered semiprivate spaces such Melbourne
y = 0.4467x + 18.352
as inner courtyards or verandahs should be included 50
R2 = 0.358
if used by the household for cooking, cleaning, etc.
40
Warning trend: Very low levels imply overcrowding,
while falling levels imply that not enough new hous- 30
ing is being produced. Significance: It measures the
20 Bishkek
Seoul
adequacy of living space in dwellings, and is a pri- Lahore
Bangalore Kathmandu
Phnom Penh Mandaluyong
mary measure of consumption. 10 Medan Cebu Hohhot
Naga
Dhaka Colombo Hong Kong
Hanoi
Ulaanbaatar
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
CDI (Percent)

The CDB Database 75

 Definitions and Significance 7. Housing

Housing in Compliance. This is the percentage of City Development Index vs. Housing in Compliance
housing stock in compliance with local codes. Only
housing which has both a clear title to the land on Percent
which it stands, and which is constructed with all 100 Hong Kong
Mandaluyong Melbourne
required building, land use, or land subdivision per- y = 1.2601x + 25.811 Hanoi
80 Seoul
mits, should be regarded as being in compliance. R2 = 0.600 Suva
Cebu
Warning trend: Low or falling values may mean that 60 Colombo Naga Bishkek
Lahore
development is proceeding without proper govern- Ulaanbaatar
Dhaka
ment controls, and that government is either tolerant 40 Phnom Penh

of housing that does not comply with its regulations

Bangalore
or is unable to prevent trespasses. In some cases, it 20
may imply that codes are excessively restrictive or Medan

inappropriate. Significance: It measures the extent 0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
to which the urban population is legally housed. CDI (Percent)

Net Housing Outlays by Government. This includes Homeless People vs. Net Housing Outlay by Government per Person
the total net housing expenditures by all levels of
(’000) Percent
government on dwelling construction, rent support, 700 14
etc., per person. Significance: It is the total response Homeless people
600 12
by the government to housing problems. Net housing outlay by gov’t
500 10

400 8

Homeless People. This is the number of homeless 300 6

or street people, on an average night. It is defined as
200 4
the number of people who sleep outside dwelling
units (e.g., on streets, in parks, railroad stations, and 100 2
under bridges) or in temporary shelter in charitable
0 0
institutions. Includes people without shelter, without
Me

Bis
Co

Ba

La

Ula

Ka

Ha

Ce

Ma

Ho

Me
Na
ho

thm

bu
lom

ng

no

ng
hk
da

ga

nd

lbo
an

any recognized address, living temporarily in hostels

re
alo

ek
n

alu
ba

Ko

urn
bo

an
re

ata

n
yo
du

e
g
or shelters, and “street children”. Annual trend: High
ng
r

or rising. Significance: The homeless are the most

poorly housed and vulnerable group in cities, and the
ones to whom many social programs are addressed.
They may indulge in socially undesirable practices
such as begging or crime in order to survive.

76 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 7. Housing

Housing Production. This concerns the number of Household Formation Rate vs. Housing Production
dwellings produced annually, both formal and infor-
Percent Unit per 1,000
mal, per 1,000 population (a) on new vacant land,
6 16
and (b) as net conversions or infill from other uses
(can be negative). The latter consists of new units Household formation rate 14
5
Housing production
completed on land which was not formerly vacant, 12
plus subdivisions of existing units, less any units 4
10
destroyed or converted. Warning trend: Low rate of
production while the population is rising implies a 3 8

looming housing problem. Even if population is not 6

2
rising, low construction will limit the possibility of 4
new households forming and will put pressure on 1
2
rents. Significance: This is the traditional measure of
the ability of the housing supply system to increase 0 0
Low Transition Medium High
and replenish the housing stock.

NOTES
■ On “Housing Production” it is important to empha-
size all production, such as owner-builder’s infor-
mal areas which may form a majority of produc-
tion.

The CDB Database 77

 Definitions and Significance 8. Municipal Services

MUNICIPAL SERVICES Connections to Municipal Services

Household Connections. This refers to the percent-
Percent
age of households connected to water, electricity, High
sewerage/wastewater, telephone, and solid waste 100
High
(100)
Transition
(100)
High
(99)
High
(98)
High
(100)
Medium
collection or percentage of households receiving regu- 90 (93) Transition
Medium Low
lar garbage collection. Warning trend: Low or static 80 (81) (87.71)
(82)
Transition Transition Medium
level of connections. Significance: Low or static 70 (79) (71) (77)
Low Medium
60
level of connections to basic services indicates poor (70) (61) Low
(49.83)
Low
50 Low (62.43)
Medium
access to critically-needed basic services by urban (49.29)
(49)
40
residents, and an insufficient system of service pro- Transition
30 (38)
vision. 20
10
0
Water Electricity Sewerage Telephone Solid waste
High Melbourne Transition Bishkek Medium Mandaluyong Low Kathmandu
Hong Kong Hohhot Naga Lahore
Seoul Hanoi Suva Bangalore
Ulaanbaatar Cebu Colombo
Medan
Dhaka
Phnom Penh

Investment per Capita

Investment per Capita in each service. This covers US$
the annual capital expenditure on water, electricity, 150 High
sewerage/wastewater, telephone, and solid waste 100
(131.50)

collection per person in US$. Warning trend: Low 90

capital expenditure. Significance: Low capital ex- 80
penditure implies depreciation of the network, obso- 70

lete technology, and possibly a very limited service. 60

High
50 (50.10) Low
(39.04)
40 High Low
High High
(32.75) (20.18) Medium (17.13)
30 (28.34)
Transition Low (30.34) Low
(12.97) (12.75) (5.43)
20 Transition
Medium Transition Transition Medium
(10.63)
(5.75) (3.66) (21.54) (2.49)
10 Low
Medium Medium Transition
(8.39) (2.03) (0.29)
(4.09)
0
Water Electricity Sewerage Telephone Solid waste
High Melbourne Transition Bishkek Medium Mandaluyong Low Kathmandu
Hong Kong Hohhot Naga Lahore
Seoul Hanoi Suva Bangalore
Ulaanbaatar Cebu Colombo
Medan
Dhaka
Phnom Penh

NOTES
■ Connections or level of connections are checked
against consumption per capita to determine the
efficiency of delivery of that service.
■ Emphasize need to calculate households with /
without phone and show clearly the percentage of
cellphones.

78 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 8. Municipal Services

Operations and Maintenance Expenditure on each Operations and Maintenance Expenditure

service. This covers the annual total operations and US$
maintenance expenditure on water, electricity, sew- 420 High
(416.85)
erage/wastewater, telephone and solid waste col- 150
lection, per person in US$. Warning trend: Low O&M 140
High
(140.4)
expenditure may correspond to a very low level of 100
service, while high expenditure may suggest ineffi- 90
ciencies. Significance: Expenditures is necessary to 80
maintain infrastructure and services. The level and 70
efficiency of this will vary a great deal between coun- 60 Medium
(56.67)
tries and authorities. 50 Transition
(41.15)
40 High High Medium High
(26.09) (23.11) (40.93) (22.07)
30 Transition Transition Low
(6.15) Low (2.51) (2.36)
20 Medium (10.65) Low Medium
(5.89) Transition (1.92) (2.36)
10 Low (10.64) Medium Low Transition
(3.32) (0.45) (6.28) (1.30)
0
Water Electricity Sewerage Telephone Solid waste
High Melbourne Transition Bishkek Medium Mandaluyong Low Kathmandu
Hong Kong Hohhot Naga Lahore
Seoul Hanoi Suva Bangalore
Ulaanbaatar Cebu Colombo
Medan
Dhaka
Phnom Penh
Consumption of Water per Capita. This pertains to
domestic water supplied or used, in liters per person
per day. Significance: Consumption of water de-
pends on the availability and price of water, the cli- City Product per Capita vs. Water Consumption per Day
mate, and the uses to which water is customarily
Liters per day
put by individuals (drinking, bathing washing, gar-
350
dening). Consumption of water corresponds well with Melbourne
300 y = 3.4674x + 132.46
city income, and can be very high in places where R2 = 0.294849
the price is effectively zero. 250 Cebu
Lahore
Suva
200 Mandaluyong
Seoul
Medan
Dhaka
150 Hohhot
Ulaanbaatar Hong Kong
Bishkek
100 Colombo
Bangalore
Kathmandu
50
Phnom Penh

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
City Product per Annum US$ (’000)

NOTES
■ Data on operations and maintenance costs of cer-
tain services may be difficult to collect particu-
larly when these are covered by private utility com-
panies which may be reluctant to release such
data.

The CDB Database 79

 Definitions and Significance 9. Urban Environment

URBAN ENVIRONMENT Household Sewage Disposal

Household Sewage Disposal. This is the percent-
age of households using different disposal methods: Melbourne
Hong Kong
(a) sewage pipe, (b) septic tank (treated), (c) under-
Seoul
ground pit (untreated), (d) underground communal,
Mandaluyong
(e) pan collection, (f) open ground or trench, and (g) Bishkek
others. Warning trend: High levels of untreated dis- Naga
posal are a health risk. Significance: The type of Hohhot
Suva
latrine facilities which households use reflects strongly
Hanoi
on hygiene, health the quality of life, and the environ-
Kathmandu
ment. Ulaanbaatar
Lahore
Bangalore
Colombo
Medan
Phnom Penh

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent
Sewage Septic tank Underground pit Underground Pan Open ground Others
pipe tTreated) (untreated) communal collection or trench

Methods of Solid Waste Disposal

Methods of Solid Waste Disposal. These cover the
total solid waste generated (and disposed of both Melbourne

formally and informally) including: (a) percent dis- Hong Kong

posed to sanitary landfill; (b) percent incinerated (for-
Seoul
mally); (c) percent dumped or burned in the open
Mandaluyong
(and other informal disposal); (d) percent recycled
(formal or informal); and (e) others (any other formal Bishkek

means of disposal). Hohhot

Suva

Cebu

Hanoi

Kathmandu

Ulaanbaatar

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent
Disposed to sanitary Incinerated Dumped or burned Recycled Others
landfill (formally) in the open

NOTES
■ On sewage disposal. Confusion may arise in places
where wastewater is collected into pipes and
dumped untreated. Where septic tanks are in wide-
spread use the level of treatment is not known.
■ On informal methods. Little knowledge of informal
practices on solid waste collection and sewage
disposal is common.

80 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 9. Urban Environment

Wastewater Treated. This is the percentage of City Product per Capita vs. Wastewater Treated
wastewater undergoing some form of treatment. Percent
Warning trend: Low percentage of treatment. Sig- 100
Bishkek Seoul Melbourne
nificance: Much wastewater in developing coun- Cebu
Hong Kong
Mandaluyong
tries and even in some industrialized cities such as 80
Venice, is not treated. This gives rise to significant Ulaanbaatar
health risk and pollution and odor problem, which 60 Naga
Bangalare
may well be the most obvious sign of poor local
40
conditions to visitors.
Hohhot
Medan
20
Hanoi
Dhaka
Lahore Suva
0
Kathmandu 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
0 Colombo
City product per annum (US$)

City Product per Capita vs. Solid Waste Generated

Solid Waste Generated. This includes solid waste
Tons per person per
generated per person in tons per annum. It does not annum
just include the waste that is collected, but all solid 1.0
wastes produced by households. Significance: It is Bishkek

the major measure of the pressure on the environ- 0.8

ment due to solid waste. Cebu
0.6 Mandaluyong
Hohhot
Lahore Seoul
Hong Kong
0.4
Colombo
Kathmandu
Melbourne
Phnom Penh Suva
0.2 Hanoi
Dhaka Naga
Medan
0.0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
City product per annum (US$)

The CDB Database 81

 Definitions and Significance 10. Urban Transport

URBAN TRANSPORT Mode of Travel

Mode of Travel. This covers percentage of trips to
work by (a) private automobile; (b) train, tram or light Melbourne
Hong Kong
rail; (c) bus or minibus; (d) motorcycle (two- or three-
Seoul
wheel motorized vehicle); (e) bicycle, including Mandaluyong
pedicab (pedal-powered vehicle); (f) walking; and (g) Bishkek
Naga
others (including boat, taxi, animal or rickshaw).
Hohhot
Where several modes of transport are used for a Suva
given trip, the hierarchy: train, tram bus, car, not Cebu
Hanoi
motorized is employed to determine the principal
Kathmandu
mode. Significance: The type of transport used by Ulaanbaatar
commuters for trips to work is a key indicator of Lahore
Bangalore
transport policy at all levels. Whether people use car,
Colombo
bus, train, or non-motorized transport is a major con- Medan
cern for traffic and public transport planning and for Dhaka
Phnom Penh
energy use. The average time taken on work trips is
another key indicator both of urban congestion and of 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent
location of the workforce relative to jobs.
Private Train, tram Bus or Motorcycle Bicycle, Walking Boat, taxi,
automobile or light rail mini bus including animal,
pedicab rickshaw

Median Travel Time. This indicates the average time Median Travel Time
in minutes for a work trip, over all modes. Train and
Minutes
bus times should include average walking and wait- 100
ing times, and car times should include parking and 90
walking to the workplace. Warning trend: Increasing 80
travel times indicate (a) the city is expanding and 70
people are moving outward faster than jobs or facili- 60
ties; (b) car ownership is increasing; or (c) the road 50
infrastructure is inadequate for the task. Significance:
40
Long travel times are a major frictional cost to both
30
for individuals and the economy. Increasing times
20
indicate that road capacity is not enough.
10
0
Ph

Dh Pen

Co

Ba o

La

Ul

Ka aat

Su and

Ha

Ho

Na

Bi

Ho

M
M

Se uyo
ed

el
sh
aa

an
ho
no

lo

va
ng

th

hh

ng
no
ak

ga

ou

bo
ke
m
an

nb

da
m
re
m

al
a

ot

Ko

ur
b

k
or

ne
ng
e

ar

ng
h

NOTE
■ Base data on transport tend to be traffic counts.
Nonmotorized roads for walking are estimated.

82 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 10. Urban Transport

Expenditure on Road Infrastructure. This covers the City Product per Capita vs. Expenditure on Road Infrastructure: Medium, Transition and Low-Developed Cities
per capita expenditure on roads (3-year average).
Expenditure should include capital and maintenance Expenditure on road
infrastructure (US$)
expenditure on all roads in the urban area, averaged
25
in constant value terms over three years. Warning Naga

trend: Low expenditure will imply that roads are in 20

poor repair and are not meeting increasing loads.
Congestion will increase, vehicle damage will be more 15
prevalent, and road safety will suffer. Significance: Colombo

A necessary expenditure must be made to maintain 10 Hohhot

and upgrade roads in the face of increasing traffic

5
demand. Bangalore
Hanoi
Mandaluyong
Phnom PenhMedan Kathmandu
Lahore
Bishkek
Ulaanbaatar
0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000
City Product (US$)

City Product per Capita vs. Expenditure on Road Infrastructure: High-Developed Cities
Expenditure on road
infrastructure (US$)
180
Seoul
160
140
120 Melbourne
100
Hong Kong
80
60
40
20
0
Automobile Ownership. It is defined as the ratio of 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
automobiles to people of driving age. Automobiles in City Product (US$)
this case are taken to include all vehicles used for
personal transport (including sedans used for busi-
Automobile Ownership per 1,000 Population vs. Population Net Density
ness). Minimum driving age varies from 16 to 18 in Sorted by City Product per Capita
different countries. Warning trend: Rising ownership
will need to be accompanied by upgrading of the road
infrastructure. Significance: Car ownership is a ma- Melbourne
jor consumption measure and indicator of road usage Hong Kong

and gasoline consumption. Seoul

Suva
Mandaluyong
Naga
Cebu
Bishkek
Lahore
Dhaka
Hohhot
Kathmandu
Colombo
NOTES Ulaanbaatar
■ Check all sources of road investment in city, not Bangalore
just local government’s. Medan
■ Data on car ownership should take into account Phnom Penh
the vehicles registered in city but which are not
using city roads, and vice versa. 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,00
Percent

The CDB Database 83

 Definitions and Significance 10. Urban Transport

Port/Air Activity. Where the city has either a port or Commercial Flights Leaving, National vs. International
airport this shows the (a) number of commercial
No. per month
ships leaving port (freight and passenger); and (b)
16,000
number of commercial flights leaving per month, for
national or international destinations. Significance: 14,000
National
Cities with an international airport or port enjoy a 12,000 International
major advantage in terms of trade and inter-connect- 10,000
edness with the world.
8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

Ula

Ce

Su

Ho

Ma
Ba

La

Ka

Bis

Se

Ho

Me
Na
Ha
h

bu

va
th

hh
ng

ou

ng
an

n
hk
ga

lbo
n
ore

da
ma

oi
alo

ot

l
ek
ba

Ko

urn
lu
nd
a
re

yo

ng
tar

e
u

ng
Transport Fatalities. This refers to (a) all transport- Transport Fatalities
related deaths per 1,000 population, annually; (b) Percent
pedestrian deaths per 1,000 population, annually. Warn- 1.6
ing trend: Increasing fatalities. Significance: Traffic 1.4 Transport related deaths
accidents are a major cause of fatalities in younger Pedestrian deaths
1.2
age groups, and the mortality rate for transport acci-
dents of all kinds is a key indicator for the success of 1.0

traffic control and of the safety of vehicles. Pedestri- 0.8

ans are a particularly vulnerable group. A high propor-
0.6
tion of pedestrian deaths may indicate either a
0.4
dangerous situation for pedestrians.
0.2

0
Dh

Co

Ka

Su

Bis

Ma
Me

La

Ho

Me
Na
Ula
ho

thm
lom

va
ak

ng
hk
ga

nd
da

lbo
an
re
a

ek
n

alu

Ko
ba

urn
bo

an
ata

n
yo
du

e
g
ng
r

84 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 12. Local Government

LOCAL GOVERNMENT Sources of Revenue

Sources of Revenue. These cover the percentage
revenue in each category in 1998 including (a) taxes Melbourne
like municipal rates and levies, any local taxes on the Hong Kong
Seoul
transfer of property, and any other taxes such as Mandaluyong
entertainment or hotel taxes, motor vehicles taxes, Bishkek

and taxes on business, which do not reflect the Naga

Hohhot
direct provision of services; (b) user charges includ- Suva
ing any local government charges for services pro- Cebu

vided, such as water, refuse collection, building Hanoi

Kathmandu
permits. Betterment levies should also be included; Ulaanbaatar
(c) other own source income including interest and Lahore

principal received, sales of capital items, but not Bangalore

Colombo
donations, voluntary contributions or aid; (d) trans- Medan
fers including formula driven payments (such as re- Dhaka

patriation of income tax) or other grant donations Phnom Penh

from national or state governments; (e) loans includ- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Percent
ing borrowing from all sources, including bonds; and
Taxes User charges Other own source income Transfers Loans Other income
(f) other income including any other income such as
donations or aid. Warning trend: This includes (a)
changing structure; (b) overdependence on one or Property Taxes: Liabilities Actually Collected
two major sources; and (c) decreasing revenues from
any source. Significance: It provides local govern- Melbourne
ments with an overview of the diversity and relative Seoul
importance of revenue sources, and indicates collec- Mandaluyong
tion trend (growth/decline) or individual source. Bishkek
Overdependence on intergovernmental revenues in Naga
particular can be harmful. Local governments be- Suva
come vulnerable to changes in policies or financial Cebu
conditions of other levels of government, particularly Hanoi
national government.
Ulaanbaatar

Lahore

Bangalore

Colombo

Dhaka

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent (%)

NOTES
■ Clarify where local government is collecting on
behalf of central government but not keeping the
money or have revenue-sharing arrangements.

The CDB Database 85

 Definitions and Significance 12. Local Government

Capital and Recurrent Expenditure per Person. This Capital and Recurrent Expenditure per Person
includes the capital and recurrent expenditure in US
dollars per person, averaged over the last three years Mandaluyong 13.83
6.96
covering (a) expenditure on both fixed capital and Bishkek 32.12
6.96
plant as per the capital account; and (b) all recurrent Naga 37.90
14.53
expenditure, including interest charges and deprecia- Hohhot 77.55
13.30
tion. Warning trend: This includes declining capital Suva 143.46
0.00
outlays and rising recurrent outlays in the absence of Cebu 35.00
6.00
better service. Significance: This indicator measures Hanoi 62.42
20.30
the degree of responsiveness of local government to Kathmandu 5.77
3.29
the needs of business and residents. The amount of 46.33
Ulaanbaatar
5.93
expenditure is largely determined by income, includ- 10.00 Capital expenditure (US$)
Lahore
3.85
ing loans and grants. 25.05 Recurrent expenditure (US$)
Bangalore
10.28
7.77
Colombo 1.86
2.00
Dhaka 8.00

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent

Average Household Income vs. Local Government Capital Expenditure

Low, Transition, and Medium-Developed Cities
Local gov’t capital
expenditure (US$’000)
25

20 Hanoi

Naga
15
Hohhot

10 Bangalore

Medan Mandaluyong
Cebu
Ulaanbaatar
5 Kathmandu
Lahore
Colombo
Bishkek
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Average household income (US$’000)

Average Household Income vs. Local Government Capital Expenditure

High-Developed Cities

Local gov’t capital

expenditure (US$’000)
1,400

1,200 Melbourne

1,000 Hong Kong

800

600

NOTES 400
■ Expenditure per person may be analyzed based on 200 Seoul
residents within the city proper and from the wider
metropolitan area. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Average household income (US$’000)

86 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 12. Local Government

Employees. This covers the total local government Employees per thousand vs. Wages in Budget
employees per 1,000 population. Warning trend: This Per 1,000
is an increasing ratio. Significance: It measures the population Percent
number of employees required to deliver local ser- 60 100

vices to the population, and is a crude measure both Employees per 1,000
50 Wages In budget
of productivity, and of the responsibilities of the local 80

government. It will differ according to the number of 40

services provided by local government, to the labor 60
intensity of production, and to the level of contracting 30
out of services. 40
20

Wages in Budget. This is the proportion of recurrent 20

10
expenditure spent on wage costs. Warning trend:
This is a rising value. Significance: A high value for 0 0
this indicator implies that the city has very few funds
Me

Bis
Ph

Dh

Co

Ba

La re

Ula

Ka atar

Ha

Ce

Su

Ho

Ma

Se yong

Me ng
Ho
Na
ho
no

thm

bu
lom

ou
ng

va
no

hh

ng
ak

hk
da

ga

nd

lbo
an
re
m

alo
a

l
i

ek
ot
n
left for operations, and there may be excessive em-

alu
ba

Ko

urn
bo

an
Pe

du

e
nh

ployment.

Business Permits. This recognizes the number of Employees per thousand vs. Wages in Budget
business permits issued in the past five years. Warn-
ing trend: This is mainly a decreasing number per- Number (’000)
60
mits issued. Significance: It indicates change in
prevailing local economic conditions, or impact of 50
taxes, conditions of infrastructure and utilities, etc.
40

30

20

10

0
Bis
Ph

Dh

Co

Ba

Ula

Ka

Ha

Ce

Su

Ho

Ma

Ho

Me
Na
no

thm

bu
lom

ng

va
no

hh

ng
ak

hk
ga

nd

lbo
an
m

alo
a

ek
i

ot

alu
ba

Ko

urn
bo

an
Pe

re

ata

ng
yo
du

e
nh

ng
r

The CDB Database 87

 Definitions and Significance

URBAN GOVERNANCE
Functions of Local Government. Checklist of func-
tions of local government.

13. Urban Governance

ilit /
ac ion
s

nt /
l
e

Co ge
ie
or ss

ro

ta ood
c
en d

t F at
an

d na
sp a

e
y

nt a

n
e

ne
ct e

nc
an /M

nc
us lic
y

or cre
ai Ro
t

sis lih
tio
n
ag

lle fus

cit

oo ai
g
re h
io

ho

ge

Ho Pub
Tr blic

in

As e
Fl Dr
a

Ca alt
r

Sp Re

e
tri
er

we

Co Re

Liv
uc
er
p

lic
ec

He
at

le

Pu

Em

Ed
Se

Po
M
W

Te
El

Banglore partial partial partial

Bishkek
Cebu NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Colombo
Dhaka partial

Hanoi
Hohhot
Hong Kong NAV NAV

Katmandu
Lahore NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Mandaluyong
Medan
Melbourne partly yes

Naga partly yes NAV partly yes partly yes

Phnom Penh
Seoul NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Suva
Ulaanbaatar

Yes No

88 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Definitions and Significance 13. Urban Governance

Reported Crimes. Number of crimes per 1,000 popu-

Reported Crimes
lation reported: (a) murders, (b) drug related crimes, (per ‘000 population)
(c) thefts. Warning trend: Rising crime rates. Sig-
City Total Murders Drug Related Thefts
nificance: Personal safety and absence of threat to No. Crimes
property is a major prerequisite for economic activity
Phnom Penh NAV NAV NAV NAV
as well as the quality of life.
Dhaka 2.40 0.06 0.09 4.65

Medan NAV 0.03 0.23 0.55

Colombo NAV 0.08 22.60 0.62

Bangalore 3.20 0.04 0.00 0.70

Lahore NAV 0.10 0.69 1.31

Ulaanbaatar 15.70 0.10 0.00 7.10

Kathmandu 0.32 0.02 1.52 0.94

Hanoi 3.20 0.01 0.42 3.40

Cebu 3.00 0.10 0.30 0.20

Suva 71.00 0.04 1.18 15.86

Hohhot 4.80 0.06 0.08 4.65

Naga NAV 0.04 0.15 0.36

Bishkek 15.50 0.17 1.88 7.34

Mandaluyong 2.48 0.02 1.52 0.94

Seoul NAV NAV NAV NAV

Hong Kong 10.76 0.10 0.42 3.40

Melbourne 449.00 0.08 23.50 274.00

Contact with the Public. Annual number of public City Development Index vs. Number of Public Meetings
local government meetings and total attendance. Sig-
nificance: Local governments are operating in very No. of public
meetings
different ways. Some have many public or ward 400
meetings, others few or none. Some mayors or
350 Mandaluyong
CEOs/town clerks deal extensively with the public on
300
a daily basis, others do not see the public at all. This
250
indicator attempts to provide a measure of the con-
tact of the senior members of the local government 200
Colombo
with the constituency. 150
Phnom Penh Cebu
100 Melbourne

50 Bangalore
Bishkek
Lahore Suva
0 CDI (Percent) Ulaanbaatar
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
CDI (Percent)

The CDB Database 89

 Other Indicators

1. POPULATION 5. NEW TECHNOLOGY that the land is probably not being put to the best
use, which might well be affordable housing.
Migration. This refers to annual net migration in R&D Expenditure. This refers to the annual expendi-
thousands from (a) other parts of the city–if the local ture per person on research and development. Warning Expenditure on Development. This refers to the total
government is part of a larger metropolitan area, trend: Low expenditure implies few innovations and expenditure on development per annum, per person
there may some net movement to or from the local little research culture. Significance: It represents (three-year average). Development should include land
government. If the city boundaries changed in the the involvement in new and growing areas of eco- development, civil engineering and building projects)
period under study, include any; (b) other parts of the nomic activity and knowledge. which is within or directly affects the LGA. Warning
country also include any residents temporarily ab- trend: Low development implies economic stagna-
sent and returning (e.g., military, service, prison, etc.; 6. URBAN LAND tion or lack of funds, and may impact on future eco-
arrival-departure; (c) international migration; (d) total nomic activity. Significance: It indicates the level of
net migration. Net migration refers to (immigrants- Developer Contributions. This refers to the percent- investment activity in fixed capital.
emigrants) = other parts of the city + other parts of age of infrastructure costs which must be met by
the country + international migration. Warning trend: developers. Infrastructure costs refers to the provi- 7. HOUSING
Rapid in-migration, or out-migration. Significance: sion of the typical services in Land Development
Rapid in-migration may put pressure on services. Multiplier. Significance: When developers do not Mortgage to Credit Ratio. This refers to total mort-
New immigrants swell the ranks of “street people” meet the costs of infrastructure, they have to be met gage credit divided by all outstanding credits in com-
and tend to occupy informal settlements and the from the common rating base, which is usually not mercial and government financial institutions. Warning
poorer parts of town. Out-migration is a sign that adequate. This will slow down the provision of infra- trend: If mortgages only form a small part of total
economic activity is moving elsewhere, and may structure and may limit the release of land, causing credit, it is likely that housing finance institutions are
result in “ghost town” effects of underused services, supply shortages and speculative profits. However, poorly developed or face legal and institutional con-
closures of business, etc. if the occupants ultimately have to meet the full straints making it difficult for them to offer housing
costs of infrastructure, it may not be affordable for finance. Significance: The ratio measures the rela-
Minority Groups. These are recognized special groups them. tive size of the housing finance sector and its ability
with population more than 10% of total, together with to provide funds to housing purchasers.
percentages: e.g., ethnic Chinese, minority Chris- Median Time for Planning Permission. This refers
tians, refugees from neighboring country. Warning to the time taken to obtain planning permission for a Houses with Mortgages. This refers to the propor-
trend: Large or powerful minorities may lead to social typical subdivision. Warning trend: Long approval tion of dwellings that have mortgages. Warning trend:
frictions. Significance: Minorities provide cultural times create artificial bottlenecks and lead to much Low or falling (particularly, zero) implies that no
diversity, but may require special representation or higher prices. Significance: Depending on the com- effective system of housing finance is in place. Sig-
facilities. plexity of the approval process, approvals can take nificance: The presence of an effective mortgage
anywhere between three months and five years. finance system is a major means of ensuring that
3. HEALTH AND EDUCATION This can be rapidly improved by streamlining the people are adequately housed, given that few people
process. have the resources to pay for a formal house out-
Median Years of Education. It is defined as the aver- right. For a mortgage system to be widespread, there
age number of years spent in full-time education or Vacant Land with Planning Permission. This refers must be (i) effective title to the land; (ii) a system of
equivalent by adults, for males and females. Signifi- to the amount of vacant land that has planning per- assessing the creditworthiness of the general popu-
cance: This is a standard indicator, which measures mission, in hectares. Warning trend: Long approval lace; (iii) a source of long term funds. Low incomes
the success of past education policies, for males times create artificial bottlenecks and lead to much are not necessarily an impediment as long as they
and females. higher prices. Significance: Depending on the com- are steady.
plexity of the approval process, approvals can take
4. URBAN PRODUCTIVITY anywhere between three months and five years. Mortgage Loans for Women. Proportion of mort-
This can be rapidly improved by streamlining the gage loans held by women. Warning trend: Low or
List of Major Projects. This covers the list of ten process. falling proportions will mean that women are not
major construction or engineering projects conducted gaining access to the financial system. Significance:
in or affecting the city, together with the total budget Vacant Government Land. This covers the (a) amount The presence of an effective mortgage finance sys-
of each. Significance: Major projects often set the of land in hectares owned by government, parastatals tem is a major means of ensuring that people are
standard for economic activity and investment, and or enterprises (all levels of government) within the adequately housed, given that few people have the
are used as the yardstick for urban success. built-up area, and; (b) proportion of this land which is resources to pay for a formal house outright. For a
vacant. Warning trend: High levels of vacant land. mortgage system to be widespread, there must be
Significance: Vacant land within the built-up area (i) effective title to the land; (ii) a system of assess-
contributes to speculative pressures and signifies

90 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Other Indicators

ing the creditworthiness of the general populace; (iii) counted for water (%) equals [total annual production resource usage. CO2 emissions also correlate highly
a source of long-term funds. Low incomes are not (m3) minus total annual consumption (m3)] times 100 with energy use.
necessarily an impediment as long as they are steady. divided by total annual production (m3). It refers to
percentage of line loss for electricity for nonrevenue Noise Complaints. This refers to the number of
Squatter Regularization or Resettlement. This electricity. Significance: High percentage line loss complaints on domestic, industrial or traffic noise
refers to households regularized or resettled annually indicates a faulty, overloaded or obsolescent net- received by local governments or other authorities
divided by total squatter households. Regularized work. during the year. Warning trend: This would be a
means that title is provided to the residents. rising number of complaints. Significance: Noise is
Resettled means that they are transferred to formal Interruptions and Line Loss – Water and Electric- one of the major urban nuisances. If excessive, as in
housing. Significance: It represents the government’s ity. This gives the number of hours per month that industrial plants, it may damage hearing.
response to squatter housing. service is not available or interrupted in water or in
electricity. Significance: Areas with poor service 10. URBAN TRANSPORT
8. MUNICIPAL SERVICES have frequent interruptions and may disconnect ser-
vice for part of the day. Road Congestion. This refers to the proportion of
Cost Recovery in each service. This covers the roads with volume divided by capacity divided by 0.8
total revenues divided by total current expenditure Median Price of Water. This refers to median price during peak hour. Proportions should be calculated
for water, electricity, sewerage/wastewater, tele- of water (in dollars per cubic meters) in scarce sea- using length if possible. Significance: Roads typi-
phone and solid waste collection. Revenues refer to son. Very high water price will consume most of the cally have a registered carrying capacity, and a com-
all direct and indirect recurrent charges to users that household budget. Very low price will result in over- monly used measure of excessive congestion is when
do not come from the general tax base. These use of water. Significance: This measures the cost the volume of traffic carried exceeds 0.8 times this
include user-pays charges, excess water, and con- of water at times when it is most scarce. The price capacity.
nection charges but not levies on developers or on of water may rise to very high levels in some areas
residents for headworks. Costs refer to all operating at some times, and can take a significant proportion Cost Recovery from Fares. This covers revenue
outlays including depreciation and interest but not of the household budget. divided by recurrent costs, for all publicly owned or
capital outlays for the water reticulation system. subsidized mass transport organizations operating in
Warning trend: Low cost recovery. Significance: 9. URBAN ENVIRONMENT the city. Warning trend: Poor or falling recovery.
Low cost recovery indicates a high level of subsidy Significance: Despite the problem of congested roads,
and a lack of sustainability for the service. Service Percent BOD removed from wastewater. This is mass transport has been decreasingly patronized, so
providers with an adequate revenue base involving defined as the average fraction of BOD removed in that particularly in industrial nations, transit modes
user-pays charges are better equipped to respond to major wastewater receiving bodies. BOD (biological have required heavy subsidies to remain in opera-
demand. As well, in a user-pays system consumers oxygen demand) is the amount of dissolved oxygen tion. However, subsidies hamper efficiency and may
have a stake in the development of the local system required to oxidize or neutralize biodegradable matter limit the expansion of the service in response to
and are likely to demand service in accordance with in water. Warning trend: Low or falling ratios imply need. This subsidy usually benefits peak-hour
resources and needs. poor efficiency of treatment. Significance: High BOD commuters at the expense of off-peak commuters
levels represent high amounts of contaminant mat- who may have lower incomes. It is difficult to raise
Output per Staff Member in each service. This ter, and the reduction of BOD is a common measure fares however, as patronage is very cost-sensitive.
refers to liters of water per day supplied per em- for determining the efficacy of water treatment.
ployee and megawatt hours of electricity supplied Goods Carried. This covers millions of revenue tons
per employee per year. Warning trend: Low produc- Air Pollution Concentrations. It is defined as the of goods per annum carried by commercial carriers
tivity. Significance: Low output figures correspond number of days per annum that WHO standards are leaving the city, by (a) road, (b) rail, (c) air, and (d)
to low productivity, and possibly old technology. exceeded for (a) SO2, (b) NOx, (c) CO, (d) O3, (e) sus- sea. Significance: This is a major indicator of trade.
pended particulates; and (f) lead. Warning trend: In-
List of Providers. This gives a list of major providers creasing pollution levels. Significance: Suspended 11. CULTURAL
by type of organization, together with percent sup- particulates and lead are generally considered as the
plied. Local, regional or national government, most harmful to human health. Attendance at Public Events. These are major pub-
parastatal (independent part government owned au- lic events during year, attendance at five largest.
thority), private sector, or other. Significance: Energy usage per person. This is the total energy Events may include: concerts, festivals, sporting
Privatization in particular has been a major concern in usage per annum per person in metric tons of coal events, conventions, celebrity visits, or political ral-
recent years. equivalent. This should be aggregated across all lies and protests. Significance: The spirit of a city is
forms of energy usage using standard conversion to some extent determined by the events, which will
Nonrevenue water and electricity. This refers to rates. Significance: Increasing levels of energy usage bring the populace out into the public arena. The CDB
the percentage of unaccounted for water. Unac- are virtually synonymous with industrial activity and seeks to capture part of that spirit.

The CDB Database 91

 Other Indicators

Attendance at Galleries and Museums. This is the Computerization of Functions. This indicates whether disadvantaged groups, while excessively low levels
list of major museum and galleries, with annual at- or not various functions have been automated–(a) may represent a lack of responsible monitoring of
tendance. Significance: The arts and cultural envi- land registration, (b) rates collection, (c) salaries, (d) planning. Significance: Represents the enforcement
ronments are key components of modern city general finances, and (e) business permits. and the strength of planning legislation.
infrastructure and contribute to a city’s livability and
image. A culturally vibrant city has an edge in at- 13. URBAN GOVERNANCE Consumer Satisfaction. Consultants are required to
tracting investment. provide a description of whatever mechanisms are in
Delivery of Annual Plan. Percent of budgeted ex- place to measure consumer business and citizen
Participation in Sport. This refers to the percentage penditure on annual plan delivered. In practice most satisfaction of local government services, as part of
of population participating in organized sport. Sport government bodies deliver close to 100% of plan in a general review that will be undertaken by the Cities
can include non-physical activities like organized chess the audited accounts, whether or not the budget has Data Book. Warning trend: Satisfaction levels of
and bridge. Individual recreation activities, including actually been expended as planned. Significance: less than 70% are generally regarded as inadequate.
gambling and video arcades, are not included. Warn- Delivery of plan is key measure of effectiveness. Significance: Measures of consumer and business
ing trend: Falling participation. Significance: Sport- satisfaction were nominated as very important by
ing activity is a form of cultural participation that is Voter Participation by Sex. Proportion of voters the Consultative Workshop for the Cities Data Book.
universally approved and can improve fitness, health who voted in last municipal elections: (a) proportion Consumer satisfaction measures effective delivery
and concentration. of adult males; (b) proportion of adult females. Sig- to the public, while business satisfaction may have
nificance: Gives an indication of the interest and business location implications.
12. LOCAL GOVERNMENT involvement of the public in local government.
Perception as a Place to Live. Details of any survey
Collection Efficiency, Property Taxes. These in- Independence from Higher Government. Definition or study that has done a comparative survey on
clude the (a) percentage of liabilities actually col- of in what circumstances local governments can perception of quality of life in the city, either for resi-
lected; and (b) costs of collecting property tax as a make their own decisions or are subject to higher dents, business people, or expatriates, should be
percentage of receipts passing to the local govern- government in (a) closing down the council or remov- provided. Significance: The perception of the city as
ment. Warning trend: This includes (a) low or falling ing councilors from office; (b) setting local tax levels; a place to live is a major subjective factor in both
percentage collected; and (b) high or rising costs. (c) setting user charges for services; (d) borrowing investment and relocation decisions of firms. As
Significance: It measures the efficiency of property funds; and (e) choosing contractors for projects. Also, well, the urban quality of life is ultimately what urban
tax collection. the percentage of grant funds from higher govern- indicators are seeking to measure.
ment known in advance of local budget setting. Sig-
Debt Service Charge. This shows the total principal nificance: These questions attempt to determine the Access to Information. Boxes should be checked
and interest repaid, including bond maturations, as a independence of action of local governments. The for (a) annual report, (b) city strategy/vision, (c)
fraction of total expenditure in 1998. Warning trend: definition should be used in writing up the city report. economic strategy, and (d) social strategy. Any
This is a high or rising ratio. Significance: It repre- other significant publications for the year should be
sents the debt of the community. If excessively Elected and Nominated Councilors. Number of listed in Notes, as well as other methods of public
high, it will lower the credit rating of the government. elected and nominated councilors: (a) female; (b) communication such as web sites. Significance:
male. Significance: The number of representatives Providing information to the constituency and stake-
Contracted Recurrent Expenditure Ratio. This cov- provides some idea of the level of local political rep- holders is a prime function of local government.
ers the proportion of recurrent expenditure spent on resentation, and the involvement of women in the
contracted activites. Warning trend: This is a falling local political process. Decentralized District Units. (a) The number of
value. Significance: This provides a measure of the local government areas within the larger metropolis,
involvement of the private sector in local government Representation of Minorities. Definition of mecha- and (b) the number of decentralized or smaller district
activities. It will not, however, indicate activities that nisms for representation of any substantial minori- units within the local government. The functions of
have been completely privatized. ties. Significance: Representation of or by minorities these smaller areas should be explained in Notes.
is a fundamental expression of human rights. Minori-
Enterprise Revenues. This includes enterprise prof- ties who feel they are not adequately represented
its or losses, listed for any major enterprises. Warn- may seek direct means of representation of their
ing trend: Recurring enterprise losses. Significance: interests, which are less harmonious.
Recurring losses could indicate need to adjust the
level of fees charged, re-examine the costs in provid- Planning Applications Refused. Proportion of plan-
ing/producing the goods/service, and evaluate/maxi- ning applications refused, by local or higher govern-
mize the level of capacity utilization. ment. Warning trend: Excessively high levels may
be hampering worthwhile development or excluding

92 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

SUMMARY TABLES
Population, Migration, and Urbanization
1.2 City Population 1.3 Annual Net Migration 1.4 Pop.
Net
City 1.1 Urbanization 1.2.1 Resident 1.2.2 Pop. 1.2.3 Annual 1.3.1 Other 1.3.2 Other 1.3.3 Int’l 1.3.4 Total Density
(%) Pop. of During Daytime Rate of Pop. Parts Parts of the Migration Net (persons/
Municipal Area Working Hours Increase of the City Country Net (’000) Migration ha)
(’000) (’000) (%) Net (’000) Net (’000) (’000)

Bangalore 28.3 4,328.0 4,398.0 4.4 42.0 33.0 1.0 76.0 330.0

Bishkek 34.0 614.0 700.0 1.0 53,790.0 3.3 -2.0 1.2 41.6

Cebu 68.0 655.0 886.0 1.6 0.0 33.0 1.0 34.0 92.6

Colombo 25.0 800.0 1,200.0 2.4 NAV NAV 861.0 NAV 298.0

Dhaka 23.0 6,500.0 NAV 4.2 NAV 800.0 NAV NAV 953.0

Hanoi 19.7 2,553.0 NAV 3.5 60.2 20.5 1.0 NAV 146.0

Hohhot 34.9 1,017.7 NAV 2.2 9.9 6.8 0.0 16.7 684.0

Hong Kong 95.7 6,687.2 NAV 2.8 0.0 56.0 -19.3 36.7 67.0

Kathmandu 14.0 575.7 625.7 6.0 27.3 20.9 83.5 NAV 175.7

Lahore 32.5 4,502.0 4,802.0 3.1 NAV NAV NAV NAV 240.6

Mandaluyong 61.7 314.0 970.0 3.1 0.6 3.2 0.1 3.9 670.0

Medan 37.8 2,035.2 2,197.5 1.8 340.0 159.0 3.0 -2.1 142.0

Melbourne 86.0 44.5 400.0 5.8 10.4 NAV 2.6 2.5 93.0

Naga 73.7 137.5 158.2 2.0 3.9 2.3 0.0 6.1 115.6

Phnom Penh 57.0 999.8 NAV 5.4 NAV NAV NAV NAV 203.0

Seoul 81.3 10,321.0 NAV -0.7 -134.0 NAV NAV NAV 480.7

Suva 42.5 77.4 137.4 1.7 NAV 4.3 NAV 4.3 74.7

Ulaanbaatar 67.9 725.3 NAV 4.5 NAV 15.2 0.0 14.4 133.0

Legend:
NAV – not available

94 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Population, Migration, and Urbanization
1.10 Household Type 1.11 Informal Settlement
1.5 Age Pyramid 1.6 1.7 HH 1.8 Women- 1.9 Minority
Average Formation headed Group 1.10.1 1.10.2 1.10.3 1.10.4 1.11.1 1.11.2 1.11.3 Land
City 1.5.1 Persons 1.5.2 Persons 1.5.3 Persons HH Rate HH See Notes & Single Adults Single Adults and Population Households Occupied
0-14 15-59 over 60 Size (%) (%) Sources for Person Only Parent Children (’000) (’000) (ha)
(persons/hh) each city (%) (%) Family (%) (%)
Male Female Male Female Male Female

Bangalore 570,430 640,977 1,464,959 1,394,482 128,758 128,542 5.1 5.9 12.5 12.4 9.5 0.4 77.6 592.0 102.0 286.0

Bishkek 61,400 73,680 190,340 214,900 30,700 42,980 2.4 0.2 21.6 9.0 42.0 12.0 66.0 53.8 17.7 229.5

Cebu 110,891 105,717 196,041 210,517 14,476 17,358 4.9 3.8 16.2 NAV NAV NAV 55.0 230.0 45.0 444.0

Colombo 100,800 96,800 268,800 268,400 30,000 35,200 7.3 0.7 NAV NAV NAV NAV 40.0 492.0 66.0 410.0

Dhaka 1,001,000 1,277,250 2,138,500 1,875,250 110,500 97,500 5.1 4.2 7.2 2.4 NAV NAV 58.0 1,950.0 375.0 324.0

Hanoi 332,784 303,807 841,469 841,469 102,248 1,31,097 4.2 3.6 36.9 5.0 27.9 11.2 70.9 43.4 12.4 61.1

Hohhot 99,635 93,020 384,088 368,008 39,996 32,974 3.5 1.0 NAV 0.0 1.1 6.8 92.2 165.9 55.0 49.8

Hong Kong 601,848 561,724 2,440,828 2,380,643 320,986 381,170 3.3 4.1 27.2 12.7 47.3 1.9 38.1 249.0 69.2 NAV

Kathmandu 88,938 92,392 185,360 178,740 13,528 16,694 5.2 8.5 14.4 6.3 NAV NAV 53.0 7.9 1.6 2.8

Lahore 926,962 968,155 1,175,022 1,164,892 149,016 117,952 6.9 3.2 9.0 4.0 19.0 7.0 70.0 1,800.0 257.0 3,000.0

Mandaluyong 49,408 46,979 96,968 107,347 5,822 7,952 4.6 4.2 17.4 4.5 36.0 9.6 50.0 58.0 12.0 37.0

Medan 314,031 319,119 683,420 688,508 12,008 18,114 6.2 1.7 11.9 3.7 36.8 4.5 55.0 122.5 19.8 860.7

Melbourne 2,089 2,003 18,362 16,737 2,861 3,201 2.0 4.3 NAV 24.0 36.4 8.1 31.7 0.0 0.0 0.0

Naga 26,571 25,512 37,458 40,523 3,196 4,287 5.4 2.9 5.9 NAV 30.0 3.2 63.0 15.3 2.5 30.5

Phnom Penh 169,600 160,600 293,700 328,700 18,600 27,600 5.7 13.3 28.7 2.3 28.0 15.0 55.0 150.0 25.0 NAV

Seoul 1,042,421 940,243 3,786,775 3,722,785 341,625 487,151 3.0 0.2 16.7 11.9 48.0 8.1 32.0 NAV 56.0 NAV

Suva 11,682 11,295 25,221 25,376 1,625 2,166 5.3 0.3 16.3 6.3 33.5 10.2 50.0 4.3 1.1 234.0

Ulaanbaatar 110,753 110,101 222,595 245,514 16,102 20,236 4.8 2.5 9.8 4.4 NAV NAV 50.0 348.9 71.1 4046.0

Legend:
NAV – not available
The CDB Database 95
Income Disparities, Unemployment, and Poverty
2.1 Income Distribution
2.2 HH
2.1 Q5 2.1.2 Q4 2.1.3 Q3 2.1.4 Q2 Next 2.1.5 Q1 HH Below
City Top 20% Next 20% Middle 20% Bottom 20% Bottom 20% Below Poverty
Poverty Line—$1
Range Ave. Range Ave. Range Ave, Range Ave. Range Ave. Line a day
($) Income ($) Income ($) Income ($) Income ($) Income (%)
on Range on Range on Range on Range on Range
($) ($) ($) ($) ($)

Bangalore 960 1,440 720 840 480 600 300 420 0 240 32.5 377

Bishkek 3,754 4,596 2,308 3,031 979 1,584 325 374 0 276 7.2 189

Cebu 6,114 13,204 2,445 3,791 1,467 1,948 978 1,217 245 642 34.2 451

Colombo 1,860 4,752 1,260 1560 774 960 432 588 84 276 12.9 774

Dhaka 3,461 4,601 2,184 2,822 1,273 1,545 730 1,000 0 460 47.7 494

Hanoi 430 723 285 357 205 253 134 168 0 70 1.8 267

Hohhot 886 3914 664 879 514 661 367 513 48 365 NAV 266

Hong Kong 61,956 90,000 46,488 54,222 23,256 34,872 15,492 19,374 0 7,746 NAV 1,192

Kathmandu 2,517 2,996 1,887 2,202 1,426 1,572 1,105 1,279 0 930 35.6 319

Lahore 5,999 *18,750 2,999 4,499 1,500 2,249 750 1,124 0 600 29.9 543

Mandaluyong 15,517 16,012 8,621 10,525 5,173 6,516 3,448 4,927 345 3,088 32.1 535

Medan 1,079 1,258 719 899 575 647 431 503 0 229 29.0 583

Melbourne 53,014 75,533 3,412 43,081 21,314 27,502 11,583 15,953 0 6,162 NAV 704

Naga 5,898 15,400 2,934 6,351 2,201 3,472 1,647 2,537 0 1,361 29.0 482

Phnom Penh 228 640 175 201 116 148 52 85 0 38 24.0 385

Seoul 44,499 65,630 201 39,707 26,628 30,123 18,964 23,132 0 14,796 1.2 787

Suva 10,159 18,164 7,851 9,005 5,234 6,651 3,926 4,638 0 2,956 17.5 651

Ulaanbaatar 1,208 3,752 803 1,003 521 656 334 426 40 218 34.1 312

Legend:
NAV – not available
* – unconfirmed

96 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Income Disparities, Unemployment, and Poverty
2.3 Women- 2.4 Child 2.5 Informal 2.6 Unemployment 2.7 Expenditure
Headed Labor Employment (%) on Poverty
City Households in (’000) (%) Reduction
Poverty (per poor person)
(%) ($)

Bangalore 9.8 36.3 54.0 7.5 NAV

Bishkek 28.7 58.9 34.4 6.0 20.16

Cebu NAV 0.0 NAV 11.2 11.51

Colombo 40.0 0.1 19.3 9.1 101.00

Dhaka 7.2 752.9 63.0 23.0 3.20

Hanoi NAV NAV NAV 9.1 15.00

Hohhot NAV 0.0 8.2 0.1 5.00

Hong Kong NAV 0.0 NAV 4.7 3,020.00

Kathmandu 97.0 13.8 33.0 7.8 NAV

Lahore 6.3 321.8 60.0 5.4 2.96

Mandaluyong 31.8 0.1 40.0 15.8 52.23

Medan 6.9 0.0 46.6 13.7 3.20

Melbourne NAV 0.0 NAV 4.6 NAV

Naga 53.2 1.0 32.1 5.8 30.64

Phnom Penh 20.7 2.3 NAV 2.1 9.80

Seoul NAV NAV NAV 4.9 60.55

Suva 22.0 3.1 63.0 7.7 0.04

Ulaanbaatar 28.7 0.3 20.5 2.9 28.00

Legend:
NAV – not available

The CDB Database 97

Health and Education
3.10 School
3.7 School 3.8 3.9 Children per
City 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Adult Enrollment Rates Tertiary Median Classroom
Persons Child Life Infectious Family Literacy Graduates Years of
per Mortality Expectancy Diseases Planning Rate 3.7.1 3.7.2 (per ’000 pop.) Education 3.10.1 3.10.2
Hospital (%) at Birth Mortality (%) (%) Primary Secondary (years) Primary Second-
Bed (years) (per ’000 pop) Schools Schools ary
(%) (%)

Bangalore 370.8 6.70 69.3 1.14 56.0 73.1 94.7 24.5 75.0 NAV 54.0 25.0

Bishkek 53.2 4.80 67.9 0.33 74.3 98.0 76.5 75.9 15.0 11.0 32.0 32.0

Cebu 306.0 4.10 66.0 10.50 46.0 93.0 93.7 86.7 145.0 14.0 58.0 50.0

Colombo 100.0 1.90 71.8 0.16 66.0 94.5 52.8 33.8 23.0 NAV 40.0 45.0

Dhaka 924.0 9.30 60.5 NAV 49.8 60.3 83.0 39.0 43.0 NAV 56.6 75.8

Hanoi 289.0 4.30 69.7 NAV 77.6 85.0 97.7 90.3 10.2 12.5 36.2 41.0

Hohhot 375.0 4.70 71.5 NAV 99.7 82.9 99.4 91.6 15.0 15.0 56.0 50.0

Hong Kong 204.0 3.20 79.9 0.04 85.9 91.1 96.0 80.1 350.0 NAV 37.0 38.2

Kathmandu 197.0 9.00 67.0 0.40 30.0 78.2 86.4 86.8 62.0 10.0 40.0 23.0

Lahore 369.0 10.80 63.0 2.50 36.1 66.0 61.6 26.5 48.7 8.0 46.0 60.0

Mandaluyong 63.0 2.50 69.0 0.20 51.0 99.4 94.0 94.0 245.0 14-15 45.1 56.1

Medan 443.2 3.00 65.5 0.06 57.9 98.1 97.2 75.7 69.0 12.0 37.0 38.0

Melbourne 12.8 0.60 78.4 0.01 76.0 100.0 99.9 99.9 268.0 9.0 25.7 20.7

Naga 145.9 1.70 69.5 1.16 48.0 98.0 117.0 77.0 160.8 15.0 39.0 48.4

Phnom Penh 227.0 16.70 52.9 16.00 13.0 80.2 91.1 90.7 52.8 NAV 51.0 48.0

Seoul 193.0 0.60 72.4 0.00 79.0 100.0 98.0 102.7 44.8 10.5 24.9 42.1

Suva 91.0 2.40 66.6 NAV 52.3 96.9 97.7 74.1 116.0 8.3 31.0 29.0

Ulaanbaatar 105.0 6.90 64.8 0.17 59.0 97.1 103.8 66.4 10.9 14.0 35.7 34.2
Legend:
NAV – not available

98 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Urban Productivity and Competitiveness
4.1 City City 4.2 Employment by Industry 4.3 Household Expenditure
Product Product
City per PPP 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.2.5 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4
Capita Adjusted Secondary Consumer Product Social Others Food Shelter Travel Others
($) ($) & Infrastructure Services Services Services (’000) (%) (%) (%) (%)
(’000) (’000) (’000) (’000)

Bangalore 504 2,133 429.7 110.9 264.2 NAV 282.9 47.7 10.5 3.7 38.1

Bishkek 1,750 7,219 58.9 38.2 4.1 65.8 *9.2 56.2 4.8 15.3 23.7

Cebu 2,021 6,699 NAP NAP NAP NAP NAP 44.5 20.2 6.9 28.4

Colombo 550 1,660 87.0 195.0 205.0 193.0 18.0 37.5 19.8 7.1 35.6

Dhaka 900 2,801 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 46.3 17.3 NAV NAV

Hanoi 709 3,560 231.0 195.0 5.0 82.0 489.0 57.2 12.4 6.7 23.7

Hohhot 845 3,648 165.7 75.5 15.1 128.9 2.6 33.0 5.0 2.0 38.0

Hong Kong 26,369 24,350 711.4 670.6 921.6 317.7 423.0 29.4 31.0 7.9 31.7

Kathmandu 750 3,720 29.6 40.3 4.5 55.3 64.0 51.5 15.1 4.2 29.1

Lahore 1,039 3,783 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 41.2 18.3 6.2 34.3

Mandaluyong 2,434 6,473 31.0 43.0 23.0 12.0 1.0 42.8 19.4 5.8 32.0

Medan 350 1,156 NAV NAV NAV NAV 60.9 55.1 30.0 10.0 4.9

Melbourne 28,456 28,456 2.1 8.2 5.3 4.5 0.8 13.3 28.4 11.0 47.3

Naga 2,033 6,738 6.8 22.9 4.3 7.1 7.3 46.8 18.9 5.4 29.0

Phnom Penh 246 1,111 28.4 120.2 8.6 13.2 69.5 40.4 37.6 10.0 12.0

Seoul 24,000 30,000 NAP NAP NAP NAP NAP 28.3 17.7 NAV 40.8

Suva 3,205 8,155 5.3 10.0 7.0 2.5 0.4 NAV NAV NAV NAV

Ulaanbaatar 525 2,500 79.3 71.1 8.8 37.2 13.4 50.6 25.0 16.6 7.8

Legend:
NAP - not applicable
NAV - not available
* - unconfirmed

The CDB Database 99

Urban Productivity and Competitiveness
4.4 Investment by Sector 4.5 Tourism 4.6 Major Projects
(List) 4.7 Cost 4.8
City 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.5.1 4.5.2 of Stay Corporate
Physical Housing Services Others Persons Expenditure ($/day) Headquarters
Infrastructure ($p.a) ($p.a) ($p.a.) (’000) ($ million)
($p.a.)

Bangalore NAV NAV NAV NAV 1,200.0 NAV Flyover from Sirsi Circle to 106 25
Narasimharaja Rd. over Mysore
Rd. $21.21m; Flyover from KH Rd. to
Richmond Circle $0.94m; Underpass
on Nat’l Highway7 at Mekhri Circle
$5.10m; Cable Stayed Bridge on
NH4 over KR Puram Railway Station,
Outer Ring Rd. Cauvery Stage IV,
Phase I Water Supply, Shivajinagar
Bus Stand Modernization, Impv’t
to Arterial and Sub-arterial Roads
$35.79m; Underpass Near Sangam
Cinema $0.69m; Underpass Near
Shivajinagar $3.83m

Bishkek 17.80 7.94 132.48 NAV 59.4 2.4 Reconstruction of Urban Rd. $13.5m; 117 0
Improving of Work of the Urban Pub.
Transport $ 0.95m; Reconstruction
of the Sys. of the Urban St. Lighting
$2.5m; Const’n of Factory on
Processing Garbage with Italian firm
“Ati-Wid” $90 m; Creation of the
Enterprise of the Pub. Urban
Transport Realizing Carriage of the
Passengers by Microbuses $8,535,172;
Intro of Helio-Installations (converters
of a solar energy) for Deriving
Hot Water in Res. of City
Bishkek $1,371,440; Intro of Energy
Saving Tech in a Sys of Lighting St.
of Bishkek with Use of Lamps of Low
Power and Increased Light $0.5m;
Creation of Comm'l Network by
Prod. of the 1st Necessity & Goods
of Daily Demand in Bishkek on a
Sys (wholesale warehouse–shop)
$6m; Creation of the Enterprise
on Assembly, Installation & Service
of Counters of Cold Water in
Apartment Houses of Bishkek
$119,496; Creation of Autonomous
Sys of Heating with Use of Energy
Saving Means of a Type (Transonic)
for Establishments of Bishkek,
Financed from the Loc. Budget $3m

Cebu NAV NAV NAV NAV 634.7 NAV Second Mandaue-Mactan Bridge; 80 0
Cebu City Reclamation Project;
Metro Cebu Dev’t Project I,II,III

Colombo 43.37 NAV 34.00 6.50 381.0 NAV Base Line Rd Rehab. Proj.$23.69m; 84 0
Sri Lanka-Japan Friendship Bridge;
Duplication Road Ext. Proj. $0.805m;
Sustainable Township Prog.; Clean
Settlement Prog. $1.006m; Colombo
Flood Protection Proj.; 8 Ft High
Stacking Empty Container Yard $9.47m;
North Pier Dev't Proj. Phase I $12.82m;
Phase II $23.95m; Queen Elisabeth Quay
$256.37m; Base Line Rd Rehab. Proj.
$23.69m; Sri Lanka-Japan Friendship
Bridge; Duplication Road Ext. Proj.
$0.805m; Sustainable Township Prog.;
Clean Settlement Prog. $1.006m;
Colombo Flood Protection Proj.;
8 Ft High Stacking Empty Container
Yard $9.47m; North Pier Dev't Proj.
Phase1$12.82m; Phase11$23.95m;
Queen Elisabeth Quay $256.37.

Dhaka NAV NAV NAV NAV 182.0 56.0 Dhaka Urban Transport Proj $234m; 109 100
4th Dhaka Water Supply Proj. $148m;
Air Quality Proj. $155m; 9th & 10th
Power Proj. $314m/330m; Urban Primary
Health Care $60m; Dhaka Power Sys.
Upgrade $251m; Dhaka Integrated
Flood Protection Proj. $120m; Flood
Urban Productivity and Competitiveness
4.4 Investment by Sector 4.5 Tourism 4.6 Major Projects (List)
4.7 Cost 4.8
City 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.5.1 4.5.2 of Stay Corporate
Physical Housing Services Other Persons Expenditure ($/day) Headquarters
Infrastructure ($p.a.) ($p.a.) ($p.a.) (’000) ($ million)
($p.a.)

Damage Rehab Proj. $130m; Southwest

Rd. Network Dev't $134m; Urban
Basic Service Delivery $20.4m

Hanoi 188.00 11.28 15.43 3.75 500.0 85.3 NAV 99 13

Hohhot 397.00 5.53 127.00 19.04 39.6 126.0 Water Supply Proj by Div Water fr. 72 NAV
Yellow River $214.639m;
Second Phase Proj of Wastewater
Treatment $90.565m; 2nd Phase
of Dist. Heating $69.871m;
Reconstruction of Main & Sub-main
Rds $43.097m; Overpass at Gulou
$42.276m; Storm Collection Network
Reconstruction $34.545m;
Reconstruction of Water Supply
Network $33.663m; Expanding of
Jinhai Rd $16.327m; Reconstruction
of East 1st Ring Rd. $15.019m;
Waste Treatment Plant East of
Hohhot $10.871m

Hong Kong 1,486.00 1206.00 1673.00 3111.00 9574.7 6853.0 HK Int'l Airport & The Airport Core 154 819
Proj. $9.076b ; Priority Rail Proj.
$15.247b; The Strategic Sewage
Disposal Scheme Phase I $1.033b;
Science Park at Pak Shek Kok
$308.57m; Container Terminal
No. 9 $348.60m

Kathmandu 4.06 4.00 8.97 27.17 463.7 152.5 Kathmandu Urban Dev't Proj. $8m; 100 0
Electricity 2nd Rd Impv't Proj. $0.3m;
Strengthening Proj., $0.2m; Inst'l
Strengthening Proj. for Environmental
Monitoring $0.58m; Bagmati Area
Sewerage Dev't Proj. $3.8m; Land
Pooling Proj. $8.98m

Lahore 35.29 0.98 NAV 192.44 42.0 3.0 Lahore Walled City Circular Rd. 108 NAV
Sewerage & Drainage Impv't $4.44m;
Const'n of Secondary & Tertiary Drains
of Chotta Ravi & Siddiquepura Zone
$1.71m; New Terminal Complex at
Lahore Int'l Airport $200m; Const'n of
Jail Rd. & Widening of Sherpao Bridge
$1.33m; Const'n of Bhaati Chowk
Underpass Garhi Shahu & Calvary
Flyover & New Campus Underpass
$18.936m; Lahore Rd. Rehab. $66.294m;
MCL Small Proj. Scheme $7.332m;
Purchase of New Machinery for
SWM $3.6m

Mandaluyong 971.84 4.55 3925.95 2743.09 140.0 48.0 Drainage & St. Impv't $870,822.86; 125 2
Building Construction $223,363;
Water Supply $120,637.29

Medan NAV NAV NAV NAV 191.4 21.6 NAV 58 NAV

Melbourne 227.77 244.49 92.11 400.49 5,917.4 1,150.0 Crown Entertainment Precinct 142 38
$1,380m; City Link Tollway $1,173m;
New Residential Apartments,
Southbank $414m; Southgate
& Yarra Promenade Redevelopment,
$345m; Dockland Stadium $276m;
Redevelopment of Flinder St.
Railway Station $90m; Redevelopment
of Nat'l Gallery of Victoria $90m;
Melbourne Exhibition Ctr $90m;
Federation Square $90m; Jolimont
Railyards Redevelopment $90m

Naga 50.95 11.94 22.16 23.92 50.4 64.6 Rehab of Maharlika H-way, $8.6078m; 64 0
Various Community Infrastructure Dev’t
Proj. $1.1016; Impv't of Naga Airport
Facilities $0.8803m; Magsaysay Bridge
Rehab $0.7336m; Malabsay Falls Dev't
Urban Productivity and Competitiveness
4.4 Investment by Sector 4.5 Tourism 4.6 Major Projects
(List) 4.7 Cost 4.8
City 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.5.1 4.5.2 of Stay Corporate
Physical Housing Services Other Persons Expenditure ($/day) Headquarters
Infrastructure ($p.a.) ($p.a.) ($p.a.) (’000) ($ million)
($p.a.)

$0.7336m; City Sch. Bldg. Prog.

$0.5869m; Dev't of Access Rd. to
Central Bus Terminal $0.1834m;
Naga River FloodCtl Proj. $0.1712m;
City Water Sys. Impv't $0.0978m;
Rural Rd. Dev't Proj. $0.0489m

Phnom Penh NAV NAV NAV 48.80 218.8 NAV Phnom Penh Water Supply & 105 3
Drainage (Part B) $13.947m;
Phnom Penh Water Supply &
Drainage (Part A) $15.360m;
Cambodian Urban Water Supply
Proj. Phnom Penh Component
$25.961m; Impv't of Water
Supply Facilities in Phnom Penh
17.147m; Const'n of Landfill Site
of MPP $12.3m; Study of Drainage
Impv't and Flood Control in MPP
$2.8687m; Impv't of the Flood
Control of MPP $41.6m

Seoul NAV NAV NAV NAV 3188.0 NAV 2nd Subway Construction 193 0
$649.4m; Construction of Radial
Principal Rd. $68m; Const'n of
Inner Rd. $61.4m;Collectively
Supplied Energy $57.3m; Maintenance
& Repair Proj. of Underground
Shopping Ctr. $56.8m; 3rd Subway
Const'n & Design $43.9m; Const'n
Recovery Facilities of Waste Materials
$34.7m; Const'n of Water Purification
Plants $33.3m; Proj. to Improve
Residential $56.8m;$31.5m; Ext. Proj.
of Ji-Bong St. $20.9m

Suva NAV NAV NAV NAV 30.6 NAV NAV 94 0

Ulaanbaatar 11.72 29.23 24.54 101.75 150.7 27.8 Buyant-Ukhaa Int'l Airport $39m; 98 0
Ulaanbaatar Services Impv't Proj.
$26.7m; Modernization of Power
Plant 3 $37m; Energy Conservation
Proj. $1.1m; Chingges Khaan Hotel
$20m; City Rd. Impv't Proj $1.2m;
Extension of Ard-Ayush Ave. $2.3m;
New Cental Market Dev't $4.8m;
Rehab. Proj. of Ulaanbaatar-Darkhan-
Altanbulag (Northern Border w/
Russia) $25.25m; Continental Hotel
$2.5m

Legend:
NAV – not available

102 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Technology and Connectivity
5.1 R&D 5.2 Telephone Traffic (calls per person per year) 5.3 Internet Hosts Connectivity Congestion
City Expenditure (per ’000 pop.) Index Index
($) 5.2.1 Local 5.2.2 International 5.2.3 Mobile
or Cellphone

Bangalore NAV 130.0 2.0 1.4 8.00 48 74.8

Bishkek 0.07 *270.0 *3.2 0.0 4.30 16 51.6

Cebu NAV 28.0 0.1 10.4 6.00 37 52.5

Colombo 1.88 64.0 1.2 5.0 9.63 26 62.6

Dhaka NAV 17.0 0.4 0.5 9.23 34 86.2

Hanoi 37.60 88.0 1.2 1.0 6.30 47 61.4

Hohhot 1.19 55.0 0.2 7.0 0.85 0 67.4

Hong Kong 28.00 420.0 71.0 132.0 278.00 100 69.3

Kathmandu NAV 100.0 0.4 0.6 15.40 30 57.4

Lahore 0.44 78.0 1.9 1.2 16.60 24 73.1

Mandaluyong 2.28 210.0 3.3 4.4 18.00 34 72.5

Medan 0.01 60.0 2.1 7.0 10.00 27 61.9

Melbourne 408.00 594.0 11.0 80.0 131.90 85 32.0

Naga 0.28 90.0 0.4 38.0 4.73 5 44.5

Phnom Penh NAV 3.5 0.1 1.1 0.49 16 57.8

Seoul 59.96 340.0 11.6 84.0 150.00 88 83.3

Suva 0.00 76.0 2.1 2.8 26.64 17 40.1

Ulaanbaatar 2.24 63.0 0.8 1.0 4.14 13 53.3

Legend:
NAV – not available
* – unconfirmed

The CDB Database 103

Urban Land
City 6.1 Urban Land 6.2 Land 6.3
Developer Developer
6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.1.4 6.1.5 6.1.6 6.1.7 Multiplier Contribution
Residential Business Services Transport Mixed Use Others Total Area (%)
(ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)

Bangalore 9,877 675 2,038 8,946 4,747 2,144 28,400 15.4 0

Bishkek *14,736 * *8 *1,128 * *4,703 *15,597 4.0 10

Cebu *5,394 *669 *55 * *1,888 *959 * 1.9 99

Colombo 1,402 374 660 983 262 48 3,729 2.2 NAV

Dhaka *6,840 *3,204 * *4,320 * * *36,000 5.7 10

Hanoi 2,380 840 1,570 470 3,870 10,339 19,469 NAP 0

Hohhot 2,360 2,250 2,000 370 630 1,020 8,630 3.0 NAV

Hong Kong 5,900 1,300 3,700 3,100 93,400 2,300 109,700 NAP NAP

Kathmandu 158 83 239 166 3,116 1,314 5,076 2.5 29

Lahore 11,125 1,725 2,725 1,750 125 7,550 25,000 1.2 100

Mandaluyong 469 211 46 180 60 160 1,126 4.4 20

Medan 14,311 2,403 *6,343 3,353 51 49 26,510 2.5 18

Melbourne 367.08 701 223 1,201 142 813 3,447 4.8 100

Naga 1,099 191 150 4 0 20 1,464 5.0 100

Phnom Penh 4,136 603 NAV 287 793 13,752 19,571 13.3 NAV

Seoul NAP NAP NAP NAP NAP NAP 60,595 NAV NAV

Suva 1,035 725 160 NAV NAV 246 NAV 3.0 100

Ulaanbaatar 4,764 1,978 760 1,435 687 4,739 14,363 1.1 60

Legend:
NAP – not applicable
NAV – not available
* – unconfirmed

104 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Urban Land
6.4 Median 6.5 Vacant 6.6 Public 6.7 Vacant Government Land 6.8 Prime 6.9 Prime Rental and Occupancy Costs
Time for Land Open Commercial
Planning with Planning Space 6.7.1 Amount 6.7.2 Proportion Land Price 6.9.1 Prime 6.9.2 Operating 6.9.3 Statutory
City Permission Permission (%) of Land Owned of this land ($/m2) Rental per Costs per Month Charges
(month) (ha) by Gov’t, which is vacant Month ($) per Month
Parastatals or (%) ($ per m2) ($)
Enterprises (ha)

Bangalore 15.0 NAV 9.1 NAV NAV 780 5.20 0.26 1.46

Bishkek 3.0 187 7.4 15,597 1.2 11 12.00 14.00 0.32

Cebu 6.0 NAV 3.0 678 NAV 367 NAV 61.00 NAP

Colombo 2.0 NAV 8.5 NAV NAV 875 11.60 4.60 0.50

Dhaka 1.0 NAV NAV 7,361 10.0 *1,225 5.00 NAV NAV

Hanoi 3.0 16 1.0 30,400 34.1 *2,256 35.00 3.50 0.00

Hohhot 1.0 NAV 5.7 3,460 0.4 108 0.27 0.06 0.30

Hong Kong 2.0 NAV 9.5 NAV NAV 27,539 74.10 NAV NAV

Kathmandu NAV NAV 4.5 214 NAV 714 7.33 1.40 1.10

Lahore 2.0 4,537 5.0 16,667 30.0 532 45.00 11.00 4.44

Mandaluyong 0.5 50 1.5 144 34.6 1,590 11.24 499.66 76.77

Medan 15.0 20 10.0 58 18.5 200 15.00 36.46 42.65

Melbourne 2.0 50 16.0 NAV NAV 2,588 100.00 47.00 12.00

Naga 2.2 147 1.3 133 33.3 *1,223 10.27 3.08 1.03

Phnom Penh NAV 627 13.1 >209 1.0 400 NAV NAV NAV

Seoul NAV NAV 26.7 NAV NAV 23,253 NAV NAV NAV

Suva 1.0 NAV 5.0 NAV NAV 554 32.72 NAV NAV

Ulaanbaatar 8.0 260 1.0 14,363 30.0 9 8.00 0.65 1.50

Legend:
NAV – not available
* – unconfirmed

The CDB Database 105

Housing
7.1 Dwelling Type 7.2 Tenure Type
City
7.1.1 7.1.2 7.1.3 7.1.4 7.1.5 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.2.6 7.2.7 7.2.8
House Medium Apartment Temporary Others Owned & Private Social Sub- Rent Free Squatter Squatter Others
(Single Density (%) Dwelling (Institutions, Purchased Rental Housing Tenant (%) No Rent Paying (%)
Family) (%) (%) hostels, etc.) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Rent
(%) (%) (%)

Bangalore 12.4 72.3 12.3 2.9 0.1 42.5 55.1 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 2.4

Bishkek 19.4 2.2 70.2 NAV 8.2 85.0 5.0 10.0 NAV NAV NAV NAV 0.0

Cebu 82.0 6.0 11.0 NAV 1.0 41.0 26.0 0.0 NAV NAV 33.0 NAV 0.0

Colombo 33.4 12.0 19.3 34.8 0.3 60.7 24.0 NAV NAV 7.1 2.0 0.0 6.0

Dhaka 39.0 30.6 10.0 11.1 9.3 31.8 53.5 1.2 NAV 6.5 NAV NAV 6.8

Hanoi 74.7 3.9 18.0 1.9 1.5 75.2 7.8 12.5 1.0 0.2 1.3 0.0 1.9

Hohhot 34.0 0.0 66.0 0.0 0.0 65.0 1.0 34.0 NAV NAV NAV NAV 0.0

Hong Kong 12.2 0.0 84.2 2.7 0.8 42.8 16.7 36.3 NAV NAV 3.4 0.0 0.8

Kathmandu 31.8 51.2 18.0 0.0 0.0 65.8 28.7 0.0 NAV 3.4 NAV NAV 2.3

Lahore 48.0 43.0 3.0 5.0 1.0 82.0 15.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Mandaluyong 56.2 35.2 7.6 0.6 0.5 52.2 27.0 2.0 2.5 3.5 8.0 4.0 0.8

Medan 78.5 9.2 0.0 12.2 0.1 56.3 38.3 0.1 1.1 3.1 0.2 0.8 0.1

Melbourne 6.6 26.5 62.5 NAV 4.4 32.4 50.0 12.3 NAV NAV 0.0 0.0 5.3

Naga 87.4 3.8 8.1 0.0 0.6 33.0 17.8 39.3 NAV 9.7 0.2 0.0 0.0

Phnom Penh NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 84.0 11.5 0.0 NAV 3.8 NAV NAV 0.7

Seoul 38.4 18.7 42.8 NAP NAP 69.6 29.6 NAV NAV 0.8 NAV NAV 0.0

Suva NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 57.0 18.0 5.0 NAV NAV 3.0 3.0 13.0

Ulaanbaatar 0.2 0.1 45.4 51.9 2.4 33.0 3.6 9.0 NAV NAV 51.9 0.0 2.5
Legend:
NAP – not applicable
NAV – not available

106 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Housing
7.3 House 7.4 House 7.5 Floor 7.6 Housing 7.7 7.8 Houses 7.9 7.10 Housing 7.11 7.12 7.13
Price to Rent to Area per in Mortgage with Mortgage Production Squatter Net Homeless
City Income Income Person Compliance to Credit Mortgages Loans for Resettlement Housing People
Ratio Ratio (m2) (%) Ratio (%) Women 7.10.1 7.10.2 or Outlays (’000)
(%) (%) (%) (%) On New Conversions Normalization by Gov’t
(Vacant) for Infill from (%) per Person
Land other Uses
(unit/’000) (unit/’000)

Bangalore 10.0 0.0 9.5 25 NAV NAV NAV 2.70 0.38 NAV 0.27 10.65

Bishkek 13.0 41.0 17.5 62 NAV NAV NAV 2.60 0.97 NAV 15.75 0.17

Cebu 2.2 17.6 8.0 70 NAP 11.0 NAV 4.20 NAP 16 2.87 0.30

Colombo NAV 43.0 8.0 59 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 60 4.20 5.00

Dhaka 5.0 12.0 2.7 47 0.1 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 70.00

Hanoi 15.0 15.0 5.2 78 NAV NAV NAV *8.33 *0.54 0 0.89 1.59

Hohhot 5.4 17.0 8.5 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 0 5.34 NAV

Hong Kong 11.7 21.8 9.0 96 30.1 NAV NAV 8.80 NAP 1 593.60 0.78

Kathmandu 10.6 6.4 10.7 NAV 50.0 NAV NAV 2.90 NAV 0 0.00 0.60

Lahore 7.2 35.0 17.0 55 0.6 27.8 15.0 *1.33 0.00 24 3.33 2.00

Mandaluyong 12.0 19.2 10.9 85 1.1 9.0 33.8 0.29 0.81 36 36.09 0.14

Medan 16.0 15.0 9.0 *3.27 11.6 2.3 40.0 3.30 NAV 3 56.74 2.00

Melbourne 3.6 22.8 55.0 95 NAV 12.0 NAV *17.5 *8.4 0 243.60 2.77

Naga 2.5 19.7 8.2 63 8.0 8.2 53.0 *4.61 *0.51 81 67.24 13.00

Phnom Penh NAV NAV 8.8 35 NAV NAV NAV 0.54 NAV 1 NAV NAV

Seoul 6.8 44.4 15.8 *84 NAV NAV NAV 3.10 0.96 2 NAV 2.60

Suva 3.7 0.5 NAV 70 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 0 NAV 0.40

Ulaanbaatar 11.0 0.8 5.7 52 0 0 0 1.00 0.00 0 0.33 0.80

Legend:
NAP – not applicable
NAV – not available
* – unconfirmed

The CDB Database 107

Municipal Services
8.1 Water

City 8.1.1 8.1.2 8.1.3 8.1.4 8.1.5 Output 8.1.6 8.1.7 Nonrevenue 8.1.8 8.1.9
Household Investment Operations and Cost per Staff: Water List of Water Consumption Median
Connections per Capita Maintenance Recovery Supplied per Providers of Water Price
(%) ($) Expenditure (%) Employee 8.1.7.a 8.1.7.b. per Capita of Water,
($) (m3) Unaccounted Interruptions (liters Scarce
for Water in Water Service per day) Season
(%) (hours/month) ($/m3)

Bangalore 85 2.55 10.94 79.0 190.0 Bangalore Water 35 630 100 0.28
Supply and
Sewerage Board

Bishkek 99 0.70 5.50 60.0 919.0 Urban Water 45 24 112 0.02

Supply Enterprise
“Bishkekvodokanal”

Cebu 68 3.26 6.00 63.0 202.0 Metropolitan 38 36 225 0.48

Cebu Water
Districts (68%)

Colombo 52 1.50 0.37 0.9 66.0 Nat’l Water Supply 45 occasional 108 0.42
& Drainage Board

Dhaka 42 NAV 0.44 97.4 257.0 Dhaka Water 41 NAV 160 0.50
Supply & Sewerage
Authority

Hanoi 73 2.33 3.85 111.1 218.0 Hanoi Water 63 NAV 80 0.11

Supply Co./
Thanh Xuan Co.

Hohhot 91 21.23 *10.08 1.0 *31,995.9 Hohhot Water NAV 0 140 0.01
Supply Company

Hong Kong 100 70.10 24.00 105.0 431.0 Water Supplies 34 1,314 137 NAV
Department

Kathmandu 81 5.14 3.77 76.2 51.0 Nepal Walter 40 659 80 0.15

Sewerage
Corporation

Lahore 84 *7.22 3.66 82.0 *603.0 Water and 40 *21 213 *0.61
Sanitation Agency;
Private Household
Hand Pump

Mandaluyong 83 4.90 4.45 15.0 67.0 Manila Water 41 56 202 0.06

Company

Medan 63 5.60 2.75 NAV 286.0 NAV 27 NAV 160 0.80

Melbourne 100 9.75 32.20 149.0 616.8 City West Water 15 0 302 0.44

Naga 74 14.38 9.93 127.5 NAV Metro Naga 57 0 NAV *0.81

Water District,
parastatal

Phnom Penh 83 2.50 1.33 45.0 222.0 Phnom Penh 61 540 32 0.39
Water Supply
Authority

Seoul 100 18.40 24.50 125.2 *1,144.0 Office of *66 NAV 209 0.21
Waterworks

Suva 98 0.41 3.16 70.0 105.0 Public Works 51 7 *203 0.03

Department

Ulaanbaatar 51 *27.60 5.10 34.0 75.0 Water Sanitation 38 3 117 0.30

Corporation

Legend:
NAV – not available
* – unconfirmed

108 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Municipal Services
8.2 Electricity

City 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4 8.2.5

Household Investment Operations Cost Recovery Output per 8.2.6 List of Providers
Connections per and Maintenance (%) Staff: Electricity
(%) Capita Expenditure Supplied per Employee
($) ($) (MWh)

Bangalore 100 5.38 4.87 NAV 105.9 Karnataka Power Transmission Corp. Ltd.

Bishkek 100 1.19 1.08 0 9,253.0 Urban Enterprise of Electrical Network

Cebu 86 9.00 148.00 12 1,849.0 Nat’l Power Corp. (50%); Cebu Private Power Corp;
East Asia Utilities (11%)

Colombo 90 NAV 1.75 NAV NAV Ceylon Electricity Board

Dhaka 90 NAV NAV NAV NAV Dhaka Electricity Supply Authority

Hanoi 100 8.24 10.80 114 NAV Hanoi Electricity Company

Hohhot 100 32.85 0.38 5 998,927.2 Electric Hohhot Company

Hong Kong 100 60.70 44.50 213 1.2 CLP Power Hong Kong Ltd./ Hong Kong
Electric Co. Ltd.

Kathmandu 99 NAV 10.70 100 126.9 Nepal Electricity Corp.

Lahore 128 38.00 6.78 75 2,255.5 Water and Power Development Authority

Mandaluyong 95 10.90 95.00 1 2,816.0 Manila Electric Company

Medan 91 14.98 2.80 0 10,000.0 NAV

Melbourne 100 39.50 236.40 128 11,600.0 Citipower

Naga 94 5.27 18.33 109 330.7 Camarines Sur Electric Cooperative,

parastatal

Phnom Penh 16 95.00 37.00 1 309.7 NAV

Seoul 100 NAV NAV NAV NAV Korea Electric Power Corporation

Suva 98 NAV NAV 100 NAV Fiji Electricity Authority

Ulaanbaatar 100 0.25 30.30 96 802.8 Ulaanbaatar Electric Distribution Corp.

Legend:
NAV – not available

The CDB Database 109

Municipal Services

8.2.7 Nonrevenue Electricity 8.3 Sewerage/WasteWater

City 8.2.7.a 8.2.7.b. 8.3.1 HH 8.3.2 Investment 8.3.3 O&M 8.3.4 Cost 8.3.5 Output 8.3.6 List of
Line Loss for Interruptions Connections per Capita Expenditure Recovery per Staff: Providers
Electricity in Power Supply (%) ($) ($) (%) Wastewater
(%) (hours/month) Discharged or
Treated per
Employee
(m3)

Bangalore 18 30 80 0.34 0.29 NAV 58522 Bangalore Water

(discharged)/ Supply & Sewerage
33750 Board
(treated)

Bishkek 25 160 82 0.69 5.56 0 90.0 Urban Water Supply

Enterprise
“Bishkekvodonakal”

Cebu 13 5 0 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 NAP

Colombo NAV occasional 80 26.00 2.63 NAV NAV Colombo Municipal

Council

Dhaka 38 NAV 22 NAV NAV NAV NAV Dhaka Water And

Sewerage Authority

Hanoi 19 0 78 10.37 0.65 0 NAP Hanoi Drainage

Company

Hohhot NAV 0 72 1.57 1.32 1 300.0 Drainage Bureau of

Hohhot

Hong Kong NAV NAV 98 38.60 21.20 67 369,764.0 Drainage Services

Dept.

Kathmandu 16 10 42 2.73 2.55 112 *4,745 Nepal Water Sewerage

Corporation

Lahore 20 120 61 19.44 2.65 113 908.4 Water and Sanitation

Agency; Metropolitan
Corp. of Lahore

Mandaluyong 11 1 0 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 NAP

Medan 3 6 19 19.97 1.50 0 50.0 NAV

Melbourne NAV 0 100 11.82 39.03 149 338.4 City West Water

Naga 20 1 0 0.00 0.00 0 0.0 NAP

Phnom Penh 34 NAV 41 8.00 NAV 0 NAV NAV

Seoul 5 NAV 99 10.11 9.10 126 792,261.0 Office of Waterworks

Suva NAV NAV 61 2.03 0.45 30 NAV Public Works Dept.

Ulaanbaatar 30 NAV 51 2.00 NAV NAV 122.7 Water and Sanitation

Corp.

Legend:
NAP – not applicable
NAV – not available

110 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Municipal Services
8.4 Telephone

City 8.4.1 Household 8.4.2 Investment 8.4.3 Operations 8.4.4 Cost 8.4.5 Output per 8.4.6 List of Providers
Connections per Capita & Maintenance Recovery Staff: Calls
(%) ($) Expenditure (%) per Year
($) (’000)

Bangalore 66 11.14 6.55 100 635.00 Telecom Dept., Govt. of India

Bishkek 73 19.05 52.52 60 1.12 Bishkek Urban Tel. Station;

Mobile Katel & Bitel

Cebu 15 NAV NAV NAV NAV Philippine Long Distance /

Telephone Co.; ISLACOM

Colombo 53 NAV NAV NAV NAV Sri Lanka Telecom; Suntel;

Mobitel; Dialog GSM; Lanka Bell

Dhaka 9 NAV NAV NAV NAV Bangladesh Telephone &

Telegraph Board

Hanoi 37 2.34 28.23 136 161.90 Hanoi Postal Service

Telecommunication,
Mobilephone Co.

Hohhot 9 63.76 56.85 100 238.26 Hohhot branch of China Telecom

and China Unicom

Hong Kong 99 111.50 *420.70 161 NAV Cable & Wireless HKT Tel. Ltd.;
Hutchinson Communications
Ltd.; New T&T HK Ltd. New
World Tel. Ltd.; Smartone Mobile
Communications Ltd.; HK Cable
TV LTD; China Digital satNet Ltd.

Kathmandu 68 144.00 7.50 211 1,671.61 Nepal Telecommunication Corp.

Lahore 62 10.11 5.38 150 185.00 Pakistan Telecommunications

Corp.

Mandaluyong 87 NAV 99.00 NAV NAV Philippine Long Distance Co./

Globe

Medan 41 19.97 4.19 NAV 2,028.00 NAV

Melbourne 99 151.50 411.90 125 NAV Telstra Corp; Optus; AAPT;

Vodaphone

Naga 54 49.85 20.79 116 NAV Bayantel; Digitel; Globe; Smart;

Pilipino Tel. Corp.

Phnom Penh NAV 10.00 7.80 280 48.96 Alcatel; Fetex; Camtel; Casacom;
Camshin; Camintel; CAM GSM;
Tricelcam

Seoul 95 NAV NAV NAV NAV Korea Telecom; Dacom; Onse

Telecom

Suva 40 10.82 61.06 125 3.10(Nat’l fig.) Telecom/Vodafone(Mobile)/Fintel (Int’l)

Ulaanbaatar 34 1.00 27.00 157 33.00 Mongolian Telecom/Railway

Telecom

Legend:
NAV – not available

The CDB Database 111

Municipal Services
8.5 Solid Waste Collection

City 8.5.1 Household 8.5.2 Investment 8.5.3 Operations and 8.5.4 Cost 8.5.5 Output per 8.5.6 List of Providers
Connections per Capita Maintenance Recovery Staff: Collected
(%) ($) Expenditures (%) per Employee
($) (m3)

Bangalore 5 NAV 2.88 0 133.00 Health Dept. of Bangalore

Mahanagara-Palike and City Municipal
Councils

Bishkek 98 NAV 0.06 -2 2.83 Urban Solid Waste Collection

Enterprise

Cebu 47 1.08 1.64 85 2.10 Cebu City Dept. of Public Service

Colombo 90 16.00 1.05 NAV 7.80 Municipal Council/private sectors

Dhaka 50 NAV NAV NAV NAV Dhaka City Corporation

Hanoi 80 0.00 2.23 5 184.50 Hanoi Urban Environment Co.

Hohhot 100 0.43 1.72 64 281.00 NAV

Hong Kong 100 NAV 24.70 0 328.50 Food and Environmental Hygiene
Dept.

Kathmandu 75 2.40 2.14 5 0.36 LT Environment Service; Our Cleaning

Service

Lahore 100 2.42 5.25 0 10.00 Metropolitan Corporation Lahore

Mandaluyong 100 5.94 3.07 8 3.15 City Gov’t of Manda.

Medan 63 0.90 0.50 0 146.00 NAV

Melbourne 100 NAV NAV NAV NAV City Wide Services

Naga 86 0.46 0.22 34 201.60 City Environment & Natural

Resources Office

Phnom Penh 54 NAV NAV NAV 310.00 NAV

Seoul 100 17.13 19.43 28 NAV NAV

Suva 75 0.00 10.02 0 598.00 Suva City Council

Ulaanbaatar 50 0.14 1.37 97 960.00 Public solid waste co. in each district;
Nuuts Co. responsible for dumpsite

Legend:
NAV – not available

112 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Urban Environment
9.2 Household Sewage Disposal

City 9.1 Solid Waste 9.2.1 Sewage 9.2.2 Septic Tank 9.2.3 9.2.4 Underground 9.2.5 Pan 9.2.6 Open 9.2.7 Others
Generated Pipe (Treated) Underground Pit Communal Collection Ground Trench (%)
(tons per person (%) (%) (Untreated) (%) (%) (%)
p.a.) (%)

Bangalore 0.19 80 5 5 5 0 2 3

Bishkek 0.90 82 15 2 1 0 0 0

Cebu 0.61 NAV NAV NAV NAV 0 NAV NAV

Colombo 0.28 80 15 4 0 0 0 1

Dhaka 0.17 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Hanoi 0.17 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Hohhot 0.47 55 45 0 0 0 0 0

Hong Kong 0.37 100 0 0 0 0 0 0

Kathmandu 0.28 67 28 1 0 0 0 4

Lahore 0.45 100 0 0 0 0 0 0

Mandaluyong 0.53 0 87 9 1 2 0 1

Medan *0.12 0 69 20 10 0 0 0

Melbourne 0.31 100 0 0 0 0 0 0

Naga 0.15 0 72 7 5 8 4 4

Phnom Penh 0.26 41 37 3 0 0 15 4

Seoul 0.38 98 0 0 NAV 2 0 0

Suva 0.23 61 39 0 0 0 0 0

Ulaanbaatar 0.60 52 0 48 0 0 0 0
Legend:
NAV – not available

The CDB Database 113

Urban Environment
9.3 Wastewater 9.4 Percent BOD 9.5 Air Pollution Concentrations
Treated Removed from (standard exceeded days p.a.)
City (%) Wastewater
(%) 9.5.1 SO2 9.5.2 NOx 9.5.3 CO 9.5.4 O3 9.5.5 Suspended 9.5.6 Lead
Particulates

Bangalore 58 95 32 28 NAV NAV 258 NAV

Bishkek 89 97 150 130 160 25 150 161

Cebu 85 0 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Colombo NAP 0 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Dhaka 5 0 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Hanoi 3 0 NAP NAP NAP NAP NAP NAP

Hohhot 28 40 0.06 0.04 NAV NAV 0.46 NAV

Hong Kong 98 0 0 3 NAV 13 NAV NAV

Kathmandu 0 0 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Lahore 0 0 79 79 79 79 79 79

Mandaluyong 82 76 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Medan 22 27 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Melbourne 100 96 0 0 0 0 0 0

Naga 58 0 NAV NAV NAV NAV 3 NAV

Phnom Penh 0 0 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Seoul 100 82 56.8 5.1 NAV 38.2 NAV NAV

Suva NAV 0 NAP NAP NAP NAP NAP NAP

Ulaanbaatar 60 90 0 0 0 0 75 NAV

Legend:
NAV – not available
NAP – not applicable

114 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Urban Environment
9.9 Methods of Solid Waste Disposal

9.6 Energy Usage 9.7 Noise 9.8 Disasters In the last 10 Years 9.9.1 Disposed 9.9.2 9.9.3 9.9.4 9.9.5 Others
City per Person Complaints (list with estimated damage) to Sanitary Incinerated Dumped or Recycled (%)
(mt p.a.) Landfill (formally) Burned in (%)
(%) (%) the Open
(%)

Bangalore 0.21 0 NAV 0 0 80 15 5

Bishkek 0.38 26 6 Large fires: Kok-Jar; Chempharmindustry; 100 0 0 0 0

Bulgaary, Cada, Hotel Eldorado

Cebu 1.00 9 NAV 88 0 13 0 0

Colombo NAV 100 1992 Flood 35 dead, over 100 dwellings 0 0 98 2 0

destroyed; 1993 Bomb Blast-Armour St. 35 dead,
4 dwellings destroyed; 1994 Bomb Blast-Thotalaga
24 dead, 2 dwellings destroyed; 1995 Kolonnawa-
Oil Tank 8 dead; 1996 Bomb Blast-Central Bank
bldg. over 100 dead, over 100 dwellings
1destroyed; 997 Bomb Blast-Galadari Hotel
28 dead, 10 dwellings destroyed; 1997 Bomb
Blast-Maradana Junction 15 dead

Dhaka NAV NAV 1998 Flood 67% of city area was under water NAV NAV 50 30 20
for 90 days; fire hazards 734 in ’98 & 858 in ‘99

Hanoi NAP NAP NAP 50 0 0 20 25

Hohhot 6.61 12 NAP 0 NAV 60 0 40

Hong Kong 2.34 9,666 NAV 86 0 0 14 0

Kathmandu 0.50 NAV NAP 70 0 20 10 0

Lahore 0.30 NAV Leakage of chlorine gas in Baja line; Flood in ‘96 0 NAV 100 75 NAV

Mandaluyong 0.49 6 15 typhoons caused flooding; Fire incidence 90 0 10 0 0

damage to property: $10,077,062

Medan NAV NAV NAV 0 0 77 9 15

Melbourne 1.30 317 NAP 59 0 0 40 0

Naga 0.55 1 1998 Typhoon Loleng, 1,391 total, 7,242 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV
partial dwellings damaged, 10 dead 14
injured; 1995 Typhoon Rosing, 2,339 total,
7,743 partial dwellings damaged 11 dead;
Typhoon Monang, 591 total, 6,433 partial
dwellings damaged, 7 dead, 27 injured,
7 missing

Phnom Penh NAV NAV NAP 55 0 36 7 2

Seoul 5.06 NAV Apartment Model Housing Fire (20 Dec. 1999), 57 5 0 38 0
3 dead and 1 wounded; Partial collapse of stone
embarkment over Han Jin apartment housing
(14 May 1997), 1 dead and 6 wounded;
Collapse of mold technomart construction site
(22 Oct. 1996), 1 dead and 2 wounded; Rolling
Stones Rock Cafe (26 Sept. 1996), 11 dead and
3 wounded, Collapse of Sam Poong Dept. Store
(29 June 1995), 502 dead and 940 wounded;
Wangsip-ri Market fire (5 Nov. 1995),
1 dead and 1 wounded, 183 households
lost home; Gas explosion at Ahhyun-dong
(7 Dec.1994), 12 dead and 101 wounded;
Collapse of Sungou Bridge (21 Sept. 1994),
32 dead and 17 wounded, 6 cars fell into river

Suva NAV NAV Cyclone Kina 0 0 100 0 0

Ulaanbaatar 4.70 50 Methane explosion in the Nalaikh coal mine, 66 NAV 20 6 8

(Dec.1990), 20 dead; Flood caused by downpour,
(Aug 1995) US$71,400; Flood cause by
downpour 1994, 4 dead; Flood caused by hail
downpour 1996, 2 dead, 80 livestock dead, 5 gers
damaged; Flood caused by downpour '96, 3 dead, 224 gers
damaged and flood protection dam destroyed in three
places; Tempest 1993, 1 dead, 11 household plot fences
damaged; Tempest 1997 10 power pylons damaged
in Ulaanbaatar suburb; Tempest 1998, 7 gers
damaged, 20 households plot fences and 2 power
pylons damaged, estimated losses US$1,200
Urban Transport
10.1 Mode of Travel (percent of work trips)

City 10.1.1 Private 10.1.2 Train, 10.1.3 Bus or 10.1.4 Motorcycle 10.1.5 Bicycle, 10.1.6 Walking 10.1.7 Others, Including
Automobile Tram or Light Rail Mini Bus (2 or 3 wheel Including Pedicab (%) Boat, Taxi, Animal,
(%) (%) (%) motorized vehicle) (pedal powered Rickshaw
(%) vehicle) (%) (%)

Bangalore 11 7 38 18 11 16 0

Bishkek 10 60 20 2 1 7 0

Cebu 4 0 60 0 0 0 36

Colombo 4 4 71 13 0 6 2

Dhaka 3 0 9 3 1 60 24

Hanoi NAV NAV 9 59 29 4 0

Hohhot 2 0 2 4 91 1 0

Hong Kong 8 34 53 0 0 0 5

Kathmandu NAV NAV 4 33 0 0 63

Lahore 18 NAV 15 19 19 17 12

Mandaluyong 22 1 7 17 3 13 37

Medan 5 NAV 86 8 0 0 0

Melbourne 55 40 2 1 1 1 1

Naga 19 0 58 19 4 0 0

Phnom Penh 10 0 15 60 2 3 10

Seoul 20 32 29 NAV NAV NAV 19

Suva 30 0 60 2 0 7 1

Ulaanbaatar 3 5 60 2 0 30 0

Legend:
NAV – not available

116 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Urban Transport
10.7 Port/Air Activity
10.2 Median 10.3 Expenditure On 10.4 Road 10.5 Automobile 10.6 Cost
City Travel Time Road Infrastructure Congestion Ownership of Recovery 10.7.1 Commercial 10.7.2 Commercial Flights
(mins) ($) (%) (per ’000 pop) from Fees Ships Leaving Port Leaving (per month)
($) (Freight & Passenger)
(per month) Nat’l Int’l

Bangalore 40 3.17 100 231 102 0 690 52

Bishkek 45 0.94 70 109 1 0 386 269

Cebu NAV NAV NAV 25 NAV 68,823 2,900 19

Colombo 35 11.88 NAV 7 NAV NAV NAV NAV

Dhaka 50 NAV NAV 2 NAV NAV NAV NAV

Hanoi 25 4.42 NAV NAV 57 0 2,645 245

Hohhot 30 9.80 NAV 1 NAV 0 155 8

Hong Kong 47 99.00 47 106 107 19,278 0 6,800

Kathmandu 35 1.93 NAV 279 60 0 1,905 395

Lahore 40 2.22 3 240 100 0 977 244

Mandaluyong 90 3.49 1 248 NAV 2,495 1,170 4,110

Medan 30 1.38 15-25 48 7 4,487 567 87

Melbourne 20 106.00 0 341 NAV 3,050 10,064 1,449

Naga 30 23.65 NAV 87 NAV 0 76 NAP

Phnom Penh 25 0.83 NAV 8 NAV 2,265 NAV NAV

Seoul 44 171.22 NAV 290 NAV NAP 6,452 8,311

Suva 35 NAV NAV 115 NAV 42 240 28

Ulaanbaatar 25 1.69 0 33 79 0 121 42

Legend:
NAV – not available

The CDB Database 117

Urban Transport
10.8 Goods Carried 10.9 Transport Fatalities
(millions of revenue tons p.a.)
City 10.9.1 Transport 10.9.2 Pedestrian
10.8.1 Road 10.8.2 Rail 10.8.3 Air 10.8.4 Sea Related Deaths Deaths
(per ’000 pop.) (per ’000 pop.)

Bangalore 4.35 0.60 0.01 NAP 0.16 NAV

Bishkek 4.80 1.40 0.01 NAV 0.08 0.04

Cebu NAV 0.00 44.00 12.00 NAV NAV

Colombo NAV a 102 b 27,743 b 26,847,000 0.08 0.01

Dhaka NAV NAV 758.00 NAP 0.17 0.14

Hanoi 8.87 5.16 0.04 1.42 0.11 NAV

Hohhot 31.00 0.69 0.00 0.01 0.00 NAV

Hong Kong 36.15 0.46 1.63 127.48 0.03 0.02

Kathmandu NAV NAP NAP NAP 0.04 0.04

Lahore 700.00 0.57 547.00 NAV 0.02 0.01

Mandaluyong 0.19 NAP NAP NAP 0.04 0.04

Medan 58.65 8.02 17.33 3.20 0.32 0.06

Melbourne NAV NAV 0.26 42.11 0.10 0.02

Naga 0.46 0.51 0.41 NAP 0.08 0.01

Phnom Penh NAV NAV NAV NAV 0.10 NAV

Seoul 54.80 0.15 0.88 0.00 0.05 NAV

Suva NAV NAV NAV NAV 0.26 0.12

Ulaanbaatar 0.60 7.60 0.00 0.00 1.37 1.34

Legend:
NAV – not available
NAP – not applicable
a million metric tons
b metric tons

118 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Cultural
City 11.1 Attendance at Public Events 11.2 Attendance at Galleries and Museums

Bangalore Republic Day (20,000); Flower Show at Lalbagh Gardens (100,000); Government Museum; Chitrakala Parishat; Venkatappa
Independence Day (20,000); Rajyothsava Day (20,000); Visit of Art Gallery; Vishweshwaraiah;Technological Museum;
Prime Minister (25,000); Visit of Opposition Leader (15,000) Nehru Planetarium; Musical Fountain

Bishkek Independence Day, Day of City; People’s Holiday “Nooruz”; Urban NAV
Olympic Games of Students; Festival of Nat’l Creativity Kurban Ait
Total attendance: 320,000

Cebu NAV NAV

Colombo Independence Day (300,000); Wesak Celebrations (500,000); Colombo Museum (182,691 local, 8171 foreign); Art
May Day Rallies (1.5m); Cricket Matches (800,000); Other sports Gallery (675,000): ( Lionel Wendt Theatre (54,600); J.R.
activities (200,000); Newam Perahera for Buddhist (300,000); Jayawardene Cultural Center (25,000); Elphinstone
Deepavali festival for Tamil Festival (100,000); Rasaman Theatre (80,000); Lumbini Theatre (56,000); John de
festival for Muslim (15,000); Christmas festival for Christians Silva Theatre (62,000); Sugasthadasa Indoor Stadium
(9,200,000); Political Meeting (200,000) (150,000); BMICH (40,000)

Dhaka Int’l Trade Fair; Art Exhibition; Computer Fair, Independence National Museums, Art Gallery
Day; Language Day; Victory Day, Pahela Baishak

Hanoi Tiger Cup (240,000) Military Museums (31,000); History Museums (65,000);
Revolution Museum (176,000); Ho Chi Minh Museum (3,030,000)

Hohhot Festival of Lanterns; Tree plant day; Labour Day; Party day; Inner Mongolian Museum, Hohhot Museum; Inner
Third China Art Festival Mongolian Exhibition Hall, Hohhot Exhibition Hall;
Inner Mongolian Art Gallery (389,000)

Hong Kong Lunar New Year Fireworks Display (577,000); The HK Flower HK Science Museum (56,289); HK Museum of Arts
Show (400,000); Nat’l Day Fireworks of Arts (541,014); Display; (541,014); HK Railway Museum (425,000); Sam Tung
(380,000) Egyptian Treasure from the British Museum (310,0 UK Museum Sam Tungeum (399,523);
22nd HK Int’l Film Fest (188,000) HK Space Museum (334,839)

Kathmandu Dasai; Tihar; Indra Jatra; Democracy Day; Martyr’s Day Natural History Museum, Chauni (14,087);
Trivhuwan & Mahendra Musuem, Hanuman Dhoka
(120,968); National Museum, Chauni (53,936)

Lahore Urs Hazrat Ali Hajvery (10,000,000); Urs Mahdu Lal Hussein Alhamra Art Gallery (6,000); Co-opera Art Gallery
(7,000,000); Jashan-e-Baharan, Basant Mela (6,000,000); (25,000); Shakir Ali Art Gallery (2,000); Permanent Art
Horse & Cattle Show (2,500,000); Exhibition at Fortress Gallery (15,000); Lahore Art Gallery (15,000); Lahore
(5,000,000); Cricket One Day Int’l (40,000); Cricket Test Fort Museums (1,200,000); Lahore Museum (60,000);
Matches (18,000); Hockey Matches (15,000) Shakir Ali Museum (30,000); Science Museum (2,000);
iqbal Museum (12,000); Chungtai Museums (20,000)

Mandaluyong Liberation Day Festivities (10,000); Alay Lakad (8,000); Galleria Duemila 2000 (36,000); West Gallery (36,000);
Christmas Gift Giving (20,000); Turnover Mayoralty Post Gallery Y (21,000); Nemiranda Art Homes (11,040);
(5,000); Cinemanila Festival (5,000) Museum Shop (11,040)

Medan NAV NAV

Melbourne Comedy Festival (400,000); Melbourne Festival (500,00); Australian Nat’l Gallery of Victoria (765,327); Scienceworks
Formula 1 (345,300); Australian Tennis Open (201,251); Museums (284,000); Immigration Museum (58,013);
(Midsumma) Festival (213,000); Lygon St. Fiesta (approx. 100,000); Hellentic Antiquities Museum (11,347)
Antipodean (100,000); Moomba (approx. 213,000); Chinese New
Year Festival (approx. 100,000); AFL GrandFinal (94,431); Spring
Racing Carnival-including Melbourne Cup (432,533)

Naga Religious Procession in Honor of Virgin of Peñafrancia (750,000), Bicol Science & Tech. Centrum (38,469);
Candidates Forum Series, ’98 Local Elections (60,000); Palarong Museo Concilar Seminario, Holy Rosary Minor
Bicol Reg’l Sports Meet (20,000); City Charter Celebration Seminary (6,300); University of Nueva Caceres
Parades (10,000); School Torch Parades for Local Achievers Museum (3,378)
(5,000); Civic and Military parades (250,000)

Phnom Penh NAV NAV

Seoul NAV NAV

Suva Hibiscus Festival; Fiji Rugby 7’s; Nat’l Church Choir Fiji Museum
Competition; Coca-Cola School Athletic Competition;
Fiji Youth Day Celebration

Ulaanbaatar Nat’l Festival July 99 (50,000); Smoky Group Concert Nat’l History Museum (24,000); Natural History
June 99 (7,000); Series of Sports Cultural Festival (40,000); Museum (48,000); Bogdo-Khan Palace-Museum
Celebration of the 360th Anniversary of the City of Ulaanbaatar, (11,000); Chojin Lama Temple Museum (5,200);
Oct. 99 (10,000); Traditional Wrestling (4,500) Art Gallery (3,800)

Legend:
NAV – not available

The CDB Database 119

Cultural
City 11.3 Participation In Sports
(%)

Bangalore Cricket, Hockey, Football (Total: 1.62)

Bishkek Football, Light Athletics, Struggle Boxing, Horse Sport,

Lawn Tennis, Tourism, Mountain Climbing, Ski Sports
(Total: 20.50)

Cebu 79.00

Colombo Cricket (2.50); Athletics (1.00); Rugger (0.75); Soccer (1.00);

Volleyball (0.50); Basketball (0.25); Netball (0.02); Martial
Arts (0.25); Bicycle Race (0.25)

Dhaka NAV

Hanoi 15.00

Hohhot Chess, Badminton, Ping-Pong, Wrestling, Wushu

(Total: 5.46)

Hong Kong 40.50

Kathmandu Taekwando, Judo, Karate, Boxing, Football (Total: 0.30)

Lahore Cricket, Hockey, Squash, Football, Snooker, Bridge, Chess,

Table Tennis, Volleyball, Badminton, Kite Flying, Marshal
Arts, Boxing, Wrestling, Kabadi (Total: 26.00)

Mandaluyong 20.00

Medan 1.83

Melbourne Aerobics (4.50); Tennis (3.60); Golf (2.40); Basketball (2.40);

Net-ball (2.40); Australian Rules Football (2.10); Swimming
(2.00); Cricket (1.60); Cycling (1.00)

Naga Basketball, Swimming, Chess (Total: 70.00)

Phnom Penh NAV

Seoul NAV

Suva NAV

Ulaanbaatar Wrestling, Horse Racing, Archery, Basketball, Football

(Total: 34.50)

Legend:
NAV – not available

120 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Local Government Finance
12.1 Sources of Revenue
City
12.1 Taxes 12.1.2 User 12.1.3 Other Own 12 .1.4 Transfers 12.1.5 Loans 12.1.6 Other
(%) Charges Source Income (%) (%) Income
(%) (%)

Bangalore 22.5 17.9 0.6 17.3 41.0 0.7

Bishkek 65.3 12.7 7.1 12.7 0.0 2.2

Cebu 41.3 12.0 0.0 40.5 6.0 0.0

Colombo 51.4 8.2 7.9 18.2 5.1 9.2

Dhaka 26.7 0.0 32.8 18.1 3.1 19.3

Hanoi 67.2 17.6 0.4 7.7 0.0 7.1

Hohhot 85.6 9.0 6.2 0.0 0.0 0.3

Hong Kong 53.0 7.0 19.0 21.0 0.0 0.0

Kathmandu 0.0 5.0 1.0 82.0 10.0 2.0

Lahore 50.7 24.9 0.3 0.3 0.8 22.9

Mandaluyong 65.8 5.9 0.9 27.5 0.0 0.0

Medan 18.9 17.8 4.6 40.0 0.0 18.8

Melbourne 54.0 34.0 9.0 3.0 0.0 0.0

Naga 21.8 9.9 2.9 59.2 4.9 0.0

Phnom Penh 11.5 *5.8 0.0 *62.5 0.0 20.6

Seoul 59.7 5.5 2.2 17.3 2.6 12.7

Suva 58.0 32.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 7.0

Ulaanbaatar 64.9 10.3 11.1 0.0 0.0 13.7

Legend:
* – unconfirmed

The CDB Database 121

Local Government Finance
12.2 Capital & Recurrent
Expenditure per Person 12.3 Collection Efficiency, Property Taxes (%) 12.4 Debt 12.6 Wages
Service 12.5 Employees in Budget
City 12.2.1 Capital 12.2.2 Recurrent 12.3.1 Percentage 12.3.2 Costs of Collecting Charge (per ’000 pop.) (%)
Expenditure Expenditure of Liabilities Property Tax as Percentage (%)
($) ($) Actually Collected of Receipts Passed
to Local Gov’t

Bangalore 10.28 25.05 50.2 8 7.43 4.1 34

Bishkek 1.99 32.12 100.0 NAV 0.00 *2.6 11

Cebu 6.00 35.00 70.0 NAV 0.40 8.0 38

Colombo 1.86 7.77 66.5 NAV NAV 13.6 71

Dhaka NAV NAV 75.0 NAV 3.00 *1.6 49

Hanoi 20.30 62.42 90.0 1 0.00 10.1 13

Hohhot 13.30 77.55 NAV NAV 0.00 50.3 16

Hong Kong 1,053.00 3,171.00 NAV NAV 0.00 29.0 18

Kathmandu 3.29 5.77 0.0 0 0.23 3.8 44

Lahore 3.85 10.00 10.0 NAV 0.00 3.3 86

Mandaluyong 6.96 13.83 10.0 15 10.00 11.0 35

Medan 8.00 2.00 NAV NAV 10.00 3.1 44

Melbourne 1,200.00 6,680.00 80.0 3 0.00 21.0 28

Naga 14.53 37.90 109.4 21 5.37 7.5 49

Phnom Penh NAV NAV NAV NAV 0.00 11.0 58

Seoul 216.48 152.55 96.1 NAV 15.90 4.7 15

Suva 0.00 143.46 91.0 NAP NAV 6.3 55

Ulaanbaatar 5.93 46.33 95.8 2 0.00 1.1 33

Legend:
NAV – not available
NAP – not applicable

122 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Local Government Finance
12.7 Contracted 12.10 Computerization of Functions
Recurrent Expenditure 12.8 Business 12.9 Enterprise
City Ratio Permits Revenue
(%) 12.10.1 12.10.2 12.10.3 12.10.4 12.10.5
Land Rates Salaries General Business
Registration Collection Finances Permits

Bangalore NAV 36,331 644,735 no no no no no

Bishkek 5 27,284 NAV yes yes yes yes yes

Cebu 45 128,023 1,907 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Colombo 12 3,500 NAV no yes yes no no

Dhaka NAV 165 NAV no no no no no

Hanoi 0 2,800 4,114 yes yes yes yes yes

Hohhot NAV 2,910 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Hong Kong NAV 29,947 NAV yes yes yes yes yes

Kathmandu 9 15,413 NAV no yes yes yes no

Lahore 15 NAV 206,287 partial yes yes yes no

Mandaluyong 9 11,415 5,060,006 yes no yes no yes

Medan 0 NAV NAV NAV yes yes yes NAV

Melbourne 17 0 3,000,000 yes yes yes yes NAP

Naga 23 4,818 11 no yes yes yes yes

Phnom Penh NAP 938 NAP NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Seoul NAV NAV NAV yes partial yes yes yes

Suva 11 3,792 NAV no yes yes yes yes

Ulaanbaatar 6 26,500 NAV no yes yes yes no

Legend:
NAV – not available
NAP – not applicable
* – unconfirmed

The CDB Database 123

Urban Governance
13.1 Functions of Local Government

City 13.1.1 13.1.2 13.1.3 13.1.4 13.1.5 13.1.6 13.1.7 13.1.8 13.1.9 13.1.10 13.1.11 13.1.12 13.1.13 13.1.14 13.1.15
Water Sewerage Refuse Electricity Telephone Public Emergency Road Education Health Public Recreation/ Police Drainage/ Liveli-
Collection or Mass Main- Care Housing Sports Flood hood
Transport tenance Facilities Control Assistance

Bangalore no no yes no no no no yes partial partial no partial no yes no

Bishkek yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

Cebu NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Colombo yes yes yes yes no no no yes no yes no yes no yes yes

Dhaka no no yes no no no no yes no partial no yes no yes no

Hanoi yes yes yes yes no yes yes yes yes yes no no yes yes yes

Hohhot yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

Hong Kong yes yes yes NAV NAV yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

Kathmandu yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes no yes yes

Lahore yes yes yes NAV NAV NAV NAV yes yes yes NAV yes NAV yes NAV

Mandaluyong yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

Medan yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

Melbourne no no yes no no no no partly yes no no no yes no no no

Naga partly yes NAV yes no no no yes yes partly yes yes yes yes partly yes yes yes

Phnom Penh yes yes yes no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

Seoul yes yes yes no no partial yes yes yes yes yes yes no yes yes

Suva no no yes no no no no yes no yes no yes no yes no

Ulaanbaatar yes yes yes no no yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes

Legend:
NAV – not available

124 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Urban Governance
City 13.1.16 Others (List)

Bangalore Conducting elections to the Council, State Assembly and National Parliament once in five years or as often as necessary for the Election
Commission; Conducting consensus once in ten years for the Consensus Commission; Welfare activities for the citizen, especially downtrodden,
weaker sections; Beautification of the city

Bishkek Protection of the environment and preservation and development of the best historical cultural traditions of the population; All services are
provided for by the municipal government of Bishkek.

Cebu NAP

Colombo Customer oriented training to municipal staff; Strengthening of public complaints handling and producing a service directory.

Dhaka NAP

Hanoi NAV

Hohhot NAV

Hong Kong Public enquiry service; rural planning and improvement strategy; and licensing and building management

Kathmandu Prepare inventory; maintain and repair cultural places and monuments; to promote cultural languages and objects; to arrange for the burial of
unclaimed and deceased; make arrangements for orphans; carry out programs for the welfare of women and children; control pet animals and
slaughterhouses; protect barren and unregistered land; determine and manage crematoriums; promote the natural, cultural and tourist heritage

Lahore Other than Islamic jurisprudence, the laws of Islamic origin currently in force are those pertaining to social welfare/poverty reduction, and are
known as “Zakat and Ushr”.

Mandaluyong Promote technical education training thru Manpower Youth Development Center; create linkages with various industries for securing employment/
jobs for graduates; motivate graduates to become entrepreneurial to enhance social and economic growth of local economy

Medan NAP

Melbourne NAP

Naga NAP

Phnom Penh NAP

Seoul NAV

Suva NAP

Ulaanbaatar NAP

Legend:
NAP – not applicable
NAV – not available

The CDB Database 125

Urban Governance
13.3 Voter
Participation 13.4 Independence from
13.2 Rate by Sex Higher Government 13.5 Elected and Nominated Councilors
Delivery
City of 13.3.1 13.3.2 13.4.1 13.4.2 13.4.3 13.4.4 13.4.5 13.5.1 Female 13.5.2 Male
Annual Proportion Proportion Closing Setting Setting Borrowing Choosing
Plan of Adult of Adult Down Local Taxes User Funds Contractors Elected Nominated Elected Nominated
(%) Males Females Council Level Charges for
(%) (%) or Removing for Local Projects
Councilors Services
from Office

Bangalore NAV NAV NAV no no no no yes 36 NAV 69 NAV

Bishkek NAV 42 58 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 6 41 30 135

Cebu 96 83 85 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 2 NAV 16 NAV

Colombo NAV NAV NAV no yes yes yes yes 1 NAV 52 NAV

Dhaka NAV NAV NAV no no no no yes 18 NAV 90 NAV

Hanoi 70 100 100 no no yes yes no 0 NAV 11 NAV

Hohhot 86 100 100 NAV yes yes yes yes 27 NAV 73 NAV

Hong Kong 96 53 54 no yes yes yes yes 4 6 16 34

Kathmandu 34 NAV NAV yes yes yes yes yes 6 37 18 160

Lahore 80 14 12 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 26 NAV 275 NAV

Mandaluyong 82 82 82 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 0 1 12 1

Medan NAV 48 52 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 3 NAV 42 NAV

Melbourne 100 100 100 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 14 2 29 7

Naga 100 48 52 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 3 NAV 9 NAV

Phnom Penh 55 NAP NAP no no no no no 0 0 0 0

Seoul 97 NAV NAV no partial yes yes yes 11 NAV 93 NAV

Suva 78 70 NAV no yes yes no yes 2 NAV 18 NAV

with with min. but very
constraints approval limited

Ulaanbaatar 95 62 62 no no yes NAV yes 2 NAV 38 NAV

Legend:
NAP – not applicable
NAV – not available

126 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Urban Governance
13.6 Representation 13.7 Planning 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11 Reported Crimes
City of Minorities Applications Business Consumer Perception As
(List) Refused Satisfaction Satisfaction Place to Live Per ’000 Pop. 13.11.1 13.11.2 Drug 13.11.3
(%) (Description) (Description) (Description) Murder Related Theft
See Notes and Sources for each city Crime

Bangalore 0.00 NAV 3.20 0.04 0.00 0.70

Bishkek NAV 8 15.50 0.17 1.88 7.34

Cebu NAV NAV 3.00 0.10 0.30 0.20

Colombo 23.00 33 NAV 0.08 22.60 0.62

Dhaka 0.00 0 2.40 0.06 0.09 4.65

Hanoi 0.00 0 3.20 0.01 0.42 3.40

Hohhot NAV 0 4.80 0.06 0.08 4.65

Hong Kong NAV 17 10.76 0.10 0.42 3.40

Kathmandu 0.00 0 0.32 0.02 1.52 0.94

Lahore 11.00 10 NAV 0.10 0.69 1.31

Mandaluyong 0.00 1 2.48 0.02 1.52 0.94

Medan NAV NAV NAV 0.03 0.23 0.55

Melbourne 0.00 3 449.00 0.08 23.50 274.00

Naga 0.00 3 NAV 0.04 0.15 0.36

Phnom Penh NAV 18 NAP NAP NAP NAP

Seoul NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Suva 0.00 21 71.00 0.04 1.18 15.86

Ulaanbaatar 0.00 47 15.70 0.10 0.00 7.10

Legend:
NAP – not applicable
NAV – not available

The CDB Database 127

Urban Governance
13.14 Decentralized
13.12 Access to Information 13.13 Contact with the Public District Units

13.12.1 13.12.2 13.12.3 13.12.4 13.13.1 13.13.2 Breakdown of Meetings 13.14.1 13.14.2
City Annual Report/ City Economic Social Annual No. of Public Held by Mayor or CEO with Business, No. of Local No. of
Budget Strategy/ Strategy Strategy Local Gov’t Meetings Public, Officials (ave. per week) Gov’t Units Decen-
Vision Within tralized
Number Attendance Public Business Officials & Others Metropolis Units in
Councilors Area Local Gov’t

Bangalore yes no no no 38 1 NAV NAV NAV NAV 8 3

Bishkek NAV yes yes yes 37 40,000 1 1 4 2 4 20

Cebu NAV NAV NAV NAV 120 20,000 2 2 7 14 10 80

Colombo yes yes yes yes 192 NAV 1 1 1 2 47 6

Dhaka Difficult NAP Difficult Difficult NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 8 90

Hanoi yes yes yes yes NAV NAV 0 0 0 0 12 212

Hohhot yes yes yes yes 57 NAP 17 15 8 17 NAP 2

Hong Kong yes yes yes yes NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 1 18

Kathmandu yes NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 2 1 2 1 1 35

Lahore yes NAV yes yes 24 20,000 1000 50 60 NAV 8 8

Mandaluyong yes yes yes yes 365 840,000 200 50 42 50 0 27

Medan NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV

Melbourne yes yes NAP NAP 72 NAP 9 5 4 2 38 0

Naga yes yes yes yes NAV 32,448 10 5 2 8 16 NAP

Phnom Penh NAV NAV NAV NAV 100 more than 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-2 NAV 7 districts/
6,000 76 communes

Seoul yes yes yes yes NAV 14 NAV NAV NAV NAV NAV 25

Suva yes yes NAV no 12 20 NAV NAV NAV NAV 1 4 wards

Ulaanbaatar no no no no 2 500 2 2 2 4 9 0

Legend:
NAP – not applicable
NAV – not available

128 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

CHAPTER 5:

COMPARING THE
CITIES DATA BASE
Terry McGee

volved in the urban shift in the region is It is estimated that of

I. THE CONTEXT OF THE CITIES much larger than any other region of the
DATA BOOK world and is occurring at a rate unparalleled the 1.7 billion increase
The Response to the Region’s in human history. It is estimated that of the
Urban Growth 1.7 billion increase in urban population be- in urban population

T
tween 2000 and 2025, some 70 percent will
he Cities Data Book differs from occur in Asia. National and municipal gov- between 2000 and
most national databases. First, the ernments will be faced with massive chal-
CDB informs about cities’ charac- lenges in managing urban transition. 2025, some 70 percent
teristics that can be used to mea- While these scenarios are defined at a
sure city-level performance and regional level, individual countries will expe- will occur in Asia.
programs that can improve the quality of life rience different urbanization patterns. In 2000,
in cities. For example, information on the 80 percent of Asia’s population was located in National and municipal
quantity and quality of types of household the six population giants that exceed 100 mil-
access to water can be used to develop a lion in size (Bangaladesh, People’s Republic governments will be
policy response. Second, the range of data of China, Indonesia, Japan, and Pakistan ) and
collected is extraordinarily comprehensive, this number will increase with the addition of faced with massive
diverse, and complex, which in turn created Philippines and Viet Nam before 2020. For the
many challenges for data analysis. Third, the majority of other countries in Asia, such a tyr- challenges in managing
urban indicators collected have, in part, been anny of numbers will not be such an impor-
selected to reflect ADB’s policy requirements tant factor in urban transition. However, urban transition.
as identified in the Urban Sector Strategy throughout the urban systems of the region
Report (July 1999). These policy priorities there will still be the same need for strategic
are reducing urban poverty, promoting ur- priorities in managing urbanization that will
ban governance, mobilizing financial re- involve marshalling national, local, public and
sources, strengthening urban management, private actions in developing financial, mana-
and promoting sustainability. gerial, and governance capacity, with the ulti-
Since virtually all urban places in devel- mate goal of developing livable cities.
oping countries share similar challenges of
governance, managing growth or decline, Cross-Boundary Urban Growth Issues
reacting to spatial restructuring, reducing
poverty, and providing services to city resi- This general description of the urban transi-
dents, it may be argued there is nothing dis- tion does not reflect that virtually all urban
tinctive about urban conditions in Asian cit- places in the urban systems in Asia are ex-
ies as they face up to the urban challenge. panding beyond their existing boundaries
However, following on from Chapter 1, and that urban growth has accelerated since
the sheer number of people that will be in- 1970. Nine of the 18 cities in the CDB form

Comparing the Cities Data Base 129

The late involvement of part of rapidly growing urban agglomerations regions (EMRs) (Ginsburg, Koppell, and
listed in the 1995 UN Population Division McGee 1991) or mega-urban regions (McGee
much of the developed estimates. Table 5.1 shows this data; many of and Robinson 1995).
the CDB cities will form part of rapidly grow- The emergence of these cross-boundary
world in the urban ing agglomerations over the next 15 years as urban forms was first identified in Jean
their populations increase by more than 50 Gottman’s study of the emergence of mega-
transition process is percent. It must be stressed that the cities in lopolis, referring to the belt of urban settle-
this CDB were not chosen to be representa- ments stretching from Boston to Washington
occurring as a new tive of the Asian and Pacific region, but rather in the Northeast United States. He attributed
to give a cross-section of the types of cities these to the underlying technological, socio-
global order is that are emerging. An important selection logical, and economic imperatives of urban
factor were cities with which ADB had some sprawl represented by the image of cars, free-
emerging, reliant upon association, either through lending or tech- ways, suburbanization, shopping malls, and
nical assistance operations. office and factory decentralization from the
the speeding-up of The late involvement of much of the de- urban core (Gottman 1961). Even 40 years ago,
veloped world in the urban transition pro- Gottman identified the basic components of
flows of people, cess is occurring as a new global order is EMRs that are currently operating in develop-
emerging, reliant upon the speeding-up of ing countries in Asia. These include the
commodities, capital, flows of people, commodities, capital, and reconfiguring of urban space by outward ex-
information through time and space. This pansion from the city core. This can occur by
and information urbanization differs from the first urban tran-
creating corridors along main arterial
sition of developed countries (Castells 1996). highways;
through time and These more recent processes appear to be
building new satellite towns that form a
leading to megacities, concentrations in the poly-nucleated pattern of urban nodes
space. largest urban places of more than ten mil- outside the urban core; or
lion inhabitants. And these megacities are
developing new activities (suburbs, in-
merely the tips of spatial icebergs of a larger dustrial estates) haphazardly in urban
agglomeration of functionally related urban peripheries. Depending upon the pace
settlements labelled extended metropolitan of economic development, these spatial
processes are often associated with re-
Table 5.1. CDB Cities Forming Part of UN-Defined developing urban core areas and the re-
Agglomerations (population size in millions) structuring of economic activities, which
City Agglomeration Estimated
involve changes to higher order service
Agglomeration activities.
1998 2000 2015 Another way of looking at the issue is to
Bangalore 4.3 5.5 7.9
perceive the morphology of most of these
Dhaka 6.5 12.3 21.1 agglomerations as including three main sub-
Phnom Penh 1.0 1.0 1.8 regions that form part of the EMRs. First is a
Hanoi 2.5 3.7 5.1 city core, clearly illustrated by Melbourne and
Hong Kong 6.5 6.9 7.6 Mandaluyong, in which the built environ-
Lahore 4.5 6.0 9.9
ment is older and experiencing rapid
Mandaluyong 0.8 10.8 14.8
Medan 2.0 1.8 2.6 change. The city cores of Cebu, Colombo,
Melbourne 0.5 3.1 3.4 Dhaka, Hanoi, Kathmandu, Lahore, Medan,
Seoul 10.3 9.8 9.9 and Phnom Penh are also older, but the pace
of change is much slower and there is still a
Notes: City size is taken from city estimates (CDB). Agglomera-
tion figures are for cities with 750,000 inhabitants or more in growing population. This means that the
1995. (Source: UN Population Division, Department of Eco- central core is experiencing increased den-
nomic and Social Affairs 2000; World Urbanization Prospects:
1999 Revision, Data Tables and Highlights). Of the remaining
sity, pressure on services, and environmen-
cities in the CDB, Colombo and Hohhot could be legitimately tal deterioration. In the Central Asian cities,
included but neither are listed in the UN database.
the older city cores have been mostly re-
placed by Soviet-style built environments

130 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

which are also deteriorating. Second, sur- Dhaka, and Phnom Penh, where the volume It is important to
rounding the urban core are areas that could of in-migration significantly contributes to
be described as suburban as many inhabit- city growth. The explanation for this high position each urban
ants commute to the city core to work. This rate of population growth in Melbourne is
spatial patterning, as reflected in the data for different from the other fast-growing Asian unit of analysis within
day and night populations, is most marked cities. Melbourne City is the core of a metro-
in the cities of Melbourne and Mandaluyong politan area of 3.3 million people, among the context of the
with 700 percent and 208 percent increases, whom the younger population is moving
respectively, in their day populations. This from the outer suburbs to pursue work and broader processes of
keeps employment in the cities’ cores. The education in the city core. This is reflected
pattern is less marked for the remainder of in a high household formation rate largely urbanization.
the cities, but the majority see their daily composed of single households. Melbourne
populations grow by an average of 25 per- is the main financial and service core of the
cent during the day. Exceptions are Hanoi, region and it has a daytime population of
Hong Kong, and Ulaanbaatar, which show 400,000 who commute to the city to work
little or no movement from outside their from surrounding urban areas. This example
boundaries. Seoul exhibits a trend of out- demonstrates the importance of analyzing
ward commuting that can be attributed to its each city individually for history, administra-
successful programs of employment creation tion, culture, and socio-economic conditions.
in adjacent new towns (Won Be Kim 1999). Finally, it is important to stress that the
Third, there are zones that may be de- very large size of the cities database analyzed
scribed as peri-urban, since they still fall poses considerable problems for comparative
within the agglomeration boundaries but data analysis. While some of these variables
exhibit a mixture of agriculture, new towns, have been discarded because of incomplete
industrial estates, and residential areas con- responses and misunderstanding of the data
sisting of both formal and informal housing. needed by the data suppliers, some 122 vari-
These areas are not included in the cities ables and ratios are still capable of being used.
database although in many cases they are the Selecting variables for the most useful com-
locations of the most rapid population parative policy perspective is not always easy.
growth and some of the most intractable
problems of conflicting land use, environ-
mental problems, and infrastructure provi- II. DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK
sion. These problems are exacerbated by the
FOR ANALYSIS
many problems related to governance. Given the very real challenges that the CDB
An understanding of these various pro- presents for comparative analysis, it is impor-
cesses and their social, economic, and spa- tant to emphasize the practical policy-orien-
tial consequences provides the basic frame- tated goals that are the purpose of the
work for the comparative analysis of the CDB project. All indicators should be concerned
urban indicators. It is important to position with the main strategic objectives as in ADB’s
each urban unit of analysis within the con- Urban Sector Strategy (see Appendix 5). To
text of the broader processes of urbanization. recall, the overall objective is sustainable
For example, Melbourne City is one of the urban development, supported by opera-
cities included in the CDB that provide a set tional objectives related to reducing urban
of benchmarks for the other 17 cities in- poverty, promoting economic growth, qual-
cluded in the database. The city’s estimated ity of life, and good governance, and pro-
population in 1999 was only 44,500, making tecting the environment.
it the smallest city of all the 18 cities. Yet it Where possible, indexes will be used to
has one of the fastest growing urban popu- indicate city performance. The comparative
lations at more than 5.8 percent per year, analysis therefore needs to reflect the strate-
which is higher than some of the rates in the gic domains that ADB has identified for policy
poorest cities in the CDB, such as Bangalore, initiatives and response. The analysis that

Comparing the Cities Data Base 131

By strengthening the follows collapses these indicators into two to identify strategic priorities within ur-
groups: ban sectors and between cities; and
city database,
the city comparison indicators should be
Context Variables chosen to be as representative as possible
policymakers are to meet the objectives defined above. The
These variables deal with positioning the ur- following groups of indicators were iden-
provided with a firmer ban unit in the national unit of which it is tified to be
part. Typical data at the national level would
city context data: demographic—
basis for their policy- be national population, rate of national popu- size and growth;
lation increase, national level of urbanization,
city context data: demographic—vital
making decisions. human development index (HDI) rank, and statistics;
gross national product (GNP) per capita of
city economy/productivity—city prod-

country collected for the year closest to 1998. uct, gross domestic product, etc.;
City data would include city size, city den-
city economy employment/competi-
sity, city rate of population increase, city de- tion—percentage in services sector, con-
velopment index, city product per capita, and nectivity, etc;
city gross domestic product (GDP) per capita.
poverty—poverty levels, households
Simple ratios could be developed for the below poverty line, household percent-
ratio of city and national population increase, age expenditure on food;
ranking of cities in national urban hierarchy,
social—infrastructure, persons per hos-

and ratio of city GDP to national GDP. pital bed, floor area, school children per
classroom at secondary level;
City Comparison Indicators
sustainability—mode of transport, au-

tomobile ownership, connections for wa-

The assumptions underlying choice of city ter, electricity, etc.; and
comparison indicators are
governance—taxes versus wages in bud-

the indicators have a minimum of 80 get, user charges versus transfers.

percent coverage for all cities in the da- By strengthening the city database,
tabase. For some important variables, policymakers are provided with a firmer ba-
such as women-headed households, this sis for their policy-making decisions. These
data was retained despite falling below databases are likewise intended to help them
the 80 percent average requirement; recognize priorities for policy development

the indicators be clearly understood by and assist them by comparing their own city
data suppliers so that there is a common with others.
basis for comparison. For example, the
data on modes of travel was 100 percent Comparing Cities: Methods of Analysis
supplied while that on property tax col-
lection costs had weak coverage. The lat- Under the assumptions above, four types of data
ter was discarded; analysis to compare the 18 cities are suggested.

the indicators can be inferred to be rep-
resentative of the condition they are mea- Indexes
suring. The indicators used are based on Several key indicators were correlated with
the assumption that more productive, other indicators to establish the key indexes
well serviced, environment friendly, and as follows:
livable cities are emerging in the devel-
The City Development Index (CDI) clearly
oped countries. In the CDB, Melbourne indicates city performance (see Figure
and Hong Kong may be taken as the 5.1). The higher the CDI the stronger
benchmarks against which the perfor- the relationship to increasing household
mance of other cities can be measured. income, increasing city product, and in-
It should be stressed that this assump- creasing infrastructure provision and lo-
tion is certainly valid if the major goal is cal government performance, as mea-

132 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 sured by local government capital expen-
ditures. The CDI strongly correlates with Melbourne
Hong Kong
all forms of international activity, includ- Seoul
Mandaluyong
ing exports, air travel, tourism, interna- Bishkek
tional communications including the Naga
Hohhot
Internet, international headquarters, and Suva
Cebu
prime floor space costs. Hanoi

City product is also a strong indicator of Kathmandu
Ulaanbaatar
city performance showing a strong rela- Lahore
tionship with household income, infra- Bangalore
Colombo
structure and governance measures. Medan
Dhaka

Population indicators such as household Phnom Penh
size show that the cities with a higher 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
household size are strongly correlated Percent
with lower levels of city economic per-
Figure 5.1. Cities Ranked by CDI
formance (see Figure 5.2).

Population size of cities is only weakly
related to household income and city Capital expenditure
1,400
performance.
y = 22.199x - 1417.5

The local government capital expendi- 1,200
r2 = 0.595
Melbourne

Hong Kong
tures are strongly related to economic 1,000

performance and infrastructure provision. 800

This exercise suggests it is possible to 600

show certain indicators such as the CDI, 400

household size, and local government capi- 200 Ulaanbaatar

Lahore Kathmandu
Seoul
Bangalore Hanoi Hohhot Bishkek Mandaluyong
tal expenditures are key indicators in iden- 0
Colombo
Medan Cebu
Naga

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
tifying city performance. There is need to CDI (Percent)
investigate and refine this process further.
Figure 5.2. CDI vs. Local Government Capital Expenditures
Urban Indicators
A second method of comparing cities involves Average Household Size
comparing individual urban indicators. For 8
y = 22.199x + 1417.5 Colombo
example, while there is a general tendency 7
r2 = 0.562
Lahore
Medan
6 Phnom Penn
for the household size to decrease in rela- Dhaka
Kathmandu Suva
Naga
Bangalore
5
tionship to the increase in the CDI, there Ulaanbaatar
Cebu

Hanoi
Mandaluyong
4
are also exceptions to this generalization Hohhot Hong Kong

3 Seoul
(see Figure 5.3). Colombo, Lahore, Suva, Bishkek
2
Naga, and Mandaluyong have larger house- Melbourne
1
hold sizes than their position in the CDI 0
0
ranking. In seeking to develop urban man- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
CDI (Percent)
agement policies in health provision, it
Figure 5.3. CDI vs. Household Size
would be important to consider the cultural
explanations of this indicator. Another ex-
ample might be given in the floor area per ing would be very large. Investments in alter-
person which shows that all cities in the native and more profitable commercial land
database with the exception of Melbourne uses in the city core would almost certainly
(55 square meters) have below 20 square accelerate the outward spread of these cities.
meters per person (see Figure 5.4). If the de- That eight of the CDB cities are already
veloping cities were to follow similar hous- located in larger urban agglomerations than
ing preferences as Melbourne as they develop, Melbourne raises important questions on the
then the space needed for residential hous- likely demand for land for residential

Comparing the Cities Data Base 133


Medium-ranked cities include Manda-
m2
60 luyong, Suva, Cebu, and Naga. This
y = 0.4467x + 18.352
Melbourne
group is characterized by cities that ap-
50
R2 = 0.358
pear quite diverse but are all in the
40
middle range of the CDI ranking, and are
30 in market economies with less connec-
20 Bishkek
Seoul
tivity, and medium levels of service deliv-
Lahore

Phnom Penh Bangalore Kathmandu

Cebu Hohhot Mandaluyong
ery. Within this grouping, Mandaluyong
10 Medan Naga
Dhaka Colombo
Ulaanbaatar
Hanoi
Hong Kong
and Naga may be regarded as the cities
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 that are closest to the high-ranked city
CDI (Percent) group, although in both cases this situa-
tion is explained in part by their loca-
Figure 5.4. CDI vs. Floor Area per Person
tion in the core of a wider urban agglom-
eration. Naga is a small regional town.
expansion and how this can be embedded
Transitional cities include Bishkek,
in an overall land-use strategy for large urban Hanoi, Ulaanbaatar, and Hohhot. These
regions. And while these questions have to are characterized by being in societies
be related to a wide range of other indica- that have recently experienced various
tors to guide strategic thinking concerning forms of socialism and planned economy.
individual city housing policy planning, even They are labeled transitional to indicate
in this simple form they provide valuable they are to varying degrees attempting
comparative input for policy purposes. to develop a more mixed economy with
some degree of privatization of economic
City Clusters activities and, in some cases, individual
Following the first set of analyses, a second use of land under various long-term
set of comparative analyses has been carried leases. This historical experience of so-
out by dividing the cities into four main cialism has left these cities with higher
socio-economic groupings. This form of levels of service provision, but their eco-
analysis is useful in nomic structure is becoming increasingly

providing insights that do not emerge in dualistic as the process of opening their
the individual comparison of cities used economies to global forces continues.
in the preceding form of analysis; and These cities present a distinctive set of stra-

identifying major policy needs within tegic policy needs if they are to reach the
groups of cities. performance levels of high-ranked cities.
For example, the prime requirement of
Low-ranked cities include Bangalore,
those cities in transition to a market economy Colombo, Dhaka, Kathmandu, Lahore,
may be to develop systems of revenue gen- Medan, and Phnom Penh. This group
eration that can help improve the city land represents the poorest cities in the CDB.
management system. Poor cities need to in- They have the lowest CDI, greater
crease their productivity and introduce poli- proportions of people living in poverty,
cies of poverty reduction. Four main socio- the largest share of employment in the
economic groupings of cities are identified: informal sector, weakest provision of

High-ranked cities include Melbourne, services, and generally weaker systems
Hong Kong, and Seoul. This group is of urban management.
clearly distinguished from the other cit-
ies because it has the highest city prod- City Holograms
uct, the first three rankings in the CDI,
the highest connectivity, the highest level Comparing a particular sector such as urban
of service, and a high level of transpar- management or the prevalence of poverty in
ency in governance. two or more cities allows comparisons that

134 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

may prove valuable in identifying common
sets of policy needs between groups of simi- Table 5.2. Hologram Indicators

lar cities. However, since policies have to be

NATIONAL CONTEXT VARIABLE
developed for individual cities, it is impor- 1. Urbanization level
tant to compare them as indicators profiles 2. HDI rank
to achieve these goals. Cities are complex 3. GNP per capita
institutions where administrators are faced 4. National population size
with immense difficulties in trying to iden- CITY CONTEXT INDICATORS
tify pressure points for policy intervention. 1. CDI
One approach is to carry out a form of clus- 2. Density
ter analysis that ranks a set of data for an in- SECTOR A. DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS A
dividual city in a diagrammatic form called a 1. City size
hologram. 2. Annual rate of population increase
3. Annual household formation rate (percent)
In using the cities database, four national
context variables were selected for each of SECTOR B. DEMOGRAPHIC INDICATORS B
the cities: urbanization level of the country, 4. Life expectancy at birth
5. Proportion of total population 0-14 years of age
HDI rank, GNP per capita (1999), and na-
6. Child mortality (the probability that a child will die before five years as a
tional population size. There were two city percentage)
context indicators: CDI and density. In addi-
SECTOR C. ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS AND PRODUCTIVITY
tion, 31 indicators were divided into sectors
7. City product per capita (1998 $)
relevant to ADB’s urban sector policies (see 8. City product (PPP adjusted) per capita ($)
Table 5.2). 9. GDP per capita 1997 (same as Indicator 8)
The assumptions underlying the selec-
SECTOR D. ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS—EMPLOYMENT/COMPETITION
tion of these indicators are as follows: 10. Informal population (percent of total city population)

Sector A: Demographic Indicators A 11. Secondary employment (percent of employed population)
Demography includes the population 12. Services employment (total of consumer, producer, social)
size of the city, rate of population in- 13. Cost of business stay (overnight in $)
14. No. of international flights per month
crease, and rate of household formation.
15. Cost of commercial land ($ per square meter)
Smaller city size and lower rates of popu-
lation increase and household formation SECTOR E. POVERTY
16. Percent of households below poverty line
place less pressure upon city govern-
17. Percent of households below poverty line ($1 a day; same as
ments. In developed countries, the de- Indicator 16)
cline of city populations, if not associated 18. Percent of total work force unemployed
with an increase in the nonresidential 19. Percent of household expenditure on food
tax base, causes severe problems for city SECTOR F. SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE
governments. It is also true that declin- 20. School children per classroom (primary)
ing populations often leave the most de- 21. Persons (city population) per hospital bed
pendent populations (the aged, the 22. Percent of housing in compliance with local government regulations
23. Floor area per person (square meters)
poor) dominant.

Sector B: Demographic Indicators B SECTOR G. SUSTAINABILITY, PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE, AND GOVERNANCE
City demographic vital statistics include 24. Water household connections
25. Electricity household connections
life expectancy at birth, percent of popu-
26. Sewerage household connections
lation below 15 years of age, and child 27. Automobiles per 1,000 population
mortality. It is assumed that a lower life 28. Local government employees per 1,000 population
expectancy at birth, higher rates of in- 29. Local government wages as percentage of recurring budget
fant mortality, and a larger proportion 30. Source of local government revenue (proportion from taxes)
of people under the age of 15 indicate 31. Source of local government revenue (proportion from transfers)

that the city lacks the social infrastruc-

ture, income, and livability that would
lower these indicators of the city’s

Comparing the Cities Data Base 135

The advantage of the health. That is, the city is not providing given in urban strategy to creating liveli-
an environment which can sustain the hoods and reducing poverty.
hologram is simply that city population.
Sector F: Social Infrastructure

Sector C: Economic Characteristics and Social infrastructure includes primary
it enables visual Productivity school children per classroom, persons
Economic productivity includes city per hospital bed, proportion of housing
assessment of the product per capita, city product (PPP- in compliance, and floor area per per-
adjusted) per capita in Table 5.2, and city son in square meters. It is assumed that
various performance GDP per capita. It is assumed that cities higher ratios of school children per room,
with higher incomes measured in a vari- persons per hospital bed, and low floor
indexes for a particular ety of ways can provide livelihoods and areas per person, are evidence of poor
economic well-being for their popula- provision of social infrastructure and
city to be quickly tions. It is also recognized that incomes crowding. The proportion of housing in
are not equally distributed between vari- compliance with city regulations gives a
ascertained. ous income groups who live in the city, good indication of the system of hous-
but this issue of income distribution is ing provision and provides a tax base for
difficult to relate clearly to the level of city administrations.
city development. For example, there is
Sector G: Sustainability, Physical Infra-
now much evidence in the context of structure, and Governance
some of the most seriously impacted cit- Urban sustainability and governance in-
ies in the recent financial crisis (Bangkok, dicators include the percent of house-
Jakarta and Seoul) that income inequal- holds connected to water, percent of
ity has increased (McGee and Scott 2000). households connected to electricity,
At the same time, social safety net percent of households connected to sew-
projects have created employment that erage, ratio of automobiles per popula-
has been used to improve the environ- tion, local government employees per
mental condition of these cities. 1,000 population, percent of wages in

Sector D: Economic Characteristics— recurrent budget, percent of local gov-
Employment/Competition ernment revenues contributed by taxes,
Employment and competition includes and percent of local government revenue
percent as informal population, percent contributed by transfers.
in secondary employment, percent in ser- Within each of these sectors, the indexes
vices, cost of overnight stay, number of have been ranked on a scale from 1 to 4 and
international flights a month, and cost then presented as a hologram. The ranking
per square meter of prime commercial and methodology are presented in Appen-
land. It is assumed that cities with more dix 6. The advantage of the hologram is sim-
people in the services sector, attracting ply that it enables visual assessment of the
investment, and having good global con- various performance indexes for a particular
nectivity suggest developed cities. It is city to be quickly ascertained. It should be
also assumed that higher prices of com- stressed that the aim is to illustrate the pro-
mercial land reflect economic attractive- cess of creating livable cities as involving a
ness of the city. series of activities that do not always operate

Sector E: Poverty together. The process of creating livable, ef-
Poverty includes poverty level estimated fective, and sustainable cities is multifaceted.
by the city, percent of households below The result presents a cross-sectoral view of
one dollar a day, percent unemployed, these processes at a particular time, which
and percent of household expenditure can be seen more as assemblages in which
on food. These are standard measures of different sectors interact, contradict, and fa-
poverty except for unemployment. It is cilitate the overall programs. The city can be
assumed that the greater the levels of seen in all its complexity in a simple and clear
poverty, the more priority will have to be manner.

136 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

III. DATA COMPARISONS that the CBD accounts for the higher costs The problems of defining
of living in cities. The exceptions are the tran-
The existence of such a large database pro- sitional cities of Bishkek, Hanoi, Hohhot, and urban poverty should be
vides opportunity to select a particular group Ulaanbaatar where there have been significant
of indicators for analysis in a particular policy levels of subsidy in infrastructure and services. carefully analyzed.
response. City administrators wishing to use Kathmandu is the only city where the poverty
the CDB may consider the following examples. line falls below the standard estimate. Recent applied policy
This approach is illustrated by a scattergram
Comparing Urban Indicators: The of the relationships between the CDI and the research on measuring
Example of Poverty Indicators proportion of households below the poverty
line as estimated by the CDB (see Figure 5.5). urban poverty argues
One of the main goals of ADB’s urban pro- The approach also shows a generally
grams is to reduce urban poverty. This clear relationship between the CDI and that most estimates of
example of city indicators comparison uses poverty level. Hong Kong and Seoul which
urban indicators that measure dimensions of are ranked 2 and 3 on the CDI index have urban poverty level are
poverty in these cities including the lowest proportions of people living in

percent of households below the poverty poverty. Dhaka, ranked 16 on the CDI, has too low because they are
line; the highest proportion of households living

percent of households below the poverty in poverty. Hanoi and Colombo appear to based on income-based
line—$1 day; have lower proportions living in poverty

percent of women-headed households in than the CDI index would suggest, but the poverty lines and pay
poverty; majority of cities cluster in the middle part

percent of household expenditure on food; of the scattergram, indicating a good little attention to the

city density (persons per hectare); relationship with the CDI.

floor area per person in square meters; A second example is presented using the nonfood based expendi-

expenditure on poverty reduction per same vertical axis of the CDI and the
poor person; horizontal axis of the $1 a day indicator (see tures incurred by

percent of city population who walk; and Figure 5.6).

measures, such as education and health This exhibits a rather different pattern households living in
built into the CDI index. with three clusters of cities. Melbourne,
The problems of defining urban poverty Seoul, and Hong Kong, with higher CDIs, urban areas
should be carefully analyzed. Recent applied and the lowest CDI city, Phnom Penh, remain
policy research on measuring urban poverty the same, but there is reordering of the
argues that most estimates of urban poverty smaller cities like Suva with lower propor-
level are too low because they are based on tions of households in poverty. The cluster
income-based poverty lines and pay little at- of middle-ranked cities remains very much
tention to the nonfood based expenditures the same. Generally this analysis supports the
incurred by households living in urban areas
(A. Jonsson and D. Satterthwaite 2000). Households Below Poverty Line
(Percent)
In the present cities database, measur-
60
ing poverty rests primarily on income data y = -0.406x + 50.991
50
and therefore is presumably subject to the r2 = 0.131 Hanoi
Dhaka

same kind of measurement problems. Sev- 40

Bangalore
Kathmandu
Ulaanbaatar Cebu
eral measures are helpful for comparing the 30 Medan Lahore Naga
Mandaluyong

poverty situation in the four main groupings 20

Phnom Penn
Seoul
of cities. For example, while the estimates are Colombo

10
lacking data for Melbourne, there is a more Hanoi Suva
Bishkek

accurate reflection of the poverty level than 0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
the standard $1 a day measurements. In most CDI (Percent))

cases, poverty lines in the cities analyzed are

higher than the annual $352, which suggests Figure 5.5. CDI vs. Households Below Poverty Line

Comparing the Cities Data Base 137

 Households Below Poverty Line
be explained by boundary readjustments (see
($1 a Day)
McGee 2000).
100
90 y= -1.01x + 89.009 City size is not a good indicator of dif-
80 r2= 0.387 Phnom Penn
ferences between city clusters, because of the
70
60 Hanoi
lack of uniformity in city definition for com-
50
Medan
parison (see Figure 5.9).
40
Women-headed households are higher
Colombo

30 Bangalore
20 Dhaka Ulaanbaatar
Lahore Hohhot
in transitional societies (see Figure 5.10), but
Bishkek
10 Kathmandu
Cebu
Suva
Naga Hong Kong
Seoul the figures are affected by the cities of Hanoi
0 Mandaluyong Melbourne
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 and Phnom Penh, where the sex ratios are
CDI (Percent))
very unevenly balanced in favor of women
Figure 5.6. CDI vs. $1 a Day (reflecting the deaths of males in war).

view that poverty is more extensive in the Demographic Indicators B

lower CDI ranked cities. Life expectancy at birth is relatively undiffer-
entiated between the city clusters, which in-
Comparing City Clusters dicates that health improvements (reduction

Cities tend to cluster together in reflecting

common historical experience, their position Percent
on the development trajectory, and the se- 100
Melbourne
verity of problems they face in city manage- Bishkek
Mandaluyong
Naga
Hong Kong
Seoul
Kathmandu Hohhot
ment. To test this assertion, a set of bar graphs 80 Lahore Hanoi
Suva
Cebu
Bangalore Ulaanbaatar
has been produced that compare the four city Colombo
Medan
clusters’ performance in a number of vari- 60 Dhaka
ables that are almost identical to the variables
used in the hologram analysis in the next 40
section. The initial diagram shows the rela-
tive position between the city clusters in the
20
CDI. The clustering of cities is shown in Fig-
ure 5.7.
0
This indicates the CDI fits well with the Low Transition Medium High
city clusters chosen according to the outlined
criteria. Sample bar graphs are presented for Figure 5.7. Clustering Analysis of CDI
most of these variables.
Percent
Demographic Indicators A: City Size, 5

Annual Rate of Population Increase, and

Annual Household Formation Rate 4
Rates of city increase are greatest in the low-
ranked city cluster (5 percent per year) and 3
least in the medium cities (2 percent), which
is surprising since it is below the rate of na- 2
tional population increase in these countries
(see Figure 5.8). Wealthy cities are higher (2.3
1
percent) because of the high rate of increase
in Melbourne. Transitional cities are increas-
0
ing at 3.3 percent per annum. The Hanoi Low Transition Medium High
data show this to be 1 percent less than the
census figures, although this variation may Figure 5.8. Rate of Population Increase

138 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Population ( ’000) frequent in poor and medium-income cities
6,000 (see Figure 5.13). The lower figures in transi-
tional cities can be explained by the role of
5,000 subsidies, for example, low household rents.

4,000 Economic Characteristics—Employment

and Competition B
3,000
Informal employment is high in poorer cities
(see Figure 5.14). In contrast, there is an
insignificant number of informal jobs in
2,000
highly developed cities, partly due to their
strict regulations against informal
1,000
employment.

0
Low Transition Medium High
Years
80
Figure 5.9. City Size

Percent 75
5

70
4

65
3

60
2

55
1 Low Transition Medium High

Figure 5.11. Life Expectancy at Birth

0
Low Transition Medium High

Figure 5.10. Women–Headed Households

$’000
30
in child mortality rates) are evening out
differences between city clusters (see
Figure 5.11). This suggests that provision for 25

the aging of city populations will become a

challenge not only in wealthier cities but also 20

in poorer cities.
City product per capita is the most 15
sharply contrasted variable between the
wealthy and other city clusters (see 10
Figure 5.12). It indicates the gains that the
cities in developing countries will have to 5
make to reach the levels of income that will
provide adequate infrastructure and livability.
0
Low Transition Medium High
Economic Characteristics—Productivity A
Households below the poverty line are most Figure 5.12. City Product

Comparing the Cities Data Base 139

 Percent Sustainability—Physical Infrastructure
and Governance
30 The number of Internet hosts per 1,000 popu-
lation is greatest in wealthy cities and lowest
25
in transitional societies (see Figure 5.17).
Medium- and low-income cities are relatively
20
Percent
60
15

50
10

40
5

30
0
Low Transition Medium High
20
Figure 5.13. Households Below Poverty Line
10

Poverty
Food costs constitute the biggest house- 0
Low Transition Medium High
hold expenditure item among the transi-
tional, low, and medium-developed cities, Figure 5.15. Household Expenditure on Food
as against large expenditures on housing
and taxes in highly developed cities (see
Persons (no.)
Figure 5.15).
400

Social Infrastructure
Social infrastructure, for example, hospital 300

beds, is not well developed in poorly devel-

oped cities, suggesting that more investment 200

is needed to improve delivery and access to

services (see Figure 5.16). 100

0
Low Transition Medium High
Percent
50
Figure 5.16. Persons per Hospital Bed

40
little differentiated. The same generalization
30
is true of international flight connections.
Use of automobiles and public transport
for getting to work is highest in wealthy
20
cities (see Figure 5.18). Walking is a major
mode of transportation in poor cities.
10
The budgetary management of cities in
the CDB is made more complicated by
0 budgetary policies at the national and local
Low Transition Medium High
levels in city clusters. Therefore, the
Figure 5.14. Informal Employment medium-ranked cities show a high propor-

140 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Number (per ‘000 population) tion of budgetary revenues coming from
1.0 transfers (see Figure 5.19). This reflects that
three of the four cities are in the Philippines,
0.8 which has enacted a decentralization policy
(1991) that includes transfers of national
0.6
revenues to the local level. The proportion
of wages in the budget appears to be greater
in the low-ranked cluster, except for the tran-
0.4
sitional societies where wages are low and
supported by subsidies for accommodation.
0.2

Comparing City Holograms

0
Low Transition Medium High
The final type of city analysis involves holo-
grams. They provide a cross-sectoral picture
Figure 5.17. Internet Hosts
of each city in its totality. Examples of city
holograms have been chosen to represent a
Number (per ‘000 population) range of cities as measured by the CDI and
300 context indicators. The 31 indicators are each
internally ranked from 1 to 4 to reflect their
250 baseline performance under ADB’s various
goals for achieving more livable, productive,
200 and sustainable cities. These rankings are
called levels. In the following analysis, Level
150 4 cities have the lowest ranking on the scales
and therefore have the most need for programs
100
designed to achieve ADB’s goals. Level 2 and 3
cities are characterized by sectoral unevenness
50
in attaining these goals. Level 1 cities have
0 largely reached ADB’s urban sector goals.
Low Transition Medium High

Level 4 Example: Dhaka City

Figure 5.18. Automobile Ownership Dhaka City, located in Bangladesh, is one of
the poorest cities in the world, ranked 150
in the HDI with a large rapidly growing popu-
Percent
lation, with a low level of urbanization and
50
low GDP per capita. The hologram for Dhaka
shows the city scores among the lowest in
40
the CDB for the required level of perfor-
mance for achieving ADB’s urban sector goals
30 (see Figure 5.20).
Analysis by sector indicates the following:
20
Sectors A and B: Population Characteris-
tics. With 6.5 million residents (1),
10 Dhaka is the third largest city in the CDB
and is growing rapidly from natural in-
0 crease (2) and migration (3). This growth
rate is further accentuated by increased life
Low Transition Medium High expectancy (4) with a high proportion of
the population under 15 years old (5),
Figure 5.19. Source of Revenue Transfers although child mortality remains high (6).

Comparing the Cities Data Base 141

 City : Dhaka
Country : Bangladesh
I Sector F: Social Infrastructure. Given the
SEC
URB Level : 23
number of people living in Dhaka and
TOR

O R
G
29
30 31 1
2
A
low incomes, investment in social infra-
CT
SE 28 4 3
27 structure is inadequate. The number of
26 3 4
children per classroom and the number

SE
CT
OR
25 5
2 of people per hospital bed are among the

B
24 6
1 highest ratios in the CDB (20) (21). The
city is crowded with a density of 953 per-
23 CDI : 47.55
Density : 953 7
sons per square kilometer; the highest of

SECTOR
22 8
any in the city database. This is reflected
RF

C
SECTO

21 9

20
in the high ratio of people per square
meter of housing space (23) and the high
10

19 11
percentage of housing not complying
SE
18
CT 17 13
12
D
with city regulations (47 percent)(22).
OR 16 15
14 T OR
E SEC
No information I Sector G: Physical Infrastructure and
Figure 5.20. Hologram for Dhaka
Governance. Despite the low level of
income of most of the city population and
the poor quality of the built environment,
I Sectors C and D: City Economic Charac- Dhaka has a mix of service provisions.
teristics. The city product per capita (7) The proportion of households connected
ranks tenth in the 18-city database and is to piped sewerage is below 25 percent,
almost two thirds greater than the while two thirds of households are con-
country’s GDP per capita. These figures nected to water. The transportation situ-
are also reflected in the city product per ation is indicated by the ratio of automo-
capita (PPP) (8) and the GDP per capita biles per 1,000 population being 2 (27)
(9). Dhaka has a high proportion of its and walking being the major mode of
working population in the informal sec- transportation to work. Indicators on
tor (10) and although information on governance show a high degree of labor
employment in secondary and service intensity (28 and 29). It is assumed that
sectors is unavailable, it has one of the more intensive labor systems reflect a less
highest proportions of employment in effectively managed administration. From
the informal sector, which is generally a budgetary point of view Dhaka receives
small-scale and household-based with about 50 percent of its revenue from
low productivity. Indicators of interna- taxes and transfers.
tional competitiveness indicate that the The accompanying hologram reflects
cost of stay (13) is in the middle range Dhaka’s general low level of performance in
of the CDB. The price of commercial achieving goals of increased livability, produc-
land per square meter is among the high- tivity, and sustainability. The policy implica-
est in the lower ranked cities, which tions of this assemblage of indicators suggest
would appear to indicate considerable a multifaceted policy approach is needed,
demand and very limited new land. While involving poverty reduction, measures to
there is no information on international accelerate the city’s economic growth and
flights, their frequency would be low productivity, and improved social and physi-
compared to the high-ranked cities. cal infrastructure linked to broader national
I Sector E: Poverty. Poverty indicators vary policies. Dhaka’s city indicator profile analy-
considerably but the overall level of pov- sis shows there is already substantial effort
erty is the highest in the 18-city database. in some sectors.
It is estimated that 48 percent of house-
holds fall below the poverty line (16). Level 3 Example: Ulaanbataar
Household expenditure on food (19) is The capital of Mongolia falls into that cluster
generally high, reflecting low incomes. of transitional cities that are now emerging

142 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

from a phase of socialist administration and pliance. Ulaanbataar has very limited in-
this affects the levels of development as ternational connectivity with fewer than
shown in the hologram (see Figure 5.21). 50 international flights a month (14).
Analysis by sector indicates the following: I Sector E: Poverty. The consultant’s esti-
I Sectors A and B: Demographic Features. mate of the poverty level indicates that
With its population of 725,000 (1) 34.1 percent of households fall below
Ulaanbaatar fits into the median group the poverty line (16), but the standard
of city sizes in the CDB and is experi- $1 a day measure places this much lower
encing a rapid population increase of 4.5 at 18.7 percent (17). Official unemploy-
percent per annum (2), although the ment is in single figures, but actual rates,
household formation rate is only half of taking into account nonregistered
this (3). This indicates the increase is due people, are much higher. The high share
either to household size increasing or of household expenditure on food in-
rapid in-migration. Life expectancy at dicates the generally low levels of in-
birth (4), percentage of population un- come among the city population (19).
der 15 years (5), and infant mortality (6) I Sector F: Social Infrastructure. With the
indicate a population that is growing fast exception of school children per class-
and demographic transition to lower fer- room (20), Ulaanbataar has a high level
tility only recently beginning. of social infrastructure provision, which
I Sectors C and D: Economic Characteris- reflects the emphasis of the socialist pe-
tics. Ulaanbataar‘s city product (7), city riod on high standards of health and
product (PPP) (8), and GDP per capita education (21,22). However, floor area
(9) are similar to the poorest cities in per person is very low and reflects over-
the CDB. However, it has a different crowding (23) and a high proportion of
employment structure with a higher pro- people living in apartments.
portion of workers in secondary indus- I Sector G: Physical Infrastructure and
try (11), reflecting in part the collapse Governance. With the exception of wa-
of the manufacturing sector during the ter (24), Ulaanbataar has a high level of
1990s. There appears to be a lower pro- provision of physical infrastructure for its
portion in the informal sector than in inhabitants living in apartments (25,26).
other poor cities although employment Also the measures of governance indi-
in services is quite high (12), presumably cate a relatively low reliance upon labor
indicating greater government employ- intensive methods. Sources of budget
ment. Some half of all housing is in com- revenue are predominantly taxes
(64.4 percent) (30).
City : Ulaanbaatar
Country : Mongolia
URB Level : 67.9
In conclusion, the accompanying holo-
31
SEC
TOR
A
gram indicates a very mixed performance in
G 30 1

S EC
TOR
28
29
4
2
3
this city in achieving ADB’s sector goals. In
27
3
addition, the data may not be totally ad-
26
SE

4
equate. The high proportion of housing not
CTO

25 5
R

2
B

24 6 in compliance with city regulations (48 per-

1
cent) indicates there are substantial numbers
23 CDI : 61.37
Density : 133 7
of households living in informal residential
SECTOR

22 8
areas. This reflects the large number of Mon-
RF

golians from the countryside who live in ger

C
SECTO

21 9

20 and informal structures on the fringes of the

10 city distinguished from the apartments of the
19
12
11 Soviet style central city. Strategic priorities
18
SE
CT
OR
17
16 15
14
13
CT
OR
D might be set to enable this population to
E SE No information
build their own housing in these areas. From
Figure 5.21. Hologram for Ulaanbaatar a strategic view, this assemblage of indicators

Comparing the Cities Data Base 143

 suggests the need to carefully select sectoral City : Cebu
Country : Philippines
priorities for urban development. SEC
URB Level : 68

TOR
30 31 1 A
G
R 29 2
CTO
SE 28 4 3
Level 2 Example: Cebu City 27

Cebu City is typical of the larger secondary 26 4

SE
3

CT
OR
25 5
cities in Asia (see Figure 5.22). These cities 2

B
24 6
play crucial roles as articulators of the net- 1

works of trade and administration that form

23 CDI : 67

an important role in regional development. Density : 92.6 7

SECTOR
22
Cebu City, with a population of 655,000, is a 8

F R

C
SECTO
21 9
medium-sized city in the CDB (1) growing 20
rather slowly at only 1.6 percent (2). The
10
household formation rate is much higher (3) 19 11

indicating there is still a high rate of natural SE

18
CT 17 13
12
D
OR 16 15
14 T OR
EC
increase and net migration. This slow rate of E S No information

growth is partly attributable to the popula-

Figure 5.22. Hologram for Cebu
tion decentralizing to the suburbs beyond
the city boundaries, and possibly by the in-
crease in numbers of single migrants aged (24, 26) and a low level of automobile
15–25 years. The high rates of natural in- ownership (27). Approximately 80 per-
crease in the Philippines are indicated by the cent of the government budget is re-
substantial proportion of people under 15 ceived from taxes and transfers (almost
years of age (5), although life expectancy (4) equally divided between the two).
and infant mortality (5) are dropping rapidly In conclusion, Cebu has a very mixed
and approaching the levels of wealthy cities. assemblage of indicators. Similar to
Analysis by sector indicates the following: Ulaanbataar, this suggests that sector priori-
I Sectors C and D: Economic Characteris- ties should be established, particularly for
tics. Cebu City product (7) is in the top physical infrastructure. As a growing center
quartile of the figure for CBDs, although performing a major role as a regional center,
it is below that of Mandaluyong in Metro Cebu needs to build upon this role. Improv-
Manila. Cebu’s figure represents a low ing city infrastructure will assist this process.
level compared to the Level 1 cities. It has
a high proportion of its population in the Level 1 Example: Melbourne City
informal sector (10) and a low propor- The City of Melbourne is the historical core
tion in industry (11). Unfortunately, no and CBD of the Melbourne urban area, and
data is available on services employment. a major city of over three million people in
I Sector E: Poverty. Cebu reveals almost a highly industrialized country (see Figure
the same pattern as Ulaanbataar, with over 5.23). Australia is currently ranked 15th on
one third of the households living below the HDI and has been losing ground some-
the poverty line (16) and high levels of what to other Organisation for Economic Co-
household expenditure on food (19). operation and Development (OECD) coun-
I Sector F: Social Infrastructure. The data tries in GDP, because of its reliance on “old
indicate pressure on the education sec- economy” resources and agriculture exports.
tor (20) and a moderate level of hospital For similar reasons, Melbourne has been
bed provision (21). A high degree of steadily losing ground to Sydney for most of
overcrowding (23) is notable given the the last century in international connectiv-
city’s low density. ity, but still retains a key role as a manufac-
I Sector G: Physical Infrastructure and turing and financial center. The city has only
Governance. With the exception of elec- 55,000 people but is one of the fastest grow-
tricity provision (25), Cebu has a low ing local government areas in Australia. This
level of physical infrastructure provision is due to changes in regulations that have

144 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

permitted rapid residential conversion of aging somewhat), and the high level of The CDB offers an
commercial buildings and changing demo- income and capital and recurrent expen-
graphics and tastes in favor of smaller house- diture by local government ensures that excellent set of baseline
holds and inner city living. One- and two- this will continue. State governments are
person households are the norm. powerful in Australia and provide many data for comparing the
Analysis by sector indicates the following: local services. The state government re-
I Sectors C and D: Economic Characteris- cently dismissed all local governments as performance of cities in
tics. Melbourne has the highest CDI, city part of a consolidation strategy, but in
product, and average income of the general, local government is democratic achieving the targets of
sample. As expected of a city center, and transparent.
most employment is in the consumer and In conclusion, Melbourne ranks at or creating more livable,
producer service area. near the top on most social indicators and
I Sector E: Poverty. In common with most has a high level of resources under the local efficient, and sustainable
developed cities, income inequality has government.
been increasing since the 1980s and this City holograms of the other cities are cities.
has resulted in higher levels of poverty shown on the following pages.
as locally defined. Good services for the
homeless are maintained in the center.
However, petty crime and drug-related
IV. TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE CITIES
crime levels are fairly high (the propor-
tion of crime reported is also high com- The CDB offers an excellent set of baseline
pared with most developing countries). data for comparing the performance of cities
I Sector F: Social Infrastructure. There is in achieving the targets of creating more liv-
a heavy concentration of educational and able, efficient, and sustainable cities. The data
hospital facilities in the city center. Re- analysis shows the indicators can be used to
cent changes in state government priori- measure
ties have resulted in perceived falls in ser- I performance in different urban subsectors
vice. However, against most measures of such as infrastructure provision or urban
service provision Melbourne is the high- poverty reduction between cities;
est in the sample. Only Hong Kong has a I performance of the city in its totality by
higher proportion of tertiary graduates. using holograms; and
I Sector G: Physical Infrastructure and I contextual elements of the cities as repre-
Governance. Melbourne’s infrastructure sented by the socio-economic groupings.
is uniformly of a high quality (though It must be stressed that these approaches
are new to developing countries; creat-
City : Melbourne
Country : Australia ing databases is not yet as developed as
URB Level : 86
SEC
TOR are national censuses or fertility surveys.
30 31 1 A
G

S EC
T OR
28
29
4
2
3
In fact, most cities do not have any part
27
of their administration charged with
26 3 4
SE

developing this form of database. Even

CT
OR

25 5
2
in Hong Kong, which is among the
B

24 6
1
wealthiest and most developed of the
23 CDI : 96.37
cities in the CDB, it was reported that
Density : 93 7
SECTOR

22 8
data had to be generated from many
RF

sources and in some cases could not be

C
SECTO

21 9

20 obtained. There seems only limited

10
agreement on which indicators of urban
19 11 performance are best measures of
18 12
SE
CT
OR
17
16 15
14
13
C TO
RD performance, particularly in sectors such
E SE No information
as urban management and governance.
Figure 5.23. Hologram for Melbourne This indicates that more research is

Comparing the Cities Data Base 145

 City : Kathmandu City : Colombo
Country : Nepal Country : Sri Lanka
URB Level : 14 URB Level : 25
SEC SEC
TOR TOR
30 31 1 A 31 A
G G 30 1
OR 29 2 O R 29 2
CT 28 CT
SE 4 3 SE 28 4 3
27 27
26 4 26

SE
4

SE
3 3

CT

CT
OR
5

OR
25 25 5
2

B
2

B
24 6 24 6

1 1

23 CDI : 61.74
Density : 175.7 7 23 CDI : 58.72
7

SECTOR
Density : 298

SECTOR
22 8 22 8
RF

RF
C

C
SECTO

SECTO
21 9 21 9

20 20

10 10
19 11 19 11
18 12 18 12
SE 17 13 D SE 17 13 D
CT 14 OR CT
OR 16 15 T OR 16 14 OR
E EC 15 CT
S No information E SE No information

Figure 5.24. Hologram for Kathmandu Figure 5.27. Hologram for Colombo

City : Lahore City : Medan

Country : Pakistan Country : Indonesia
URB Level : 32.5 URB Level : 37.8
SEC SEC
TOR TOR
31 A 30 31 1 A
G 30 1 G
OR 29 R 29 2
CT 28
2
C TO
SE 4 3 SE 28 4 3
27 27
3 26 3 4

SE
26 4
SE

CT
CT

OR
5
OR

25 5 25
2 2

B
B

24 6 24 6
1 1

23 CDI : 32.5 23 CDI : 57.77

7
7 Density : 142

SECTOR
Density : 240.6
SECTOR

22 22 8
8
RF
RF

C
C

SECTO
SECTO

21 21 9
9

20 20

10 10

19 11 19 11
18 12 18 12
SE 17 13 D SE 17 13 D
CT CT 14 OR
OR 16 14 OR OR 16 15 CT
15 CT E SE
E SE No information No information

Figure 5.25. Hologram for Lahore Figure 5.28. Hologram for Medan

City : Bangalore City : Phnom Penh

Country : India Country : Cambodia
URB Level : 28.3 URB Level : 57
SEC SEC
TOR TOR
31 1 A 30 31 1 A
G 30 G
OR 29 2 OR 29 2
CT CT
SE 28 3 SE 28 4 3
27 27
26 4 26 3 4
SE
SE

C
CT

TO
OR

25 5 25 5
R

2
B
B

24 6 24 6
1

23 CDI : 59.02
Density : 330 7 23 CDI : 46.08
Density : 203 7
SECTOR

SECTOR

22 8 22 8
RF

RF
C

C
SECTO

SECTO

21 9 21 9

20 20

10 10
19 11 19 11
18 12 18 12
SE 17 13 D SE 17 13
CT
OR 16 14 OR CT 16 14 RD
15 CT OR 15 C TO
E SE E SE No information

Figure 5.26. Hologram for Bangalore Figure 5.29. Hologram for Pnomh Penh

146 The Cities Data Book

 City : Bishkek City : Mandaluyong
Country : Kyrgyz Republic Country : Philippines
URB Level : 36 URB Level : 61.7
SEC SEC
TOR TOR
31 A 30 31 A
G 30 1 G 1
OR 29 2 OR 29 2
CT 28 CT 28
SE 4 3 SE 4 3
27 27
26 4 26 3 4

SE
SE
3

CT
CT

OR
OR
25 5 25 5
2 2

B
B
24 6 24 6

1 1

23 CDI : 79.13
Density : 41.6 7 23 CDI : 71.83
Density : 670 7

SECTOR

SECTOR
22 8 22 8
F

RF
R

C
SECTO

SECTO
21 9 21 9

20 20

10 10
19 11 19 11
18 12 18 12
SE 17 13 D SE 17 13 D
CT 14 OR CT
OR 16 15 CT OR 16 15
14 T OR
E SE E S EC
No information

Figure 5.30. Hologram for Bishkek Figure 5.33. Hologram for Mandaluyong

City : Hohhot City : Naga

Country : PRC Country : Philippines
URB Level : 34.9 URB Level : 73.7
SEC SEC
TOR TOR
30 31 1 A 31 A
G G 30 1
R
TO 29 2 OR 29 2
SE
C 28 3 CT
4 SE 28 4 3
27 27
26 3 4
SE

26 3 4

SE
CT

CT
OR

OR
25 25 5
2 2
B

B
24 6 24 6
1 1

23 CDI : 68.6
7 23 CDI : 72.5
Density : 684 7
SECTOR

Density : 115.6

SECTOR
22 8 22 8
RF

RF
C

C
SECTO

SECTO

21 9 21 9
20 20

10 10
19 11 19 11
18 12 18 12
SE 17 13 D SE 17 13 D
CT 14 OR CT
OR 16 15 CT OR 16 14 OR
E SE
15 CT
No information E SE No information

Figure 5.31. Hologram for Hohhot Figure 5.34. Hologram for Naga

City : Hanoi City : Suva

Country : Vietnam Country : Fiji
URB Level : 19.7 URB Level : 42.5
SEC SEC
TOR TOR
31 1 A 30 31 A
G 30 G 1
OR 29 2 O R 29
CT 28 CT 2
SE 4 3 SE 28 4 3
27 27
26 3 4 26 3 4
SE
SE

CT
CT

OR
OR

25 5 25 5
2 2
B
B

24 6 24 6
1 1

23 CDI : 64.55
7 23 CDI : 68.34
Density : 74.7 7
SECTOR

Density : 146
SECTOR

22 22 8
8
RF
RF

C
C

SECTO
SECTO

21 21 9
9

20 20

10 10

19 11 19 11
18 12 18 12
SE 13 SE 17 13
CT 17 D CT 16 14 RD
OR 16 14 OR OR 15 TO
15 CT E SE
C
E SE No information No information

Figure 5.32. Hologram for Hanoi Figure 5.35. Hologram for Suva

Comparing the Cities Database 147

The most important City : Hong Kong
Country : PRC
lems unless there is successful policy inter-
URB Level : 95.7
SEC
vention. It is apparent that the historical ex-
TOR
conclusion to be drawn CT
O R
G
29
30 31 1
2
A
perience of socialism in the transitional so-
SE 28 4 3
27 cieties poses particular constraints on devel-
from the comparative 26 3 4
opment. The middle ranking cluster of cit-

SE
CT
OR
25 5
2
ies has very different mixes of urban prob-

B
24 6

analysis is that there is a 1 lems, depending on the size of the cities and
their regional importance. The lessons from
23 CDI : 94.52
7
pronounced clustering of
Density : 67
the wealthier cities suggest that when devel-

SECTOR
22 8
opment occurs, there is a need to develop
RF

C
SECTO

21 9
cities with similarities in 20
policies based on an understanding of the
structural and territorial changes as well. For
10
the severity and range of 19 11 example, in Seoul and Melbourne, while
12
SE
18
CT 17 13 D automobile ownership is among the highest
OR 16 15
14 T OR
EC
urban problems related
E S No information in the CDB (more than 61 percent), 43 per-
Figure 5.36. Hologram for Hong Kong cent of the population still uses public trans-
to economic productiv- port for travelling to work. This suggests that
City : Seoul for the poorer cities, particularly the poorer
Country : Korea
ity, poverty alleviation, SEC
URB Level : 81.3
megacities, investment in public transport
TOR

TOR
G
29
30 31 1
2
A
systems should be a priority. Neither wealthy
S EC 28 4 3
social and physical 27 or poor cities can continue to be competi-
26 3 4
tive if they lack efficient transportation sys-
SE
CT
OR

25 5
infrastructure provision, 2
tems (see Gakenheimer 1994).
B

24 6
1 Given the urban transition presently oc-
and efficiency of urban curring in Asia, it is clear that the numbers of
23 CDI : 92
Density : 480.7 7
people that will be involved will be much
SECTOR

22
administrations.
8
larger than in any other region and at an un-
RF

C
SECTO

21 9

20
precedented scale. Most existing urban ad-
ministrative units have limited capacity for
10

19 11 solving the challenges brought by this urban

SE
18
CT 17 13
12
D
transformation. It is hoped that using the
OR 16 14 OR
15 CT
E SE No information CDB urban indicators will strengthen the
Figure 5.37. Hologram for Seoul ability of Asia’s developing cities to measure
performance, identify problem areas for
policy attention, and assist in urban manage-
needed into the practical application of these ment and the delivery of services.
indicators if they are to be fully used as an
effective system of information management.
The most important conclusion to be
drawn from the comparative analysis is that Terrence Gary McGee is a Professor of Institute of
there is a pronounced clustering of cities Asian Research Department of Geography in the
University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada. He
with similarities in the severity and range of was the Director of the Institute of Asian Research of
urban problems related to economic produc- the University of British Columbia during 1978-1992
tivity, poverty alleviation, social and physical and 1995-1998. Professor McGee has carried out
research in Asia over the last 40 years focusing on
infrastructure provision, and efficiency of
urban management, the development of small-scale
urban administrations. However, the analy- enterprises in urban economies, and the structure of
sis is dominated by the severity of problems labor markets. He has done extensive research in
in the poorer cities of the region, many of Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Hong Kong and
Guangdong, Singapore and several Pacific island coun-
which are located in countries at low levels tries, and has consulted for a number of international
of urbanization. Consequently, as urbaniza- funding agencies. Professor Terry McGee is author of
tion increases, there will be increasing prob- over 200 books, articles, and publications.

148 The Cities Data Book

CHAPTER 6:

CITY PROFILES
INDIA

Bangalore

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF the vast Cubbon Park, which along with other DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR
THE CITY parks makes Bangalore seem like a garden FORCE, AND INCOME
city, even though many high-rise buildings
Bangalore, the capital of Karnataka State and and industries constructed in the last 25 From four million in 1999, Bangalore’s popu-
the sixth largest metropolis in India, lies be- years have lessened this likeness. lation is projected to reach seven million
tween the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Still, the city has assets to be proud of by 2011. It is one of the ten cities in the
Arabian Sea to the west, at 900 meters above like the prestigious institutes which make it a world growing at more than 4 percent per
sea level. center for education and research. It is also annum.
The city was founded 460 years ago by known as the eighth largest center for infor- Manufacturing, the dominant sector
Kempegowda, a local chief, who erected four mation technology in the world and is often in the 1970s, was recently overshadowed
boundary markers about ten kilometers referred to as India’s Silicon Valley. Several by phenomenal growth in the services sec-
apart to set the limits to which he believed national information technology companies tor, especially in information technology.
Bangalore would grow. By the 1960s, these like Infosys and Satyam have their head-
boundaries were exceeded. Bangalore is quarters in Bangalore and many multinational Statistical Snapshot ...1998
separated from its original settlement by companies have production centers.
DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 4.33
Density (persons/ha) 330
Annual rate of increase (percent) 4.4
ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$504
Households below poverty line (percent) 32.5
Cost of stay (per day) US$120

FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 20.1
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 34

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 6.7
Persons per hospital bed 370.8
Life expectancy (years) 69.3
Adult literacy rate (percent) 73.1
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 75
COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 66
Local calls (per person per year) 130
International calls (per person per year) 2
Mobile calls (per person per year) 1.4
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 8

City Profiles 151

 The city population’s income level was
generally higher than the state average of
$240 in 1998–1999. About one third of the
population lived below the poverty line and
about 10 percent lived in slums in 1999.

POLITICAL STRUCTURE
India, a union of 26 states and six union terri-
tories of states, was reconstituted linguisti-
cally in 1956. There is a three-tier political
system of union, state, and local govern-
ments. The urban areas are governed by
representative bodies like municipal corpo-
rations, city municipalities, and town munici-
palities depending on the population. Rural
areas are governed by village panchayats,
taluk panchayats, and zilla (district) parishads. Buses, autorickshaws and bicycle ply the roads of the city
Two pieces of legislation govern creat-
ing and managing urban areas: the Karnataka people. Specific legislation on town and ing places for disposal of the dead, operat-
Municipalities Act of 1964 dealing with places country planning created authorities like the ing ambulance services, providing pre-pri-
with fewer than 0.5 million people and the Bangalore Development Authority (BDA), for mary schools, vaccinating people, planting
Karnataka Municipal Corporation Act of 1976 planning Bangalore’s development. and maintaining trees, constructing and im-
dealing with all places with over 0.5 million proving streets, bridges and culverts, regu-
URBAN GOVERNANCE lating building construction, providing water
supply and sewerage systems, collecting
Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (Municipal refuse, and handling calamities.
Two buildings which are of architectural Corporation) (BMP) covers 225 square kilo- Recently, the local government has im-
importance are the International Technology Park meters (1995) and is divided into 100 wards, proved roads and has constructed flyovers,
- White Field (above) and the Bangalore City seven city municipalities, and one town underpasses, large markets and commercial
Hall (below)
municipality and rural area. complexes, and electric crematoriums.
The city is governed by a representative Local government’s obligatory and dis-
council of 100 councilors elected once in five cretionary functions are implemented with
years from 100 wards. The Government proceeds from collecting property taxes and
nominates an additional five councilors who user charges, and from grants and loans from
elect the mayor and deputy mayor annually. the state government. Property taxes con-
Four standing committees guide the stituted 20 percent of the total income from
council and the administration in taxation, fi- about 0.40 million properties during 1997–
nance, and appeals; public health, education, 1998.
and social justice; town planning and improve- Capital expenditure is not uniform over
ment; and accounts. the years and is less than 50 percent of recur-
The state government retains authority rent expenditure. Capital and recurrent ex-
to supersede the council’s resolutions when penditure budgeted during 1999–2000, at
it is determined that the council is not effec- current prices, amounted to $10.28 per capita
tive or is misusing power. The state govern- and $25.05 per capita, respectively. Loans
ment also has final approval in altering were moderate as debt servicing was 7.43
property tax, fixing user charges beyond cer- percent of the budgeted expenditure for the
tain limits, initiating new policies, appointing same years.
contractors for works of more than $0.69 mil- The administration is divided into nine
lion, raising loans, and floating bonds. departments including general administration,
Local government has obligatory and dis- revenue, engineering, health, town planning,
cretionary functions. Among the obligatory education, horticulture, and statistics. Also
are cleaning streets, collecting sewage, main- the chief executive officer (commissioner)
taining storm water drains, lighting streets, belonging to the Indian Administrative Service
maintaining open spaces and parks, regulat- leads a team of officers in technical and non-
ing offensive and dangerous trades, maintain- technical departments.

152 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE Sewerage
Bangalore has underground drains with a
Roads waterborne system for sewage disposal.
There are about 4,000 kilometers of roads. Despite moderate to rugged topography per-
These generally need improving and roads in mitting easy flow, part of the sewage escapes
old parts of the city are narrow and haphaz- into natural valleys from trunk sewers which
ardly laid out. There is no rational hierarchy run along valley beds. This is causing seri-
of road pattern or plans for utility improve- ous pollution and health problems for thou-
ment and expansion in newly planned ar- sands of valley households.
eas. Properties abut arterial roads and hinder Sewer connections were estimated to
safety and traffic flow. To improve arterial reach 80 percent of households. The others
and subarterial roads, BMP has raised funds use soak pits for water closets, and drains
by floating municipal bonds to cover the that lead to unhygienic surroundings. Few Buses park in the city central bus station
project costs of $28.87 million. corporate areas have septic tanks. About
57 percent of a total of 496,000 cubic meters
Water Supply of sewage generated daily is being treated
The city’s piped water supply dates back to in three plants.
1896. Three water sources, the two reser-
voirs from the Arkavathi and Cauvery rivers, Electricity
and the Bangalore Water Supply and Sewer- Bangalore consumes 40 percent of the state’s
age Board (BWSSB) established in 1964 power supply. Almost 100 percent of house-
provide potable water at 629 million liters holds are connected to low voltage electric-
per day. Domestic consumption is about 96 ity characterized by unscheduled load
liters per capita per day. shedding and substandard distribution net-
The cost of operating and maintaining works. An underground connection serves
water supply is high because of electricity the central business district (CBD). The old railway system is proposed to be
charges that take about 60 percent of total Poor people and slum dwellers are served replaced by a modern light rail transit system
costs. Low-level tariffs and illegal connec- with electricity at subsidized rates through
tions erode revenues and BWSSB’s effi- single points and unmetered lines. reached 561,676 (March 1999) and were
ciency in servicing the households of the made possible with capital infusion by the
262,850 connected domestic users (1999). Telecommunications Telecommunication Department.
About 85 percent of households are served The Bangalore Telephone District has been Internet connection grows at 80 percent
while the remainder depend on individual or providing telephones more quickly, but has yet per annum. The overall Internet user base is
community bore wells. to meet demand. Residential connections expected to be 22.5 million by 2001 against
2.1 million in 2000, reflecting a compounded
annual growth rate of 77 percent. This re-
sults from increased personal computer pen-
etration, reduced Internet tariffs triggered by
competition from private Internet service
providers, and above all the Government’s
liberalized policy.

TRANSPORTATION
Bangalore’ s biggest problem is with trans-
port. Traffic jams, particularly during peak
hours, result from the high density of ve-
hicles (including animal-drawn and push-
carts) and narrow roads and badly designed
junctions. Growth in vehicle numbers has
been phenomenal in recent years. There are
57,600 auto rickshaws, and more than one
million (March 2000) commuters use bi-
cycles.
Buses are run by the state-owned Ban-
New multistoried markets like the Shri Khrisnarajendra City Market are being constructed galore Mahanagara Transport Corporation.

City Profiles 153

 The BWSSB monitoring of water qual-
ity from Bangalore’s three water sources
indicates the quality varies. And leaks from
service mains and house connections are
problems as the pipes are laid under roads.
Local government hopes to improve the
system for solid waste collection and dis-
posal by privatizing the services.

Greenery dot the apartment blocks along

CULTURAL HERITAGE
Mahatma Gandhi Road
Bangalore is home to the fine arts of music,
dance, and drama with different venues for
Most commuters avoid the tube train which concert, dance, and drama programs. The
is expensive to ride and the proposed light 100-year-old government museum, 40-year-
rail transit system remains only a proposal. old technological museum, planetarium, and
There are no sidewalks in old areas while art galleries of old temples, mosques, and
sidewalks in planned areas have been nar- churches add to the cultural heritage.
rowed by widened carriageways. Several public buildings are of architec-
tural importance like the Vidhana Soudha
HOUSING ACCESS AND housing the Government Secretariat, the High
AFFORDABILITY Court (1862), Central College (1880), Victoria
Hospital (1900), Town Hall (1935), Lalbagh
Only the 1991 census assessed housing Glass House, and the Palace. Buildings like the
stock, tenure, etc. Without a government International Technology Park are state-of-the-
policy on housing there is land price ma- art structures.
nipulation and too little land for public hous-
ing. The BDA provides small serviced plots MAJOR URBAN
of about 54 square meters and constructed DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
two housing projects under a self-financing
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
scheme, but without success. Nearly 1,000
flats built by Karnataka Housing Board were The Government has decided to decon-
lying vacant in older parts of the city as gest the city by constructing the Outer
their quality was not as good as those pri- Ring Road (ORR) system proposed in the
vately developed. The 14.5 percent stamp Outline Development Plan (1960s). ORR
duty on sales is high and dampens the hous- and other major urban development
ing market. projects fall under the Mega City Program
Without a pragmatic and sustained and include flyovers, bridges, improved
strategy for planning and development, the arterial and subarterial roads, and water
city sprawls with single-storied houses on supply augmentation. These, funded by
small plots which consume valuable culti- the Government, the Asian Development
vable lands and stretch roads and services Bank, and domestic financial institutions
to uneconomic lengths. herald a less congested and more livable
Bangalore.
ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
Federal and state governments have en-
acted legislation to manage the environment.
The State Pollution Control Board regularly L. R. Rudraiah is an urban planner at the BDA.
monitors air and water pollution and finds Prior to his stint at the BDA he worked as a freelance
consultant and as a planner in the Directorate General
levels of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide in of Housing, Dhofar Province, Salalah, Sultanate of
the busiest places in the CBD are tolerable, Oman; at the Karnataka Housing Board, Bangalore;
but particulates reach alarming levels on and in the Department of Town Planning, Karnataka.
258 days a year. Mr. Rudraiah is a civil engineer.

154 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

KYRGYZ REPUBLIC

Bishkek

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF Too mountains visible to the south. Part of the 16 percent of its total industrial output. Dur-
city’s charm also lies in its beds of flowers, ing the same year, its share in the country’s
THE CITY

B
tree-lined avenues, and bazaars and fairs. retail sales turnover was 40 percent, or about
ishkek, the capital city of the Bishkek is laid out as a grid with wide 11 percent higher than in 1997. In 1998, eco-
Kyrgyz Republic, lies at 750 avenues. Much of its industrial area is in the nomic growth was promoted with a 99 per-
meters above sea level in the eastern and western parts of the city. Most cent growth in service revenues, a 131
Chu River Valley near the residential areas are in the southern part percent increase in transport passengers,
Kyrgyz Mountains. It is situ- with parks and educational institutions; the
ated along the Ala-Archa and Alamedian riv- northern part of the city is mostly individual
ers and is intersected in the north by the apartment houses.The central part has been Statistical Snapshot ... 1998
Bolshoy (Great) Chuysky Canal. Founded in reconstructed with many modern office DEMOGRAPHY
1878 and formerly known as Pishpek or buildings influenced by oriental architecture. Resident population (in million) 0.614
Density (persons/ha) 41.6
Frunze, it was renamed Bishkek in 1991. With The city is the political, economic, sci- Annual rate of increase (percent) 1
its annual average of 322 days of sunny entific, and cultural center and serves as
ECONOMY
weather, Bishkek experiences very little the region’s main transport hub. City product (per capita) US$1,750
rainfall. It has parks, fountains, ensemble of In 1998, Bishkek contributed 46 percent Households below poverty line (percent) 7.2
Cost of stay (per day) US$112
squares, and permanently snow-capped Ala- of the country’s gross domestic product and
FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 65.3
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 11

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 4.8
Persons per hospital bed 53.2
Life expectancy (years) 67.9
Adult literacy rate (percent) 98
Median years of education 11
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 15

COMMUNICATIONS
International calls (per person per year) 3.2
Mobile calls (per person per year) 0.04
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 4.3

City Profiles 155

and a 96 percent growth in commercial DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR
cargo volumes. FORCE, AND INCOME
Bishkek is predominantly industrial with
the main industries being machine building, In 1998, 614,000 city dwellers representing
textiles, construction materials, and food over 50 different nationalities lived in
processing. Typically, Bishkek industrial Bishkek. More than a third of the city popu-
zones are located along the railroads. Re- lace were Kyrgyz, half were Russian, and
cently significant attention was given to re- the rest were different nationalities. About
viving the horse breeding industry, an ancient 24 percent of the population was under 16,
and major export-oriented industry. Eques- 61 percent was 16–59 years old, and 14
trian events remain the Kyrgyz Republic’s percent was over 60. More than half the
national sport. adults have some form of qualification and
There are 24 banks linked with foreign about a third of the total population gained
correspondent banks whose transactions, university degrees.
like international remittances, are mostly About two thirds of the city’s employed are The populace is composed of mixed
electronic. In October 1998, the city was women groups coming from various ethnic origins.
given a rating of B+ by the London-based There were 47 ethnic groups recorded dur-
FITCH IBCA. It was the first time the city Republic, consulates, and various interna- ing the first population census in 1924 and
was included in such an evaluation. tional institutions also have headquarters 80 groups in the 1989 census. Migrants be-
Several Internet providers and local and in the city. gan to arrive from Russia and the Ukraine at
global corporate computer networks are op- In education, about 5,500 students the end of the 19th century. The early wave
erating and Bishkek has several paging com- graduate annually in the city’s higher learn- of immigrants in 1937 were deported Kore-
panies and two cellular communications ing institutions which include the National ans. Germans from the Volga region arrived
operators using standard GSM and AMPS/ Academy of Sciences, 18 universities, 20 in- at the beginning of the Great Patriotic War
DAMPS. stitutes, and nine academies. Students in 1941–1945, and immigrants followed from
Foreign conglomerates such as and professionals form half of the city ’s North Caucasus and the Crimea (Balcar,
Mercedes-Benz, Audi-VW, Daewoo, population. Chechen, Kabardin, Crimea, Tatar). At the
Sumitomo, Federal Express, DHL, UPS, LG- Bishkek is also the country’s seat of end of the war, the Uigurs who fled from the
Electronics, Phillips, Siemens, Reemstma, national culture with music and drama the- People’s Republic of China during the “Great
and Coca-Cola have set up operations. Su- aters, the Philharmonic Society, libraries, Cultural Revolution” in the late 1950s like-
preme bodies of the state authority of the and museums. wise migrated to the Kyrgyz Republic.
From 1993, the flow of migration from
Woman vendor sells traditional utensils, ornaments and clothes other areas and regions of the Republic
slowed and urban growth started to stabi-
lize. In the 1990s out-migration was noted
among the Germans, Jews, and Russians
(mostly qualified specialists like teachers,
doctors, and engineers) as they returned to
their native lands. In 1998, 1,711 persons
arrived in Bishkek and 3,759 persons left,
creating an outflow of 2,048.
Out of 381,400 persons in the city’s la-
bor force about 50 percent are employed and
of the unemployed, 65 percent are women.
The average income per person in the city in
1998 was $814, which was higher than the
national average.

POLITICAL STRUCTURE
The Kyrgyz Republic is one of five Central
Asian republics that gained independence
after the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
The Kyrgyz Republic, as a young indepen-
dent state, quickly began major reform of
its economy, the key elements being to

156 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

liberalize prices, introduce the national cur-
rency (the som), begin a bold program of
privatization and structural reforms, intro-
duce strict controls on budget expenditures,
and approve the bankruptcy law.
The Kyrgyz Republic is a constitutional
republic and independent sovereign state. It
has a democratic government with a parlia-
ment (Jogorku Kenesh) consisting of the
upper chamber or Legislative Assembly and
the lower chamber or People’s Assembly,
the executive consisting of local akimiats
(local offices of the Government), ministries
and national government establishments, Many government offices are at the central square at Ala-Too
and the judiciary consisting of the constitu-
tional court, the supreme court, and the High- termines external and internal policy, eco-
est Court of Arbitration. nomic policy, land regulation, and regula-
The President of the Kyrgyz Republic is tion of foreign investments. It aims to
the nationally elected head of state. The radically change the older centrally planned
governmental bodies in the regions and dis- system by large-scale economic and politi-
tricts are represented by corresponding lo- cal reforms. The Government seeks to re-
cal administrations, headed by akims move all restrictions on exports and imports
(mayors), the local soviets of people’s depu- and is determined to pursue a harmonious
ties, and by city councils. The country is credit, finance, monetary, and taxation
developing democratically and more than policy. Its basic policy is to attract advanced
130 social organizations are registered in technologies and promote joint venture pro-
the republic and in the capital with the Na- grams involving foreign investment in com-
tional Revival Party “Asaba,” the Democratic munication, energy supply, and civil aviation.
Party “Erkin Kyrgyzstan,” and “Rukh” being The Government also supports the private The central square at night features well lit
most influential. sector in storing, marketing, and process- fountains
The national Government retains many ing agricultural products.
powers under the constitution, including the Local government, subject to the na- The national Government also under-
right to close down local government. It de- tional strategy, conducts the social and eco- takes urban planning and development and
nomic development of cities including provides services. Its programs include de-
strategies for sustainable human and eco- veloping new settlements around the city,
nomic development. promoting export-oriented industries, and
accelerating the privatization of large indus-
URBAN GOVERNANCE trial enterprises.
At the city level, many local programs
Bishkek, the Republic’s largest city, is di- support national initiatives. For instance,
vided into the administrative districts of Bishkek plans to develop joint venture en-
Leninsky, Pervomaisky, Sverdlovsky, and terprises by creating free economic zones
Oktiabrsky. Local government bodies in and develop local energy sources to be self-
these districts are represented by corre- sufficient. Currently it depends on imported
sponding local state administrations headed fuels.
by an akim. Mayors are nominated by, and The city encourages its citizens to par-
report directly to, the President. ticipate in decision making in councils and
The national Government assists local committees in both the public and private
government bodies by allocating funds from sectors, for example, in female committees,
the budget for operating several departments business people councils, and nongovern-
or divisions of the city, and maintaining ser- ment agencies. The public has representa-
vices like electricity and water, and con- tives in the City Council (Kenesh) where they
structing roads, schools, and hospitals. It serve for a minimum of four years. The City
also transfers funds to local government to Council approves the budget and programs
The central part of the city has been finance projects like public health services for social and economic development, moni-
reconstructed with modern office buildings and education. tors the progress of projects, and conducts

City Profiles 157

 TRANSPORT buses are roadworthy and only half of the
100 minibuses are being maintained. Of the
The city has a railroad system with two ter- 203 trolley buses in operation, 40 percent
minals, two suburban bus terminals, and an are 11 years old and 11 percent are six years
international airport. The main railroad line old. An estimated $30 million is required to
divides the city into southern and northern acquire 250 new buses and 200 trolley buses.
sectors. Private cars ply the city, but stiff A $13.5 million loan from the World Bank
fuel prices, poor highways, and low incomes was obtained to reconstruct several high-
constrain growth in car ownership. Foot- ways and $0.95 million to improve urban
paths and bicycle paths that could offer al- public transport.
ternative modes of transport for the Local government is responsible for co-
population are generally undeveloped. There ordinating and systematizing the city’s pub-
are two pedestrian malls, Erkindik and Pros- lic transport system, licensing, selecting
The Pinara Hotel is one of Bishkek’s finest pect Chu, in the city center. Manas, the in- routes, and maintaining operating and safety
ternational airport, is 30 kilometers (km) to standards. The city government organizes
audit checks to determine if government Bishkek’s northwest and is being recon- the public transport system, for example,
funds are used appropriately. It also enacts structed to serve as a major airport with by improving taxicab operations.
laws to collect local taxes and manage land connections to Western Europe, Central and
use and natural resources. South East Asia, the Far East, Oceania, and HOUSING ACCESS AND
North Africa. AFFORDABILITY
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE About 730 km of urban roads are in dis-
repair and require $82.7 million for rehabili- The national Government implemented a
Most households are connected to electric- tation. In 1998, the city only budgeted about mass public housing program between 1960
ity and clean water. Piped water in Bishkek $575,000, which barely repaired 10 km of and 2000. The first housing designs adopted
is believed to be among the best in the re- roads. To finance road rehabilitation, the city were built with modular ferro concrete of up
gion. However, the water system, together government proposed to the National Trea- to four or five storeys. Residential buildings
with the drainage system and clearing struc- sury in 1999 that the city retain about 50 constructed in the 1970s had nine or more
tures, is dilapidated and badly needs reha- percent of tax receipts from the use of high- floors with apartment floor areas of 30
bilitating. About 73 percent of households ways. Revenue from this tax was estimated square meters (m2) for one-room apartments
have telephone connections and 77 percent at $384,000. If approved, private contrac- and 60 m2 for three-room apartments. Brick
of the population use natural gas. tors will be encouraged to participate in road multiroom housing units were also erected
Most utilities are state-owned enter- reconstruction because of assured funding. under individual contracts.
prises. Kyrgyztelecom, for example, is a About 200 km of city roads are in an unsat- Recently, municipal housing construc-
state-owned enterprise that provides do- isfactory condition. Only half of the 370-odd tion has declined sharply with elite individual
mestic communication and international
connections. It also translates languages for
five radio broadcasting programs, which is
considered an important service in the
Kyrgyz Republic’s multiethnic society. The
Government obtained international
development assistance to modernize
Kyrgyztelecom.
Broadcasts from six state-owned tele-
vision networks are received from Russia,
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkey, and the
Kyrgyz Republic. There are also several
independent television stations and a cable
TV network, though individual satellite
dishes are uncommon.
There are now only about 4,300 Internet
connections. Low incomes, prohibitive com-
puter prices, and relatively high Internet con-
nection and subscription fees have limited
broader access to the Internet. “Katel” and
“Bitel” provide cellular networks with inter-
national access. Part of the city’s charms lies in its beautiful parks and tree-lined avenues

158 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

The History Museum receives support from the city govenment

dwellings being constructed instead. Apart- established. The state enterprise for water erations and preserved without being re-
ments recently constructed have modular supply has a production capacity of 506.8 corded. The epic work serves as a reliable
metal frames and range between 87 and 525 thousand cubic meters per day. It also moni- historical, linguistic, ethnographic, and psy-
m2. In 1998, 178,000 m2 of housing was con- tors water quality through chemical bacte- chological study of the people’s life. Manas
structed, 2.4 times more than in 1997. riological analysis in the laboratory. All is performed by talented storytellers
A stock of private housing exists but multistoried houses in the city are con- (manaschi). The most talented manaschi
is unaffordable for most people and construc- nected to water drains, while individual recite the epic over days, creating a great
tion of municipal (public) housing is also lim- houses have septic tanks which are being impression with their splendid memory and
ited because few funds are available. Housing monitored to conform to standards. mastery of the epic.
construction materials and land costs at the Bishkek is in a valley at the foot of the The soul of the people is likewise ex-
city outskirts are unaffordable for the ma- northern part of the Tien-Shan Mountains pressed in songs and Kyrgyzian melodies
jority. Only city residents with regular in- which trap polluted air from automobile ex- are remarkable for their diversity and origi-
comes can own houses, while the majority hausts and industry emissions. Air pollu- nality. The favorite musical instrument is
rent or lease. tion is mainly from poorly maintained the three-stringed komuz which possesses
A law provides for housing mortgages vehicles. In 1998, nitrogen oxide, carbon many expressive sounds.
but cannot be effectively implemented be- monoxide, and suspended particulates of- Near Bishkek, monuments preserved
cause most people, with their low incomes ten exceeded the maximum allowable con- from the Mussulman State of Karakhanids
and unemployment, cannot meet the eligi- centration. (10th century) include the famous Burana
bility requirements for mortgages. One so- Solid waste collection and disposal is archeological and architectural complex, and
lution proposed is to open an industrial bank, an acute problem, but foreign firms are in- the central ruins of Shakhristan. In the east-
financed by foreign investors, which can troducing new technologies in the design of ern part of Shakhristan there is a knoll re-
lend at lower rates for housing over longer the city’s solid waste collection and dis- vealing 10th to 12th century excavations.
periods. posal system. On the southeastern side of the knoll there
is the Burana tower, a minaret of the 11th
ENVIRONMENTAL CULTURAL HERITAGE century.
MANAGEMENT The city’s distinct culture is also re-
Bishkek’s symbol is the statue of the leg- flected in its traditional utensils, ornaments,
Eight government agencies manage the en- endary warrior Manas on horseback. An an- and clothes. The people’s creative handi-
vironment and deal with concerns like pre- cient epic about Manas narrates the work is ornamental and is shown in a vari-
serving nature, hydrology, and meteorology. warrior’s courage, sense of duty, and love of ety of articles like carpets (shirdak and
Enterprises delivering potable water and re- the motherland. It is a poem of 500,000 lines alakiyiz), bags for keeping dishes (alk-kup),
cycling household scraps have also been which has been passed down through gen- leather dishes (keker) and metal jewelry

City Profiles 159

Fresh fruits are usually sold at the market

such as rings, amulets, bracelets, and belts sought to reduce poverty for socially vul-
and girdles worn by men and women. nerable groups and increase living stan-
The city government supports preserv- dards. Overcoming mass poverty, which
ing the people’s cultural tradition. Each year affects over half the population of the repub-
a budget is allocated for culturally-oriented lic, is a long-term strategic objective that
projects like restoring historical monu- depends on successful reforms like a fairer
ments, conducting festivals of national sig- distribution of income through a better sys-
nificance, and exhibiting applied arts. tem of taxation and decreased tax load on
low-income groups.
MAJOR URBAN
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
The city government has prepared a com-
prehensive development program up to 2010,
within the framework of the national plan.
Its objective is to maintain economic growth
and the quality of life. In the plan, the eco-
nomic conditions during 1991–1999 were
analyzed and incomes were projected to in-
crease twofold. The plan proposes increas-
ing production, developing small- and
medium-scale businesses, promoting trade,
exports and services, and improving and
expanding infrastructure.
The national program for overcoming Irene Zhukova is the Chief Specialist of Depart-
ment of Economic and Investment Activities, Munici-
poverty in the Kyrgyz Republic, “Araket,” was
pal State Administration of the City of Bishkek. She
developed in 1998 to define the concept and has worked as a specialist in scientific and technical
scales of poverty, categories of poor people, information at the Scientific and Research Institute.
and distribution of poverty by regions. It Ms. Zhukova is a philologist.

160 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

PHILIPPINES

Cebu

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF The city is 365 miles south of Manila ants and 4 percent of the country’s popula-
THE CITY on the coastal side of the central eastern tion. Its population growth rate of 1.6 per-

N
portion of Cebu Island. The island is geo- cent for the last five years is below the
ext to Metro Manila, Cebu City graphically situated to act as the hub for national figure and its household size of 4.9
is the second most important most of the tourist, business, and commer- is lower than the 5.5 national average.
city in the Philippines and is cial activities in the region. More than 80 By Cebu City Council’s definition,
part of a bigger agglomeration percent of Philippine shipping lines are based Cebu’s population is urban and rural with its
of towns and cities called Met- in Cebu and Mactan International Airport, in 80 urban and rural barangays (villages) in
ropolitan Cebu. the nearby city of Lapu-Lapu, is the city’s the city. In 1995, 89 percent of the popula-
Cebu is a tropical metropolis averaging international gateway. tion lived in the urban area of 24 percent of
at least 325 days of sunshine annually. In
1995, it was ranked by Asiaweek as the eighth DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR
most livable city in Asia. It is a bustling com- FORCE, AND INCOME Statistical Snapshot ... 1998
munity offering numerous business and tour-
DEMOGRAPHY
ism opportunities, and the locals, called In 1998, the city’s population was about Resident population (in million) 0.655
Cebuanos, are generally friendly and fluent in 655,000, representing more than 50 percent Density (persons/ha) 92.6
English. of Metropolitan Cebu’s 1.3 million inhabit- Annual rate of increase (percent) 1.6

ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$2,021
Households below poverty line (percent) 34.2
Cost of stay (per day) US$40
FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 41.3
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 38

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 4.1
Persons per hospital bed 306
Life expectancy (years) 66
Adult literacy rate (percent) 93
Median years of education 14
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 145

COMMUNICATIONS
Local calls (per person per year) 28
International calls (per person per year) 0.12
Mobile calls (per person per year) 10.4
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 6

City Profiles 161

 average annual household income of $4,160
is more than in other parts of the country.
Cebu’s economy grew from the mid-
1980s until the Asian regional crisis in the
mid-1990s with much of its economic suc-
cess being from export growth which aver-
aged 17 percent for the past five years.
Cebu’s exports account for 10 percent of to-
tal Philippine exports and the city has the
largest concentration of exporters in the Phil-
ippines with over 930 large and small firms.

POLITICAL STRUCTURE
Independent of the national Government and
other local government units in the province,
the government of Cebu is a local government
unit (LGU) with a city government headed by
the city mayor, who is elected for three years
and is limited to three consecutive terms.
The Port of Cebu is one of the largest ports in the Philippines The mayor heads the executive branch of
the local government and is directly respon-
the total area of the city, while 11 percent move towards Metropolitan Cebu’s outly- sible and accountable to the President of
was dispersed in the rural area with 76 per- ing areas. the Philippines through the Department of
cent of the land space. Pushed by growing Cebu’s population grows to more than Interior and Local Government. The vice
pressure in the urban lowlands and pulled 800,000 in the daytime as people come to mayor presides over the city’s legislative
by economic potentials in the uplands, the city to work, do business, or study. There council or Sangguniang Panglungsod with
people tended to settle in the uplands are 39 colleges and six universities in the its 16 elected councilors and two appointed
which resulted in a 4 percent population city serving the entire region. Cebu is a ser- ones. The vice mayor and councilors are
growth in the rural barangays and a low vice-oriented city with the bulk of the work- elected for the same term as the mayor.
growth rate of 1 percent in the urban areas ing population comprising 72.7 percent of Two councilors are appointed and chosen
between 1993 and 1998. Land prices have the total employed in the sector. Only 6.9 per- from the villages or wards (barangays) and
become prohibitive for residential purposes cent of employed persons are engaged in ag- the youth sector.
and rents have increased around the central riculture while 20.4 percent are employed in The city has 80 lower-level LGUs
business district (CBD), causing people to manufacturing and industry-related jobs. The (barangays), each headed by a barangay
captain. The captain and the council help
maintain peace and order in their respec-
tive barangays and are instrumental in pro-
viding feedback for residents who air their
concerns to the city government.

URBAN GOVERNANCE
Governance at the local level has been
grouped into the four functions of providing
basic services, making policies and regula-
tions, generating revenue, and offering sup-
port services. Cebu, like all LGUs in the
Philippines, relies on the Internal Revenue
Allotment (IRA) or share from national taxes,
which is distributed under a formula stipu-
lated in the Local Government Code. About
40 percent of the city’s budget comes from
IRA, about 60 percent is generated from
taxes, user charges, permits and fees, etc.,
One of the oldest universities in the country -- the University of San Carlos is found in Cebu and 6 percent is from loans from banks and

162 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 pared to Metro Manila, albeit on a smaller 1980s and early 1990s, but slowed since
scale. Telephone connections are readily 1998 because of the Asian economic crisis.
available, especially in the urban area and There is no rail-based transportation
cellular phone services are likewise suffi- and beyond regular jeepney routes trans-
cient compared to the rest of the country port consists of tricycles, trisikads, motor-
and the signal transmission is quite clear. cycles, and bicycles mounted with
The city has 13 AM radio stations and 20 passenger sidecars in residential subdivi-
FM stations. Telex and telegraph services sions.
are present as well as cable TV services. The city’s traffic management arm,
There are three daily community papers Cebu City Traffic Operations and Manage-
Cebu City Hall serves as the nerve center of the
city while the national newspapers usually find ment, is a model emulated by other Philip-
their way to the streets by early morning. pine cities and municipalities with its
other financial institutions. In general, it can National banks, as well as other major busi- highly-trained and efficient traffic enforcers
be said that Cebu City is better off than many ness companies, have regional headquar- and parking attendants. Cebu City boasts of
other LGUs in the country because of its ters in the city. There are three major malls its highly sophisticated Sydney Coordinated
lower IRA share dependency and relative or shopping arcades offering a variety of lo- Adaptive Traffic System, a network of auto-
independence from the national Government. cal and international goods and services. mated traffic signals coordinated from a
central computer which monitors the vol-
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE TRANSPORT ume and speed of vehicles, transmitting the
data to a local controller that controls traffic
The city has been a port city ever since Urban transportation in Cebu City is mainly signal lights to give the most efficient cycle
Asian traders began using it as a trade route. composed of private cars and jeepneys, the times. This has made traffic management
At present, 5 percent of the country’s ex- latter being a paratransit mode of public in Cebu one of the best in the country. The
ports pass through Cebu’s international port transportation. In 1992, 80 percent of the geographic information system supports ur-
which is a convenient access point for the total person-trips made in the city were on ban and land use management by providing
Philippines and the region. public transport while 20 percent were pri- high quality computer generated maps and
Mactan International Airport, 15 km vate. It was estimated in a 1992 study that analysis to user departments.
from Cebu City, is second to the Ninoy the 20 percent private transport mode would
Aquino International Airport in Manila for grow to 38 percent by 2002. This projected HOUSING ACCESS AND
the number of the regular domestic and in- increase in private transport is a concern, AFFORDABILITY
ternational flights and cargo traffic. It and jeepneys which carry 10–20 passen-
handles over 300 domestic flights a week to gers are considered inefficient for urban use. Housing accessibility, especially for lower
25 destinations and an average of 30 inter- There are moves to phase them out and shift income groups, is generally limited. Settlers
national direct flights a week. to higher modes of transport such as buses in many of the informal settlements have
Water remains a problem because it or the light rail transit. been there for 40 years and cannot be easily
mostly comes from groundwater sources A fleet of about 5,000 airconditioned relocated. High land costs, particularly near
which, according to recent studies, are be- taxis ply the city’s streets. The number of the city center, make housing hardly afford-
ing depleted by over-withdrawal causing sa- private cars steadily increased in the late able for most people.
line intrusion into the coastal aquifer. Moves
to develop other surface water sources have
stalled due to project implementation difficul-
ties. The network system serves only a third
of the population while the rest turns to alter-
natives like drawing from the same aquifer and
thereby worsening the problem. The cost of
$1.31 per cubic meter is generally higher than
in the rest of the country.
There is abundant power supply, at least
for the next decade, because Cebu is con-
nected to a bigger power grid which draws
its energy from geothermal sources on the
nearby islands of Negros and Leyte. Ineffi-
cient transmission and distribution systems,
however, cause occasional power outages.
The city’s urban amenities rate highly
compared to the rest of the country, even com- Traffic signals are coordinated from a central computer system

City Profiles 163

 way to go before housing problems are re- participated in by city residents and visi-
solved. tors from all over the country and overseas.
Many buildings and edifices reflect the
ENVIRONMENTAL city’s culture and the Casa Gorodo museum
MANAGEMENT holds many artifacts. Recently, the city gov-
ernment intensified its efforts to preserve
There is no central sewerage system, only the past and embarked on the Cebu City Wa-
an old system near the CBD which serves a terfront Development Project to revive the
few industrial factories. Most households waterfront district of the original city core
have their own septic tanks, which serve as and make it a new tourist destination. Other
the primary treatment of household efflu- edifices like Chinese and Taoist temples re-
ents. Wastewater is released into the city’s flect the city’s culture and draw crowds of
deficient drainage system usually without visitors.
treatment and this affects the city’s rivers
Locals and tourists enjoy a walk in the Fuente and creeks, which are considered biologi- MAJOR URBAN
Osmeña Park cally dead and need to be rehabilitated and DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
revived.
The drainage system cannot cope with
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
Housing development remains a major
concern for the city government and is a rainwater during the rainy season and flood- The city drew up the Cebu City Strategic
high priority on its development agenda. So- waters burst out of waterways and cause Master Plan Study to provide a 20-year plan-
cialized housing programs were created, re- flashfloods in different parts of the city. Un- ning perspective. The plan envisions a three-
settlement sites were identified and planned development contributes to this prob- corridor transport system segregating
developed, and some affordable tenements lem. Without an overall drainage plan only industrial, public, and private traffic. Land
were constructed to make Cebu City “squat- uncoordinated drainage solutions have been use will be harmonized throughout the me-
ter-free in ten years.” But there is still a long pursued. tropolis.
Solid waste collection, disposal, and As the city is envisioned to be a trade
management is reasonably good. The city and services center in the Philippines and
operates a sanitary landfill which was im- for Southeast Asia the proposed plan em-
proved in recent years through a project phasizes livability, sound environmental
funded by the national Government. The ex- management, social responsibility, and
isting landfill has a limited lifespan and there equality. City planners envisage the city as
is a dire need to identify a new landfill site host to regional business, especially as a
and new technologies on solid waste man- major information site for technology indus-
agement are also being considered. tries and other advanced technologies.
Core projects being undertaken by the
CULTURAL HERITAGE city government include the Metro Cebu De-
velopment Project Phases I, II, and III. Phase
As the oldest settlement in the country, Cebu III includes the Cebu City South Reclama-
is rich in its historical and cultural heritage. tion Project, which aims to provide 100,000
Ferdinand Magellan, the Portuguese voy- jobs when completed and create the city’s
ager, died in Cebu in 1521 after planting a economic base for governing well and pro-
wooden cross which today is a tourist at- viding urban services.
traction.
Cebu was under the Spanish for 300 Photographs were obtained with permission from the
years and many Spanish legacies can be Cebu Investment Promotion Center (CIPC)
seen in the city. The old core of the city is
reminiscent of the typical configuration of
Spanish settlements with a triangle of civil
government (present day city hall), the mili- Nigel Paul C. Villarete works as an indepen-
tary fort (Fort San Pedro), and the church dent consultant. He is also a member of the Faculty
(Basilica del Santo Niño). The latter is an of the School of Urban and Regional Planning exten-
important religious edifice in the city and sion program at the University of the Philippines in
Cebu. He worked in SCHEMA Konsult, a consultancy
the center of religious devotion. The feast of and engineering firm based in Cebu as the Chief of
Magellan’s cross, planted in 1521, remains a Sinulog is held every third week of January Planning Studies and Advisory Division. Mr. Villarete
favorite tourist attraction with major citywide festive celebrations, is a civil engineer.

164 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

SRI LANKA

Colombo

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ranging to 20 meters above sea level. The 1796, and lastly under the British until 1948.
THE CITY large inland Beira Lake and a network of Local leaders have administered the city

C
canals function as support systems for since it gained independence from the Brit-
olombo is situated on the west storm water discharge, particularly during ish in 1948. Its harbor has developed to be
coast of Sri Lanka with the the monsoon season. Colombo receives one of the busiest container handling ports
Kelani River as its northern heavy rain most of the year, particularly dur- of South Asia and the country’s administra-
boundary, vast stretches of ing the southwest monsoon from May to tive, financial, trade, commerce, and trans-
home gardens and low-lying July and the northeast monsoon from Octo- port links have focused on Colombo. Colombo
lands as its southern and eastern bound- ber to December. With average tempera- Municipal Council (CMC), the city’s admin-
aries, and the Indian Ocean as its western tures between 25° and 30° Celsius, the city istrator since 1866, now has about 53 elected
boundary. The city has jurisdiction over 37.3 is blessed with a comfortable tropical cli- council members.
square kilometers of generally flat terrain mate. The city currently contains about 1.5
The city was first noted as a Moorish million people daily, of whom 1 million are
trading settlement and from 1505 its signifi- residents. Daily commuting is common on
cance was further strengthened under the low-cost trains, with some people travel-
Statistical Snapshot ... 1998 Portuguese, and then under the Dutch until ling 50 miles or more to work.
DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 0.8
Density (persons/ha) 298
Annual rate of increase (percent) 2.4
ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$550
Households below poverty line (percent) 12.9
Cost of stay (per day) US$80

FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 51.4
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 71

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 1.9
Persons per hospital bed 100
Life expectancy (years) 71.8
Adult literacy rate (percent) 94.5
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 23
COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 53
Local calls (per person per year) 64
International calls (per person per year) 1.2
Mobile calls (per person per year) 5
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 9.63

City Profiles 165

DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR Informal employment is significant in members with the mayor and deputy mayor
FORCE, AND INCOME the city. The Ministry of Urban Development, selected from the party that gains a major-
Housing and Construction (MUDHC) in 1999 ity of wards at the council election. Council
Colombo is a multiethnic city with about estimated about 50 percent of the capital’s affairs are organized through about 15 stand-
seven ethnic groups of which the largest is population live in low-income settlements ing committees of elected members who
the Sinhalese (50.1 percent), Tamils (24.5 (underserved settlements) and 90 percent direct the officers of different operational de-
percent), and Ceylon Moors (21 percent). The of their population is employed in the city’s partments of the municipality. The mayor
city’s annual population growth rate has been informal sector (wholesale and retail trade, and the council are elected every four years
relatively low in recent decades at 1.2 per- street vending, transport, food, and various under the council election law. The city is
cent in 1971, 0.5 percent in 1981, and 1.8 industries). According to the MUDHC sur- divided into 47 municipal wards, and 53
percent in 1994. It is estimated to increase vey, the city’s 1,506 underserved settle- members are selected for the council based
to 2.4 percent between 1994 and 2010. A ments accommodate about 66,022 on the multiparty proportionate system. The
demographic survey by the Department of households. Between 1978 and 1994 the 47 wards are grouped into six municipal dis-
Census and Statistics in 1994 indicated that Government implemented major housing im- tricts for carrying out certain functions at
Colombo had a fairly large economically ac- provement programs, and it remains con- district level (solid waste management,
tive population (54.7 percent in the age group cerned with their poor standard of basic public health and engineering, medical cen-
15–44). Its dependent population was about amenities and social services. ters, and recreational activities).
30.9 percent of which 24.9 percent belonged Some two million households or half of
to the age group 0–14. the country’s population benefit from the URBAN GOVERNANCE
Of the economically active population Government ’s Samurdhi Programme for
82.5 percent are employed and 17.5 percent poor relief. An ultrapoor group is identified Colombo has already earned a good reputa-
unemployed. The national unemployment as those families with more than three de- tion among south Asian cities for recently
rate was 9.7 percent in 1999. Household in- pendents and monthly incomes of less than introducing several initiatives for good gov-
come distribution for six months in 1996/97 $15.50. This category of the poor constitutes ernance. Advisory committees (parallel to
showed that 57.3 percent of the population some 20,000 families nationwide. The the 15 standing committees) of senior citi-
fell within the top 20 percent quintile while Samurdhi Authority spent $12.08 million on zens and professionals were set up to ad-
7.5 percent and 3.3 percent of the population various poor relief programs in 1998, includ- vise the mayor on different services the CMC
were included in the next to bottom and bot- ing banking, insurance, savings, training, is providing for its citizens. These members
tom quintiles. Data for 1995 shows that the and self-employment. The Department of serve voluntarily. In addition, a steering com-
Colombo Metropolitan Region, composed of Poor Relief spent $12.85 million in 1998. In mittee at the municipal level to decide on
the three districts of Colombo, Gampaha, and addition to these national programs, the CMC CMC’s important management issues was
Kalutara contributed some 43 percent of GDP, spent $1.33 million on relief for destitute set up consisting of the mayor, deputy mayor,
of which Colombo itself contributed some families and skills training for the youth of municipal commissioner, the two deputy
30 percent. Employment in 1998 was domi- poor families in the city. municipal commissioners, municipal engi-
nated by personal services (27.6 percent), neer, municipal treasurer, and the municipal
manufacturing (24.3 percent), and wholesale POLITICAL STRUCTURE secretary. The committee meets regularly
trade and tourism (20.2 percent). Child labor once a week and a monthly meeting chaired
has all but disappeared, declining to 0.1 per- CMC operates under the legal provisions by the mayor or deputy mayor allows repre-
cent in 1997, no doubt influenced by govern- stipulated in the Municipal Ordinance of 1947 sentatives of the community development
ment regulations and NGO awareness and its amendments. Although the Council councils in low-income communities to air
programs. is relatively autonomous in handling its af- their problems at the forum. This forum, the
fairs within the city, some important issues “Housing and Community Development
such as recruiting staff, handling financial, Council” meets monthly. A weekly public
administrative, and health issues, and se- day also allows people to bring their griev-
curing public security are under the direc- ances to the mayor, deputy mayor, and heads
tion of the central Government and provincial of departments of the council at municipal
governments. offices. A City Watch Committee was formed
Some government functions have been consisting of senior citizens of the city who
transferred to provincial councils (PCs), cre- voluntarily contribute to developing the CMC.
ated in 1988 as new authorities above mu- They contribute ideas and make constructive
nicipal authorities. Therefore the CMC is now criticisms about CMC matters aimed at im-
required to seek approval on the above mat- proving the city’s performance. The commit-
ters either from PCs or through PCs to the tee meets monthly with the mayor.
central Government. The CMC gives $12,626 annually to each
A strong tourism industry gives rise to new Municipal Council activities are gov- council member to spend on improving ba-
hotels and commercial centers erned by a council of multiparty elected sic amenities in underserved settlements.

166 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 within the city limit. Of the total infrastruc-
ture budget for 2000, 16 percent, or $5.77
million, has been allocated to road and trans-
port sector activities in the city. The Sri
Lanka Railway Department looks after the
railroad network.
Transport services in the city are run
by government-owned bus companies as
well as private companies and individuals.
Train services between Colombo and other
major cities are accessed by commuters.
Residents and visitors also use private cars,
three-wheelers, and motorcycles. Nation-
ally, car ownership more than doubled be-
tween 1996 and 1998, while ownership of
dual purpose vehicles increased fourfold.
Historical buildings in the Colombo Fort area
Recently, traffic congestion grew as a result
of inefficient transport management, inad-
These low-income communities are consid- cent stems from system leakages, amounts equate road capacity, and the requirements
ered illegal or informal as they do not come to 45 percent of supply. As for sewerage of the security situation. The city is without
under the council’s regulations, and there- facilities, about 80 percent of the city is cov- adequate parking facilities and motorists
fore ratepayer’s money cannot be used to ered by the municipal sewerage network, tend to park vehicles on the roadsides, which
improve them. However, considering the 15 percent by septic tanks, and 4 percent by hinders traffic and passenger movement. In
need for improving the quality of life of resi- underground pits. Having no wastewater addition to passenger transport vehicles,
dents in these settlements, CMC is allocat- treatment facilities, the city’s waste is dis- many commercial vehicles including con-
ing money to them from the mayor’s funds. charged directly into the sea. tainer carriers operating between the har-
Customer-oriented training for munici- The Ceylon Electricity Board supplies bor and suburbs contribute to traffic
pal staff is part of the corporate plan for power to about 90 percent of the city popu- congestion (total cargo handled in the port
1998–2002 outlining the key issues, strate- lation, with maintenance by the CMC. increased by 18 percent between 1996 and
gies, and specific action for improving the Telephone traffic has increased rapidly, 1998).
quality of CMC services. In keeping with this with 315,241 connections in 1997 and
vision, staff are being trained to better sat- 455,598 in 1998 (53 percent concentrated in HOUSING ACCESS AND
isfy people’s needs and the CMC has stream- the metropolitan area). There has also been AFFORDABILITY
lined its complaint handling desk. For the strong growth in private sector telephone
first time, the CMC now has a service direc- connections (cellular, paging, data commu- Some 60 percent of housing stock in Co-
tory indicating its services and the relevant nication, etc.) of which 70–80 percent is es- lombo is owned or inherited; 24 percent is
contact personnel. City ratepayers received timated to be within Colombo city limits. rented and 7 percent is rent free. It is esti-
100,000 free copies. About 90 percent of Internet connections mated that 59 percent of housing stock com-
were located in Colombo in 1998. plies with regulations, but generally the
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE The CMC provides solid waste collec- city’s housing condition is unsatisfactory.
tion services for some 90 percent of house- Of the total housing stock only 49 percent is
The Government is prioritizing improving in- holds in Colombo, with half being provided permanent, while the balance of 51 percent
frastructure, especially in Colombo, to at- by a private sector contractor and half by
tract more investment to help cope with the the CMC directly. Collection is daily in com-
challenges and opportunities under the glo- mercial areas and twice weekly in residen-
balization process. However, the demands tial areas with a total daily collection of 625
of the ongoing civil war mean that fewer tons. Nearly all solid waste is dumped or
funds are available for infrastructure and burned in the open.
other works.
Just over half the households have wa- TRANSPORT
ter connections with the remainder depend-
ing on standposts, shallow wells, tube wells, Colombo acts as the country’s central trans-
and river water. Water is supplied in bulk by port node connecting six main highways and
the National Water Supply and Drainage all railroads serving interior regions. The CMC
Board and distributed by the CMC. Unac- maintains and improves the city’s 480 kilo- The government implements several rail and road
counted for water, of which some 45 per- meters of roads and constructs new roads projects to improve accessibility

City Profiles 167

constitutes substandard housing including DISASTER-RELATED RISKS developing a ring road around the city’s bor-
slums (27 percent) and shanties or tempo- der for traffic to bypass the city; (iv) improv-
rary illegal housing (24 percent). Most of One major natural disaster affecting the city ing low-income settlements through a
these substandard housing settlements do is floods caused by monsoon rains between program of urban renewal (“Sustainable
not have sufficient basic amenities such as May and July. The low elevation of the city’s Township Program”) under which small ur-
water, toilets, electricity, and drains. They urban area and the poor storm water drain- ban areas will be developed within the city;
are classified as underserved settlements. age system aggravate the flooding especially (v) rehabilitating the city’s canal network
However, programs have improved housing for the low-income settlements in the north- under the Greater Colombo Canal Rehabili-
and basic amenities in about 60–70 percent east and eastern sections of the city. Epi- tation Program (since 1990); and (vi) easing
of the city’s underserved settlements. demics such as cholera, typhoid fever, traffic congestion in the city with the Base
The CMC led in implementing the above encephalitis, and food poisoning follow Line Road Widening Project.
programs and is keenly interested in im- flooding. The Government realizes the impor-
proving basic amenities in underserved In addition to the above natural disas- tance of investing in urban development to
settlements. Allocating $12,626 per council ters, emergencies like the civil war result in improve Sri Lanka’s economic productivity
member in 1999 and $18,939 in 2000 for im- bomb blasts which injure people and dam- and infrastructure network. Several pro-
proving amenities in the city’s underserved age property. Motor vehicle accidents and grams undertaken are (i) improving small
settlements is a determined step to improve fires are other hazards. The CMC takes flood towns through national programs; (ii) im-
poor people’s living standards. In addition, preventive measures jointly with the Sri proving urban infrastructure and housing; (iii)
the new “Sustainable Township Program,” Lanka Land Reclamation and Development encouraging foreign investors in develop-
implemented jointly by the CMC and the Min- Corporation. For public health improvement, ment projects with incentives such as leas-
istry of Urban Development and Housing, the CMC seeks the assistance of the ing land, allowing tax holidays, and providing
aims at developing multistorey condominium Government ’s Health Ministry and the infrastructure services; (iv) introducing en-
housing for low- and middle-income house- CMC’s public health and engineering depart- vironmental improvement programs to ar-
holds in the city. The program aims to gradu- ments have been implementing programs rest the deterioration of the urban
ally upgrade all 1,506 underserved to improve infrastructure and people’s environment; and (v) introducing good gov-
settlements. health. A special committee is to recom- ernance so that traditional concepts of con-
Some social development programs at mend ways to manage city disasters. trolling and managing urban affairs are now
the community level are improving poor seen as participatory development initia-
people’s social status and savings capacity, CULTURAL HERITAGE tives.
as well as health and environment standards. A unique recent development in Sri Lanka
These in turn help the urban poor gain access Colombo has places which are historically is the shift in national, provincial, and local
to housing. and culturally important, mostly built by for- authority level policies, which emphasize im-
The State Mortgage and Investment eign rulers who controlled the city for over proved participatory development initiatives
Bank issued 60,000 housing loans by 1998. 450 years. The CMC, as well as the Archeo- operating at municipal level. There is a trend
In addition, other commercial banks provide logical Department of Sri Lanka, seeks to for municipal councils to be increasingly ac-
mortgage finance. preserve archeologically and historically im- tive in urban development, as well as demand-
A 1994 survey by the Department of Child portant structures in Colombo and allocated ing devolution of authority from the central
Care and Probation estimated there were $25,252 in its 2000 budget for maintaining Government. The CMC leads in introducing
some 10,000 street children in Colombo, but and preserving heritage buildings. such municipal level development programs
government, religious, and NGO programs in Sri Lanka.
may have halved this number now. MAJOR URBAN
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
MANAGEMENT
The Colombo Metropolitan Regional Struc-
H.M.U. Chularathna is the Executive Director of
The Central Environment Authority (CEA) and ture Plan, prepared by the Urban Develop-
SEVANATHA Urban Resource Center, an urban-based
National Building Research Organization have ment Authority of MUDHC in 1998/99, national NGO implementing community based pro-
assessed air quality in Colombo and the re- formulated a zoning plan for Colombo. This gram on low-income housing improvement, poverty
sults, although unpublished, show that pollu- was gazetted in July 1999. Under this plan, alleviation, and urban environmental improvement. He
tion levels do not exceed WHO standards. special development programs were identi- worked in the National Building Research Organization
at the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development in
There are no published data on noise, but it fied for Colombo. Some of the major projects
various capacities before he served as Deputy Director
is understood the CEA receives about 100 include (i) developing seven nodal points of the Human Settlements Division from 1992 to 1996.
complaints about industrial and traffic noise within Colombo’s limits; (ii) improving Co- Mr. Chularathna is a graduate of MSc. in Human
monthly. lombo Harbor and its related facilities; (iii) Settlements Development.

168 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

BANGLADESH

Dhaka

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF Metropolitan Area known as RAJUK, or the importance in 1912 after annulment of the
THE CITY Capital Development Authority. partition of Bengal during British rule. The

D
Dhaka is known as the city of 1,000 city became the provincial capital of East
haka City, Bangladesh’s capi- mosques and was once famous for its fine Pakistan with the partition of India in 1947,
tal on the Burhiganga River, is muslin fabrics which were produced in the and the national capital after Bangladesh’s
Bangladesh’s largest city with city area and exported. Historically, the city independence in 1971.
6.5 million people living in its experienced many ups and downs. It was Dhaka includes the central business
360 square kilometers (km2). the capital of Bengal, a province of India dur- district (CBD) of Motijheel-Dilkhusa and the
The city’s primacy is revealed through its ing the early 17th century, but in the latter four satellite business districts of Kawran
having 21 percent of the greater urban area part of the century its importance diminished Bazar, Mohakhali, Mirpur, and Sadar Ghat,
population and its concentration of social with the shifting of the capital to Rajmahal. all located within a ten-kilometer radius of
and economic investments. It is one of six The city regained its importance as capital the CBD.
municipalities in the middle of the Dhaka of East Bengal in 1905, but again lost its
Statistical Snapshot ... 1998
DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 6.5
Density (persons/ha) 953
Annual rate of increase (percent) 4.2

ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$900
Households below poverty line (percent) 47.7
Cost of stay (per day) US$175
FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 26.7
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 49

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 9.3
Persons per hospital bed 924
Life expectancy (years) 60.5
Adult literacy rate (percent) 60.3
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 43

COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 9
Local calls (per person per year) 17
International calls (per person per year) 0.40
Mobile calls (per person per year) 0.50
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 9.23

City Profiles 169

 rural poor. Commuters in the city are esti-
mated at 0.5 million.
Ethnically, Dhaka’s population includes
Muslims (94 percent), Hindu (4.3 percent),
Christian (0.7 percent), Buddhist (0.15 per-
cent), tribal (0.11 percent), and others (0.1
percent). While the old part of the city is
mostly populated by Hindus, Christians and
Buddhists are concentrated in the new part,
and others are fairly widely distributed.
The civilian labor force in the city is
estimated at 1.79 million (1995), of which
1.23 million is male and 0.56 million female.
The labor force is 23 percent unemployed.
Dhaka’s 67 percent of employment in the
informal sector is one of the highest shares
among Asian cities. Dhaka accounts for
about 60 percent of consumer industries and
almost 95 percent of the export oriented gar-
ments industry. Its per capita income is $500,
Dhaka’s population increase is largely attributed to in-migration from the rural areas which is higher than the national average of
$280. Dhaka itself is a large market and has
Dhaka is, in effect, an island within the ing in the 0–14 age group by 4 percent, while some comparative advantage with cheap
delta, especially during floods in the wet sea- males dominate females in the 15–59 age and better quality labor to attract foreign
son. The limited potential for expansion, group by 4 percent. In the 60-plus year group, investment to its export processing zone.
coupled with rapid population growth and the male and female populations are roughly However, there is a high rate of child labor
low per capita incomes, is straining city ser- balanced. which nationally stands at some 11 percent.
vices, affordability of land, social relations, Dhaka City’s population has grown rap- Expansion of periurban agriculture is also
job opportunities, and environmental condi- idly from 0.33 million people in 1951 to 0.55 promising. However, according to the Dhaka
tions. million in 1961. In the 1974 census, the city Metropolitan Development Planning Struc-
population was recorded at 1.6 million, a ture Plan, the city has to create an addi-
DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR figure which more than doubled to 3.44 mil- tional four million to five million jobs by 2015,
FORCE, AND INCOME lion in 1981 and 4.1 million in 1991. This a big challenge for both the Government and
rapid growth has been mainly caused by high city dwellers.
Dhaka City is densely populated with an av- immigration from rural areas, territorial ex-
erage of 170 persons per hectare (330 per- pansion, and natural growth. According to POLITICAL STRUCTURE
sons per hectare in the old part of the city). one study, over 60 percent of Dhaka’s popu-
The age pyramid shows females dominat- lation are migrants, most of whom are the Bangladesh’s centralized system of govern-
ment has a local government system of ur-
ban and rural components. Urban areas with
populations above 0.1 million are designated
as cities; there are 18 of them. Urban areas
with populations of at least 5,000 and other
facilities such as electricity and water are
designated as urban centers (Census 1991).
Urban centers which have an elected com-
mittee to run town functions are called mu-
nicipalities and at present there are about
203 municipalities (pourashavas).
The Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) area
has been divided into 100 wards, each one
having a commissioner directly elected by
people in the ward, while the city has a
mayor directly elected by city residents. In
Temples and historical buildings of different architectural influence can be found in the city. Ahsan addition, the city council consists of 18
Majil is shown here members drawn from the women’s com-

170 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

munity. DCC’s administrative chief is the
chief executive officer (CEO) from the Gov-
ernment. For administration, revenue col-
lection, and service delivery, the city is
divided into ten zones, each under a zonal
executive officer (ZEO).
DCC is highly centralized with little au- The Parliament Building (shown left) and the Supreme Court Building are two of the city’s historical
thority delegated to the CEO or department buildings
heads, much less to ZEOs and ward com-
missioners. This centralized administrative urban poor in Dhaka. A recent survey of 59 DCC is the other important agency for
structure impedes lower levels from ad- organizations working for the urban poor in urban development in Dhaka, but although
equately responding to citizen needs. How- Dhaka shows that more than $4.26 million DCC is empowered to prepare and imple-
ever, to improve city local governance and is being invested in different urban poverty ment plans within its area, this has hardly
citizen participation, a decentralized service reduction programs by NGOs who have al- been practised. DCC has remained a ser-
delivery is being tried in three of Dhaka’s ready achieved significant success. It is re- vice agency providing civic services. Dhaka
wards. ported that nearly 80 percent of their total Water and Sewerage Authority (DWASA)
Public sector responsibilities in urban investment and allocation is related to and Dhaka Electric Supply Company (DESA)
development include providing site and ser- credit. are other agencies which undertake projects
vices projects for urban housing and provid- and implement them in the city, however,
ing utility services such as water, electricity, URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE these are mainly sectoral or subsectoral
gas, telephone, solid waste management, projects.
street lighting, and town planning. The Town Urban development of the city and the met- The city population’s rapid growth has
Improvement Act, 1953, empowers RAJUK ropolitan area is shared by 52 agencies be- exerted excessive pressure on urban infra-
to prepare and implement development longing to 18 ministries involved in planning structure and services including transport,
plans, and carry out development control in and developing the metropolitan area. water supply and sewage, solid waste man-
the metro area. The City Corporation Ordi- Among these, RAJUK and DCC are very im- agement, electricity and gas, telecommu-
nance of 1988 also empowers DCC to pre- portant. RAJUK has prepared a development nications, health, and education, which are
pare town plans, undertake development plan of the metropolitan area called the mainly provided through the public sector.
within city areas, and provide civic services Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan DWASA is the only agency providing
such as street lighting, road development (DMDP) for 1995–2015. The DMDP comprises water and sewage services in the city with
and maintenance, and solid waste collec- the Dhaka Structure Plan (DSP) (1995– only 42 percent of dwellers connected to
tion and disposal. 2015), Urban Area Plan (UAP) (1995–2005), piped water. The water rate is $0.40 per cu-
Private sector participation in Dhaka’s and Detailed Area Plan (DAP). The DSP pro- bic meter. DWASA’s service area is 344 km2
urban development involves land and hous- vides a long-term (20 years) strategy with and its water production has expanded from
ing development, commerce and industry, broad-brush policies for developing Dhaka’s 260 million tons in 1993/94 to 354 million
and transport. In the civic service sector, metro area which has been divided into 26 tons in 1997/98; an annual increase of 8 per-
the private sector’s involvement is negli- strategic planning zones with a target popu- cent. The per capita consumption of water
gible. The public sector is beginning to draw lation of 15 million. The UAP provides an is 160 liters per day. However, the high rate
the private sector into urban development. interim mid-term strategy for the ten years of system loss (41 percent in 1997/98)
NGO participation in urban affairs, par- to 2005, for developing urban areas within means demand is hardly met. Scattered
ticularly in the city, started after 1988’s flood. RAJUK’s boundary. The DAP provides more deep tube wells are the major source of
NGO urban sector work is expanding and the detailed planning proposals for specific sub- water supply. DWASA has a treatment
Coalition of Urban Poor has been formed with areas of Dhaka, while RAJUK has prepared plant, 33 sewerage lift stations, 640 kilome-
50 NGOs networking and working with the one DAP and six others are being prepared. ters (km) of sewerage lines and 44,000 sew-

City Profiles 171

 PABX serving neighborhood demand. There
are about 78,000 cellular telephones in the
city, provided through the private compa-
nies City Cell and Grameen Phone. Internet
connections are also provided by private en-
terprises such as BD Net, Grameen
CyberNet, BanglaNet, BD Online, Agni,
KaifNet, DrikNet, and SpaninnNet.

TRANSPORT
Dhaka has a mainly road-based transport
system with a poorly developed network.
There are only 200 km of primary roads and
too few secondary and collector roads (about
260 km). Lastly there are some 2,500 km of
narrow roads. There are many missing stra-
tegic links in the main road network and
several areas have inadequate accessibil-
ity to the network. The north-south railway
route through the city between Tongi and
Narayanganj is mainly used for long distance
About one fifth of travelling is done by rickshaws
travel and also serves some urban passen-
or any incineration facilities. Solid waste gers. However, its role is limited. Water-
service providers have been developed for ways around Dhaka are mainly used for
house to house collection in most city neigh- interdistrict transport and serve some ur-
borhoods and NGOs have developed waste ban transport needs. Transport infrastruc-
disposal, such as Waste Concern which is ture maintenance is inadequate because of
creating compost from solid waste. poor management and lack of finance.
Electricity is provided by DESA and The city’s rapid population growth is
DESCO. About 90 percent of city dwellers inflicting excessive pressure on the trans-
are connected to electricity and per capita port system and daily traffic congestion oc-
A 12-km trip to work would require 45-60 consumption is 45 kilowatts per hour. De- curs although motor vehicle traffic volume
minutes by bus mand for electricity in the city is growing by is still small compared to other large urban
12 percent per year. System losses exceed areas in Asia. One study estimated that a
erage connections. The sewage system 30 percent and supply is unstable during 12-km work trip during peak hour requires
covers only 15 percent of the city; 40 per- summer. 45-60 minutes by bus. Ineffective traffic
cent is served by septic tanks, 15 percent The nationalized Titas Gas Company management reduces the potential trans-
by pit latrines, while 30 percent has no ac- supplies gas to the city through the main port capacity, causes traffic accidents, and
cess to sanitation and uses roadside drains network covering Dhaka, Jinjira, Tongi, amplifies air pollution. Rickshaws are often
and other spaces. Gazipur, and Narayanganj. Demand currently perceived as the main cause of traffic prob-
About 3,000 tons of solid waste are exceeds supply, and the existing gas line lems but actually it is due to the use of road
generated daily in Dhaka, of which about 50 does not guarantee a constant supply and space by pedestrians (60 percent of total
percent is collected by DCC and the rest there is low pressure in the old city and to trips), rickshaws (19 percent), buses (10
discarded in streets. Waste composition the east and west. Large nondomestic us- percent), cars (3 percent), baby taxis (2 per-
consists of 47 percent domestic, 22.5 per- ers are major consumers. cent), and others which are not properly seg-
cent construction materials, 17 percent The Bangladesh T&T Board (BTTB) op- regated or managed. The city center has too
commercial, 13 percent industrial, and 0.5 erates a telephone network based on under- few parking facilities and parking along ma-
percent clinical waste. About 20 percent of ground primary cables throughout Dhaka’s jor roads and on sidewalks, including rick-
city waste is reduced by scavengers and urban area. About 9 percent of city house- shaws waiting for passengers, aggravate
50 percent of waste is recycled. About holds have telephone connections and there traffic congestion.
300,000–500,000 people are involved in re- is one telephone for every 60 city dwellers. The public transport systems buses,
cycling. DCC has a fleet of 378 trucks, 104 Demand for telephones far exceeds supply rickshaws, and baby taxis are operated by
demountable trucks, 3,000 handcarts, and and BTTB is trying to install new lines and the government and private sectors.
5,200 cleaners for collecting and transport- upgrade old ones. A shortage of telephones Whereas public sector involvement through
ing solid waste. There is no sanitary landfill has led to the private branch of exchange the Bangladesh Road Transport Corporation

172 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

is small, private sector operators are frag- tities of CO2, CO, NOx, and VOC. The most vices are absent so that people defecate and
mented and numerous. Consequently, the notorious are the two-stroke three-wheel- urinate either in open spaces or in makeshift
public transport system is not as developed ers, popularly known as baby taxis and jhupris, which ultimately leads to water pol-
as in many cities in South Asia. Recently, tempoes, which emit clouds of black smoke. lution.
route franchised specialized bus services Since gasoline (octane) contains lead,
such as the premium bus service, NIRAPAD Dhaka’s air contains large concentrations DISASTER-RELATED RISKS
(Safe), have been introduced. A mass tran- of lead particles along with dust and other
sit system is required using buses along particulates. The Government has stopped Dhaka experiences natural disasters such
the city’s major corridors. the importation of three-wheelers and has as floods, localized drainage congestion in-
decided to expand the facilities for energy duced by high intensity rainfall, hail storms,
HOUSING ACCESS AND efficient compressed natural gas operated and tornadoes. Fire is the most devastating
AFFORDABILITY vehicles. Leaded petroleum has also been disaster which the city experiences regu-
restricted and catalytic converters are now larly during summer (April–June).
Population growth has led to a phenomenal compulsory in imported secondhand cars. City flooding goes back to as early as
increase in housing demand. The city’s hous- The city ’s water pollution results 1787. Heavy rainfall, drainage congestion,
ing market consists of owner occupied, pri- mainly from people discharging wastewa- high surrounding water, and overflow from
vate rental, rent free, squatter areas, and ter into the sewage system. Only 12 per- rivers are the principal causes in metropoli-
slums. Physically, housing extends from cent of wastewater is treated and the rest tan areas. Local flooding affects 65 percent
makeshift arrangements to temporary, semi- is discharged into rivers around Dhaka. The of slums and squatter dwellings and 22 per-
permanent, and permanent houses. lakes within the city are also polluted with cent of city dwellings are regularly flooded
Dhaka‘s high proportion of poor people human excreta, decomposable kitchen during minor rainfall.
(65 percent) are unable to afford housing. waste, other nondecomposable waste, and Nine major floods have occurred over
One study (DMDP 1995) observed that the industrial effluents. Analysis of drinking the past half century. Among these, the
first quintile of city households had zero water from different sources reveals that floods of 1988 and 1998 were catastrophic,
affordability for housing. The second quintile both the total and fecal coliform counts are with about 77 percent of the city submerged
could afford $2.9–$6.2 per month, the third unacceptably high. There are over 1,000 to depths between 0.3 and 4.5 meters. About
$6.3–$8.2 per month, the fourth $9.8–$12.3 small- and medium-sized industries in and 60 percent of the city population was directly
per month, and the fifth $20.5–$51.1. Only around Dhaka. The biological oxygen demand affected by the 1988 flood, with damage to
3.85 percent of households could afford above (BOD) load from industrial sources shows housing, infrastructure, industry, and com-
$52. Affordability indices imply that the Gov- that in most bodies of water, including riv- merce estimated at $41 million. The west-
ernment has to be the provider and enabler ers, both chemical and BOD are high and the ern part of the city now has embankments
for different income groups. water cannot sustain fish. In its many slums and flood walls to protect it against floods
Housing conditions vary greatly be- and squatter areas Dhaka‘s sanitary ser- but the eastern part is still unprotected. Con-
tween high- and low-income groups as well
as by area. The gap is obvious between luxu-
rious high-income apartments and houses
in high-income areas such as Gulshan-
Baridhara and small, poorly constructed
temporary housing (jhupri) cramped on
floodprone land. About 30 percent of slum
dwellers live in jhupri-type housing, com-
pared with 2.5 percent in semipucca and 0.5
percent in pucca structures. Only 1.2 per-
cent of households are social housing and
about 54 percent are rented privately, while
31 percent are owned.

ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
Dhaka’s air is highly polluted by vehicle emis-
sions. On average 200,000 motorized ve-
hicles ply the streets, in addition to 300,000
to 500,000 nonmotorized vehicles. A signifi-
cant proportion of those motorized are both
reconditioned and old, emitting large quan- Dhaka City is known as the city of 1,000 mosques. The National Mosque is shown above

City Profiles 173

struction of an embankment or eastern by- institutional development. Other strategies
pass is necessary to protect the city from have been further delineated including eco-
future flooding. nomic development, poverty alleviation,
Geologists warn that Dhaka is on at growth management, human development,
least three fault lines which, if they become financing infrastructure and services, urban
active, may cause colossal losses. In the environment and disaster management, ur-
mid-1980s, there were earthquakes with ban land and housing, urban transport, pub-
Richter scale readings between 5 and 6. lic utilities and services, and institution
Many scientists believe Dhaka will face tre- development.
mendous earthquake damage if the present For 1999–2000, 19 out of 32 approved
rate of lowering of the piezometric surface projects listed in the Annual Development
of groundwater continues. Program for Dhaka were basically financed
Fire is a common hazard in the city with by the Government. In the same year, 27
Dhaka experiencing 736 fires in 1995, 809 in projects in Dhaka were financed by donor
1996, 758 in 1997, 734 in 1998, and 858 in agencies with funding worth about $1.5 bil-
1999. lion to $2 billion or roughly $500 million a
year on average. It has been observed that
CULTURAL HERITAGE although these projects and programs cover
a wide range of planning issues and many of
The city has a reputation for its mosques them involve an institutional development
and minarets and new buildings of different component, there are no substantial projects
styles. The city is home to Lalbagh Fort, to improve urban land and housing and fi-
constructed in 1678, the royal residence of nancing infrastructure and services. Further,
Bara Katra, built in 1663, and Binat Bibi’s the projects have not been identified in the
Mosque, built in 1457. Temples and other citywide overall plan, but only subsectorally.
historical sites can be found within Dhaka. Only one project, the Dhaka Urban Transport
Commensurate to the rich cultural heri- Project, is provided with a mechanism
tage, the people of Dhaka are culturally ac- through the Greater Dhaka Transport Plan-
tive. Few cities in the developing world can ning Coordination Board to improve inter-
boast of a regular international art event agency coordination mechanisms for
(Dhaka’s Asian Art Biennale), open-air po- planning and implementation in the trans-
etry sessions, street plays, musical perfor- port sector.
mances, and lengthy book fairs. The Pahela
Baishak Carnival (Bengali new year) and
Ekusey (21 February), now observed as
World Mother Language Day, are massive
cultural events. Huge religious gatherings,
like Eid congregations and Viswa Ijtema, and
Durga Puja are always peacefully celebrated
and have profound social and economic im-
plications.

MAJOR URBAN
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
Bangladesh is without national policy on ur-
banization or urban development. Recently, Mohammad A. Mohit is a professor in the Depart-
the Government announced a national land ment of Urban and Regional Planning, Bangladesh
University of Engineering and Technology. He served
use policy with zoning suggestions for land
as a lecturer at the Institute of Bangladesh Studies,
use. The umbrella strategies recommended University of Rajshani, Bangladesh and Department of
for Dhaka‘s urban development include re- Town and Regional Planning, University of Sheffield,
gional integration, strategy integration, and UK. Mr. Mohit is an urban and regional planner.

174 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

VIET NAM

Hanoi

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF service sector employment, the picture is and overloaded public services and
THE CITY changing as some state-owned enterprises infrastructure. Increasing urbanization, com-

H
(SOEs) are equitized, leased, or liquidated. plexity in management, and the growing de-
anoi is Viet Nam’s political, After three phases of SOE restructuring mand for public services exert pressure on
economic, cultural, and tour- which started in 1994, the number of SOEs Hanoi authorities’ responsibilities.
ist center. Founded in 1010 has been slashed by more than 50 percent. Within its 918.46 square kilometers
under Ly Cong Uan King, the Recently, because of the Asian crisis, (km2), Hanoi’s 2.7 million people are con-
city lies on flat terrain be- Hanoi’s growth slowed as official develop- tained in 12 districts at a density of 2,900
tween the Red and Nhue rivers and is iso- ment assistance funds and foreign direct in- people per km2. The city holds 3.5 percent
lated by embarkments and dams. vestment, which contributed almost 20 of the country’s population and although
Hanoi’s economy is in transition from percent of the country’s total foreign invest- there are 54 ethnic groups in Viet Nam, no
being centrally planned to market oriented. ments, were dramatically reduced. Internal minority group exceeds 1 percent of Hanoi’s
From an underdeveloped agricultural structural problems and frequent policy and population.
economy the city is moving toward a dy- regulatory changes also contributed to the
namic and multi-commodity system with downturn. Statistical Snapshot ... 1998
reforms encouraging private ownership, for- Like other cities in developing countries,
DEMOGRAPHY
eign investments, and exports. And while Hanoi faces problems of emigration and ur- Resident population (in million) 2.55
the Government holds a large percentage of banization, distinctions between rich and poor, Density (persons/ha) 146
Annual rate of increase (percent) 3.5

ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$709
Households below poverty line (percent) US$99
FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 67.2
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 13

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 4.3
Persons per hospital bed 289
Life expectancy (years) 69.7
Adult literacy rate (percent) 85
Median years of education 12.5
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 10.2

COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 37
Local calls (per person per year) 88
International calls (per person per year) 1.2
Mobile (per person per year) 1
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 6.3

City Profiles 175

 military and consequently, land for private fees for particular services (buses, fresh-
or commercial use is limited. Prime com- water, or marketing fees), consistent with
mercial land prices in Hanoi can be as high fee levels implemented nationwide. Local
as $2,256 per square meter. government is also unable to borrow funds,
but can undertake projects up to $7.5 mil-
DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR lion through the winning bidders selected
FORCE, AND INCOME by the Government.
In general, Hanoi’s local government has
Hanoi grew at 3.5 percent per year in the last good relations with its citizens. A recent Hanoi
five years with about 56,000 people migrat- Statistical Office survey shows 85 percent of
ing from the provinces annually. the business community and 80 percent of
Informal settlers who occupy 61.1 ha residents are satisfied with local government
in the city do not legally own land and are and municipal services. The government pe-
mostly street vendors, street children, and riodically publishes an annual report on the
those involved in small businesses. city’s projects and social and economic strat-
Poverty is a serious concern among lo- egies for the community. Complaints and sug-
cal authorities. Several governmental and so- gestions are also regularly solicited from all
cial institutions have implemented poverty levels of government.
reduction strategies such as providing edu-
cation and health care services to reduce the URBAN GOVERNANCE
number of households living below the pov-
erty line ($131 per person per year) to only Hanoi‘s local authorities have limited inter-
1.8 percent. vention in the delivery of most public ser-
Bicycle is the most popular means of transportation vices like water supply, sewerage,
in Hanoi
POLITICAL STRUCTURE electricity, mass transport, road mainte-
nance, health care, primary and secondary
Hanoi is headquarters for many gov- Local governments are heavily subordinated education, and social security. Road main-
ernment offices, social organizations, and to the central Government and Hanoi is no tenance is financed by the local budget, but
international institutions and foreign repre- exception. It is not permitted to close down bidders can be state owned or private com-
sentative offices. Over 1,000 SOEs, nearly the council or remove councilors from of- panies. In services like water, electricity,
4,000 private companies, and 324 direct for- fice. The General Department of Taxes de- sewerage, or refuse collection, the local
eign invested projects are based in Hanoi. signs taxes and tax collection is effected by government receives subsidies and admin-
Limited by an underdeveloped private its local branches, with local authorities as- istrative instructions from other govern-
sector, most public services and infrastruc- sisting. The Government assesses requests ment organizations, which work as “public
ture projects have been carried out by local for local expenditure and proposals for im- benefit enterprises.” These firms which are
enterprises and administrative organiza- posing user charges and fees are reviewed largely financed by government funds func-
tions. Large-scale domestic businesses are against the levels of fees imposed in other tion almost independently. The level of sub-
still mainly SOEs with their joint ventures cities or provinces. The municipal govern- sidy depends on the progress of activities
with foreign investors. ment, for instance, can set user charges and reviewed at the end of each financial year.
Of the total 91,846 hectares (ha) of ur-
ban land, business activities take about 63
percent of the total area of which 40,800 ha
is used for agriculture and animal husbandry;
12 percent of the land is devoted to residen-
tial use; 13 percent to roads, ports, and air-
ports use; 11 percent to government offices,
international organizations, and military
bases use; and about 1 percent or about 923
ha to public open space. The two largest
open areas are found around the Hoankiem
and Hotay lakes.
The Government has no system of land-
ownership. In urban areas, only 2 percent of
urban dwellers have land titles or land use
certificates. The majority of the land is
owned by national agencies and the Hanoi is headquarters for many government, private offices and international institutions

176 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Delivery of services (police, emergency, edu-
cation, health care) are regulated by the ad-
ministrative offices’ annual plans.
Local authorities in Hanoi intend to pur-
sue programs aimed at improving the city’s
socio-economic development, delivery of
public services, and political stability.
Hanoi aims to achieve an efficient infra-
structure, effective public service, and im-
proved urban environment as prerequisites
for sustainable development. However, the
city, like all local authorities in Viet Nam, is
unable to borrow funds and has only limited
resources because of legal constraints on
its authority. The existing legal framework
limits infrastructure, disbursement, and re-
settlement. Resettlement and compensation
costs are too high, in some cases they con-
sume 60–70 percent of project expenditure,
and this is a disincentive to development.
The low level of competence among urban Hanoi’s Ho Tay Lake is the biggest lake in central Hanoi
government staff considerably limits local
authorities in planning and implementing so- cial, or real estate development the Govern- Drainage System Unit 1996 1997 1998 1999
cial-economic strategies. Many staff can- ment is the main investor in health, sanita-
Canal drain km 38.6 38.6 38.6 38.6
not speak or write a second language or use tion, environmental protection, roads,
computers for their daily work. In addition, drainage, public transportation, and public River drain km 36.8 36.8 36.8 36.8
lack of responsibilities and bureaucracy are safety. Government institutions, for in- Underground
other serious weaknesses among Hanoi’s stance, monopolize provision of electricity, drainage system km 160 174.5 182 182
civil servants. freshwater, waste collection, and postal and Treatment system
Further, urban management lacks a sys- telecommunications services. for wastewater ha 600 600 600 600
tem of indicators which could assist in plan- Larger projects are also managed di- Source: Hanoi Statistical Yearbook, 1999. HSO, Hanoi, 4/2000.
ning and operations. For example, the rectly by national ministries. Local authori-
absence of environmental indicators to moni- ties in Hanoi are disallowed from In 1999, there were about 86 kilome-
tor air and water pollution is a basic short- implementing infrastructure projects be- ters (km) of drainage pipes leading to ca-
coming. longing to Group A (projects with capital ex- nals and rivers and 182 km of underground
The local budget is derived mainly from ceeding $7.5 million); they are undertaken drainage pipes. About 78 percent of house-
taxes (67.2 percent), user charges (17.6 per- by the Government. This restricts the local holds are connected to these pipes; how-
cent), and the central budget (7.7 percent). government in planning on a large scale. ever, only 3 percent of the wastewater is
Local government is not permitted to bor- Electricity and telephones are two impor- treated and most wastewater is discharged
row from domestic and international institu- tant municipal services, provided by two na- into rivers.
tions. Local budget expenses focus on tionwide suppliers belonging to the central
recurrent expenditures (62.42 percent) and Government. Local government cannot de- TRANSPORT
the contracted recurrent expenditure ratio cide pricing or supply of these services, but
is near zero and implies inefficiency in local it can give financial assistance and land for Motorcycles are the most popular means of
state offices’ operations. Another burden on setting up stations for expanding networks. transport. Private automobiles are limited to
the local budget is employee salaries. For Other services are provided by SOEs the minority high-income class. To stimulate
every 1,000 people, there are about 10.1 lo- subordinate to local authorities. There are use of public transport, local authorities sub-
cal government employees, with their wages cases when it is more convenient for the sidize about 34.4 percent of bus operators’
taking 12.6 percent of the local budget. Hanoi People’s Committee to supply a mu- operation costs. Taxi services are increas-
nicipal service, as it recently did by boost- ing as a result of the open market policy.
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE ing the supply of freshwater and waste Road infrastructure investments rely
collection. mostly on the central budget because of in-
The system of public service provision is Drainage and sewerage require exten- adequate financial resources. Small-scale
dominated by the remaining SOEs and other sive improvement; the sewerage system projects such as reconstructing and paving
government organizations. While external now also functions as drains for both storm inner roads amounted to $8.8 million or 16.8
investors may invest in industrial, commer- water runoff and wastewater. percent of local spending on infrastructure.

City Profiles 177

Around the Hoan Kiem Lake are many commercial and tourist attraction areas

Hanoi’s two airports and railway ac- cess and services standards on which people
tivities are central Government responsibili- can build their own houses. Because of the
ties. The city’s inland water port on the Red complexity of issuing land use rights in Viet
River handles 1.42 million tons of commer- Nam it may be difficult to provide formal
cial goods annually. land use certificates for individuals and an
alternative of leases for a limited period is
HOUSING ACCESS AND being considered. There are also plans to en-
AFFORDABILITY courage resettling in the suburbs while pro-
moting sales of ancient villas in the center.
Although public housing provision no longer
exists, most households still rent an apart- ENVIRONMENTAL
ment from a housing business company con- MANAGEMENT
nected to the Government.
The center of the city is characterized With over 1,100 ha of water surface and
by apartments while the suburbs are mostly 180,000 trees, Hanoi prides itself as a green
single family housing. There are 12,393 tem- city. Furthermore, air pollution remains low
porary dwellings belonging to illegal because most citizens go to their offices on
immigrants, or those illegally built on bicycles and motorcycles. Increasing popu-
converted land. lation is straining the urban environment.
The Government has plans to sell state- Each year, 441,300 tons of solid waste is
owned apartments to renters to reduce the generated while air and noise pollution are
burden on the public housing budget and rising in commercial and residential areas.
increase the proportion of owned houses. To deal with these problems, local govern-
However, tenants’ low incomes and complicated ment plans to move old and polluting facto-
procedures stalled access to housing. Social ries to the suburbs. New refuse dumps have
housing comprises 12.49 percent of the total. been built while the drainage system, in-
While the Government supports con- cluding canals and natural lakes, has been
verting land from other uses like business scarped. The authorities also plan to per-
and public land to residential use, registra- suade people to use buses to reduce crowd-
tion fees are too high for average income ing in the center at rush hours.
earners. This represses the housing market
Photographs were obtained with permission from the
and pushes prices of the owned housing and
Hanoi Statistical Office and the Vietnam News Agency
rents to levels that compare with higher- (VNA) and from Jeffrey Mudrick, Local Initiatives
income countries in the region. House prices Support Corporation.
are generally 15 times above annual in-
comes while tenants pay 15 percent of their Do Thuc is the Director of Hanoi Statistical Office
incomes on rent. (HSO). Prior to his being appointed as the Director of
HSO in 1997 he served as the Director of Personnel
To encourage rapid development of new and Administrative Management Department in 1992
housing, the Government plans to make land and Vice Director of HSO in 1993. Mr. Thuc holds a
available in small plots with minimum ac- doctorate degree in Economics.

178 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

PEOPLE’ S REPUBLIC
OF CHINA

Hohhot

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF Artifacts discovered in many parts of tan area, and Hohhot urban area. The city’s
THE CITY the city indicate that people lived here dur- administrative region was further subdivided

H
ing the Han Dynasty about 2,000 years ago. in 1995 into the four districts of Huimin,
ohhot, capital of the Inner Today, the city is considered the regional Yuquan, Xincheng, and Suburban and five
Mongolia Autonomous Re- center of politics, economy, culture, science, counties of Tuoketuo, Tumotezuo, Helingeer,
gion (IMAR), is located app- and technology and in 1986 the State Coun- Qingshuihe, and Wuchuan.
roximately 440 kilometers cil designated it as the center for history Hohhot’s temperatures range between
(km) west of Beijing and north and culture. 37.7° and -32.6° Celsius with an annual
of the Great Wall. It is an inland city on the Hohhot experienced rapid urbanization average temperature of 6.2° Celsius. More
1,000-meter high Tumuochuan Plain with its from 1990 to 1998 when the urban popula- than 60 percent of precipitation occurs be-
smooth and fertile terrain, rich in water tion during daytime working hours increased tween July and September.
sources, between the Huanghe River and by 18 percent from 602,000 to 712,000. Its Bordering Mongolia and Russia, the
the southern foot of Daqing Mountain. total population is 2.04 million with a den- IMAR enjoys a geographical advantage in
sity of 119 persons per square kilometer developing barter trade via two main ports,
Statistical Snapshot ... 1998 (km2). Hohhot is divided into Hohhot City, Manzhouli and Erenhot, which reach out to
Hohhot great urban area, Hohhot metropoli- Eastern and Western Europe through Russia.
DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 1.02
Density (persons/ha) 684
Annual rate of increase (percent) 2.2
ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$845
Cost of stay (per day) US$50

FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 85.6

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 5
Persons per hospital bed 375
Life expectancy (years) 71.5
Adult literacy rate (percent) 83
Median years of education 15
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 15
COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 9
Local calls (per person per year) 55
International calls (per person per year) 0.19
Mobile calls (per person per year) 7
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 0.85

City Profiles 179

The Inner Mongolia Museum is the first comprehensive museum in Inner Mongolia

In 1999, border trade reached $56 million, During the late 1990s Hohhot’s eco- age household floor area is approximately
an increase of 140 percent over the previ- nomic growth rate was relatively high. In 10 square meters (m2) or 5 m2 bigger than in
ous period. Major exports included agricul- 1998, the total gross domestic product (GDP) 1980. By the end of 1998, 95 percent of
tural products and garments, while major was $1.7 billion, an increase of 11.2 percent households had piped water supply, 70 per-
imports included lumber and chemical prod- over that of 1997. The average increase in cent had piped or liquid gas supply, and
ucts. GDP stood at 10.7 percent between 1993 68 percent had heating supply.
The region is also richly endowed with and 1998, while the GDP per capita was $841
natural resources and has been described in 1998. The total financial income was $209 DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR
as a land with “grain in the south, animals in million, while the total capital investment FORCE, AND INCOME
the north, forest in the east, iron in the west, was $1.10 billion in the past five years. The
and coal everywhere.” The central Govern- total accumulated capital in 1998 was val- There are 235,000 people belonging to
ment favors the region with many preferen- ued at $1.734 billion, 1.87 times higher than minority groups comprising 11 percent of
tial policies for developing the central and in 1997. the total population. There are 35 minorities
western areas of the People’s Republic of The city’s performance is noteworthy living in Hohhot with Mongolians compris-
China (PRC). in reducing poverty from 169,000 poor people ing 13 percent of the city population. There
The city’s main industries are dairy- in 1995 to 11,000 in 1999. Despite this are more than 10,000 Hui (Muslims) and Man
ing, manufacturing wool and cashmere, and achievement the city’s continued economic and together with the Han these groups are
growing livestock. In 1998, grain production development is constrained by its weak scattered in the urban area. Based on state
was 955,000 tons, the highest in recent economic structure, poor condition of state- policy the minorities have more rights,
years. Connected to Beijing by rail, the city owned enterprises, and increasing number opportunities, and priorities than the Han in
is a trade center for northwest PRC. Manu- of laid-off workers. the minority-dominated areas. For example,
facturing industries include chemicals, tex- In general, the living condition of minority families can have up to two chil-
tiles, fertilizers, agricultural machinery, Hohhot’s residents has greatly improved. In dren, while the Han can have only one child.
construction materials, beet sugar, and other 1998, the average annual income per capita Minority officials also have more priority
processed foods. was $572 or 11 times that of 1980. The aver- than the Han. Among 60,000 officials, the

180 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

minorities account for 17.7 percent, while ing social security benefits to workers and leagues and cities are 100 banners, coun-
Mongolians comprise 13.5 percent. Minor- providing basic allowances, special care, ties, and districts including three ethnic
ity officials in ranks above bureau head level basic living fees, and other privileges to minority autonomous banners—the Oroqen,
account for about 38.6 percent of the total those laid off. Ewenki, and Morin Dawa Daur as well as 13
officials. In the universities minority students Per capita monthly income in the ur- county level cities. Under the banners, coun-
account for more than 20 percent of the to- ban area in 1998 was $47.8 while consump- ties, and districts is sumu, an administra-
tal students. tion expenditure was $36. Aside from the tive division peculiar to IMAR with 1,565
In general, the transition from central monthly income, employees get benefits townships and towns.
planning to a market system has been from their employers, such as bonuses, As the Hohhot government is super-
smooth with more than 80 percent of the physical benefits, and insurance. These ben- vised by the IMAR government, the city gov-
state- or collective-owned enterprises be- efits vary from one organization to another. ernment implements IMAR’s policies. All
ing sold, transformed to either shareholding It is perceived that such increases in in- Hohhot city government agencies report di-
or merged companies, or declared bankrupt. come may in the long run be offset by in- rectly to the corresponding IMAR govern-
In 1998, 433,662 people were employed of creased costs in education, housing, health ment agencies which then report to central
which 80 percent worked in state-owned care, and other services. Government agencies.
enterprises (SOEs), 10 percent worked in While the municipal government for-
collective-owned organizations, and others POLITICAL STRUCTURE mulates local policies and regulations to run
worked in proprietorships and joint ven- the city, like imposing taxes and user
tures. The picture has changed recently with At present, the PRC has five national au- charges, acting as guarantor for loans, and
a notable rise in unemployment as SOEs tonomous regions and IMAR was instituted selecting contractors, its independence from
downsized to improve efficiency. earlier than the other four in areas where the IMAR government and the central Gov-
To deal with this problem the Govern- ethnic minorities live in concentrated com- ernment is limited. Many policies and regu-
ment introduced training opportunities, a job munities. Organs of self-government in na- lations have to be approved by the Hohhot
placement service, career guidance, and tional autonomous areas are the people’s National People’s Congress (NPC) and the
small business training for laid-off workers. congresses and people’s governments of au- higher government before they are imple-
Reemployment introduced by the Govern- tonomous regions, autonomous prefectures, mented at the municipal level. One agency
ment as an active labor market intervention and autonomous counties. under the Hohhot Municipal Government
registered a ratio of more than 63 percent. The four cities of Hohhot, Baotou, which is somewhat autonomous is the fi-
The Government has also initiated several Wuhai, and Chifeng and eight leagues are nance bureau. It manages its own revenues
poverty reduction measures such as grant- under the regional government. Under the and expenses. Based on the national tax

One of the oldest temples in Hohhot is the Xilitu Temple which was built in 1585

City Profiles 181

Road network has improved over the years

policy the municipal tax goes to the munici- URBAN GOVERNANCE Yellow River in 1999 as a long-term solution
pal finance bureau and the state tax (part of to the water shortage problem.
which is returned to the municipal finance If the urban services are unsatisfactory, The quality of water is relatively good
bureau) goes to the state tax bureau. people can complain through the complaint and is used by consumers without treat-
Political structure in Hohhot is similar offices set up in Hohhot, NPC, CPPCC, and ment. The Municipal Water Supply Company
to other cities in the PRC. There are the higher-level government offices. In general, supplies water pumped from confined
China Communist Party (CCC) of Hohhot there is peace and order and few incidents aquifers through wells for domestic, com-
Committee, the NPC, and the Chinese of drug dealing are reported. Reported crimes mercial, and partly industrial consumption
People’s Political Consultative Conference are 4.8 per thousand people. with a water leakage rate estimated at
(CPPCC) of Hohhot. The CCC forms the core 10.8 percent. The average commercial wa-
of Hohhot’s leadership and the NPC is the URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE ter consumption is 364.4 liters (l) per day
highest power organization in the city. while the average residential consumption
The NPC entrusts the city government to Hohhot’s water supply was established in is about 140 l per day.
administer the city and it gets advice from 1965 with groundwater as its main source. Storm water and sewage are collected
the CPPCC on important issues. The system was gradually expanded from separately by storm water systems and mu-
NPC members are representatives 10,000 cubic meters (m3) per day capacity nicipal wastewater systems. Wastewater
from the different city sectors such as work- serving a 100,000 people in 1966 to a sys- discharge was 80.3 million tons in 1998. The
ers, farmers, and teachers. They are elected tem with a total capacity of 242,000 m3 per wastewater treatment has a capacity of
every five years and endorsed by the party day in 1998. Some industrial enterprises do 150,000 tons per day of which 40 percent
committee. The NPC legislates, selects, and not rely on the system and have installed can be primarily treated. The collection net-
dismisses government officials, and super- their own water supply systems. Despite work services a total area of 58.5 m2 in the
vises the operations of the police bureau, the construction of several water supply ex- urban area.
courthouse, and the government of Hohhot pansion projects, water shortage is still a Wastewater treatment is unsatisfac-
and all its agencies. problem and water was diverted from the tory since only the primary treatment facil-

182 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

ity is operating. The removal rate of sus- incomplete and plans to extend it are and an international flight to Ulaanbaatar in
pended solids, biochemical oxygen demand, deferred. Mongolia.
and chemical oxygen demand at 36.7 per- The Hohhot Power Plant, with an in-
cent, 38.54 percent, and 43.30 percent, stalled capacity of 174,000 kilowatts, sup- HOUSING ACCESS AND
respectively, is poor when compared to over- plies electricity and heating in the urban AFFORDABILITY
all removal rate standards. area. It generates excess power that is sup-
Municipal solid waste collected in the plied to other regions. Most residents live in apartments provided
urban area has increased as a result of popu- About 19 percent of the city’s house- by their employers and as in other Chinese
lation growth, changing consumption pat- holds have telephone connections. Hohhot’s cities land is owned by the state. Institu-
terns, and the expansion of trade and industry communication facilities are fast growing tions, industrial enterprises, and schools
in the urban area. In 1996, 490,000 tons of and offer good infrastructure. In IMAR postal have an unlimited tenure over land through
municipal waste were generated. light cable and microwave lines are mak- a land use certificate. Certificate holders can
The municipal collection serves an area ing telecommunications more convenient. sell the right of land use if the land use com-
of about 60 m2 and does not collect indus- plies with existing regulations.
trial waste. Waste collected in Yuquan and TRANSPORT Individuals can own houses through
Huimin districts is transferred each day to outright purchase, with an equity of 50 per-
the Hohhot Comprehensive Waste Treatment People go to work on bicycles and the me- cent of the housing cost, and by subsidies
Plant in the southwest while waste collected dian travel time to work is 30 minutes. Car from institutions for portion of the cost. Hous-
in Xincheng and Ruyi districts is transferred congestion is nonexistent in Hohhot, as in ing mortgage exists but is not well estab-
to the Hohhot construction and demolition most cities of the PRC; bicycles outnum- lished. Following the slump in real estate
waste disposal site in the northeast. bered cars nine to one in 1995. Buses cover and massive layoffs demand for housing has
There are more than 900 collection about 40 percent of the urban area and ply decreased.
points and 40 transfer stations spread over 35 routes. Of the 68,000 vehicles in the city
the urban area with a fixed time schedule for about half are private cars. The road net- ENVIRONMENTAL
several collection points particularly for daily work has improved over the years, and by MANAGEMENT
door-to-door collection. Street sweepers are the end of 1998 covered 3,114 km.
employed using hand-pulled carts. Trains run from Hohhot to other cities In a national survey conducted between 1994
On average, about 180 tons of nightsoil like Beijing, Shanghai, Xian, Yinchuan, and 1996, Hohhot ranked as the most pol-
per day is collected from the urban area. Lanzhou, Nanjing, Ningbo, and Taiyuan in luted city among 37 cities in the PRC. Air
Almost half of this is from septic tanks and China and Ulaanbaatar in Mongolia. There and river pollution, wastewater discharge,
another half is from the public toilets not are 11 flight routes from Hohhot to 12 cities and waste disposal are some of the envi-
equipped with water flushing. Public toilet
nightsoil is transferred to farmers for fertil-
izer. Most industrial enterprises like hospi-
tals treat their hazardous waste before they
dispose of it.
A large portion of the municipal operat-
ing budget is devoted to waste management
specifically for collecting and transferring
waste. There are no segregation and recy-
cling programs being implemented at the
municipal level though collection, trading,
and recycling of waste are undertaken by
several individuals and commercial enter-
prises.
Small stoves and boilers, mainly used
for heating and cooking, are fueled by coal
which is a major source of air pollution in the
city and surrounding areas.
In 1998, about 40 percent of households
use piped gas from a gas generation plant
where coal is used as fuel. The oil refinery
supplies liquefied gas and about 26.12 mil-
lion m3 of gas are consumed annually. The
costs for constructing and extending the dis-
tribution network are high, so the network is Airport Road

City Profiles 183

ronmental problems. Smoke dust covers a Projects commenced in 1998 included
big part of the urban area. Air pollution is the underpass in Xincheng, the water sup-
mainly caused by coal consumption and is ply project diverting water from the Yellow
worst during the winter, between Novem- River, flood control, reconstruction of the
ber and February, when consumption is at power supply network, economic apart-
its peak. ments, the second phase of district heating,
Water pollution is caused by industrial environment rehabilitation, and the south
and domestic use. The water level of con- section of the first ring road.
fined aquifers recedes at about two meters Projects for implementation include re-
per year due to overpumping. To minimize construction of roads in Haixi, Gangtie, and
this problem, emergency water plants and Jinhai, the first ring road, the north section
phreatic aquifers were constructed for in- of the second ring road, Shinan and
dustrial application. Industrial wastes which Daxuedong roads, the construction of the 70
contain heavy pollutants such as biological km Guzhufu wastewater treatment plant, re-
oxygen demand, suspended solids, and phe- construction and expansion of the storm
nol are discharged into rivers without treat- drainage system and water supply plant in
ment and affect surface water quality. the east suburb, expansion of the gas sup-
Waste generation has increased in the ply network, the east suburb waste treat-
growing urban area, and the treatment ment plant, the district heating system and
plant’s capacity is unable to meet the cur- supply network in the northeast part of the
rent volume of waste. city, government offices in the east suburb,
and reconstruction of two old resident ar-
CULTURAL HERITAGE eas in Huimin and Yuquan districts.
Several development strategies have
The city consists of two sections. The old been put forward. These include adjusting
town is a Mongolian political and religious the economic structure, encouraging sup-
center dating back to the ninth century. It port for the main production industries, hi-
was the seat of the living Buddha until its tech industries, small enterprises, and
removal in 1664 to Urga. The newer section expanding domestic demand and increas-
which grew around the railway station after ing infrastructure investments. It is envis-
1921 serves as the administrative center of aged that the socialist market system will
the city today. be further developed, large-scale reforms on
There are 31 historical and cultural SOEs will be pursued, and enterprises will
sites in the city and 25 historical sites in be encouraged to be competitive.
the urban area established from the 16th to The goal is to increase the rate of GDP
the 19th centuries. The city administration and financial income as well as increase
established a protection plan for historical the annual average income per capita to
and cultural sites in 1997. An interesting $845, cap the rate of registered unemploy-
site which dates back to 1739, established ment at 3.4 percent in 1999, and improve
during the early Qing Dynasty, has become the people’s well-being with security sys-
a new walled town next to the present tem grants and other benefits for laid-off
Xincheng overpass. workers.

MAJOR URBAN
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
Total capital investment in the past five
years was $1.1 billion. Infrastructure
projects completed include the Gulou over-
pass, the underpass at North Street in
Xingcheng, the north section of the first ring
road, the road to the airport, 16 main roads, Zhang Haiming is the Director of Hi Tech Division of the Inner Mongolia
waste and water treatment, the railway Institute of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Hohhot. He also
currently serves as advisor of the Hohhot Pollution Control Com-
station square, Xinhua square, and a gym- mittee. Mr. Haiming holds a masters degree in Agriculture Environ-
nasium. ment Protection.

184 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC
OF CHINA

Hong Kong

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF world, a role that has been taken to new Much of Hong Kong’s economic activity
THE CITY heights since the PRC’s opening in 1978. and population is concentrated in the metro

H
Hong Kong plays a pivotal position in the area of approximately 20 hectares around
ong Kong is a relatively small Western Pacific Rim as it has the shortest Victoria Harbor. The harbor area has shrunk
city of 1,097 square kilometers total distance to all other urban centers in a great deal, as a result of extensive recla-
strategically located at the the region. It also has a deepwater, silt-free mation during the 1990s. Shenzhen, a spe-
southeastern mouth of the natural harbor, rated as one of the world’s cial economic zone in the PRC, shares a
Pearl River Delta almost mid- best three ports.
way along the coast of East and Southeast Ceded to the British after the Opium
Statistical Snapshot … 1998
Asia. War of 1842, Hong Kong remained a British
It is an exceptionally beautiful city with colony for a century and a half and was only DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 6.7
a blend of sea and hills and expansive coun- reunited with the PRC under the “one China, Density (persons/ha) 67
try parks and rural landscapes only a short two systems” policy in 1997. Among the Annual rate of increase (percent) 2.8
distance away. Its location makes it the British legacies are the rule of law, an effi- ECONOMY
entrepot between the southern People’s cient civil service, and a modern infrastruc- City product (per capita) US$26,369
Republic of China (PRC) and the outside Cost of stay (per day) US$154
ture system.
FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 53
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 18

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 3.2
Persons per hospital bed 204
Life expectancy (years) 79.9
Adult literacy rate (percent) 91.1
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 350

COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 99
Local calls (per person per year) 420
International calls (per person per year) 71
Mobile (per person per year) 132
Internet hosts (for every ’000 pop) 278

City Profiles 185

common border with Hong Kong, and is in- Bridge to begin in 2001 and be completed in Pearl River Delta since the early 1980s. The
creasingly integrating with the latter in its 2005. It is further preparing itself as the go- dominance of the manufacturing industry
development. between for the PRC and the world. has declined, both as a share of GDP contri-
Hong Kong has tight economic relations bution and of the total people employed.
with the PRC mainland. About 40 percent of DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR People employed in manufacturing declined
the mainland’s foreign trade is handled via FORCE, AND INCOME from 29.5 percent of the labor force in 1989
Hong Kong and the PRC is the largest source to 12.2 percent in 1998.
of foreign investment. Hong Kong is the Hong Kong’s large and cosmopolitan popu- At the same time there were employ-
largest source of foreign direct investment lation can be attributed to migration. Natu- ment gains in a widening range of sophisti-
in Guangdong. In 1997, Hongkong funded over ral population increase continued to fall in cated services. Hong Kong has become a
70 percent of foreign investment projects in the 1990s, from 6.8 per 1,000 population in distinctly service-oriented economy, provid-
the province and Hong Kong’s capital 1990 to 2.7 per 1,000 population in 1999. ing jobs in a growing array of services for
accounted for 72 percent of the province’s Legal immigration from the PRC was set at more than 70 percent of the labor force, of
actual utilized capital. Investment has been 150 per day, or a yearly total of 56,039 in which one third works in wholesale and re-
mainly in the manufacturing sector in elec- 1998. The expatriate community consists tail trade, restaurants, and hotels.
tronics, toys, garments, shoes, plastics, and of about 7 percent of the population, with
computers and accessories. By 1999, 54.1 Britons, Filipinos, Canadians, and Americans POLITICAL STRUCTURE
percent of the 341,720 foreign funded projects being the most numerous. About half of the
on the PRC mainland were tied to Hong Kong population lives in the metro area, with the Hong Kong became a special administrative
investors. Contracted and used capital in- rest dispersed in new towns in the New Ter- region (SAR) of the PRC on 1 July 1997. Un-
flows from Hong Kong were $311 billion and ritories. The population has been aging, with der the new Government, Hong Kong’s con-
$154.8 billion, respectively, accounting for a median age of 36.2, and 10.7 percent of the stitutional and administrative structures are
50.7 percent and 50.3 percent of the na- population aged 64 and above in 1999. governed by the Basic Law. Under this law,
tional total. On the other hand, the PRC main- Hong Kong’s per capita GDP was the the HKSAR enjoys a high degree of au-
land is the second largest source of external world’s 15th highest at $24,471 in 1998. By tonomy except in defense and foreign af-
investment in Hong Kong. purchasing power parity reckoning, its po- fairs. It exercises executive, legislative, and
To assist cooperation with the PRC sition on the income ladder would be even independent judicial power, including that of
mainland, Hong Kong has announced plans higher. Its high income stems from its being final adjudication.
for constructing a Hongkong-Shenzhen the world’s eighth largest trading entity, a The chief executive, as head of the
financial center, a transport hub, and a re- HKSAR, is the highest decision maker, re-
gional headquarters for transnational cor- sponsible for implementing the Basic Law
porations. There were 819 corporate and with key functions related to promul-
headquarters in 1998 with businesses be- gating laws and signing bills and budgets
ing attracted to Hong Kong by its predict- passed by the Legislative Council. The head
able and simple tax regimes. is assisted in policy making by a 14-mem-
Despite growing prosperity, signs of ber Executive Council.
growing socioeconomic polarization have Election of the first 60-member Legis-
surfaced. Inequality in income distribution lative Council of the HKSAR was held on 25
has worsened and the number of social wel- May 1998 with a record 1.49 million voters
fare recipients has dramatically risen, in- setting the highest turnout rate of 53.3 per-
creasing the gap between the rich and poor. cent in history. The next national assembly
The unemployment rate continues to election will be in 2002. The urban and re-
climb, as a result of economic restructur- gional councils, after their provisional ex-
ing, and reached 4.7 percent in 1998. The istence since 1999, were disbanded and the
Government’s commitment to subsidized municipal services have since been taken
education and public housing, free medical over by a new policy introduced by the Bu-
care, retraining, and other government reau of Food and Environmental Hygiene.
subvented welfare services has assisted The third level of administration, the
low-income households, the disabled, eld- district administration, was established in
erly, and single parents. Public spending on 1982 and remains intact. It responds to dis-
comprehensive social security assistance trict needs and problems with major respon-
increased to $1.51 billion in 1998, an in- sibilities for public inquiry service,
crease of 36.9 percent over 1997. emergency services, rural planning and im-
Several changes in the labor force provement strategy, and licensing and build-
Headquarters of the Hong Kong and Shanghai structure resulted. In particular, there has ing management. It has 18 district boards,
Bank been massive industrial relocation to the with 469 members.

186 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Hong Kong has a wide network of advi-
sory boards and committees that advise on
major policy and development directions.
Advice is provided to the Government
through a policy secretary or a head of de-
partment. Its policy on openness was
strengthened by the creation of the Office of
the Ombudsman in 1989 to enable citizens
to go outside the civil service to investigate
and report on grievances arising from ad-
ministrative decisions or omissions. The
Equal Opportunities Commission was like-
wise set up in 1996 to support this policy.

URBAN GOVERNANCE
Hong Kong has been consistently rated by
international organizations as one of the best
places in the world to conduct business. Its
political structure provides checks and bal-
ances so that, in general, urban governance
in the administrative region has been efficient,
target-oriented, and open. There is little cor-
ruption and crime rates rank among the low-
est in the region. The system of public
administration has been toward greater
openness and transparency, especially since
1997. The earliest (opened in 1973) and busiest cross-harbor tunnel in Hung Hum
The efficient and target-oriented ap-
proach of public administration is aided by URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE Electricity and telephone services are
the annual budget formulation in March and privatized. The Hong Kong Electric Company
target setting by the Chief Executive in his A cornerstone of Hong Kong’s policy to main- Ltd. supplies electricity to Hong Kong and
Policy Address in October 1997. The Finan- tain its competitive edge was investing two nearby islands (28 percent of total con-
cial Secretary consults regularly, especially massively in its infrastructure, especially sumption) with the balance provided by CLP
with the political parties, before forming pri- during the 1990s. The trigger was the Power Hong Kong Ltd. to the rest of the ter-
orities and decisions. Similarly, the policy governor’s policy speech in October 1989 ritory.
address is also preceded by carefully feel- launching the Port and Airport Development Cable & Wireless HKT Telephone Ltd.
ing the pulse of the community, by keeping Strategy (PADS) to meet Hong Kong’s port has traditionally monopolized the telephone
in contact with the people. Policy decisions and air traffic growth expectations up to sector. The market has been deregulated,
are religiously implemented and major policy 2011. All newly associated industrial and followed by keen competition, lowered
targets periodically assessed. residential facilities, transport links, and prices, and many operators. About 27 firms
Hong Kong’s administration has increas- other infrastructure will be incrementally (from six in 1999) have offered international
ingly demonstrated openness and transpar- provided according to an integrated and services with different packages, making
ency. All legislative council, district council, cohesive plan. A central component of PADS phone calls in Hong Kong the cheapest in
and housing authority meetings are open to is the Chek Lap Kok airport in northern the region.
the public and televised. Major policy docu- Lantau. All ten projects in the massive It has also become one of the most
ments habitually allow a period of professional Airport Core Program have been completed, sophisticated and successful telecommu-
and public consultation before they are taken with the last two, the airport and the airport nications markets in the world, greatly
through the legal process for approval. To railway, opened in July 1998. buttressing the territory as a leading busi-
keep the public informed, all government bu- Hong Kong is well provided with mu- ness and financial center. In 1999, the tele-
reaus and departments issue annual reports nicipal services. Water is supplied by a phone density was 70 telephones or 55
and all information can be accessed on the long-term agreement with Guangdong to exchange lines per 100 persons, which was
Internet. Furthermore, most government de- provide piped water (80 percent of Hong among the highest in the world. There were
partments have an information officer to pro- Kong’s needs) across the border from the over 370,000 fax lines, 3,401,025 mobile
vide information requested by individuals or East River. The balance is provided by 17 service subscribers (representing a penetra-
companies. reservoirs in the territory. tion of about 50.6 percent), and 1.86 million

City Profiles 187

Kwai Chung Port is one of the world’s busiest container ports.

registered Internet users. International di- percent) being the most popular, followed Some 74 percent of the cargo originated from
rect dialing is available to 232 countries and by trains (34 percent). Both the Kowloon the PRC, testifying to the importance of this
more than 2,200 cities in the PRC mainland. Canton Railway and Mass Transit Railway trade.
operate their surface and underground train With the new airport constructed at
TRANSPORT services profitably. Walking is also common Chek Lap Kok, Hong Kong handled 163,223
in the city. flights with 27.2 million passengers and
Heavy and sustained public investment in In recent years, cross-border traffic 1.63 million tons of freight in 1998. This
infrastructure, coupled with sound manage- has been increasing by leaps and bounds. In makes Hong Kong one of the world’s busiest
ment, has resulted in Hong Kong’s highly 1998, there were eight ferry operators to airports.
efficient system of internal and external Macau and 24 ports in the PRC carrying 10.5
transport. By 1998, it had 1,865 kilometers million passengers to Macau and 6.3 HOUSING ACCESS AND
of roads and 1,737 highway structures, three million passengers to the mainland. The traf- AFFORDABILITY
immersed-tube tunnels crossing the harbor, fic volume at the cross-border rail link at Lo
and eight road tunnels penetrating the Wu and three road links has grown so that Hong Kong has a major commitment to its
territory ’s hills. Internal transport was an additional rail link at Loh Ma Chau is citizens who have difficulty in housing them-
greatly improved during the 1990s under planned and road links are being expanded. selves. In 1998, 3.3 million of its inhabitants
PADS. The airport core program projects Indeed, the mainland is the most popular lived in 952,900 flats built under the public
have vastly improved connections between destination for Hong Kong residents. Of the housing program started in 1953. This rep-
the metro area and western parts of the ter- 39.1 million departure trips by residents in resents 49 percent of the total population,
ritory through the reclaimed area in West 1998, 82 percent were to the mainland, as higher than any Asian country except for
Kowloon and on Northern Lantau’s new air- compared to 80.9 percent in 1997 and 77.5 Singapore. Public expenditure on housing
port. percent in 1996. (12.3 percent in 1998) ranks as a major item
Transport modes in Hong Kong include Hong Kong’s external sea transport along with education, infrastructure, social
buses, minibuses, trains, ferries, trams, au- depends on Kwai Chung Port for cargo move- welfare, and security every year.
tomobiles, and bicycles. The overwhelming ment. It is one of the world’s busiest con- Access to public housing is by a queu-
majority (92 percent) of the population move tainer ports having handled about 14.65 ing system which could be as long as seven
around by public transport, with buses (53 million 20-foot equivalent units in 1998. to eight years, but the Government is deter-

188 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

mined to shorten waiting time to three years Affordability has been improving since the urban redevelopment, including improved
by 2007. Private housing is expensive, handover, with the continued decline of housing conditions.
ridiculously so during the run-up to the house prices exacerbated by the Asian fi-
handover in 1997. In the Chief Executive’s nancial crisis. In 1998, the house price to ENVIRONMENTAL
Policy Address in 1997, the Government income ratio was 11.7 compared to 15.5 in MANAGEMENT
adopted a policy of ensuring adequate sup- 1997. The importance of the housing
ply to avert the incessant escalation of market is shown by as much as 30.1 Pollution is a growing problem in Hong Kong.
house prices and it targets a home owner- percent of total lending going to housing One scholar recently summed up the Hong
ship ratio of 70 percent by 2007, up from mortgages. Kong environment as “a first world economy
46.1 percent in 1998. There is also annual Continued housing demand is evident but a third world environment.”
housing production of 85,000 units, with from the persistent problem of squatters, Over the past decade, the Government
public flats accounting for 45,000 units (a rooftop structures, bedspace apartments, has devoted a much enlarged budget, with
revised target) and the balance produced by and the homeless. Many in private housing legislative power and administrative sup-
the private sector, contingent on prevailing live in the worst housing conditions and the port, to tackle environmental problems.
market conditions. Government is determined to improve the Commissioning the study on Sustainable
According to the 1995 Household Ex- situation. The 1998 Policy Address an- Development for the 21st century is evidence
penditure Survey, households spent, on nounced the establishment of the Urban of its plan to improve the environment. The
average, 31 percent on housing, higher than Renewal Authority to replace the existing 1989 white paper Pollution in Hong Kong also
any other item on the household budget. Land Development Corporation to speed up marked a significant milestone. It sets out a

Public expenditure on housing constitutes a major budget item

City Profiles 189

ten-year program to deal with environmen- Board, ensures the historical dimension of
tal problems. Hong Kong’s cultural heritage is preserved.
The administration likewise invested
in the Strategic Sewage Disposal Scheme MAJOR URBAN
for treatment and final disposal. Drawn up in DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
1996, it will cost $1.47 billion to implement
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
in stages by 2005.
Despite these efforts and capital out- To strengthen Hong Kong’s position as a re-
lays, environmental problems continue to gional transport hub and further improve its
make headlines. Air quality is one that is citizens’ quality of life, more than $30.1 bil-
particularly attention-catching, as it is partly lion will be spent between 1999 and 2003 on
caused by inappropriate domestic energy major road, rail, land, and port projects. New
use and partly by pollution from Guangdong. railways and highways continue to be
Diesel smoke and fine dust in urban areas planned; Container Terminal 9 will be ready
are the most pressing problems. In late soon; the airport has its second runway; a
March 2000, the street-level air pollution science park and the Cyberport are being
index read 174 in Central, setting a record built to prepare Hong Kong for the informa-
and ranking Hong Kong with some of the tion age; a design competition for a world-
worst polluted cities in the world. class performance venue in West Kowloon
is being launched in 2000; and construction
CULTURAL HERITAGE of Hong Kong Disneyland will commence
soon.
Hong Kong, lying at the crossroads of West- To improve on past development prac-
ern and Chinese cultures, has always been tice, since 1997 the Government has
a culturally vibrant and innovative commu- streamlined and coordinated departments
nity. It has five major museums — science, that plan and implement development
art, railway, space, and Sam Tung Uk—each projects. Land supply is planned ten years
with between 340,000 and 567,000 people ahead of time, with details of land supply
visiting annually. Equally huge crowds have and disposal announced in rolling five-year
been drawn to the lunar new year fireworks and one-year cycles, respectively. The Town
display, the Hong Kong Flower Show, the na- Planning Ordinance, first enacted in 1939, is
tional day fireworks display, the Hong Kong being revised to meet current demand. All
International Film Festival, and the Hong in all, Hong Kong is preparing itself well for
Kong Arts Festival. the future.
Recently, the Government increased its
budget for promoting sports and the arts and
Hong Kong’s recent achievements in the
Asian Games testify to its success.
In further developing Hong Kong’s tour-
ist industry, one selling point is to make the
territory the events capital of Asia. The suc-
cessful negotiation for a Disneyland to be
built for a 2005 opening is evidence of the
Government’s effort in promoting tourism
and the service industry.
The lack of a world-class arts perfor-
mance venue resulted in a worldwide de-
sign competition for a large integrated site
on reclaimed land in West Kowloon in 2000.
The unusually free and lively cultural
environment is attested to by 45 daily news-
papers, 684 periodicals, two commercial TV
Yue-man Yeung is the Director of the Hongkong
companies, and a growing number of regis-
Institute of Asia and Pacific Studies and a Professor of
tered Internet subscribers. On the other hand, Geography at the Chinese University of Hongkong.
the Antiquities and Monuments Office, with Professor Yeung is a Ph D degree holder, a geographer,
assistance from the Antiquities Advisory and author of many books about Asia and the Pacific.

190 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

NEPAL

Kathmandu

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF Kathmandu is among the oldest settle- DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR

THE CITY ments in the central Himalayas with histori- FORCE, AND INCOME

K
cal monuments, ancient temples, numerous
athmandu, the capital city of shrines, golden pagodas, and deities making In 1991, the city population was 421,258
the Kingdom of Nepal, is the it an open-air museum of 50.7 square kilo- with an annual growth rate of 6 percent.
only metropolis in the coun- meters. It can be broadly divided into the Assuming the same growth rate, the popu-
try. It is situated in a valley at historic city core, city center, and city outer lation in 1998 was estimated at 575,652 with
an altitude of 1,350 meters ring. Administratively, the city is divided into a residential density of 176 people per hect-
with temperatures ranging between 00 and 35 wards. are. The average household size in the city
320 Celsius. Average rainfall is 1,307 milli- Though agriculture has traditionally been is five persons and the rate of household
meters per year with 90 percent of the pre- the main occupation, most Kathmanduites are formation is high at some 8 percent per year.
cipitation occurring between June and now involved in the commerce and service The city’s population increases by about
September. sectors. Culture-based tourism is a major 50,000 during the day, with people from
source of revenue; others include the carpet, nearby cities and villages like Bhaktapur
garment, handicraft, and service industries. and Lalitpur seeking employment in gov-
Statistical Snapshot ... 1998
DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 0.57
Density (persons per ha) 175.7
Annual rate of increase (percent) 6

ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$750
Households below poverty line (percent) 35.6
Cost of stay (per day) US$44.2
FINANCE
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 44

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 9
Persons per hospital bed 197
Life expectancy (years) 67
Adult literacy rate (percent) 78.2
Median years of education 10
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 62

COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 52
Local calls (per person per year) 100
International (per person per year) 0.40
Mobile (per person per year) 0.60
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 15.4

City Profiles 191

 cially progressive, envisaging a parliament-
ary democracy with a constitutional mon-
archy. It guarantees citizens standard civic
and political rights, provides for an elected
government accountable to the parliament
and declares, “the source of sovereign au-
thority of the independent and sovereign
Nepal is inherent in the people.”
The Government has two houses of
parliament: an upper house consisting of 60
nominated and indirectly elected members
and a house of representatives consisting
of 205 members elected by secret ballot. A
5 percent quota for women representatives
has been secured in the constitution. There
are several political parties but the Nepali
Congress (NC) party and the Communist
Kasthamandap is one of the oldest pagodas in Kathmandu Party of Nepal Unified Marxist-Leninist
(CPN-UML) dominate.
ernment offices and the central business tion tried to reduce child labor in the city. His Majesty’s Government, the official
district. Nevertheless, the problem remains and the designation for the Government of Nepal,
The basic demographic issue in the proportion of child labor is 7.6 percent for consists of the council of 25 ministries, led
Kathmandu Valley is unregulated population the Kathmandu Valley as a whole. by the prime minister.
growth. As in most cities in developing coun- The average city product per capita is At the local level, the country has 75
tries, Kathmandu has a young population $393, which is higher than the national per district development committees, 58 mu-
structure and the dependent population (35.6 capita of $222. However, 35.6 percent of nicipalities, and almost 4,000 village devel-
percent for males and 37.8 percent for fe- households live below the poverty line (per opment committees. The local development
males) puts great pressure on the working capita income of $95 per month per house- officer is the key official at the district level,
population (15-59 years of age). hold). While women-headed households the executive secretary in the municipali-
Rapid economic development in com- form only 14.4 percent of all households, 97 ties, and the village secretary at the village
merce, manufacturing industries (espe- percent are estimated to live below the pov- level. These are employees of the Ministry
cially in garments and carpets), and building erty line. of Local Development.
construction has encouraged migration, Most urban development projects pro- The municipal government is headed
both national and international. It is esti- vide economic opportunities and contribute by a mayor and a deputy mayor elected by
mated that in 1998, 48,234 people migrated to improving poor people’s living conditions. the people for five years. The KMC, the high-
from various parts of the country and 83,511 The Kathmandu Municipal Council (KMC) is est policy-making body, consists of 177
from international destinations, especially providing some services to the urban poor elected representatives and 30 nominated
India. through its Public Health and Social Welfare members. It meets twice a year to review
Although Kathmandu is traditionally departments. And some local groups such progress, approve the annual budget, and
agricultural, it now has diverse economic as Lumanti, the support group for shelter, make major policy decisions. The Munici-
activities. People are involved in personal and the Environment Health Development pal Board meets more frequently.
and commercial services (33 percent), so- and Advisory Group (EHDAG), are also work- Although the Local Self-Governance
cial services (28.6 percent), and consumer ing to uplift the urban poor. Act 1999 attempts to increase the status of
services (20.8 percent). Migrants form the Poverty is exacerbated by the high rate local bodies, municipalities do not yet have
majority of informal sector employment of inward migration and a lack of high-level local government status. Local governments
which is estimated at one third of total commitment to resolve urban growth prob- are responsible for local taxation, physical
employment. In recent years, the educa- lems. The Government has explicit popula- development, water resources, education,
tion system has improved, producing a more tion policies for reducing growth rates and sports, cultural preservation, transportation,
educated workforce. However, a lack of suit- regulating internal migration but these are health services, social welfare, industry, and
able formal sector jobs forces many work- not translated into action. tourism. However, many central government
ers to the informal sector. The city ’s agencies are responsible for the same func-
unemployment rate is 7.8 percent. POLITICAL STRUCTURE tions, and the municipalities, including
Child labor is a problem in carpet fac- Kathmandu, do not have the resources to
tories, restaurants, homes (servants), and Democracy was restored in Nepal only 10 implement programs in these areas. Fur-
public transport (conductors). Recently, or- years ago when the nation got a new consti- thermore, the municipality is headed by an
ganizations such as the Rugmark Founda- tution which is seen to be liberal and so- executive officer, appointed by the Govern-

192 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

ment. The Act also abolished the Octroi tax, during the dry season. In 1998 there were tion increases as water travels from the
which was collected by municipalities and regular power cuts of six hours per week water treatment plants through old distri-
provided almost 80 percent of their revenue, and one hour per week in 1999. bution systems (some more than 100 years
and replaced it with the local development Present water demand in Kathmandu old), so it requires boiling.
tax, which the Government collects. There- Valley is estimated to be more than 150 Kathmandu’s sewerage system has
fore municipalities still function like units of million liters per day (MLD) of which 86 MLD evolved over 200 years and a combined
the Ministry of Local Development. is for Kathmandu City alone. However, total storm water and sanitary sewer system still
average water production is only 94 MLD, of exists in Kathmandu’s center. Sewer col-
URBAN GOVERNANCE which 60 MLD is distributed in the city lection facilities are still inadequate, with
(NWSC 1999) with a leakage of 40 percent only about 42 percent of households con-
KMC is implementing a pilot project under in supply systems. People are also using nected and a further 40 percent of house-
the Urban Governance Initiative with the other sources of water like household wells, holds using septic tanks. The remaining
United Nations Development Programme to stone spouts, and private tanker services households have either pit latrines or no
promote good governance, particularly for estimated at 9 MLD. Therefore, the actual toilets. The limited capacity of sewer and
environmental improvement. water consumption per capita is estimated drainage lines often results in flooded roads
Recently KMC improved its governance at 78–80 liters daily. during monsoons.
practices by establishing an Information Although 92 percent of the households Kathmandu has excellent telecommu-
Department which regularly publishes news- in Kathmandu are connected to a piped drink- nication services and is interlinked by lo-
letters and operates an FM station to com- ing water system, many receive water for cal, STD, ISD, cellular phones, e-mail, and
municate more effectively with the public. two hours a day only and alternate day sup- Internet. Nepal Telecommunication Corpo-
It is now also preparing strategies for vari- ply during the dry season. In several areas ration (NTC) is the only agency providing
ous aspects of urban development and in- of the city, water almost never flows from telephone services nationwide including
troducing a corporate accounting system to taps because of low pressure. Therefore, distant telecommunication like STD and ISD.
make the financial management system many consumers have installed pumps for NTC has introduced a cellular system and
more effective and transparent. pumping from the main drinking water line distributed 4,100 mobile phones. There are
The main problems associated with or from groundwater. 12 Internet service providers (ISPs) in the
governing Kathmandu are several. First, the There are plans to bring water from the city with about 10,000 subscribers. The
city has too many subdivisions, with 5,076 Melamchi River through a 22-kilometer (km) number of ISP and Internet users is increas-
hectares divided into 35 wards with 177 tunnel. However, it is not clear if this project ing rapidly as services improve and prices
members directly elected to govern such will be implemented, and there are no plans decrease.
small areas. These members, together with to immediately meet the growing demand There is a move to privatize various
the 20 nominated members, make KMC too for water. utility services in some sectors such as
large for effective management. Further- Drinking water in Kathmandu is con- household waste collection in selected ar-
more, party politics makes KMC meetings sidered safe, but bacteriologically it is not eas. Similarly, bus park management has
more disruptive than productive. Secondly, always fit for drinking. Bacterial contamina- also been delegated to private participation
the Ministry of Local Development appoints
the chief executive officer who is loyal to
the central Government, and in the past three
years KMC has had nine chief executive of-
ficers. Finally, following abolition of the Oc-
troi tax, KMC has little financial autonomy
and is facing a major crisis. With most of its
revenue being spent on salaries, the city
government is unable to do any major de-
velopment work or offer its people essential
services. Its population growth of 6 percent
is worsening matters.

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
Although only 15 percent of Nepalese can
access electricity, in Kathmandu 99.1 per-
cent of households have electricity connec-
tions. However, as the supply of electricity
has been less than demand in the last two
years, the city suffered heavy load shedding There are about 43 squatter settlements in the city

City Profiles 193

Many areas receive only about two hours water supply every other day during the dry season

under the Public Private Partnership Pro- A strategy plan suggests pedestrianiz- is very low at less than 1 percent. Housing
gram. The KMC is also anticipating such ing the city core and already a short stretch loans made available through financial in-
partnerships in other sectors. of Kathmandu Durbar Square area has been stitutions are minimal and poor people’s
pedestrianized. However, locals often oppose access to credit is questionable.
TRANSPORT the idea. Recently, KMC implemented the About 66 percent of families in
Municipal Infrastructure Improvement Kathmandu live in their own houses. This is
Kathmandu has a fairly good radial road net- Project which included upgrading roads, lower than the national average of 94.6 per-
work connecting it to other parts of the coun- improving drainage, constructing pedestrian cent, mainly because most migrants have
try. The city is connected to the eastern and overhead bridges, and placing traffic signs their own houses elsewhere. About 29 per-
western parts of the valley by the Arniko in the city’s historic core. cent of households live in rental housing.
and Tribhuvan highways, while feeder roads The system of housing where single owners
connect the northern and southern parts of HOUSING ACCESS AND rent flats to different families is an increas-
the valley to the city. Altogether the valley AFFORDABILITY ing trend. Though the Apartment Act allows
has 995 km of roads, of which 401 km is for owning apartments or flats, it is not yet
surfaced. The city is served by a ring road, The supply of land and housing is dominated generally practiced.
which also acts as the city boundary. Ex- by private owners building for themselves Poor people from villages often live in
perts have proposed an inner ring road, but or to rent. The process is haphazard, usu- Kathmandu’s squatter settlements in mar-
recently few new roads have been added. ally without planning permission, and people ginal and unattended public land such as
There are many unplanned roads connect- seek basic services such as drinking water riverbanks and steep hill slopes. About
ing properties to the road network. Poor and drainage only after building the house. 10,000 squatters live in 43 settlements, each
design, construction, and maintenance New mechanisms are being tried for consisting of 6 –147 households. Social
along with diggings for maintaining utilities land development including land pooling, housing is negligible.
such as water supply result in poor road sites and services, and guided land devel-
conditions. opment. The land-pooling system is most ENVIRONMENTAL
The historic city core does have an popular, being self-financed by the benefi- MANAGEMENT
excellent pedestrian network and travel in ciaries with the Government only facilitat-
the city is still dominated by walking. Buses ing. On average, Kathmandu produces 563 cubic
and tempos are the dominant modes of pub- Housing permits have decreased from meters of solid waste per day. KMC collects
lic transport in which the private sector is 5,107 (1994) to 2,250 (1998), although it is about 70 percent of the total waste gener-
playing a major role. Private vehicles like not known how many other houses are con- ated from the streets and containers and
motorcycles and cars have increased with structed illegally. Individual loans for hous- most of this is carried to a transfer station
the valley having over 120,000 vehicles, of ing are formally available through finance and then to the Gokarna landfill site for final
which slightly over 50 percent are motor- companies and the mortgage to credit ratio disposal. However, the collection and dis-
cycles. is 50 percent. The mortgage loan for women posal system needs improving. Waste is

194 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

often dumped on the streets and although
KMC cleans streets twice daily, many of
them remain littered.
KMC is now promoting private and com-
munity participation in waste management.
Presently, two private companies are working
with KMC for door-to-door collection in se-
lected areas. From the city’s west sector
about 12,000 households’ waste is being
collected in two separate bins, one for dry
and another for wet waste, every alternate
day and each dwelling unit willingly pays
$0.72 per month for the service. Similarly,
many other community-based organizations
are also working in this sector with their
own initiatives. Aside from household col-
lection, reuse and recycling of waste is be-
ing introduced at the local level.
Since 70 percent of waste is disposed of
in landfill, its proper management is also of
vital importance for the city. Waste is com- Travelling is done mostly by walking
pacted and covered by soil every day. The
landfill, however, does not control pollution like topography, the valley is especially vul- cately hand-carved doors and windows are
resulting from leachate and gas. Further- nerable to air pollution which comes mainly also cultural assets and tourist attractions.
more, after 14 years the landfill is already from vehicles, a cement factory, and about Many of these important heritage sites
full and a new one has not yet been devel- 200 brick kilns. are poorly conserved and managed. UNESCO
oped. Local social pressure and politics of- Occasional studies by various agencies has warned several times that it will re-
ten shut down the landfill site leaving waste indicate that particulate matter in the air is move some sites, such as Hanuman Dhoka,
uncollected on the streets. as much as three times more than World from the world heritage list unless steps
Realizing that landfilling is not the best Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. Con- are taken to conserve them. KMC has es-
way to manage Kathmandu’s waste, two centrations of gaseous pollutants, such as tablished a Culture & Heritage Department
thirds of which is organic matter, KMC is SO2, NO2, CO, and Pb, are however, within which has begun to preserve historic and
joining with a private company to build a WHO guidelines. cultural monuments.
300-ton per day organic fertilizer plant. KMC Recently, the Government decided to The living heritage or traditional cul-
also plans to set up a common incinerator follow the Euro-I standard for vehicle emis-
to manage the city’s biomedical waste. sions and removed over 600 polluting three-
The city’s rivers are severely polluted wheeler diesels and banned the import of
from the daily disposal of over 25 million vehicles with two-stroke engines. The elec-
liters of raw sewage and the wastewater tric vehicle industry has grown rapidly and
treatment plant is not functioning so that in now there are about 600 locally made bat-
several sections of the rivers, the biochemi- tery-powered three-wheelers, called safa
cal oxygen demand level is as high as 100 tempo, in Kathmandu.
milligrams per liter.
Recently, KMC introduced a con- CULTURAL HERITAGE
structed wetland system for treating
septage (sludge from septic tanks). How- Kathmandu Valley has seven world heritage
ever, this small-scale wetland is only a dem- sites, of which four, Swayambhunath Stupa
onstration plant for local communities. Another (4th century), Pashupatinath temple and
treatment plant will be completed in one Hanuman Dhoka Royal Palace (14th century)
year. The city needs an effective sewer sys- and Bouddhanath Stupa (15th century) are
tem and several more treatment plants to in Kathmandu. The United Nations Educa-
ensure clean rivers. tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization
In recent years, air pollution has (UNESCO) has also listed over 2,200 monu-
emerged as the most visible sign of envi- ments in Kathmandu. Besides these, the typi-
ronmental degradation in the Kathmandu cal courtyards and stone water spouts of
Valley. With its high elevation and bowl- the ancient city and houses with their intri- The traditional culture of the city is impressive

City Profiles 195

Houses with hand-carved wooden windows are cultural assets to the city

ture of the city is equally impressive and to coordinate stakeholder efforts. KMC is
important. Kathmandu celebrates a continu- also implementing the Kathmandu Valley
ous flow of interrelated festivals throughout Mapping Program, with assistance from the
the year which are mysterious and colorful. European Union. The program aims at in-
creasing the effectiveness of urban planning
MAJOR URBAN for the delivery of municipal services. ADB
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS, is also providing technical assistance for
institutional development of KMC and a na-
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
tional urban development strategy.
Over the years many plans have been pre-
pared for guiding Kathmandu’s development. Photographs by Prakash Chandra Amatya and Min
However, most of them were never imple- Bajracharya
mented and an officially approved urban de-
velopment strategy does not exist. The
Town Planning Office was established in 1962
and the Government, assisted by the United
Nations, prepared the first comprehensive
master plan for Kathmandu in 1969. Although
this is an excellent document, it was never
fully implemented. The latest physical de-
velopment plans for Kathmandu are the
Kathmandu Valley Urban Development
Plans and Programs of 1991. The recently
completed Kathmandu Urban Development
Project, funded by the Asian Development
Bank (ADB), was based on this plan.
The Ministry of Physical Planning and
Works is the main government agency
responsible for physical planning of urban
areas at the national level. Approved plans
are implemented through the Kathmandu Val-
ley Town Development Committee. KMC is
also involved in planning and implementing Roshan Raj Shrestha is currently the Executive Director of the
urban development and is currently formu- Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO). He also
lating a city development strategy, with key served as a member of the City Planning Commission,
Kathmandu Metropolis (KMC) and director of the Environment
stakeholders participating, to provide a broad Management Division of ENPHO. Mr. Shrestha is a PhD degree
framework for the city’s development and holder in Applied Natural Sciences.

196 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

PAKISTAN

Lahore

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF back to the seventh century AD. It has been assistance. The British also built some of
THE CITY the capital of Punjab province for over 1,000 Lahore’s most impressive buildings in what

L
years. Although almost half of the Punjab is called the Mogul-Gothic style. Most of
ahore, the second largest city of went to India when the subcontinent was these buildings remain in use. They also
Pakistan, surpassed only by partitioned in 1947, the remaining Punjab is added a cantonment several miles south of
Karachi in population, is located still the province with the largest population. the old city. Managed by a board, indepen-
on the eastern bank of the Ravi From 1956 to 1970, Lahore was the capital dent of the Metropolitan Corporation Lahore
River, with the Indian border only of West Pakistan which encompassed all the (MCL), the cantonment, though much smaller
25 kilometers (km) from the city center. A areas that now constitute Pakistan. in size, is still a separate entity maintaining
busy metropolis of 6.2 million, it is known to For many centuries, Lahore was the the character of a separate city.
be the cultural, artistic, and educational capi- center of the Mogul Empire, a period which
tal of Pakistan. It has three universities (one left its marks in the form of beautiful gardens,
in the private sector), several professional palaces, and monuments. In 1590, the Statistical Snapshot ... 1998
colleges, museums, art galleries, theaters, Mogul emperor, Akbar-the-Great, built a wall DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 4.50
gardens, parks, and a zoo. around it and although the British demolished Density (persons/ha) 240.6
Lahore is one of the oldest living cities the wall, its gates still exist and some of them Annual rate of increase (percent) 3.1
of South Asia and its known history dates have been restored recently with World Bank ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$1,039
Households below poverty line (percent) 29.9
Cost of stay (per day) US$108

FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 50.7
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 86

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 10.8
Persons per hospital bed 369
Life expectancy (years) 63
Adult literacy rate (percent) 66
Median years of education 8
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 48.7
COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 62
Local calls (per person per year) 78
International calls (per person per year) 1.9
Mobile calls (per person per year) 1.2
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 16.6

City Profiles 197

 Lahore’s economic base is broad and most beneficiaries of these schemes have
varied. A major industrial agglomeration, been the middle- and high-income groups
with about 9,000 industrial units, it has, since and land speculators. On the other hand, low-
1981, experienced a significant shift from income families have purchased plots in the
manufacturing toward service industries. illegal subdivisions, building houses in
Some 42 percent of its work force is now areas with little or no development, result-
employed in finance, banking, real estate, ing in the emergence of slum areas.
community, cultural, and social services. The Beginning with the influx of immigrants
city has a dry-port and is a major exporter of in 1947, Lahore’s population grew rapidly
readymade garments and leather products. until the early seventies. Both the popula-
With a booming informal sector and The Badshahi Mosque built in the 17th centuty tion and area of Lahore doubled between
computer-assembling industry it has can accomodate 60,000 people 1951 and 1972. Although the trend contin-
strong trade links with Japan; Singapore; ued until 1980, the city then experienced a
Taipei,China; Thailand; and the United (which floods heavily during monsoons), and slower than anticipated growth. The 1998
Arab Emirates. the Indian border in the east. As a result the population census recorded the population
city has grown mainly southwards. With the of the MCL area at 4.5 million (excluding the
DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR exception of a few hasty interventions in cantonment area, with a population of
FORCE, AND INCOME the early 1950s, the cultural heritage of the 561,000), as against the popular estimate of
walled city has been carefully preserved and six million. This can be partly attributed to
According to the 1998 population census, of urban services like piped water supply, sew- the success of the rural industrialization pro-
the 4.5 million people living within the MCL erage, and natural gas have been brought in gram, which encouraged the setting up of
limits, 2.36 million are male and 2.14 with little interference to the existing street new industry away from large urban cen-
million female. This gives a male to female network. Built and rebuilt over several cen- ters. Another possible factor is the many
ratio of 110 percent, which is higher by 3 turies, the walled city now sits over a mound rural migrants being absorbed by the adja-
percent than the provincial average of 107 consisting of the debris of old buildings. This cent city of Gujranwala, where the cost of
percent. This can be attributed mainly to provides it with natural drainage not avail- living is significantly lower than Lahore’s.
the presence of the male in-migrants, who, able to the rest of Lahore. Many old build- Lahore, however, has a large daytime
once settled, are likely to bring their fami- ings of architectural merit in the walled city nonresident population, commuting by
lies to the city. According to a recent study, have been carefully conserved and some of intercity road and rail transport. Commut-
there has been an increase in the economi- them put to new use. Despite all this, how- ers come from the cities of Gujranwala,
cally active population in Lahore, resulting ever, the walled city is losing population, Sheikhupura, Faisalabad, Kasur, and Sahiwal,
in a 7 percent decline in the dependency with people moving out to the suburbs in as well as from many small towns and rural
ratio. southern Lahore and the residential build- settlements between these towns and
Spatial growth of Lahore has been ings being used as warehouses or simply Lahore.
constrained in the north by the Ravi River being rebuilt as commercial plazas. Lahore is an important industrial, trade,
Outside the walled city, low-lying and commerce center. By 1987 about 25 per-
northern Lahore has a perpetual drainage cent of the total industrial units of Punjab were
problem. As a number of industries are located in and around Lahore. However, ow-
located here, this is also the home of many ing to the Government’s decentralization poli-
industrial workers which characterizes the cies during the last two decades, this
area with high occupancy rates. proportion is now decreasing. The distant
Most government lands existing in location of these industries caused the pro-
pockets in the built-up area have squatter portion of people employed in primary and
settlements, many of which have been regu- secondary industries to decline in Lahore,
larized and upgraded to what is locally known with more people finding jobs in the tertiary
as katchi abadis. This has given rise to an industry. The highest proportion, 42 percent,
interesting blend of low and high-income of the labor force in Lahore is now employed
communities in the urban fabric of the built- in social and personal services and only about
up area. 34 percent is estimated to be employed in
Spatial expansion in the south has also the formal sector. The remaining 66 percent
been a mixture of planned and informal work in the micro and cottage or informal
development. The Lahore Development enterprises, which constitute an important
Authority (LDA) and private developers have segment of the city’s economy.
provided plots in several sites with service Average annual household income in
Commercial activities abound inside the walled schemes. Not being affordable for the needy Lahore has been estimated at $2,280 per
city families in low-income brackets, however, annum. With some 30 percent of households

198 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

living below the poverty line, the household
income distribution varies widely. A katchi
abadi household makes less than $750,
while those living in high-income areas
make more than $6,000. Annual incomes of
the top 5 percent of households in Lahore
are however expected to be five to ten times
higher.

POLITICAL STRUCTURE
Pakistan has a federal system of govern-
ment with four federating units or provinces.
The Constitution clearly spells out the func-
tions and responsibilities of the federal and
provincial governments and although not
specifically recognized as the third tier of
government, the “fostering” of local gov-
ernment is a provincial government respon- The Punjab Provincial building is a prominent landmark
sibility. The legal framework for local
government has been provided under the control, development and maintenance of most of the city. The Traffic Engineering and
Punjab Local Government Act of 1998, the public parks, and culture and welfare. Planning Agency develops and maintains
most recent amendment to British laws of Another important government agency, roads.
the early 20th century. Under this Act, the the LDA, has been mandated to carry out Located on an alluvial plain in the
MLC is headed by a lord mayor, elected by a urban development and control in areas over- vicinity of the Ravi with adequate annual
house of 315 counselors who also elect a lapping and extending beyond MCL jurisdic- rainfall, Lahore has an abundant supply of
deputy mayor for each of Lahore’s eight tion. The LDA prepared the Lahore Structure easily tapable underground water. WASA
zones. The provincial government has Plan of 1980, and is currently involved in extracts water through deep-well turbine
sweeping powers in local council affairs, preparing an integrated master plan for the pumps and supplies it to 73 percent of the
ranging from appointing and transferring Lahore metropolitan area. It has prepared residents. No treatment is required other
senior staff, approving the annual budget, and implemented sites-and-services than disinfection through chlorination. Other
dissolving the house, and replacing the schemes, and has been responsible for households have installed handpumps which
mayor with a nominated administrator. upgrading some katchi abadis and slum are sometimes operated by electric motors
The MCL, like all other urban local areas in Lahore. Besides, it has also devel- to provide an economical source of drinking
councils, has only a meager share of locally oped parks in the city. One of LDA’s impor- water. However, sunk only to a shallow depth,
collected taxes in its revenue and it is tant contributions has been to they yield water feared to be generally
unable to quickly respond to local issues, comprehensively upgrade urban services in contaminated.
particularly those pertaining to low-income the walled city and conserve some build- Owing to its flat topography, Lahore has
communities. Sweeping reforms in local ings of architectural merit in this historic an inherent problem in wastewater disposal,
government are now proposed emphasiz- neighborhood. which is yet to be fully overcome. There is
ing devolution of power to a district level. no separate storm water disposal system,
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE with only an additional capacity of 50 per-
URBAN GOVERNANCE cent provided in the municipal sewer
Development and operation of urban infra- system to allow for storm water. This provi-
Urban development and management in structure in Lahore are carried out by differ- sion proves inadequate during monsoons.
Lahore is MCL’s legal responsibility. The ent federal, provincial, and local agencies. As a result the streets remain inundated for
Punjab Local Government Act of 1998 spells The federal Government-controlled Water hours, with the wastewater stagnating for
out compulsory and optional functions for and Power Development Authority and many days in open spaces and low-lying
urban local councils. The compulsory func- Pakistan Telecommunications Corporation areas. Owing to the flat topography, the sew-
tions include delivering and operating water are responsible for developing and operat- age has to be pumped several times before
supply, sewerage and drainage, preparing ing the electricity and telephone systems. its final disposal to the Ravi. A gated outfall
and implementing master plans and site MCL is responsible for solid waste manage- has been provided and during floods the
development schemes, and exercising ment and operation of sullage drains in older sewage is pumped over the lowered gates
building control within the local government areas without sewerage and the Water & to avoid backflow of water from the river.
area. Included in the optional functions are Sanitation Agency (WASA) is responsible With WASA’s plans to construct oxidation
promoting public health, environmental for water supply, sewerage, and drainage in ponds for sewage treatment remaining

City Profiles 199

 Outside the walled city with its winding
precincts, Lahore’s roads are wide enough,
however, there is widespread encroachment
which the MCL and LDA have campaigned
against. The encroachers always return soon
after a campaign loses its zest.
Parking is another problem downtown
and in other commercial areas where new
commercial buildings provide inadequate on-
site parking. As a result service roads and
even main roads are used for parking. Due
to a lack of roadside parking control, recently
built multistorey parking plazas remain
underutilized.

HOUSING ACCESS AND

AFFORDABILITY
The Lahore railway station was built in 1864
Typically, people in Lahore live in detached
houses, semidetached houses with three
unimplemented, untreated wastewater con- the services of local masons to construct sides open, and row houses with an open
tinues to be dumped into the Ravi, danger- wastewater disposal arrangements. These backyard. Plot sizes vary from less than 70
ously polluting many miles of the stream. arrangements are either small-bore, shal- to over 1,000 square meters, but larger
From community collection points, low sewers, or household septic tanks con- villas are not uncommon. Although growing
through two large transfer stations, to the nected to open drains which are in turn in number, apartments are not a preferred
disposal sites, the MCL operates a reason- connected to the government built type of housing and are accepted only as
ably efficient system of solid waste disposal. secondary network. temporary shelter by singles and young
However, the first and last steps of the sys- For solid waste management, there are couples. They constitute less than 10
tem, taking the waste from the houses to some 10,000 families of waste pickers in percent of the housing stock.
the collection point and its safe final dis- Lahore, who sort solid waste for recycling There are few shelterless people in
posal, remain unguarded. Except for a few by small-scale industries. However, because Lahore. However, many households living in
low-income communities where some NGOs hospital waste is often mixed with munici- katchi abadis (11 percent) and slum areas
have been able to set up a door-to-door waste pal waste, this is dangerous and needs to be (37 percent) have only limited access to
collection system, large quantities of waste regulated by the MCL. The waste pickers urban services. Although electricity and
are not brought to the municipal collection often operate a door-to-door collection ser- drinking water supply are almost universally
points because of a lack of community aware- vice, using hand trolleys or donkey carts, available, sewerage, drainage, and solid
ness. Instead, it is dumped in open plots, at taking waste to the MCL waste collection waste services only reach the fringes of
street corners, and in open manholes. There points. Some NGOs have helped organize this these areas. Tertiary infrastructure brings
is no sanitary landfill in Lahore and waste is service in certain areas of Lahore. these services to the doorsteps of privileged
dumped, with no soil cover, along the Ravi. segments of society. With 29 percent of
Since 1996, the Punjab government and TRANSPORT households living below the poverty line,
the MCL have been trying to formally they can hardly afford to pay connection
involve the private sector in delivering and The composition of road transport in Lahore charges and tariffs. Some NGOs have suc-
operating urban services. Elaborate man- has undergone a major change over the last cessfully worked as intermediaries and
agement and performance contracts have 20 years. From about 40 percent in 1979, the organized communities to build the internal
been drafted with donor assistance, and proportion of animal drawn and other slow services by self-help, with urban agencies
international bidding organized. However, moving vehicles shrank to about 9 percent building external primary and secondary
with the intended privatization of urban ser- in 1997. The car (26 percent) and motorized infrastructure.
vices and transfer of staff liabilities, these two-wheelers (25 percent) now constitute Over the last 20 years, households in
attempts have so far been unsuccessful. On over 50 percent of vehicles on Lahore’s roads. Lahore have been incrementally improving
the other hand, informal private sector par- Other popular modes of transport include their housing stock by rebuilding with per-
ticipation has been successful and is wide- auto rickshaws (9 percent) and peddle cycles manent materials and adding more rooms.
spread. (9 percent). Although on the increase due to As a result about 95 percent of existing hous-
In low-income areas with no govern- recently offered incentives by the Punjab ing units in Lahore have now been built with
ment built tertiary infrastructure, the house- government, buses constitute only 2 per- permanent materials and rooms per hous-
holds pool financial resources and acquire cent of city traffic. ing unit have increased from two in 1981 to

200 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

2.2 in 1998. Despite these improvements, remaining unimplemented, the entire
however, overcrowding still prevails at 6.5 wastewater of Lahore is dumped untreated
persons per housing unit, and occupancy into the Ravi. As a result, the dissolved
rates work out to be around three persons oxygen levels have fallen below that required
per room. for the sustenance of aquatic life in about 20
The House Building Finance Corpora- km of the river. Lahore depends on under-
tion provides housing finance under an ground water for drinking and the Ravi is the
interest free Islamic system (charging bor- main source of aquifer recharge. By pollut-
rowers in proportion to the rental value of ing the river, Lahore is endangering its citi-
the house) which generates attractive zens’ health.
‘mark-up’ rates. However, this facility The MCL collects solid waste from its
remains inaccessible to people living in designated collection points. However, large Lahore Museum has a rich collection of cultural
informal areas, because their plots with quantities fail to reach these points and are artifacts
unclear land titles are generally not accepted dumped into open drains, sewer manholes,
as collateral. open spaces at street corners, and adversely Lahore are generally noisy, exceeding
With existing laws favoring tenants affect environmental sanitation in residen- allowable limits in most cases.
over house owners, who are also subject to tial areas. Again, efforts to build a sanitary
three types of taxes, less housing is being landfill site in Lahore have been unsuccess- DISASTER RELATED RISKS
offered for rent in Lahore. An important de- ful and solid waste is being dumped along
terrent to rental housing is the property tax the Ravi, with no soil cover and no safe dis- Lahore’s two recent disasters were the
which is far higher for leased properties. As posal of leachate. floods of 1996 and a chlorine gas leak in
a result, from over 10 percent rental hous- Most roads in downtown Lahore present 1997. Annual rainfall is normally from a few
ing in 1981, Lahore is estimated to have only poor air quality characterized by high par- storms during monsoons in July and
2 percent in 1998. ticulate and dust concentration from vehicle August, supplemented by light showers in
The federal Government has initiated a emissions and resuspension of road dust by winter. This makes it uneconomical to lay
countrywide mera ghar (my house) housing passing vehicles. With the exception of a an independent storm water disposal
scheme which is expected to reduce hous- few busy crossings, the carbon monoxide system, so the waste disposal system
ing congestion in Lahore, because it includes levels are generally satisfactory. Roads in caters for storm water drainage. The
the construction of about 10,000 dwelling
units in the city. Being built on government
land, through financing by commercial banks
and the government owned development
finance institutions, these units will be
allotted to low- and middle-income house-
holds, under no-profit-no-loss, and the cost
will be recovered in easy installments.

ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
Although environmental management in
Lahore is carried out by different agencies,
including MCL and WASA, the agency
exclusively mandated to do so is the
provincial Environmental Protection Depart-
ment (EPD). However, incapacitated by the
lack of provincial legislation, (the bill is pend-
ing for approval by the provincial assem-
bly), EPD relies on the relatively less
stringent Federal Environmental Protection
Act of 1997. As a result, most industrial units
continue to discharge untreated waste into
the municipal sewerage, and hospital solid
waste is mixed with municipal waste.
With WASA’s plans to construct
oxidation ponds for wastewater treatment The Government College Lahore is the oldest institution of higher learning in the country

City Profiles 201

combined disposal system is not designed buildings. A large number of private provide technical and financial assistance
for peak flows and a few hours of street buildings of architectural merit, some of to all eligible urban local councils, including
inundation is always tolerated. In August them over 100 years old, are only being Lahore.
1996, however, Lahore received 56 centi- modified or rebuilt as modern buildings Pakistan’s urban local councils are
meters of rain within 36 hours and streets according to market requirements. operating under government appointed
were flooded by up to two meters in low- The colorful kite flying festival of Basant administrators, and local government laws
lying areas, forcing people to vacate their is celebrated during spring in mid-February are being reviewed for major restructuring.
houses and find shelter on higher ground. when Lahore is visited by kite flying enthu- Accordingly, PMDFC is not extending any
Workers failed to reach their factories, daily siasts from all over Pakistan and several large-scale credit, and is limiting itself to
supplies were disrupted, large quantities of cities of India. Kite flying by night has technical assistance and capacity building.
foodstuff perished in markets, and electronic become popular and searchlights are
goods stored in basements were destroyed. installed on rooftops, overloading the elec-
More than 20 people died and about trification network which sometimes fails
10,000 were affected in Baja Lines, a low- when moist strings cross over live con-
income, high-density neighborhood when ductors.
poisonous chlorine gas leaked from two Another important event is the National
cylinders. Soil contaminated by the lethal Horse and Cattle Show combined with sev-
gas could not be effectively removed and eral interesting performances, including a
most people had to evacuate the area. colorful military tattoo. Lahore also has a
At the time of the disaster, laws were fine cricket stadium and the world’s largest
inadequate to deal with such situations and hockey ground. The cricket stadium is
the much-awaited Federal Environmental equipped with floodlights to allow for popu-
Act was enacted only after the incident in lar one-day international games. The city
1997. Provincial environmental legislation, has a large and modern open-air theater, be-
although yet to pass through the provincial sides a large number of indoor facilities for
assembly, comprehensively addresses the stage dramas, puppet shows, and musical
subject of hazardous chemicals and wastes programs which have become extremely
and provides procedures for ensuring safety popular recently. Some of these facilities are
standards and penalties for noncompliance. also used for more serious events like work-
shops, conferences, and seminars.
CULTURAL HERITAGE
MAJOR URBAN
Lahore is custodian of a cultural heritage DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
that includes the tombs of two kings and
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
one maharaja, a fort, palaces, mosques, gar-
dens, museums, educational institutions, Twenty-year plans like The Structure Plan
and monuments. This makes Lahore of 1980 and the Integrated Master Plan of
Pakistan’s most visited city. 1998 steer urban development. Major pro-
With the meager funds at its disposal, posed projects encompass improvements
the Department of Archaeology has only in air traffic handling, transportation, sew-
decelerated deterioration of buildings of his- erage and drainage, and new housing in
toric value and architectural merit. How- walk-up apartments. Two important projects
ever, the Awqaf Department, responsible which have been delayed are the
for religious buildings, like mosques and wastewater treatment plant and Lahore
shrines, has been able to keep these build- waste-to-energy, involving construction of
ings in better shape by using substantial a sanitary landfill, to produce 4.5 megawatts Zaffar Pervez Sabri is an urban and municipal infra-
contributions from devotees. of electricity as by-product. structure specialist. He is currently the Managing Di-
Conserving and upgrading the walled A number of international funding agen- rector and Chief of Human Settlements Planning Divi-
city was identified as one action area under cies have been helping Lahore. The govern- sion of the Innovative Development Consultants (Pvt)
Limited. He was a consultant in various projects funded
the Lahore Structure Plan of 1980 and was ment of Punjab recently set up the Punjab
by the UNDP, World Bank, ADB, UNICEF and other
carried out with World Bank assistance. Municipal Development Fund. Administered international agencies. Mr. Sabri is a civil engineer
Elsewhere, paucity of funds means conser- by a specially created, nonprofit, private and holder of a masters degree in Human Settlements
vation is limited to high priority public limited company (PMDFC), the fund will Planning and Development.

202 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

PHILIPPINES

Mandaluyong

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF south, San Juan to its northwest , and Quezon district to accommodate the spillover from
THE CITY City to its northeast. the Makati and Manila business districts.

M
After being devastated by the Second Once a quiet residential suburb in the 1970s,
andaluyong is strategically World War, Manila grew eastward and Mandaluyong today is one of the most pro-
located in Metro Manila’s expanded to Quezon City, Pasay City, gressive business centers in the country.
expanding central busi- Caloocan, Makati, and Mandaluyong.
ness district (CBD). Growth nodes developed in various parts of DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR
Stretching along the west- Manila, now known as Metropolitan FORCE, AND INCOME
ern part of the Pasig River and downstream Manila. Each node assumed a definite role
portion of the San Juan River, it links the in the city economy and caters to specific The city emerged as the new seat of busi-
inner and outer cores as well as urban market groups. Makati, for instance, devel- ness after the EDSA Revolution in 1986.
growth areas outside Metropolitan Manila. oped as a prime commercial and business Mandaluyong has attracted foreign and
It is bounded by Manila City to its west, center. In the 1980s, the Ortigas Center in
Pasig City to its east, Makati City to its Mandaluyong was created as a business
Statistical Snapshot ... 1998
DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 0.314
Density (persons/ha) 670
Annual rate of increase (percent) 3.1

ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$2,434
Households below poverty line (percent) 32.1
Cost of stay (per day) US$147
FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 65.8
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 35

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 2.5
Persons per hospital bed 63
Life expectancy (years) 69
Adult literacy rate (percent) 99.4
Median years of education 14–15
Tertiary graduates (for every ’000 pop) 245

COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 87
Local calls (per person per year) 210
International calls (per person per year) 3.33
Mobile calls (per person per year) 4.4
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 18

City Profiles 203

 national goals, development guidelines and
policy, and peace and order. Local govern-
ment, serving provinces, cities, and munici-
palities, enjoys autonomy under the Local
Government Code of 1991.
The smallest political unit or barangay
is the primary planning and implementing
unit of government policies, plans, programs,
projects, and activities. It also serves as a
forum for airing people’s collective views
and settling disputes. Each barangay is
headed by a captain, seven council mem-
bers, one youth chairman, a secretary, and
a treasurer. The captain is the local chief
Reviving the life of the Pasig River requires citizens’ support
executive and the councils act as legisla-
tive bodies. All barangay officials are ac-
countable to the city mayor.
local investments and now hosts some of enough for their families to survive. These Mandaluyong was converted into a
the leading financial and business firms in informal workers are visible in the inner city, highly urbanized city by Republic Act 7675.
the country. These include SM Megamall, in “talipapa” (makeshift markets), small The city constitutes a corporate political
San Miguel Corporation, and United Labora- shops, jeepney parking stations, and infor- body enjoying the general power of a city
tories. The Asian Development Bank’s main mal settlements. under the Local Government Code of 1991.
headquarters in the Ortigas Center is a land- The actual labor population gainfully The city is represented by one member of
mark within the area. The city also has sev- employed in 1995 was recorded at 110,967 Congress and is governed by a mayor, vice-
eral large establishments engaged in with 98 percent belonging to the economi- mayor, and 12 councilors. It has two dis-
processing and packaging food, sugar, steel, cally productive age group of 15–64 years. tricts with 27 barangays headed by
cigarettes, medicines, and plastics. The up- The bulk of the labor force was concentrated chairpersons. The mayor is the chief execu-
surge in business generated greater revenue in the 20–44 age group. Overall, the male tive and each city department has its own
and employment with Mandaluyong’s in- population dominated the total employed at head. The city council has legislative power
come rising from $2.6 million in 1986 to $22.5 close to 58 percent. In October 1998, unem- and levies taxes. For accountable local
million in 1998. ployment was recorded at 17 percent, a governance, the government may discipline,
The city’s economic growth has been higher figure than for most cities and suspend, or remove local officials who
hindered by limited space. Aware of this, municipalities in Metro Manila. violate the Constitution, Local Government
the city passed an ordinance declaring the Despite the emphasis on financial and Code of 1991, and other laws.
Pioneer District, an industrial area east of commercial office employment, informal
EDSA and south of Shaw Boulevard, as part employment, at 40 percent, plays a large URBAN GOVERNANCE
of its CBD providing opportunities for more part in the local economy. This is partly
business and commercial growth. Conver- because earnings may be higher in the The 1991 Local Government Code ensures
sion of the area is expected to reap more informal sector. the city ’s self-reliance, through the
revenue and employment for the city. The proportion of households living Government ’s assistance, in providing
Inevitably, the city’s economic achieve- below the poverty line is 32 percent, and the services such as health, education,
ments have resulted in crowded conditions proportion of women-headed households is housing, social services, infrastructure, and
as migrants arrive in search of better oppor- also 32 percent. There are various poverty peace and order.
tunities. This is pressuring the limited reduction programs run by the Government Taking a holistic approach to urban
resources and services. The number of (services in education, health, livelihood, renewal, the city instituted comprehensive
unemployed local workers increased infrastructure, housing, and utilities), by the land use policies to influence urban growth
because of stiff competition from migrant city (community development, solid waste and development. An NGO was engaged to
workers from other parts of the country. management, health, livelihood, and squat- formulate a master plan which serves as a
Recently, the labor sector demanded a wage ter resettlement), and by various nongov- policy guide for the city’s physical develop-
increase to soften the inflationary effect of ernment organizations (NGOs). ment. The public was involved in program
the Asian crisis, but the Government formulation and public hearings and
declared a wage moratorium (deferred POLITICAL STRUCTURE barangay consultation determined public
payment of salary increases) to prevent acceptance of projects.
closure of some industries. With rising liv- The Philippines is a republican state based Delinquency in paying taxes and other
ing costs and high unemployment, workers on the 1987 Constitution with its Govern- fees has forced the city government to
must engage in informal employment to earn ment managing state affairs covering suspend implementing some infrastructure

204 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

projects. Waste management and environ- Philippine Long Distance Telecommu-
mental projects have suffered major nication and Globe Telecom provide
setbacks in all metropolitan cities and telephone systems to 87 percent of house-
municipalities. holds. The entrance of Globe as a new
provider and PLDT’s new program have
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE improved service quality and considerably
reduced the demand for telephone connec-
The city’s main sources of income are real tions. Several other niche providers use
property tax (66 percent), amusement tax, PLDT’s network to provide long distance calls
transfer tax, user charges, and other and cellphone services. There are separate
governmental regulatory fees. Central cable networks operated by five providers
Government transfers amount to 27 percent. offering Internet installation with monthly
Though income increased population grew rates from $7 to $48.
considerably, increasing demand for utilities
and infrastructure. TRANSPORT Churches show imprint of Spanish influence on
The city derives its water from both the city
surface and ground waters. Surface water Transportation in the city is predominantly
is supplied by a regional distribution sys- land based. Internal circulation is supported Government‘s housing projects. The
tem provided by a concessionaire engaged by a network of city and barangay roads and “barong-barong” or poor person’s shelter is
by the national agency. Potable water is now ten national roads traverse the city linking common in informal settlements. It is made
connected to 83 percent of households, but it to neighboring municipalities and cities. of dilapidated and light materials and depre-
supply suffers interruption in some Construction of the Mandaluyong-Makati ciates the value of the occupied land.
barangays because of low pressure and old Bridge has improved traffic circulation, but The scarcity and high cost of land and
pipelines. Interruptions can be up to 56 hours during peak hours the volume of vehicles is proliferation of squatters is a problem for
per month. The present administration has greater than road capacity. More bridges are low- and middle-income housing. Squatting
taken aggressive steps to rectify this planned to open new opportunities for de- is attributed to population growth and the
problem by constructing a pumping station velopment and help decongest major thor- influx of migrants seeking employment and
and deepwells. oughfares. livelihood opportunities.
Mandaluyong has an efficient electric People depend on private cars and Consequently, the local government
system from two major 115–34.5 kilovolt jeepneys and on tricycles and pedicabs in the launched two housing programs, “Land for
substations. Unfortunately, there are still inner built-up areas. The Pasig River is used the Landless” and “Home for the Homeless.”
many households, mostly in informal settle- for shipping cargo to and from industrial Under these programs, the city bought pri-
ments, with illegal connections. The Manila establishments along the riverbanks and a vate and government land and distributed
Electric Company, through the city’s initia- new Manila–Mandaluyong road is planned around 5,000 lots to qualified beneficiaries.
tive, launched a program to formalize illegal on the river’s easement. Similarly, about 1,359 medium rise units
connections through the Depressed Area have already been distributed to average
Electrification Project. In the last five years HOUSING ACCESS AND income earners and squatter beneficiaries.
there has been a substantial 10 percent in- AFFORDABILITY Under this housing program, one apart-
crease in electricity connections and 95 ment unit costs around $9,000–$12,250. A
percent of households are now connected. Mandaluyong remains predominantly residen- qualified beneficiary has to pay a $65
tial, with 42 percent of its total land area monthly amortization payable within 20
devoted to housing. At least 52 percent of years. For those who cannot afford the local
households have clear title or ownership of government housing program, the city, by
the house and land they occupy. Approxi- coordinating with the Government, offers
mately 56 percent of dwelling types are single affordable housing units outside Metro
family housing, 35 percent are medium Manila. The loan package consisting of a
density housing, 8 percent are apartments, house and lot may cost from $2,000–$3,750
and the rest are temporary dwellings, insti- with monthly amortization of $12, at an
tutions, and hostels, etc. Unfortunately, interest rate of 9–12 percent per annum pay-
informal settlers occupy some of these able in 25 years. Informal settlers, particu-
dwellings in high density settlements. larly those living in danger zones such as
The single family type is most river easements, opt for this cheap loan
common in the middle- and high-income package. At present there are 300 families
groups and those who cannot afford a voluntarily resettled in areas outside Metro
Don Bosco Technical College once sheltered
revolutionary leaders who fought against the house of their own rent small apartments Manila under these terms. To prevent infor-
Spanish colonizer or apply for accommodation in one of the mal settlers from returning to the city, the

City Profiles 205

local government monitors areas that have Air pollution is a government concern sector participating under a BOT scheme.
been vacated. for the Department of Environment and Natu- The contract covers constructing a $14.2
ral Resources (DENR) in collaboration with million six-storey commercial center with
ENVIRONMENTAL local government and the MMDA. DENR movie houses, bowling lanes, two-storey
MANAGEMENT studies of Metro Manila’s air indicated that parking lot, department stores, and public
standards in air quality pollution are ex- market.
The present administration acknowledges ceeded. Mandaluyong City takes a holistic
that solid waste is one of the most pressing approach to urban renewal. The city council
environmental problems confronting the city. CULTURAL HERITAGE approved an ordinance converting the
Mandaluyong largely depends on sanitary Pioneer-EDSA-Shaw Triangle to a CBD and
landfill being operated and maintained by Mandaluyong City supports and encourages has tapped an urban planning expert to form
the Metro Manila Development Authority its residents to participate in its cultural a comprehensive development plan for the
(MMDA) for solid waste disposal. The city affairs. One noteworthy event is Liberation city. Under the master plan, certain areas
and some Metro Manila areas encounter col- Day, a one-week celebration in February. will be converted into broader and spacious
lection and disposal problems due to the This historical event showcases cultural districts with road widening and stricter
periodic repair and rehabilitation of the events, sports, exhibits, a cultural parade, enforcement of land use and commercial
dumpsite. Unless the MMDA provides an competitions in art and entertainment, district zoning. The city will partner with the
efficient and permanent landfill, the prob- award ceremonies, and gift giving to less private sector and property owners for imple-
lem will continue. fortunate residents. menting this program.
Because of the increase in population Another historical event is Rizal Day, The city has implemented other major
and commercial activities, the volume of celebrating the birthday of Dr. Jose Rizal, projects such as concreting and drainage
garbage generated has been increasing at the nation’s hero. This is an annual celebra- improvement of main roads, drilling and con-
an average rate of 12.45 percent each year tion followed by a variety of cultural struction of a water pumping station, and
from 1994 to 1998; an equivalent increase of programs and activities. construction of government school buildings.
35,000 cubic meters per year. Collection and The city has constructed its own cul- The private sector has also initiated
disposal operations in the city are presently tural building, “Kaban ng Hiyas,” which other major projects for constructing high-
undertaken by the local Environmental Sani- showcases various collections of artifacts rise buildings such as hotels, offices, and
tation Center (ESC). The ESC, formerly and paintings and one shopping mall has malls ranging from 15 to 40 storeys. These
under MMDA’s technical supervision, was art exhibits by famous Filipino artists. include Paragon Plaza, Pioneer Highland, Tif-
localized in 1991 and is directly supervised fany Tower, Cityland, Sun Plaza, and Lee
by the city. Its other activities are street MAJOR URBAN Garden Tower, with an estimated cost of
sweeping, greening and beautification, and DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS, almost $200 million. These projects have
waste minimization programs. Plans are ready boosted economic activity in the city.
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
for constructing a compost center aimed at
reducing waste to about 30 percent. Mandaluyong City is the first government
To maintain a healthier and ecologically unit to implement a development project
balanced environment, the city implemented using the build-operate-transfer (BOT)
tree planting and greening of its major thor- scheme. BOT is a contractual arrangement
oughfares as well as developing parks and where a developer undertakes the construc-
recreation areas including the Pasig River’s tion, including financing, of an infrastruc-
easement. ture facility, and its operations and
The river is the main water body receiv- maintenance. The developer operates the
ing liquid waste from domestic sources. facility over a fixed term to enable it to re-
Without a sewerage service, Mandaluyong cover investments at a reasonable rate of
relies on household septic tanks for treating return.
its wastewater (accounting for 87 percent In 1991, Mandaluyong sought to rebuild
of household sewage disposal in the city). the public market that was destroyed by
Although Mandaluyong is only one of the fire, but had difficulty financing it because it
areas being traversed by the Pasig River, it needed a $1.6 million loan at 18 percent per Armando T. Comandao is the City Development and
Planning Coordinator of the City of Mandaluyong.
considers the river its natural resource and annum and could not rely on market stall Before that, he served as a senior development officer
rehabilitating it has become the concern of charges to service the debt. Reconstruc- and project development officer of the city. Mr.
the Government and local government. tion was made possible with the private Comandao is a civil engineer.

206 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

INDONESIA

Medan

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF Medan City was originally a small Beras, and Klumpang. Following the
THE CITY village named “Medan Putri” developed by increased prosperity of the tobacco indus-

M
Guru Patimpus, the grandson of King Singa try, Nienhuys moved his company’s office
edan City lies in North Mahraja who ruled the state of Bekerah in from Labuhan to Medan Putri which became
Sumatra Province and can the highlands of Karo. Its location was criti- increasingly crowded and developed under
be reached via Polonia Air cal, near the confluence of the Deli and the more popular name of Medan City.
port and Belawan Port, Babura rivers. Both rivers were crowded with Medan City has some special histori-
both within the metro commercial traffic and Medan Putri pros- cal remains, especially ancient buildings
Medan city region. The city is in the north of pered as a trading center. such as the Deli Sultant Palace, the main
the province at 2.5–37.5 meters above sea During the 19th century, north Sumatra mosque and Cathedral, and buildings the
level. Its temperature ranges from about 23° became a center for plantation agriculture
Celsius to 32° Celsius and its annual rainfall under Dutch control. Jacob Nienhuys, a
Statistical Snapshot ... 1998
averages 365–1,893 millimeters with rain Dutch entrepreneur, expanded his tobacco
on 176–216 days a year. plantations in Martubung, Sunggal, Sungai DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 2.03
Density (persons per ha) 142
Annual rate of increase (percent) 1.8
ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$350
Households below poverty line (percent) 29
Cost of stay (per day) US$58.8

FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 18.9
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 44

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 3
Persons per hospital bed 443.2
Life expectancy (years) 65.5
Adult literacy rate (percent) 98.1
Median years of education 12
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 69
COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 41
Local calls (per person per year) 60
International calls (per person per year) 2.1
Mobile calls (per person per year) 7
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 10

City Profiles 207

 a result, transport and communications
were the second most important share of
city GDP at 17 percent. Banking and other
financial services were in third place at 16
percent.

DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR
FORCE, AND INCOME
The resident population of Medan is just over
two million, with a further 8 percent com-
muting in daily. Medan’s growth rate of 1.8
percent per year is slightly below the
national average. The city’s population is
composed of Bataks, Javanese, Malays,
Minamgkabaus, Chinese, etc., with each
maintaining its own cultural patterns and
social structure. Consequently, Medan is the
only city without a dominant culture as in
other Indonesian cities.
Medan is a key gateway to West Indonesia
The distribution of population in each
subdistrict is uneven. There are small
subdistricts with a large number of residents
Dutch used as offices. These old buildings as one of the key gateways to West Indone- and relatively large subdistricts with few
are potential tourist attractions, but some sia and a center for economic activities. To residents. The largest concentrations of
are poorly managed or only partly rebuilt. promote such economic growth, the city people live near the industrial area and city
The city government has insufficient budget built an integrated industrial area called center.
to rehabilitate them and the central Govern- “Kawasan Industri Medan”. However, its role The city government’s labor develop-
ment offers no assistance. as a catalyst for economic growth in West ment policy is to create work opportunities,
Medan’s key location advantages are Indonesia has begun slowly, because generate household income, reduce unem-
boosted by its international airport and port. supporting infrastructure and services are ployment (currently some 14 percent), and
Taking advantage of the location, the not yet in place, especially those related to create a supply of trained labor and a
Government of Indonesia identified Medan regulations and complicated bureaucratic productive work base. Employment is domi-
requirements. nated by the consumer services sector at
During the 1990s Medan’s economy 40 percent, followed by producer services
grew at a healthy 6.5 percent per year. But at 37 percent.
in 1997, when Indonesia was hit by the Asian Medan City’s labor force is still grow-
financial crisis and the economy contracted ing rapidly due to continuing migration and
drastically, Medan registered a negative urbanization. Unemployment depends on the
growth rate of 20.11 percent. Worst hit were fortunes of the Indonesian economy; the situ-
the services sectors of banking, transporta- ation is likely to remain critical for several
tion, and construction, which support the years.
local economy. Per capita incomes of city residents
The city’s economic structure means vary between $36 and $90 with about 29
that some sectors such as trade, hotels, percent of residents earning between $60
and other service industries have a bigger and $80. Another sign of the economic
role than other sectors. In 1998, these crisis is households spending 55 percent of
sectors contributed over 26 percent of the their incomes on food. Child labor is almost
city’s GDP. Trade is the main sector because nonexistent (according to the Medan labor
Medan is the trade center for the whole North ordinance it is illegal to employ anyone
Sumatra Province. under 15).
As in other Indonesian cities, transport About 29 percent of households are
and communications are important in the living below the poverty line in Medan.
local economy, since the growth areas such Women-headed households comprise 7
The city’s labor force grows as migration as financial services rely on rapid move- percent of the households below the
continues ment of people and economic activities. As poverty threshold.

208 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

POLITICAL STRUCTURE and safe. In Medan, effective coordination Priorities for developing the telecom-
between the public sector, community munications sector include installing auto-
The City of Medan is a second level region groups, and private companies is important matic telephone centers, international direct
among the 19 regions in North Sumatra Prov- in the drive to improve working, living, and dialing, direct-distant connection, and
ince. It is led by the mayor of the second recreation conditions. public telephone installations. Improved
level region who acts as executive leader, service not only relates to technology but
assisted by a vice-mayor and regional sec- URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE also to the quality of services, especially
retary and some heads of departments. The the services for prospective consumers, by
city consists of 21 subdistricts, with each Medan will soon be the first designated making applications simple and charging
one comprising a varying number of admin- metropolitan city outside Java. Conse- the cheapest installment fee. As a result
istrative districts, amounting to 151 in quently, developing a clean water supply, telephone installations have been increas-
Medan as a whole. efficient telecommunications, electricity, ing by over 30 percent per year. Medan also
The Medan second level region was and road facilities will be priorities. has a high level of Internet connections in
formed when economic, social, and military The Titanadi Water Supply Company the city.
policy making in Indonesia was still cen- supplies about 71 percent of residents with
tralized. After 1998, all second level regions clean water supply for domestic and TRANSPORT
in Indonesia, including Medan Municipality, commercial use. Year by year the company
were allowed to manage their own regions, is increasing product capacity, especially Roads are divided into state roads financed
under Regional Government Regulation No. after receiving financial support from the by the Government; provincial roads
22, 1999. Under this regulation, Medan can Second Medan Urban Development Project financed by the North Sumatra government;
decide on policy in all sectors except for- (MUDP-II) funded by the Asian Development and city roads financed by the Medan City
eign affairs, security and defense, the as- Bank. As a result, the installation capacity government. Road length in the city is about
surance of law, monetary and finance in the Deli Tua region on the border of Medan 1,609 kilometers (km), in relatively good
matters, and religion, which remain under City will be increased from 30,000 to 120,000 condition, including the 26-km Medan-
the central Government. cubic meters per day. Belawan highway. The city government is
Medan’s legislature, the Regional With increased population and trying to develop new roads and related
People’s Assembly, elects an executive commercial development demand for structures but is unable to keep up with
leader. The Assembly ’s members, who electricity rising, connections have been vehicle demands.
represent the political parties elected in made to 91 percent of households. The Medan City’s government is involved
general elections, also watch over the National Electric Corporation supplies the in transport in several ways. For inland
establishment of regional government. whole of Sumatra including the Asahan Alu- transportation, local government is respon-
minium Industry. sible for maintaining road facilities, moti-
URBAN GOVERNANCE
For administering issues concerning eco-
nomic, social, political, and security mat-
ters the mayor is assisted by 21 subdistrict
and administrative subdistrict leaders. For
more technical issues such as acquiring and
maintaining public facilities, the mayor is
assisted by heads of departments. For ex-
ample, city park issues are managed by the
City Parks Department.
In policy making and implementation
for the city ’s development, the private
sector is involved in almost all development
activities financed by the Government. One
donation given by private sector companies
was “dana partisipasi” (participation fund)
focused on developing public facilities, such
as offices for subdistrict and administrative
subdistrict leaders in the city, and financing
poor children to continue their study.
Community groups work with officers
from subdistrict and administrative subdis-
tricts to keep the city environment clean The city is the third biggest city in Indonesia

City Profiles 209

vating private sector operators to maintain ENVIRONMENTAL
their cars and buses for customers, manag- MANAGEMENT
ing public transport routes and managing
parking lots, and investing in new bus sta- In 1998, 1,216 tons per day of solid waste
tions. were generated in Medan. The city govern-
The main means of transportation in ment employed many streetsweepers or
the city are the many small public buses or “Pasukan Melati” (Jasmine Troops) and
“sudaco” carrying 12–14 passengers with groups of drainage cleaners or “Pasukan
routes to all parts of the city. In working Kumbang“ (Bees Troops). All waste col-
hours these minibuses dominate traffic; bus lected from streets and roads was dumped
or minibus travel accounts for 86 percent of at two 10-hectare (ha) locations in the sub-
all work trips. Public transportation is urbs. In addition there are 18 garbage de-
operated by private companies, except for a pots and 12 transfer stations. To increase
few coaches or “damri” which serve only the beauty of the city, the government cre-
main roads. Passenger train services only ated some parks and boulevards, and
serve customers outside the city and freight planted trees along main streets.
services are limited to the Belawan Port to Household liquid waste is disposed of
city center route. via septic tanks (69 percent), underground
pits (20 percent), and underground commu-
HOUSING ACCESS AND nal pits (10 percent). Some 22 percent of
AFFORDABILITY liquid waste is treated.
Through the MUDP II, a sewage treat-
Virtually all housing stock in Medan is ment plant was developed on a 10-ha site.
privately owned or rented. The typical land The plant can serve about 15,375 households
developer multiplier is 2.45 and the devel- in 540 ha of the populous city center. Medan
oper contribution is 18 percent. Only 2 per- City received a government award for its
cent of houses are mortgaged. environmental program.
The private sector is variously involved
in land and housing development. For low- CULTURAL HERITAGE
income groups, private companies work with
the Medan government to build “rumah Medan City, existing since Dutch colonial-
sangat serdehana” or very simple houses, ization, was incorporated during the Deli
and “rumah serdehana” or simple houses. Malay Kingdom in 1888. There are various
These are built in Labuhan, Belawan, historic buildings, some of which have been
Simalingkar, Marindal, and Helvetia districts. modified for new uses.
They are government-owned for rent. The Maimoon Palace is a building of great
policy of building low-income units in historic value as a reminder of the success
suburban areas may have drawbacks such of the Deli Kingdom. It is in good condition
as distance to work, but there are benefits. having been renovated by the city govern-
Housing layouts can take advantage of rural ment. The Palace is in the city center while
conditions and suitable housing can be other notable buildings like the Grand
constructed at affordable prices. Mosque, Post Office, and Bank Indonesia are
Private developers and owner-builders spread through the city.
need authorization from the City Government
Housing and Urban Management Department
for construction, but it appears that only a
small proportion of housing conforms to
regulations. It is likely that most illegal
structures of permanent or nonpermanent
construction are those built along river-
banks, and railways, etc. In many cases they Mr. Zulkifli is a lecturer in the Faculty of Social and
Political University of North Sumatera, Medan, Indo-
will be occupied under grants with no resi- nesia. Mr. Zulkifli holds a graduate degree in
dential permits. Sociology.

210 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

AUSTRALIA

Melbourne

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF and 30 kilometers from the central business business and working population of approxi-
THE CITY district (CBD). It is also at the hub of a radial mately 400,000.

T
metropolitan transport system that con- The City Council has put much
he City of Melbourne is the capi- nects the city with its metropolis and the effort into reversing population loss and the
tal of the state of Victoria. Located rest of the state. Melbourne is the state’s number of residents has increased signifi-
on the River Yarra near the head of international and national gateway and the cantly over the past few years. Some of
Port Phillip Bay on Australia’s focus for business, international trade, arts, these new residents are living in converted
southern coastline, Melbourne is entertainment, and sporting activities. office buildings in the CBD or new purpose-
the country ’s second largest city after
Sydney. DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR Statistical Snapshot ... 1998
Established in the early 19th century, FORCE, AND INCOME DEMOGRAPHY
Melbourne is renowned for its collection of
Resident population (in million) 0.04
Victorian-era buildings (the best in the coun- The city has attractive residential neighbor- Density (persons/ha) 93
try), its parks and gardens, and sporting and hoods and is currently home to 47,500 Annual rate of increase (percent) 5.8
cultural events. people. During term time, there are an esti- ECONOMY
The city is at the center of a large me- mated 10,000 tertiary students living in the City product (per capita) US$28,456
Cost of stay (per day) US$142
tropolis, the fringe of which is between 20 city, many from overseas. It has a daytime
FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 54
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 28

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 0.60
Persons per hospital bed 12.8
Life expectancy (years) 78.4
Adult literacy rate (percent) 100
Median years of education 9
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 268
COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 99
Local calls (per person per year) 594
International calls (per person per year) 11
Mobile calls (per person per year) 80
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 131.9

City Profiles 211

 number of capital works projects from con-
ception to implementation; aged and dis-
ability services; family and children’s
services; youth services; environmental
health services (including health inspec-
tions); animal management services; librar-
ies; visitor services; waste management,
city cleaning, parks and recreation manage-
ment; traffic management; statutory and
strategic planning; strategic research;
engineering services; parking management
and enforcement; and civic and ceremonial
roles.
The council periodically surveys cus-
tomer satisfaction by collecting businesses’
and residents’ views about the City of
Melbourne and council services. Other coun-
Melbourne is the center of business in the state of Victoria cil departments also regularly survey inter-
nal and external customers as part of a “Best
built apartment towers. The city’s average postgraduate diploma. The level of educa- Value” program. This program ensures all
rate of population increase between 1991 tion is reflected in high incomes for some services and activities within the council
and 1999 was 4.6 percent. In some of these city households. In 1996, 12 percent of are relevant and delivered effectively and
years, the annual population growth rate has households had a gross annual income of that this can be clearly demonstrated to the
put it in the top 20 fastest-growing local $127,130 or more, compared to 5.9 percent community.
government areas in Australia. New resi- of metropolitan households in that same The state government also conducts, on
dential development opportunities in income category. However, there is some behalf of all councils in Victoria, an annual
Melbourne’s docklands and areas to the polarity on this measure, as at the other end survey that measures customer satisfaction
north, west, and south of the CBD will en- of the scale 21 percent of city households regarding overall general performance of
sure that population growth continues. earned $19,798 per year or less. This is councils, key service areas and responsibili-
A little over half of the city’s working higher than for the wider metropolitan area ties, local roads and footpaths, health and
residents are employed in the five areas of which had 17 percent of households in this human services, recreational facilities,
property and business services, retail trade, income bracket. waste management services, enforcement
education, hospitality, and health and com- of local laws, economic development, town
munity services. This reflects Melbourne’s POLITICAL STRUCTURE planning policy and approvals, the council’s
role—it has a large retail area, it is the cen- interaction and responsiveness, and its ad-
ter of business in the state, and has many of Australia has three-tiered government in- vocacy and community representation on
the state’s premier educational and medi- cluding federal, state, and local. Local gov- key local issues.
cal institutions. ernment is a creature of state government, Generally there is a high level of public
The city’s residents are highly educated formed under the Constitution Act. In access to council documents and reports.
with approximately one quarter of the adult Victoria, the Local Government Act covers Council meetings are open to the public and
population holding tertiary qualifications in aspects such as the structure of local coun- minutes of meetings are made public. The
a bachelor’s degree, a higher degree, or a cils, the number of councilors, financial pow- council is required to advertise its annual
ers, etc. However, other acts also regulate budget prior to adoption and publish an
the roles and activities of local government. annual report. Its vision and strategies for
For example, the Planning and Environment the city’s economic, environmental, and
Act spells out the role of local government social development are set out in public
in planning matters. documents.
The council recognizes that good mar-
URBAN GOVERNANCE keting and communication is a success fac-
tor for modern organizations and aims to
The City Council carries out a wide range of improve communication with stakeholders
functions on behalf of its ratepayers, resi- and the community. A hotline service has
dents, and visitors. These include garbage been established for telephone inquiries by
collection; maintenance of city infrastruc- internal and external customers and neigh-
ture such as roads and footpaths, parks and borhood officers provide on-the-street service
Boats and excursion vessels ply the Yarra River community facilities; management of a large to the community.

212 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
The city’s infrastructure has been progres-
sively developed over 150 years. There is
universal or near-universal connection of resi-
dential properties to sewage and water sup-
ply services, electricity, and telephones.
Natural gas is also available as an alterna-
tive energy source for cooking and heating.
Water and sewerage services are pro-
vided by City West Water, one of three state-
owned companies licensed to provide these
services and dispose of trade waste in the
Melbourne metropolitan area. City West is
the custodian of some of the metropolitan
area’s oldest water and sewer infrastruc-
ture, and the company has embarked on a
program of renewal and refurbishment of old
lines for environmental reasons and for
maintaining satisfactory levels of customer
service.
The Victorian electricity industry was
disaggregated in 1994 into generation com-
panies, transmission companies, and dis-
tribution and retail companies. The city is The Yarra River is the city’s main landscape feature
served by CitiPower which is one of four
metropolitan distributors. from, or within metropolitan Melbourne HOUSING ACCESS AND
Australia’s telecommunications mar- within a year, or about 70 tons per head of AFFORDABILITY
ket was opened to full competition in 1997 population. Melbourne’s port and airport are
and although new entrants have entered, increasingly important for southeastern The city’s housing stock largely consists of
Telstra Corporation remains the largest pro- Australia’s export trade. semi-detached or row housing (30 percent
vider of telecommunications services. Most trips in Melbourne are made by of housing stock) and apartments (58 per-
The nation’s telephone network is pro- car and state transport strategies aim to cent of stock). Separate detached housing
gressively being upgraded and extended moderate growth in car travel. This is im- is uncommon (8 percent of stock). This
with new services and features. Australian portant not only for improving the city’s air pattern is most unlike the rest of the metro-
households are showing a strong interest quality but also for minimizing congestion politan area, in which separate houses are
using the network for new services such as on roads. Travel intensity, or the number of the dominant housing form (82 percent of
the Internet. In 1999 it was estimated that car trips passing through an area, is great- stock).
nearly 30 percent of households in capital est in and immediately to the east and south
cities within Australia had home Internet of the CBD. It has been estimated that 22
access, an increase of 8 percent on the pre- percent of the total cost of congestion in the
vious year. metropolitan area occurs in the city and two
adjoining municipalities.
Transport City residents are well-served by pub-
lic transport (trains, buses, and trams) and
The city is at the hub of a large transport net- this may partly explain lower than average
work that includes roads and freeways and levels of car ownership. Nearly one third
train and tram routes. The network provides (28.2 percent) of the city’s households do
good access for those travelling to the city not own a car, compared to 11.2 percent of
from the metropolitan area and rural Victoria. metropolitan households without a car. The
The city’s international connections are made proportion of city households with two or
via the Port of Melbourne and Melbourne three cars is at least half that of the
Airport. metropolitan average. City residents are
As well as moving people, the transport also more likely to walk or use public trans-
network is vital for freight movement with port to get to work than their counterparts
about 230 million tons of freight moved to, in metropolitan Melbourne. Trams makes travelling in the city convenient

City Profiles 213

 Half of the city’s households are rent- and Concert Hall and world-class sporting was prepared in 1994 and promotes the pros-
ing and a further one third either own their facilities such as the Melbourne Cricket perity of Victoria and metropolitan
property outright, or are purchasing it Ground and Melbourne Park which can be Melbourne by enriching the city’s national
(using a mortgage). used for a multitude of events. and international profiles, role, and competi-
There is concern that some housing The city is greatly enriched by the con- tiveness.
needs are not adequately met in the city. tributions of people from diverse cultures and A number of large development projects
The housing market is not providing for nationalities, starting with its indigenous in and around the city have been completed,
households with low to moderate incomes people. More than 130 countries are repre- and others are nearing completion. The to-
and there is a significant need for low-cost sented among its residents’ birthplaces. tal value of these is estimated at more than
accommodation, including social housing. Annual festivals allow for the contribution $4 billion. The city is already enjoying the
Median prices of houses and apartments in of many of these groups to be recognized benefits of completed projects such as the
the city remained relatively flat for most of and celebrated. The diversity of nationali- Docklands Stadium and Crown Entertain-
the 1990s, but increased sharply in the last ties is also reflected in the wide variety of ment Precinct on the banks of the Yarra River.
three years, outstripping the consumer price restaurants and cuisines available. Under construction or nearing completion
index. Melbourne has gained a reputation as one of are projects such as the Federation Square
the restaurant capitals of the world. and City Link Tollway.
ENVIRONMENTAL The city’s cultural infrastructure includes
MANAGEMENT not only its facilities and people, but extends Photographs on railway and tramway were obtained
to its built environment with a mixture of from Raymond J. Marsh, and the aerial view of the
Melbourne’s network of parks and gardens historic and contemporary in its landscape city from Edgar Gordon, Strategic Research, City of
Melbourne.
provides opportunities to maintain natural and art. The River Yarra which flows through
systems and to preserve biodiversity. Addi- the city is its main landscape feature. The
tions to the parks system and increased tree river is lined in part by parkland, but recently
planting throughout the city extends habitat once-derelict riverside areas have been
for native species as well as enhances the developed, providing new focal points for
amenity of the city. activity. The most impressive of these has
Like other municipalities in Victoria, the been the development of Southbank, the
city must comply with waste reduction south bank of the river opposite the CBD.
targets established by the state government This development has provided new hous-
to reduce the amount of waste going to land- ing, commercial, entertainment, and retail
fill. While households can be encouraged to facilities as well as a new launching point
reduce waste and recycle products, reduc- for river-based exploration of the city.
ing the amount of commercial and indus- Southbank’s contribution to city life will be
trial waste such as that generated by city added to soon with the development nearby
businesses and construction sites has of Federation Square which will provide
proved less easy. another major civic and cultural space right
Air quality has improved over the last in the city’s heart.
two decades and there are now fewer
breaches of standards for ozone concentra- MAJOR URBAN
tions and visibility-reducing particles. Lev- DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
els of lead, nitrogen dioxide, carbon
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
monoxide, and sulfur dioxide have all re-
mained below acceptable standards Melbourne’s development is guided by the
throughout the 1990s. There is concern council’s new City Plan (completed in 1999)
though that improvements in air quality could and the Capital City Policy, developed jointly
be offset by increased vehicle ownership, by the council and state government. The
vehicle kilometers traveled, and the size of City Plan sets out what the council believes
the light commercial fleet (diesel engines). must happen between 1999 and 2001 to
ensure the city’s vitality and prosperity, and
CULTURAL HERITAGE to develop its role as Victoria’s capital. City
Plan is an integral part of the city’s planning
Vivienne L. Gray is a consultant in strategic plan-
Melbourne has a reputation as a culturally scheme but it extends beyond this, describ-
ning and project management. She worked in the
vibrant city. Each year it hosts numerous ing many aspects of council’s contribution private sector and in local government city council as
arts, sporting, and cultural events. It has including promotion, funding, service provi- corporate/strategy planner. Ms. Gray is a geographer.
major facilities such as the State Theatre sion, and partnerships. Capital City Policy

214 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

PHILIPPINES

Naga

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF cent annually. Today, it has a reputation for the country’s oldest colleges—the Holy Ro-
THE CITY being a center for innovation in local gover- sary Minor Seminary founded in 1793 and

N
nance. In 1998, Naga received the Dubai In- Colegio de Santa Isabel, the first normal school
aga is centrally located in ternational Award for having one of the top for women in the Orient, founded in 1868.
Bicol, a region at the south- ten best practices worldwide for participa- Every September, close to a million faith-
ernmost porti on of Luzon Is- tory planning. In December 1999, Asiaweek ful trek to Naga for the annual feast of the
land in the Philippines. It is cited Naga as one of four most improved miraculous Virgin of Peñafrancia, the region’s
about 300 kilometers south of cities in Asia. patroness. The ten-day celebration is high-
Manila, the country ’s capital. Naga has Naga is one of the oldest cities in the lighted by a fluvial procession over Naga River.
grown to be the religious, educational, and Philippines. Originally called Ciudad de
business center of Bicol, one of the country’s Nueva Caceres, it was one of the five origi- DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR
15 administrative regions—with a bustling nal cities created by royal Spanish decree FORCE, AND INCOME
economy that has been growing at 6.5 per- in the late 16th century. It is the seat of the
400-year old Archdiocese of Nueva Caceres Naga might be an old city but its population
Statistical Snapshot ... 1998 that oversees the predominantly Catholic is young. Half of its 140,000 residents are
region famous for the beautifully shaped, but below 20, as well as a 70 percent age depen-
DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 0.137 fiery Mayon volcano. Naga is home to two of dency ratio.
Density (persons/ha) 115.6
Annual rate of increase (percent) 2

ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$2,033
Households below poverty line (percent) 29
Cost of stay (per day) US$40

FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 21.8
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 49
SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 1.7
Persons per hospital bed 145.9
Life expectancy (years) 69.5
Adult literacy rate (percent) 98
Median years of education 15
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 160.8

COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 54
Local calls (per person per year) 90
International calls (per person per year) 0.44
Mobile calls (per person per year) 38.02
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 4.73

City Profiles 215

 in 1960; picking up again to 3.7 percent in accounting for 71 percent of the total. The
1970 before dipping back to 1.7 percent in secondary and infrastructure sector (manu-
the next decade. After rising yet again to facturing, utilities, and construction at 14
2.4 percent in 1990, growth tapered to 2 per- percent) and others (agriculture and gov-
cent in 1995. ernment at 15 percent) account for the rest.
Of the total population, 37 percent are Compared to the rest of the country,
not natives of the city. More than one fifth of city residents’ incomes compare favorably.
the migrant population moved into the city In 1998, average household income stood at
during the last five years, which translates $4,620 per annum, 42 percent higher than
to a net migration rate of 1.7 percent. This the Philippine average and 126 percent
indicates that migration has become the higher than the average Bicol household.
main driver of the city’s population growth, Between 1993 and 1998, the city ’s
accounting for about 80 percent of the an- economy grew 6.5 percent annually, signifi-
nual increment. cantly higher than the rate of growth posted
Six of every ten migrants came from by the national economy. In 1998, the gross
other towns within the province of city product (GCP) stood at $263.3 million,
Camarines Sur, while the rest came from which translates to a per capita GCP of
other Philippine provinces. Only 0.3 percent $1,953. This figure is 115 percent higher than
of them came from foreign countries. As a the Philippine per capita GNP.
result, Naga has a largely homogeneous Nevertheless, increasing inequality
population, Bikolano by tongue and ethnicity was noted among the city’s income groups.
and Roman Catholic by faith. This is indicated by a 2.9 percentage point
While some other ethnic groups ex- increase in the income inequality ratio (the
Naga residents are generally religious ist—particularly Tagalog, Ilokano, Waray, ratio of the top 20 percent to bottom 20 per-
Muslim, and Chinese—their influence, par- cent income group) during the same period.
ticularly the latter’s on the city’s economic In 1998, the top 20 percent earned 11 times
The old central business district (CBD), life, has been significant. This also indicates more than the bottom 20 percent of the
comprising a contiguous area of around the city’s liberal attitude toward minorities. population.
300,000 square meters near the mouth of Unemployment in the city stands at 5.8
the Naga River, has been the focal point of percent, well below the national unemploy- POLITICAL STRUCTURE
city life. Over the last 50 years, particularly ment rate of 10.1 percent. Quality jobs, how-
during the 1960s when population grew at ever, remain a concern. The services sector In 1991, a revolutionary Local Government
3.7 percent annually, housing settlements employs the bulk of the city’s labor force, Code was enacted to implement the consti-
radiated from around this urban core. In the tutional mandate for greater autonomy of Phil-
1980s and 1990s, development drifted east- ippine local government units (LGUs).
ward, influenced largely by the national high- Although the President continues to exercise
way, leading to the establishment of two supervisory powers over local governments,
major suburban settlements in the the Code gives the country’s 78 provinces,
Concepcion Grande-Del Rosario area. Today, 84 cities, 1,500 municipalities, and 42,000
88 percent of the population lives in built-up barangays expanded powers and resources
areas in the western part of the city that under a system of decentralization.
account for only around 18 percent of its This resulted in LGUs, including Naga City
total land area. This translates to a popu- and its 27 component barangays, enjoying a
lation net density of 129.25 persons per generally high degree of independence from
hectare. the Government. For instance, a national
As a consequence of the city’s spatial system of allotments provided under the
development, pockets of informal settle- code enables the city and each barangay to
ments also ring the CBD. Together, they receive their respective predictable share
make up 11 percent of the total population. of state revenues without lien or holdback
The city government’s aggressive normal- from the Government.
ization program, however, enabled most in- Through local legislation, the city govern-
formal settlers to acquire tenure over their ment sets its own tax rates and user fees
homelots. within the limits provided under the Local
Naga’s population growth has been on a Government Code. This is embodied in
rollercoaster, reaching a high of 10.7 percent The Ateneo de Naga University is one of the Naga’s own revenue code. To promote eco-
in 1948 before plummeting to a negative level city’s leading academic institutions nomic growth, a local investment code pro-

216 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

vides tax breaks and other nonfiscal incen- services (garbage collection, health care,
tives to qualified investors. public housing, livelihood and manpower de-
The city can also contract loans, credits, velopment, information and investment sup-
and other forms of indebtedness from national port, environmental management, social
or international lending institutions, enter into welfare, and integrated area development).
deferred payment and other financial Where government agencies continue
schemes, issue bonds and other long-term to function as service providers, the city
securities, and extend loans to other LGUs. assists financially. This covers protective
In 1997, it tapped a World Bank-funded facil- services (police, fire, and jail management),
ity to finance the construction of a $1 million public education, and the prosecution as-
central bus terminal. Through a locally man- pect of the local justice system. For munici-
dated body, it also awards contracts for lo- pal services where private utilities and
cally funded projects to qualified contractors. quasi-government service providers have
Without the consent of affected commu- the lead role (water, power, telecommuni-
nities, the Government cannot unilaterally cations), the city government ’s role is
close down local governments or remove mostly advisory. This is particularly to en-
elected officials. On the other hand, under a sure services are consistent with local de-
system of recall, registered voters can remove velopment plans, and collaborative,
any elected official for loss of confidence. particularly in subsidizing the extension of
Officials can also be removed from office on water and power services to low-income
other grounds defined by the Code but only settlements.
by order of proper courts. And while the In addition to emphasizing partnerships,
President can suspend elected officials in a the city government also opened avenues for
province, such suspension cannot go beyond greater citizen participation in making deci-
90 days every year. sions affecting urban development. In 1996,
it successfully pilot-tested the workability of Produce from the farm are sold in the markets

URBAN GOVERNANCE the referendum provision of the Local Govern-

ment Code, submitting three issues for rati- interruptions (averaging one hour per month)
Consistent with the Code’s thrust to pro- fication by city voters. These issues include remain key concerns.
mote participative governance, the city gov- developing a new CBD, floating bonds to The 1990s liberalization of the Philip-
ernment has distinguished itself with finance the project, and color-coding pine telecommunications industry greatly
continuing efforts to involve the local com- trimobiles operating in the city. benefited Naga. This led to the entry of two
munity in urban planning, development, and fixed-line and three mobile phone operators
service delivery through partnerships. URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE offering state-of-the-art communications.
Bottom-up planning from the village From 29 percent in 1995, the percentage of
level has been institutionalized in partner- During the last decade, the percentage of households enjoying fixed-line telephone
ship with an organized nongovernment sec- households with access to water piped by the services jumped to 54 percent in 1999. The
tor under the auspices of the Naga City Metro Naga Water District has been largely penetration rate for mobile phone services
People’s Council , an umbrella organization unchanged at 74 percent. Around a quarter is higher (56 percent), propelled mainly by
of local nongovernment organizations and continue to rely on individual and community affordable prepaid subscriptions.
people’s organizations. At the city level, wells, half of them within the city’s urban Digitel, a fixed-line operator, has re-
these are being integrated and coordinated district. Providing access to this segment cently added Internet service, in the pro-
by the local planning office that also acts as of the population is a key step in attaining cess competing with two commercial,
technical secretariat of the City Develop- universality of connection. A stumbling two-school based Internet service provid-
ment Council (CDC). The CDC is a block needing attention is the 57 percent ers, and a handful of Internet cafes. Four-
multisectoral body mandated by the Code loss due to pilferage and leaky decades-old teen percent of the population is estimated
to formulate the city’s short- and long-term pipes and mains. to have gained Internet access in 1999, pro-
development plans. Total electrification is a relatively more pelling an industry that has been growing
Annually, the city government adopts attainable objective, as 94 percent of Naga’s at the rate of around 90 percent annually
a budget that seeks to implement its devel- households have been energized by the over the last three years.
opment plans. The budget allocates money Camarines Sur II Electric Cooperative. This
to support government operations, includ- is a marked improvement from a decade TRANSPORT
ing five economic enterprises, implementa- ago when only around three quarters of the
tion of priority infrastructure projects (roads, household population had access to the ser- Access to the city is possible by air, land,
bridges, drainage, flood control, and other vice. A high 20 percent system loss and and rail. Air travel to and from Manila goes
government facilities), and provision of key increasing frequency of intermittent service through Naga Airport located in a neighbor-

City Profiles 217

The new central bus terminal will serve as a sub region’s transport hub

ing town, where two commercial airlines city’s first circumferential road to ring the untapped, covering only 8 percent of total
combine for an average of 19 flights per old and new CBDs. dwellings in the city; it is also underdevel-
week. Land transport passes through the oped, indicated by a low 8 percent mort-
Manila South Road, via the recently com- HOUSING ACCESS AND gage-to-credit ratio. This is a little
pleted Quirino Highway diversion. The rail AFFORDABILITY improvement over 1990 figures, where 94
service is provided by the state-owned Phil- percent of households built their dwellings
ippine National Railways, with trains run- As already pointed out, the city government using their own resources or through infor-
ning daily to Manila. has aggressively pursued a normalization mal borrowing.
Within the city, the dominant mode of thrust under its 10-year-old Kaantabay sa A contributory factor appears to be the
transportation is the colorful jeepney, a 15- Kauswagan Program. By 1999, the program relatively high cost of developed land as in-
17 seater stretched version of the Ameri- covered 81 percent of the 7,400 low-income dicated by the city’s land developer multi-
can jeep. It accounts for 39 percent of work squatter households which live below the plier of five against the typical three.
trips made in the city and suits Naga’s poverty line (accounting for 29 percent of Therefore developed homelots in Naga are
mostly two-lane roads, particularly within the total), enabling them to acquire tenure priced at five times the cost of raw land and
the old CBD. The three-seater trimobiles, over their homelots. In some instances, there are few low-cost housing initiatives.
passenger cars, and buses contribute households also obtained affordable core The city could address this by leveraging
18 percent each to work trips. Three-wheeled housing units. around 44 hectares of vacant government
pedicabs, located mostly in subdivisions, On the whole, per capita government land within the built-up area for development
account for the remaining 4 percent. In one spending on housing reached $67.24, of and by streamlining the planning approval
street, a handful of horse-driven calesas re- which the city government contributed 30 process, which took an average of 2.2 months
main in service. percent, mostly for its Kaantabay program. over the last two years. A more efficient
In 1999, a new central bus terminal be- By itself, the program is a successful process can reduce developers’ costs that
came the transport exchange, particularly approach to focused poverty alleviation would ultimately benefit project beneficia-
between jeepneys and tricycles serving the targeting the city’s urban poor people. ries.
urban district and buses that connect Naga The situation is more compelling for the An aggressive push for low-cost hous-
to various destinations within and outside city’s median income earners, including the ing can also help improve compliance with
the Bicol region. Traffic flow was also eased 18 percent of renters who do not qualify un- national and local building regulations. At
by lanes added to portion of the Manila South der the program. City data show that in 1995, present, only 64 percent of the city’s housing
Road within the city limits, as well as the city’s housing backlog stood at 6,400 stock complies with building code standards.
Panganiban, Magsaysay, Peñafrancia, and and will increase to 7,400 by 2000 without City data show that 77 percent of the
Bagumbayan avenues, the main arteries radi- strong government intervention. The back- city ’s housing stock has durable or
ating from the old CBD. Concreting of the log is mainly a function of nonaccess to for- semidurable walling and 54 percent has du-
Queborac-Abella Road will also complete the mal financing. Mortgage financing is largely rable roofing materials. Almost nine in ev-

218 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

ery ten residences are single detached
structures; the rest are either apartments
or row houses. On the average, the typical
housing unit in Naga is 48 square meters.

ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
Of the major municipal services, only solid
waste collection is provided by the city gov-
ernment through its newly created Environ-
ment and Natural Resources Office (ENRO).
The office is mandated to perform environ-
mental management functions in partner-
ship with the community.
In cooperation with the regional unit of
the Environmental Management Bureau,
ENRO has been conducting regular air qual-
ity monitoring (solely for suspended particu-
lates due to equipment limitations) for more
than a year. In 1999, air quality in the city
exceeded WHO standards in three days of
the year, with the bulk of the rating gener-
ally fair.
At the same time, operational improve-
ments in garbage collection enabled the of-
fice to serve 86 percent of the city ’s
household population, collecting 66 percent
of the 20,800 tons of solid waste being gen-
erated by the city annually. The balance,
mostly generated in far-flung areas, is dis-
posed of by households informally. On the
whole, this enables Naga to achieve a de-
gree of cleanliness comparable with most
other Philippine cities. The service however
continues to be subsidized, with the city able
to recover only a third of its costs.
Part of ENRO’s function is to rehabilitate
and protect the Naga River and its watershed
at Mt. Isarog under a ten-year management
plan crafted with strong stakeholder partici-
pation. Efforts are being made to restore life Naga strives to protect its watershed at Mt. Isarog
to the urban stretch of the river, where its
waters are only fit for agricultural use. It is dwellings and cause a loss of nine lives. itself, marked its quadricentennial that
being assisted in this endeavor by the La- Local capability to mitigate disaster has added significance to the annual Peñafrancia
dies in Green, a local NGO of women volun- been enhanced with the USAID-funded Asian festivities. The church’s influence on the
teers for the environment. Disaster Preparedness Project, which se- population is pervasive; in the urban dis-
lected Naga as one of its demonstration cit- trict, six churches stand within a kilometer
DISASTER RELATED RISKS ies in the Philippines. of each other, three of them at the fringes of
the old CBD.
Located in the typhoon belt, Naga regularly CULTURAL HERITAGE Steps have been taken to learn more
grapples with tropical storms and the floods about Naga in the pre-Spanish era. A book
they bring. Over the last ten years, three Naga’s hispanic heritage invariably centers on the city’s history has been commissioned
major typhoons hit the city, each spaced on the centuries-old Marian devotion to the by the city government in time for its own
three years apart, with the last one in Octo- Virgin of Peñafrancia. In 1998, the Catholic 50th charter anniversary as a modern Phil-
ber 1998. On average, they affect 8,600 Church in Bicol, which is as old as the city ippine city.

City Profiles 219

 Given existing resources that include Building on these, technical assistance
two orphan functioning museums, historico- under the USAID-assisted Governance and
cultural tourism is one area that holds Local Democracy Project has been playing
potential. Developed and promoted properly a key role in improving local capacity to at-
as a blend of the old and the new, it can tain the city’s objectives.
boost the city’s attractions currently lim-
ited to the Peñafrancia fiesta and the Bicol
Science and Technology Centrum.
The Museo Conciliar Seminario at the
Holy Rosary Minor Seminary, for instance,
is reputed to have one of the most exten-
sive archeological collections in the coun-
try, showcasing ancient Bicol relics and
artifacts like burial jars, chinaware, rare
stones, and ritual objects. It also features
local church history through displays of old
Catholic vestments and sacred objects.
Completion of the city’s own museum at
City Hall and an ecology park in San Felipe
will further enrich its profile as a tourism
destination.

MAJOR URBAN
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
Guided by its vision for Naga as “Maogmang
Lugar” (or “happy place”), the city govern-
ment is sustaining growth by focusing on
I infrastructure development aimed at
opening new growth areas outside the
urban district and redrawing Naga’s
spatial layout;
I quality job creation anchored on pro-
moting the development of eight prior-
ity investment areas defined under the
city investment code; and
I environmental protection anchored on
sustainable development that does not
compromise the city’s future.
Participative governance and the com-
mitment to excellence are core values of
the city government and its leadership.
These are being operationalized through
partnerships with the community and other
stakeholders in Naga’s sustained growth
and a continuing capacity building for the
bureaucracy. The latter includes significant
investments in maximizing information tech-
nology, making Naga one of the most wired
among Philippine city governments (its
computer-to-bureaucrat ratio of one to five Wilfredo B. Prilles Jr. is a freeelance consultant
is higher than all ten leading Philippine cit- who was involved in Governance and Local Democ-
racy, a USAID project, and in supporting capability
ies covered by a 1999 Asian Institute of building programs for the League of Cities of the
Management study on city competitive- Philippines. Mr. Prilles is a mathematics graduate
ness). and holds a master degree in Management.

220 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

CAMBODIA

Phnom
Penh

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF French and Khmer kings and was once con- residents account for 8.7 percent of
THE CITY sidered the loveliest of the French-built cit- Cambodia’s population. About 33 percent of

P
ies of Indochina. the population is under 15 years of age, 62.7
hnom Penh, the capital of The city, divided into seven districts or percent is 15–59 years old, and 4.2 percent
Cambodia, was founded in khan and 76 communes, is the political is over 60. At 3.448 persons per square meter
1434, succeeding Angkor center of the country with several financial Phnom Penh’s population density is the high-
Thom as the capital of the offices. est of all Cambodia’s provinces. The city’s
Khmer nation and was aban- 167,758 households (excluding informal
doned several times before being reestab- DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR households) hold an average of 5.7 people
lished in 1865. It is in the south central part FORCE, AND INCOME each. Since 1979, many migrants have ar-
of the country covering 12 square kilome-
ters at the confluence of the Mekong, Bassac, The 998,804 city dwellers are 60 percent
and Tonle Sap rivers where it serves as a Khmer, 30 percent Chinese and Vietnamese, Statistical Snapshot ... 1998
major port in the Mekong River Valley. It has and 10 percent belong to other nationalities. DEMOGRAPHY
many historical buildings as a legacy of the The city’s 481,991 male and 517,893 female Resident population (in million) 0.999
Density (persons/ha) 203
Annual rate of increase (percent) 5.4

ECONOMY
City product (per capita) US$246
Households below poverty line (percent) 24
Cost of stay (per day) US$105

FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 11.5
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 58
SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 16.7
Persons per hospital bed 227
Life expectancy (years) 52.9
Adult literacy rate (percent) 80.2
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 52.8

COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 2
Local calls (per person per year) 3.5
International calls (per person per year) 0.1
Mobile calls (per person per year) 1.1
Internet hosts ( for every ‘000 pop) 0.49

City Profiles 221

 cratic Kampuchea (under the Khmer Rouge,
the communist party which controlled the
country from 1975 to1979), The People’s
Republic of Kampuchea (under the Vietnam-
ese backed Phnom Penh government from
1979 to 1989), The State of Cambodia (in
French L’Etat du Cambodge, in Khmer, Reot
Kampuchea from mid-1989), and The
Kingdom of Cambodia (Le Royaume du
Cambodge since 1993).
After the Government ’s second
election in 1998, Cambodia joined ASEAN
and began reforming the economy into a
market economy with new laws,
privatization, and strict controls on budget
expenditures.
Cambodia is an independent demo-
Historical buildings show the legacy of French and Khmer rules cratic sovereign state with different politi-
cal parties and a two-chamber legislature
rived, especially from neighboring countries. ployed, mostly female workers, were self- led by a prime minister.
In general the employment rate in employed in wholesale and retail trade. The Government is rather strong and
Cambodia is higher in rural than in urban Wages for all types of labor were higher retains many powers under the constitution,
areas. In 1997 a socioeconomic survey in Phnom Penh than in other parts of the including the right to close down local gov-
revealed that the employment rate in Phnom country. Unskilled construction workers, like ernment. The Government determines ex-
Penh, which is defined as the percentage of tile setters or floor layers, earn a daily wage ternal and internal policy, economic policy,
employed persons to the total number of of $1.87 while wages in the rural sector for land regulation, and foreign investment. It is
persons in the labor force, was lowest in the paddy planting, caring for crops, and har- removing all restrictions on exports and im-
city at 96.7 percent. The definition used in vesting are about $1.10–$1.20 for men and ports and is determined to improve credit,
the survey was based on the international women. finance, and taxation policies. At the same
definition where persons who work for even time it is focusing on tourism and an open
one hour during the reference week are ac- POLITICAL STRUCTURE investment policy.
cepted as employed. Local government is autonomous and
For age groups 15–19 years and 25–29 Since gaining independence in 1953, the responsible for the city ’s social and
years the recorded unemployment rates country has had different political regimes economic development and prepares
were nearly 20 percent and 3.3 percent, re- and corresponding names including The King- strategies that target sustainable human
spectively. Of the employed about a third dom of Cambodia (Le Royaume du resources and economic development.
were employees and only one percent were Cambodge), The Khmer Republic (under
employers. About 40 percent of the em- Lonnol, who ruled from 1970 to1975), Demo- URBAN GOVERNANCE
Phnom Penh is an average-sized Cambodian
city and is divided into seven administra-
tive districts: January, Don Penh, Toul Kork,
Dang Kor, Rusey Keo, Mean Chey, and Dang
Kor. Phnom Penh’s mayor nominates the
districts’ local government which reports
all social and economic activities to the
mayor. Government funds are allocated to
local government bodies for their operations
which include supplying electricity and
potable water.
Local government also plans urban,
social, and cultural development submitted
by the seven districts. After coordinating
the preparation of the urban planning
document it is submitted to the Ministry of
Not all the tourist attractions inside the Royal Palace are open to visitors Planning and then to the Government. The

222 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

document includes preparing land
management, regularizing informal settle-
ments, preparing land planning permission,
developing new settlements, developing
export-oriented industries, and upgrading
and accelerating the privatization process
of large industrial enterprises and services
(with technical and financial support from
the Asian Development Bank and World
Bank).
The Government approves the city’s
budget, plans, and programs for social and
economic development. It coordinates the
progress of projects and conducts audit
checks to monitor the city’s funds.
The Royal Palace was built by HM King Norodom in 1866
URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
there were 12,737 cars, 162 minibuses, 263 market. Some investors could borrow from
The Phnom Penh mayor is concerned with big buses, 777 vans, 191 trucks, and 76,225 local banks or close relatives, but there is
alleviating poverty by focusing on electricity monocycles. Major urban roads are in dis- no government housing scheme and poor,
supply, potable water supply, road repair and require large amounts of money low-income, and unemployed people are
maintenance, traffic congestion, squatter to rehabilitate them. ineligible for mortgages.
resettlement, city flooding, etc. Even with
fast growth in urban population, the Govern- HOUSING ACCESS AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ment has been trying to resolve these prob- AFFORDABILITY MANAGEMENT
lems, especially electricity, power supply,
clean water supply, drainage systems, tele- Between 1993 and 1995 housing construc- After the civil war Phnom Penh experienced
phone connections, and solid waste collec- tion increased dramatically with owners or a significant increase in the volume of solid
tion. investors building to sell or rent, possibly to waste. From 464 tons per day in 1996 the
refugees or the large numbers from the volume of solid waste is estimated to triple
TRANSPORT United Nations Transitional Authority in by 2010. Although much of the waste gen-
Cambodia soldiers in the city. Between 1995 erated by households, commercial estab-
The city has an international airport, a rail- and 1997 housing construction decreased lishments, and small and big industries is
road system with two terminals, and eight because of an oversupply. Construction has characterized as biodegradable, the lack of
suburban bus terminals. Pochin-Tong inter- centered on 48–80 square meter apartments disposal sites is a major environmental prob-
national airport, ten kilometers southwest in two- to three-storey buildings, but some lem for the city. Currently, waste is indis-
of the city, is being repaired. The number of villas have been built in the southern part of criminately thrown in vacant lots, swamps,
private cars and taxis is growing and in 1998 the city for the lucrative foreign rental and waterways and poses major health
risks to the community.
The disposal of wastewater also
constitutes a problem. Water used by
households and industries is drained through
storm water pipes and discharged untreated
into rivers and other water bodies. Phnom
Penh, like other cities situated near a river,
is faced with cleaning and reviving the
rivers contaminated by dirty water and other
toxic waste.

CULTURAL HERITAGE
Cambodia has many temples, the most
famous being the magnificent Angkor. From
Angkor the king of the Khmer Empire ruled
over vast territories extending from the tip
Monocycle is still widely used in the city of what is now south Viet Nam westward to

City Profiles 223

 of Funan and Chenla (4th–9th centuries AD).
Victory Monument, at the intersection of Tou
Samouth and Sivantha boulevards, was built
in 1958 as an independence monument and
is now a memorial to Cambodia’s war dead
(or at least those the Government consid-
ers worthy of remembering).
Wat Phnom, in the center of Phnom
Penh, was constructed by the Khmer kings
for people to pray for their needs, in land-
scaped surroundings with big trees and
Many hotel buildings bear Indo Chinese influence
parks.
The Government and local government,
the Bay of Bengal. Angkor’s 100 or so as well as various NGOs, are always sup-
temples constitute the sacred skeleton of porting the preservation of cultural tradi-
an administrative and religious center whose tions, especially by preserving and
houses, public buildings, and palace were reconstructing temples.
constructed of wood, which are now long
decayed. Only gods were to dwell in brick MAJOR URBAN
or stone structures. Over 5,000 statues, DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
lingas, and inscribed steles found at Angkor
are stored at Angkor Conservation’s head-
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
quarters. Based on national and city plans (Phnom
Phnom Penh’s Royal Palace stands on Penh City Development Plan 1996–2000 and
the site of the former citadel, Bantaey Keo, Phnom Penh Public Investment Program),
on Lenin Boulevard. Since Sihanouk’s return the Government is preparing to maintain
to Cambodia, visitors are only allowed to economic growth and the quality of life,
visit the palace’s silver pagoda and its sur- especially by poverty alleviation. It is
rounding compound. This pagoda also known already preparing the Phnom Penh Devel-
as Wat Preash Keo is open on Thursdays opment Investment Plan 2001–2005 which
and Sundays and is so named because its will increase production, develop small-and
floor is covered in over 5,000 silver tiles medium-scale businesses, promote trade,
weighing one kilogram each. exports, and services, and expand infrastruc-
Classical Cambodian dances were ture.
once staged in the Chan Chaya pavilion, Major projects for developing the city,
through which guests enter the palace upgrading the quality of life, and alleviating
grounds. poverty include reconstructing urban high-
The throne hall, topped by a 559-meter ways, improving street lighting, regulariz-
(m) tower inspired by the Bayon temple at ing squatters, improving land management,
Angkor, was inaugurated in 1919 by King engaging foreign investment in production
Sisowath. The present cement building re- and trade under joint venture arrangements,
placed a vast wooden structure built on this improving and extending the structure of the
site in 1869. The throne hall, which is 100 m city’s water and electricity networks, and
long and 30 m wide, was used for corona- repairing roads.
tions and ceremonies such as diplomats
presenting their credentials. Some 80 per- Photographs were obtained with permission from
cent of items once displayed here were de- Chhoeurn, Chief Cabinet of Phnom Penh Municipality
stroyed by the Khmer Rouge. On the walls
and ceiling of the throne hall are murals de-
picting the Ramayana epic.
The National Museum of Khmer Art and
Archaeology, built between 1917 and 1920,
is an impressive red structure of traditional
Somonn Sek is a coordinator in the Office of
design just north of the palace. It contains Bureau Chief of Planning and Prices Evaluation of the
many masterpieces of Khmer artisanship and Municipality of Phnom Penh. Mr. Sek holds a
sculpture dating from the pre-Angkor period bachelor’s degree in National Economics.

224 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

THE REPUBLIC OF
THE FIJI ISLANDS

Suva

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF Secretariat, and other institutions that serve and a smaller industrial area is at Vatuwaqa.
THE CITY the region, such as the Fiji School of Medi- There are also several well-established resi-

S
cine and the University of the South Pacific. dential suburbs, and some of the Fiji Islands’
uva is located on the southeast- The area defined as Suva City covers major recreational and sporting facilities,
ern corner of Viti Levu, the larg- 2,600 hectares and is administered by the such as the National Stadium, are at Suva
est island in the Republic of the Suva City Council (SCC). Most of Suva is Point.
Fiji Islands and is the capi- located on a short peninsula that is bounded
tal and main commercial and to the east by Laucala Bay and to the west
by Suva Harbor, the Fiji Islands’ busiest port.
Statistical Snapshot ... 1998
administrative center of the
country. It is also an important center for The peninsula is heavily developed. The DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 0.077
the South Pacific, being the location for sev- city’s central business district (CBD) lies Density (persons/ha) 74.7
eral international agencies, head offices of along the western shore, with smaller com- Annual rate of increase (percent) 1.7
several region-wide businesses and regional mercial areas at Samabula, Nabua, ECONOMY
organizations such as the Secretariat of the Raiwaqa, and Toorak; the main industrial dis- City product (per capita) US$3,205
Pacific Community and the Pacific Forum trict and local shipping port are in Walu Bay, Households below poverty line (percent) 17.5
Cost of stay (per day) US$84

FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 58
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 55
SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 2.4
Persons per hospital bed 91
Life expectancy (years) 66.6
Adult literacy rate (percent) 96.9
Median years of education 8.3
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 116

COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 40
Local calls (per person per year) 76
International calls (per person per year) 2.1
Mobile calls (per person per year) 2.8
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 26.64

City Profiles 225

 Greater Suva extends inland to the Most of this growth has been contrib- The main sectors of formal employment
northeast and west of the city and incorpo- uted by migrants from rural parts of the Fiji in Suva are administration, services, and
rates a large periurban area, excluding the Islands, predominantly ethnic Fijians. Over manufacturing. Over the past decade, there
areas administered by two smaller but the past few decades, therefore, many of has been an upsurge in factory employment,
almost contiguous towns, Lami and Nausori. the city ’s characteristics have changed. particularly in the garment industry, in re-
The Government plans to soon establish a Prior to the 1950s, migration into the city by sponse to government policies to increase
third town within the periurban area, at ethnic Fijians was discouraged by the colo- exports. As the main administrative center,
Nasinu. The 1996 Census recorded the nial Government. In the 1960s, Suva’s popu- many Suva residents are employed by the
city’s population at 77,366, with another lation still reflected this policy, with little national and local governments. Many
90,609 living in the periurban area, giving a development outside the official city bound- people work in the informal sector, although
total urban population of 167,975, or 22 per- aries, other than a few recognized native this sector is not as visible in Suva as it is in
cent of the Fiji Islands’ total population. If settlements or squatter settlements, and some Asian cities. A United Nations Devel-
Nausori and Lami towns are included, the with the population predominantly Indo- opment Programme study of the informal
total urban area covers approximately 6,500 Fijian, European, Chinese, and people of sector in the Fiji Islands and other Pacific
hectares and accommodates just over 30 mixed race. In the 1990s, other than being island countries found that the nonformal
percent of the Fiji Islands’ total population. bigger in area and population, the Suva ur- sector was large and growing, employing
ban area also has a much larger proportion people mainly in the marketing of local food,
DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR of ethnic Fijian residents. Lami has the high- casual laboring, and cottage manufacturing.
FORCE, AND INCOME est proportion of Fijian residents in any main
town in the country (the only one higher be- POLITICAL STRUCTURE
While the population of the total Suva urban ing Nabouwalu, a tiny administrative center
area has doubled since the mid-1960s, the in southern Vanua Levu). The city is governed by the elected SCC which
population of the city has grown only 43 per- A stark contrast in living standards is is a semigovernment body established under
cent. This growth is constrained by the ex- apparent throughout Suva City. As well as the Local Government Act of Fiji. The SCC
tent of development already there; only in-fill evident differences in housing quality and liv- comes under the purview of the Ministry of
development is now possible. Furthermore, ing standards between the low-rental areas Housing, Urban Development and the Envi-
relatively high land values force people to of Raiwaqa, Toorak, and Nabua and gener- ronment, but has the authority to adopt by-
move away to cheaper areas and the for- ally up-market suburbs of Tamavua, Namadi laws through which to govern. Although it
malization of land tenure in Suva’s squatter Heights, and Muanikau, throughout the city has more responsibilities delegated to it than
settlements has considerably slowed their there are squatter dwellings which are sub- do other municipal councils, it retains only
growth. Over the past decade, almost all standard, overcrowded, and without basic limited autonomy in its actions, especially
population growth in this region has occurred amenities. The 1997 Fiji Poverty Report es- over its revenue base.
in Greater Suva. timated that almost one in four urban house- The SCC is elected by residents and
holds in the Fiji Islands lived in substandard, owners of property within the city’s four
squatter-type housing. wards of Samabula, Tamavua, Muanikau, and
This contrast in living standards re- Central. It consists of 20 councilors, five for
flects the extent of poverty in the Fiji Is- each ward, and is headed by the lord mayor
lands which is fairly evenly distributed who is elected annually from among the
between rural and urban areas and the quite councilors. Although Suva is multiethnic,
unequal distribution of income. The 1997 Fiji there is no particular mechanism to ensure
Poverty Report found that national income representation for minority groups, other than
was heavily concentrated in the upper brack- through the normal democratic process.
ets, while 25 percent of households did not Councilors are elected for three years. Day-
have sufficient income to provide them- to-day administration of the SCC is carried
selves with minimally acceptable living con- out by the town clerk, or chief executive of-
ditions, by Fiji Islands standards. A 1999 ficer, assisted by the director of administra-
survey of households in the Suva-Nausori tion and operations, the director of
corridor estimated that 15–20 percent of engineering services, and the director of
households in Greater Suva live in poverty health services.
and around 6 percent (or 15,000 people) live
in absolute poverty. Although there are URBAN GOVERNANCE
squatter areas in Suva City, land and hous-
ing values are generally higher than in The SCC provides and maintains public util-
Greater Suva, reflecting the more developed ity services and public works, either alone or
residential areas and overall higher income jointly with other authorities. It is the only
Fishing around Suva is popular levels in the city. local government body in the Fiji Islands to

226 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 of compromised security. For this reason,
some international organizations consider
Suva to be a hardship post. Other concerns
are increasing with poorly maintained roads
and traffic congestion, occasional water and
electricity cuts, and littering and pollution.

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
The services available in Suva for health and
education are among the best in the coun-
try. Suva’s central hospital, the Colonial War
Memorial Hospital, is the Fiji Islands’ prin-
cipal hospital providing a wide range of gen-
eral and specialist services. As well, there
are many private practitioners and clinics,
with the construction of a large private hos-
pital planned to begin soon.
Suva is also the center for education
services in the country. There are 20 sec-
ondary schools, 35 primary schools, nine
The Government supports conservation of historical buildings albeit on a limited scale tertiary institutions, and several private col-
leges for vocational skills like secretarial or
have its own town planning capability. The businesses were hit by a flash flood that dam- computer studies. Most primary and sec-
Local Government Act limits commercial aged property and goods. Like other urban ondary schools are relatively crowded. Ter-
activity by local authorities, thereby con- residents, business-owners are periodically tiary institutions include the Fiji Institute of
straining SCC’s capacity to expand its rev- affected by water cuts or shortages and Technology and its specialized schools, such
enue base beyond rate collection. When the power outages. as the School of Catering and Hospitality
Government took over the Suva Electricity In recent years, violent crime, includ- and the Marine School; the University of the
Power Station in the 1970s in the national ing daytime armed holdups, has increasingly South Pacific; the Fiji School of Medicine;
interest, the SCC lost its ownership of the become a concern for business-owners, who the Pacific Theological College, and the Fiji
Station and could not acquire an alternative must fully secure their premises, particu- campus of the University of Southern
source of revenue. Another long-standing larly at night. In May 2000, a politically-mo- Queensland.
difficulty is that the SCC improves city in- tivated riot in the CBD led to looting and In other respects, however, Suva faces
frastructure through its capital works pro- burning of shops, causing almost $14 mil- the problem of upgrading or maintaining its
gram, but because of limited revenue only lion in damage. Some shops have since re- urban infrastructure as the growing urban
raises the necessary finance by taking loans opened, but the damage to business population increases the burden on its already
from commercial banks. These difficulties, confidence will last long. inadequate housing, water, and sewerage.
compounded by the lack of a long-term By comparison with other Pacific is- All formal households as well as most infor-
financial strategic plan, culminated in a fi- land urban centers, Suva remains an attrac- mal ones are connected to piped water sup-
nancial crisis for the SCC in 1997. As a re- tive place to live in because of the range of plied by the Public Works Department, and
sult of this crisis, capital expenditure halted, services and recreational facilities, relatively to electricity supplied by the Fiji Electricity
council workers had to take wage cuts of up good quality educational institutions, and the Authority. Less than 45 percent of residences
to 37 percent, and many unestablished work- social life in this multiethnic community. in the Suva urban area are connected to sew-
ers were made redundant. This in turn re- Recreational facilities include well-equipped ers; many have septic tanks, or informal
duced the services delivered to ratepayers. modern cinemas, restaurants and night- houses, pit toilets.
In 1999, the SCC reviewed its organization clubs, cultural organizations such as art and Interruptions to the electricity and wa-
management system to overcome these drama associations, and a variety of sport- ter supplies are becoming increasingly com-
fundamental problems, and in February 2000, ing facilities, including rugby, soccer, bas- mon in various parts of the urban area. A
completed a Draft Strategic Plan. This will ketball, athletics, golf, tennis, yachting, 1995 World Bank study found development
be finalized through consultation with the com- outrigger canoe racing, and fitness centers. outpacing the capacity of water supply and
munity, government, and business sector. Its coastal location provides many opportu- sanitation systems. By the mid-1990s,
Businesses in the CBD regularly lodge nities for water sports, but unfortunately Suva’s planned maintenance and upgrading
complaints about poor drainage and the threat there are no good beach parks in the Suva was seriously behind schedule. A recent
of flooding, and problems of downtown traf- area. House break-ins are common in the survey found that 44 percent of households
fic congestion. In March 2000, central city wealthier suburbs and add to a perception surveyed experienced water shortages or

City Profiles 227

 years, particularly after the Fiji dollar deval-
ued in 1997, as many building materials are
imported. The Housing Corporation is a
quasi-government body responsible for pro-
viding affordable housing for low-income
workers. An associated body, the Public
Rental Board, manages low-cost apartments
throughout Suva, but particularly in Raiwaqa.
Despite their work, the supply of low-cost
housing for workers has not kept pace with
demand. Most low-cost accommodation is
in the private market.
Approximately 40,000 people, 16 per-
cent of the population of the Suva urban area,
live in informal settlements, according to a
recent estimate (Gutteridge et al. 1999). In-
formal urban settlements include native
The city retains an old building at downtown area settlements, urban villages, and squatter
settlements. Native settlements and urban
low pressure over the past 12 months, both ating is larger than this, however, as many villages, which include traditional Fijian
because of dry conditions and operational proprietors have more than one taxi, and settlements, are largely exempt from the
problems. There is a high level of suppressed many of the taxis operating in Greater Suva provisions of the Local Government Act, but
demand, even while half of the water supply are based outside the city limits and there- have their own special legal status. Squat-
is unaccounted for because of leaking pipes fore do not require SCC business licenses. ter settlements, by contrast, have no rec-
and faulty equipment. The survey also found Suva also has an efficient privately oper- ognized tenure and have grown up on
a large backlog of around 10,700 domestic ated bus transport system. As well as 34 pockets of unused land or where landown-
sewerage connections with access to trunk licensed bus operators, there are numerous ers have tolerated them. There are several
sewers but no reticulation, plus another legal and illegal minibus operators. The num- squatter settlements in the city, but infor-
backlog of 1,200 commercial or government ber of taxis and buses, together with gov- mal housing is scattered throughout Suva’s
connections. ernment price regulations, has kept fares residential areas. Since 1990, the number of
relatively low. informal settlements within Suva City
TRANSPORT This low price structure, while benefit- Boundary has decreased, while the number
ing the travelling public, has resulted in low of informal houses and settlements in the
Because of the growing congestion of build- returns. There has also been little enforce-
ings and traffic in the city, some govern- ment of public transport regulations. As a
ment offices, businesses, and manufacturing result, most taxis and buses are old and
have decentralized over the past decade into maintenance levels are low. Most use die-
the Greater Suva area. Even so, the SCC es- sel fuel, which although cheap, pollutes
timates that approximately 60,000 people when used in the many poorly maintained
commute daily into the city. Road conges- engines. Smoky vehicle exhaust is the most
tion and maintenance are becoming urgent common and offensive form of pollution in
problems. The high rainfall, large number of Suva. The 1994 State of the Environment Re-
heavy vehicles with excessive axle loads, port noted that pollution from the transport
and poor road design and drainage have re- industry had become a public health con-
sulted in numerous potholes in city streets. cern. City planners face the difficulty of ei-
The SCC lacks the resources to keep up with ther meeting the high cost of increasing the
road maintenance and has identified this as traffic capacity of roads and providing more
an area of their operations to urgently re- parking space, or finding innovative new
view. modes of transport that are efficient and af-
The main means of transport now are fordable for commuters.
by private car or Suva’s large fleets of pri-
vately owned taxis and buses. Taxi propri- HOUSING ACCESS AND
etorship is the most common business type AFFORDABILITY
in Suva. Over 1,100 licensed city taxis ac-
count for almost 25 percent of all business Most housing in Suva is privately owned or Many people are employed in the informal sector
licenses issued. The number of taxis oper- rented. Building costs have risen in recent such as this snack vendor at a bus station

228 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

periurban area has increased. Most of this holds with full and overflowing septic tanks,
decrease in Suva City has come about which poses a grave health risk to residents.
through formal development of the land, Furthermore, most informal houses have no
rather than official programs of squatter re- regular garbage collection and instead de-
settlement. The National Resettlement Com- posit their garbage in nearby streams or on
mittee is the coordinating body for planning waste land.
and implementing the upgrading of squatter
settlements. DISASTER RELATED RISKS
There are, however, relatively few per-
manently homeless people in Suva. The rea- The most common natural disasters are Suva’s coastal location provides opportunities for
son for this is the opportunity for people to tropical cyclones and associated flooding water sports
erect squatter houses, or move in with rela- and the effects that these have on Suva City
tives, and the efforts of organizations such are minimal compared with the surrounding erally held in Suva. The annual Hibiscus Fes-
as the Housing Assistance and Relief Trust Greater Suva. The last cyclone experienced tival is a week-long open-air fair, with pa-
(HART) and Habitat for Humanity to provide in Suva was Cyclone Kina in 1992 which rades and public competitions. It began in
housing for people in desperate need. caused extensive flooding of the Nausori the 1960s, initially to provide Suva with an
area. annual tourist attraction. Cultural attractions
ENVIRONMENTAL Suva is also susceptible to earthquakes include the Fiji National Museum, and
MANAGEMENT and associated tsunami, but these are rela- smaller privately run culture centers for tour-
tively rare, at least in living memory. The ists, such as Orchid Island, located 20 min-
Suva faces looming environmental problems last major earthquake was in 1953 and the utes out of Suva.
because of poor waste management. De- city is now ill-prepared to deal with such an Most Fijians enjoy sports, and there are
spite the scenic quality of Suva Harbor, it is event. A large tsunami could shut down opportunities to participate in a wide vari-
badly polluted and is also silting quickly, Suva’s prime commercial and industrial ar- ety. There is no statistical data on participa-
because of poorly managed land develop- eas. tion in sports but it is generally high and a
ment. Most solid waste is dumped at the lot of Suva’s cultural events are sport orien-
Lami Dump which once was on the city’s CULTURAL HERITAGE tated. Suva hosts the annual Fiji Interna-
periphery, but now is in a heavily populated tional Rugby 7s, the Fiji Finals high school
urban area. There have been several plans There are attempts to conserve some built athletic meet, as well as sporting events,
to move the dump, but no action has yet heritage although these efforts are gener- some international, throughout the year. Suva
been taken. There is no facility at the dump ally limited to residential properties and his- has adequate recreational facilities but also
for waste management or recycling, and torical government buildings. Because there areas that need improvement.
heavy metals and other serious pollutants is no strong push to conserve built heritage,
leach directly into the harbor. Many septic conservation is ad hoc. MAJOR URBAN
tanks are ineffective because most of the For a capital city, Suva has relatively DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS,
city is located on marl, or soapstone, and a few venues for cultural activities and fewer
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
large volume of effluent seeps into Suva’s cultural shows for the public. Most cultural
numerous creeks and the harbor. SCC (2000) events are organized by religious groups and According to the SCC, land in the city is
reports that their trucks break down regu- include events like the annual national currently saturated with development. Ex-
larly and this has created a backlog of house- church choir competitions, which are gen- cept for reclamation on the seashore, there

Suva’s Harbor is Fiji Island’s busiest port

City Profiles 229

is no direction to move without clashing with
other boundaries. Yet there are still opportu-
nities within the current boundaries to im-
prove the quality of current structures. The
physical means of controlling development
in Suva is through a zoning system. This is
securing future use of land to help achieve
social and environmental objectives.
Some major development projects have
been proposed for Suva, such as a large fore-
shore development project and a world trade
center complex, but they have not suc-
ceeded in securing committed investors.
The Fiji Islands, and in particular Suva, will
be hosting the 2003 South Pacific Games
and several new sporting facilities and com-
plexes are planned. The majority of these
are located where current complexes exist
and will result in centralizing Suva’s sports
facilities.
The Fiji Islands’ national political crisis
that began in May 2000 clouded Suva’s de-
velopment. The razing of the business dis-
trict may be a temporary setback, as several
businesses have reopened, and the demand
for space may encourage new businesses
to set up where others do not recover. This
event may, however, encourage a reloca-
tion of businesses to other parts of the ur-
ban area, or to other towns. Whether or not
the call to separate western Viti Levu into a
separate state gains political momentum,
it will surely encourage the growing con-
centration of business activity in the Nadi-
Lautoka area, possibly leaving Suva to serve
only as the Fiji Islands’ administrative cen-
ter. The risk of continuing civil disturbances
has already caused some international agen-
cies to consider moving office to Nadi or
Lautoka, or to even relocate out of the coun-
try. Regional institutions, such as the Uni-
versity of the South Pacific, may find that
maintaining their central campus in Suva is
untenable, given the possibility of disrup-
tions and threats to the safety of students.

Margaret Chung served as adviser to the United

Nations Regional Coordinator. She also managed a
United Nations Population Fund project which dealt
with population issues in environmental management
in Pacific island countries. Ms. Chung holds a Ph D
degree in Human Geography.

230 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

MONGOLIA

Ulaanbaatar

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF Railway. Ulaanbaatar has various tourist at- end to technical assistance. This resulted
THE CITY tractions, including several restored mon- in a 30 percent loss to its economy. The

U
asteries and excellent museums. Mongolia 1990s saw a transformation of the economy,
laanbaatar, capital of Mongolia, is known for its nomadic traditions and a political institutions, social conditions, and
lies along the Tuul River in a third of its population remains nomadic. Al- lifestyles, especially in Ulaanbaatar. While
valley, with mountains and the though the city has been on the same site
Bogdkhan National Park, since 1639, it was a tented city for most of
claimed as the world’s first such the time. Urbanization is recent and, with a Statistical Snapshot ...1998
park, limiting growth to the north and south. more than tenfold increase in population DEMOGRAPHY
Resident population (in million) 0.72
It is the world’s coldest capital with an annual during the 70 years of communism to 1990, Density (persons/ha) 133
temperature range of -44°Celsius to the city retains many signs of the Soviet Annual rate of increase (percent) 4.5
+37°Celsius. The capital’s airport is the Union’s influence. ECONOMY
main entry point for visitors, while train Mongolia suffered a threefold setback City product (per capita) US$525
travel enthusiasts can enjoy travelling from in 1990, with the withdrawal of Soviet finan- Households below poverty line (percent) 34.1
Cost of stay (per day) US$98
Beijing or Moscow on the Trans-Siberian cial aid, the loss of export markets, and an
FINANCE
Share of taxes to total revenue (percent) 64.9
Wages of employees in budget (percent) 33

SOCIAL SERVICES
Child mortality (percent) 6.9
Persons per hospital bed 105
Life expectancy (years) 64.8
Adult literacy rate (percent) 97.1
Median years of education 14
Tertiary graduates (for every ‘000 pop) 10.9

COMMUNICATIONS
Households connected to phone (percent) 34
Local calls (per person per year) 63
International calls (per person per year) 0.80
Mobile calls (per person per year) 1
Internet hosts (for every ‘000 pop) 4.14

City Profiles 231

GDP is one of the lowest in Asia there has Half of the 22 aimag or provincial capitals’
been slow growth since the mid-1990s. The populations have declined since 1990. Rapid
Government has developed the market growth in commercial activities in
economy and privatization, critical to these Ulaanbaatar, particularly in the informal sec-
changes, has been particularly successful tor, contrasts with the stagnant economies
in the housing sector where over 90 percent of most other Mongolian towns.
of apartments have been privatized in the
last three years. DEMOGRAPHY, LABOR
Ulaanbaatar presents two types of de- FORCE, AND INCOME
velopment. The first involves a central
planned area of prefabricated or brick apart- Ulaanbaatar’s population continues to grow
The Golomt Bank of Mongolia is the largest
ment buildings up to 12 storeys, surrounded rapidly at around 4.5 percent per year, with
private commercial bank in Mongolia
by vaguely defined open spaces. The sec- an average household size of 4.8. Net in-
ond involves ger areas characterized by long ward migration from other parts of the coun- economy’s engine of growth and that growth
plots, mainly 300–500 square meters (m2), try is estimated to account for some 45 was so fast in the late 1990s that it compen-
served with electricity, on-site sanitation, percent of growth. Much of the growth is sated greatly for the faltering public sector.
and water supply available from kiosks. taking place in unplanned, fast-expanding Between 1995 and 1999 the private sector’s
Such informal development now dominates ger areas, especially to the north of the city. share of officially recorded GDP rose from 55
urban growth and accounts for some 60 per- Ulaanbaatar has a young age structure with percent to 73 percent, while the city’s GDP
cent of the city’s population. At the same dependency rates of 36 percent for men and per capita has doubled since 1996 to $525.
time the populations of other smaller urban 35 percent for women. The 1990 transition resulted in structural
centers are “ruralizing” as their economic The city’s economically active popula- changes which prompted private sector
bases weaken or disappear and some ger tion of 216,000 included 210,000 employees growth. This growth accelerated in the past
households move back to the countryside. in 1999. Of those, 38 percent were employed five years as traditional trading patterns
in secondary and infrastructure jobs, 34 per- changed, with large volumes of new imports
cent in consumer services, and 18 percent in entering Mongolian markets. Industries that
Elders selling drinks, cigarettes, and candies
social services. The private sector is now the developed under the former command
near the public bus station

232 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 cluding six urban and three remote districts
(Nalaikh, Baganuur, and Bagakhangai) lo-
cated 45–110 kilometers from the main built-
up area of Ulaanbaatar. Districts are divided
into khoroos (subdistricts). The City Assem-
bly, consisting of 40 councillors, does not
have the authority to introduce local taxes,
but can set certain fees.
The mayor is nominated by the City
Assembly and is appointed by the prime
minister who signs the contract for the
mayor ’s tenure. The mayor appoints a
deputy, with the prime minister’s approval,
The Drama Theater is one of Ulaanbaatar’s
and submits his performance report to the symbols of strong cultural heritage
prime minister twice yearly. The prime min-
ister can cancel the mayor’s decision if it cases the transfer has been one of
does not comply with legal acts. deconcentration or transfer of administra-
Since the city’s budget is subject to tive discretion, but with few decisions
approval by the City Assembly, it might ap- allowed without reference to the center.
pear that the city government is legally in- There is much to do for citizen partici-
Large private businesses grew as state-owned
enterprises declined dependent, but the city is financially pation, access to information, transparency,
dependent on the central Government. responsiveness, and accountability. Assis-
economy have declined or disappeared. The While the city is self-supportive and does tance with meeting these objectives in
transfer of assets from state ownership to not get any subsidiary grant from the Gov- Ulaanbaatar is part of the city governance
private ownership has been accompanied by ernment, the latter decides which economic component of the City Development Strat-
the rise of new large private businesses in entities should report to which tax office egy Project funded by the World Bank.
mining, textiles, trade, banking, information (national, municipal, and district), based on Progress in meeting the objectives needs
technology, and other sectors. Distribution of the size of tax revenue involved. In some to be set against Mongolia’s authoritative
goods and services, formerly controlled by a cases the Government’s decision causes past which discouraged the formation of
rigid state planning apparatus, is now almost many problems for the city. For example, groups that were not part of state adminis-
entirely market-driven and retail prices are the Petrovis and Skytel companies pay al- tration.
almost entirely decontrolled. Growth in the most $1 million annually to the municipal The Constitution declares that, except
market economy has contributed to a dynamic government. Recently, the Government re- for listed classified documents, all requisite
informal sector, particularly in Ulaanbaatar. The moved these two companies’ tax payments
sector is estimated to account for 57 percent from the city budget, while allocating an-
of retail trading, 34 percent of transport (par- other 10 tax paying companies to the city.
ticularly taxis), and 8 percent of services. However, the total tax payable from these
Reacting to the economic stresses of the companies was only one-fifth of previous
early 1990s, the Government introduced a business tax collections from Petrovis and
poverty alleviation program in 1995, but by Skytel.
1999 27 percent of the population was still The Government decides salary level
below the poverty line of $17 per month. There increases for public sector employees, af-
were 28.7 percent of women-headed house- ter approving the city’s annual budget and
holds below the poverty line in 1998 and 51 this puts great pressure on the city budget.
percent of household expenditure was on food;
a high proportion which indicates widespread URBAN GOVERNANCE
poverty. Nationally, single mothers, children
to 16 years, and the elderly account for half Since the country’s democratization pro-
the urban poor. In Ulaanbaatar, some two cess began, the Government has pursued
thirds of the unemployed are the very poor. decentralizing state powers to lower levels
of government. The rationale for this is to
POLITICAL STRUCTURE reflect the change to a market economy, to
create greater accountability and transpar-
Mongolia is divided into the administrative ency in government, and to promote better
areas of the capital city and 21 aimags (prov- use of resources. So far some powers have
inces). Ulaanbaatar has nine districts, in- transferred to local government, but in many Traffic congestion is rare

City Profiles 233

information should be available to the people.
Fortunately, local media has become the
leading provider of information and a sup-
porting pillar of the country’s democracy.
The proliferation of newspapers since tran-
sition is testimony both to Mongolia’s high
levels of literacy and the people’s appetite
for information.

URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
The formal areas of Ulaanbaatar are serviced
by water, heating, hot water, and sanitation
piped systems, as well as electricity, while
the informal ger areas have electricity con-
nections, on-site sanitation, and water from
kiosks. Many of the utility networks need
maintenance and renovation.
There is a dramatic difference in the
water consumption of those living in apart-
ment blocks, with a consumption of 200 li-
ters or more per day, and those in the First floor apartments have been converted to commercial spaces
majority of the city, with a consumption of
some eight liters per day. Delivery of water The city’s formal areas are connected TRANSPORT
to kiosks by tanker is being replaced by un- to a sewerage system which is connected
derground pipes; however, no provision is to a city treatment plant. Service is avail- The most common mode of transport in
made for individual connections to the wa- able to some 51 percent of the city’s popu- Ulaanbaatar is bus or minibus (60 percent of
ter reticulation system. Water supply by lation; it is estimated that 50–60 percent of trips), followed by walking (30 percent), train
individual connection remains at some 51 city wastewater is treated. In the informal (5 percent), car (3 percent), and motorcycle
percent and water unaccounted for amounts or ger areas, residents rely on underground (2 percent). Traffic congestion is rare or non-
to 38 percent. pits for sanitation. existent and the median travel time for jour-
There are three forms of heating sys- neys across the city is 25 minutes. Road
tem in the city. First, a district heating sys- networks in formal areas are overdesigned,
tem in the formal city distributes heat from while there are few, if any, satisfactory roads
thermal power plants. Second, coal-fired in informal or ger areas. Only a few surfaced
stoves are used in ger areas for both heat- roads connect the city to other towns. The
ing and cooking. Third, boiler houses heat rail system is connected to Beijing and Mos-
single or groups of buildings. None of these cow via the Trans-Siberian Railway, while in-
systems use thermostatic controls and are ternational flights connect with Russia,
targets for energy conservation, as well as People’s Republic of China, Republic of
maintenance and renovation. A start has Korea, and Japan.
been made on conservation by metering
some apartment buildings. HOUSING ACCESS AND
Electricity connections are available AFFORDABILITY
to virtually all households in the city, but
result in power plant failure supply interrup- The housing typology for Ulaanbaatar consists
tions. of ger tents within large individual plots (some
There are now many new communica- plots are legally recognized); government-
tion systems, including two mobile phone built apartment blocks (90 percent or more
providers, three cable TV stations, and three privatized and being managed by condo-
Internet service providers. Resident demand minium associations); developer built apart-
for new technology is growing fast, however, ments; owner built private houses, and
only 34 percent of households have tele- formal contractor built private houses. Av-
phones. There are telephones in informal or erage floor area per person is 5.66 m2. The
Big building in a commercial street show signs ger areas and some areas have wireless major growth area is in the informal settle-
of Soviet Union’s influence phones. ments with gers. It is likely that such con-

234 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Private minibuses queued in the market

struction will be the main supply of new ENVIRONMENTAL increasing quantities of industrial pollutants
housing over the next decade or more (even MANAGEMENT from the city’s three thermal power plants
though such housing does not comply with which consume more than three million tons
regulations). Such construction will be car- Ulaanbaatar is increasingly suffering from of coal per year. Ulaanbaatar’s 30,000 or
ried out incrementally, beginning with a tra- air pollution. The concentration of pollutants, more vehicles also add to the noxious at-
ditional ger and ending with an all-weather especially during the long winter, is mainly mosphere.
house of one or two storeys. In parallel, ex- generated by households. Nearly half the Household sewage in the formal zones
isting housing and neighborhoods will be up- households are heated by coal or wood fires. flows eventually to the treatment works in
graded. This forecast however depends on As a result, levels of carbon dioxide in outer southwest Ulaanbaatar where it is well
the Government acknowledging that such areas can be up to seven times higher than treated with 90 percent biochemical oxy-
housing is the logical outcome of agreed in the city center. Added to this pollution are gen demand removal. Sewage treatment in
policies which recognize the private sector
as being the main provider of affordable hous-
ing, based on market-oriented principles. It
needs to be recognized however that there
remains a strong viewpoint that ger areas
are only temporary, to make way later for
formal apartment construction.
Housing and land markets are devel-
oping, particularly in Ulaanbaatar. The
emerging housing market is reflected in the
construction of and trade in apartments (the
latter providing a major source of equity
when the time comes to buy another prop-
erty), and the start of trading in ger plots.
At present the market is restricted by a
lack of housing finance, however, a study is
currently developing a workable system.
Progress in developing land markets is
slow. While leases of up to 60 years are
available, the land market is not geared to
a demand driven approach. Once land has
been privatized the market should expand
rapidly. Archery competition for women is featured during the national festival in July

City Profiles 235

Mongolian national wrestling is an interesting event during sports festival

the city’s informal areas depends on the portant building blocks for a coordinated ur-
condition of the underground pit used. Given ban strategy were legislated, which include
the low density of these areas it can be as- the Mongolian State Policy on Housing, the
sumed that there is little contamination of Housing Law, the Condominium Law, the Law
land around pits (though this might change on Registration of Immovable Property, and
as settlement densities increase). the Cadastral Survey and Land Registration
Ulaanbaatar residents each generate Law. Various infrastructure-led urban devel-
some 0.6 tons of solid waste per year and opment projects were carried out in the past
an estimated 60 percent of households are few years, including urban improvements
regularly serviced with a public company for various aimag centers in the west of the
responsible for the dump site. country. These will soon be repeated in other
provinces. Technical assistance has been
CULTURAL HERITAGE provided to develop a land cadastral and ti-
tling project, beginning in Ulaanbaatar. Re-
Ulaanbaatar has various buildings and habilitating the water supply and other
temples which are of great interest to visi- infrastructure is being carried out under the
tors such as the Winter Palace of Bogd Ulaanbaatar Urban Services Improvement
Khaan and Gandantegchinlen Khiid. There are Project (World Bank) and the Rehabilitation
many interesting museums and art galler- of Water Supply Facilities in Ulaanbaatar
ies, in particular the Museum of Natural His- City (Japan International Cooperation
tory, the Museum of Fine Arts, and the Agency). Other major projects in
National Museum of Mongolian History. In Ulaanbaatar include the Mongolia Energy
addition there are numerous performances Conservation Project and the Strengthen-
of classical and Mongolian opera, ballet ing of Commercial Banks Project (both un-
dance, and concerts. The national festival, der Asian Development Bank).
Naadam, takes place in July and features Major projects in the infrastructure sec-
the three Mongolian pursuits of wrestling, tor and private development in the past few
archery, and horse racing. years include the Modernization of Power
Plant No.3, City Road Improvement Project,
MAJOR URBAN Extension of Ard-Ayush Avenue, New Cen-
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS, tral Market Development, Chingges Khaan
Hotel, and Continental Hotel.
STRATEGIES, AND POLICIES
Until now there has been no overall strat-
egy for Ulaanbaatar since the 1990 eco-
nomic transition. Currently, work is Nyamjuu Zaanhuu is the President and Chief
continuing on the City Development Strat- Executive Officer of Yom Yom Co Ltd.. He is involved in
egy, funded by the World Bank. In 1999, im- various projects as senior civil engineer.

236 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

CHAPTER 7:

NOTES AND SOURCES

 Bangalore
Indicators

1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization Census of India (COI) 1991

• Urbanization figures for 1991 are from the 1991 census while 1998 figures are based on estimates.
1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 1998
India 17.3 18.0 19.9 23.3 25.7 28.3
Karnataka 23.0 22.3 24.3 28.9 30.9 33.0
• The 1998 urbanization figure accounts for the growth rate between 1981 and 1991.
• Urban areas are defined specifically for the census.
1.2 City population • Population figures for the city at 10-year intervals are given below.
Growth over Previous
Year Population Decade (%)
1951 778,977 91.50
1961 1,141,107 46.49
1971 1,540,741 35.02
1981 2,620,593 70.61
1991 3,302,296 25.63
1998 4,328,649 44.40
• 1998 population figures are based on the average growth rate between 1950 and 1990. The city grows
as it annexes its boundaries over time.
• The daytime population was estimated and the results matched the floating-population figures released
by the local government and other agencies.
1.3 Migration Not available
1.4 Net population density Comprehensive Development Plan for BAngalore (CDPB) 1995
• According to the land-use survey made by the Bangalore Development Authority in 1990 for the CDBP
study, the residential area was 9,877 ha—close to the March 1991 census estimates. The net density was
obtained by dividing the population of 1991 (3,302,276) by the residential area (10,000 ha).
1.5 Age pyramid • Consultant’s estimates, based on population trends between 1981 and 1991
1.6 Average household size • Consultant’s estimates, arrived at by dividing the city population by the number of households (from the
1991 national census)
1.7 Household formation rate Unuted Nations Commission on Human Settlements (UNCHS) 1993
• Actual figures for the number of households in 1981 and 1991, derived from the census for those years,
are:
1981: 454,512 households
1991: 511,125 households
• The growth rate of households from 1981 to 1991 was estimated by applying the CDB formula. The
annual growth rate was highest, at 4.27%, from 1971 to 1981.
1.8 Women-headed households COI 1991; National Health and Family Welfare Survey (NHFWS) 1992–1993
• The figure 9.5% is from the 1991 census. According to the NHFWS, women-headed households were
12.5% of all households in Karnataka State. District-level figures are not available.
1.9 Minority groups COI 1991
• The Karnataka population includes the following minority groups: Muslims (12%), Christians (2.4%),
Jains (1.11%), Buddhists (0.7%), Sikhs (NAV), Parsi (NAV), Muslims (13%), and Christians (3%).
1.10 Household types CDB team’s calculations, based on figures provided by the consultant
• The COI collects data on the number of persons in a household.
• The last household survey was in 1973/74. The data on household types were therefore based on the
1991 census, as follows:
Family Composition % of All Families
1 adult 12.44
1 adult + children 0.43
2 adults 5.63
2 adults + 1 child 6.15
2 adults + 2 children 6.64
2 adults + more than 2 children 10.52
3 adults 3.89
3 adults + children 16.77
Other families 37.53

238 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Bangalore
1.11 Informal settlements Karnataka Slum Clearancr Board (KSCB) 1991
• There are 362 large and small slums in the 15 assembly constituencies. These are as follows:
No. of Area No. of Population
Assembly Pockets (ha) Huts
Malleshwaram 25.0 18.69 4,548.0 26,995.0
Binnipe 19.0 6.79 8,324.0 59,589.0
Varthur 34.0 14.86 8,176.0 46,426.0
Gandhinagar 17.0 9.34 3,505.0 18,631.0
Chickpet 8.0 2.51 1,626.0 8,797.0
Bharathinagar 24.0 9.83 3,108.0 17,683.0
Shivajinagar 7.0 2.69 548.0 3,676.0
Shanthinagar 17.0 11.01 8,169.0 31,563.0
Basavanagudi 11.0 9.62 1,753.0 8,634.0
Yelahanka 21.0 18.39 6,143.0 37,770.0
Jayamahal 21.0 10.25 4,114.0 24,173.0
Rajajinagar 19.0 23.08 5,034.0 34,108.0
Uttarahalli 64.0 101.41 27,537.0 169,161.0
Chamarjapet 29.0 11.74 6,875.0 34,225.0
Jayanagar 46.0 36.48 12,501.0 64,259.0
Total 362.0 286.36 101,962.0 585,650.0

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution The Structure of an Indian Metropolis: A Study of Bangalore (Bangalore: Allied Publications, 1979)
• Household income data for 1998/99 were estimated by inflating 1973/74 household income data from
the foregoing study. In 1973/74 an average family of five persons had to have a monthly household income
of at least $38.75 to meet its daily needs.
• Except for the lowest income group, the distribution of households by quintiles has not changed
since1973.
2.2 Households below poverty line • Information on households below the poverty line is not available for Bangalore City. Instead, data for
Bangalore District contained in the foregoing report were used. The poverty line for urban households,
according to the Planning Commission, is a yearly income of $430.
2.3 Women-headed households COI 1991
in poverty • Households often fall into poverty when the male head wage earner dies and the surviving female
becomes the head.
2.4 Child labor COI 1991; based on CDB team’s calculations
2.5 Informal employment Economic Census 1998; Bangalore District at a Glance, 1998
2.6 Unemployment • National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) did not estimate unemployment figures for city and
district areas.
2.7 Expenditure on poverty • Main organizations involved in poverty reduction are the KSCB and the reduction (per poor person)
Social Welfare Department.
• Figures on the poverty reduction expenditures of these organizations were not available.

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed District Statistical Office, Bangalore District (DSO-BD); Department of Economics ans Statistics, Govern
ment of Karnataka (DES-GK)
3.2 Child mortality • Usually expressed as a proportion of 1,000 births. The Registrar General of India estimated the infant
mortality rate for districts in 1991, on the basis of census data for the number of all children born and the
number of surviving children of all married women, using the Brass method.
3.3 Life expectancy at birth Consultant’s estimates
• Derived from child mortality (q2), estimated by interpolating corresponding q and eo values from the
Life Table for South Asia Model.
3.4 Mortality from infectious DES-GK, “Medical Certificates and Causes of Death,” 1998
diseases
3.5 Family planning Directorate of Health and Family Planning Welfare Services, Government Karnataka (DHFPWS-GK) 1999
• Percentage of married couples with females in the 15–49 age group who practise family planning.
3.6 Adult literacy rate COI 1991
3.7 School enrollment rates Department of Public Instruction, Government of Karnataka (DPI-GK) 1997/98
(primary,secondary)

Notes and Sources 239

 Bangalore
3.8 Tertiary graduates Consultant’s estimates
3.9 Median years of education NAV
3.10 Schoolchildren per classroom DPI-GK 1997/98
(primary,secondary)

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of Karnataka (DES-GK)
• The method used by the Central Statistical Organization, Government of India, in calculating the national
GDP was followed.
4.2 Employment by industry CDB team’s estimates, based on data from the consultant
• Employment by industry for Bangalore City (Municipal Corporation)
Total main workers 1,087,681.0
Cultivators 5,437.0
Agriculture laborers 4,876.0
Livestock, fishing, hunting 7,056.0
Mining and quarrying 2,031.0
Manufacturing, processing, servicing
and repairs in household enterprises 15,419.0
Manufacturing, processing, servicing
and repairs in other than household enterprises 338,656.0
Construction 91,048.0
Trade and commerce 264,180.0
Transport, storage, and communication 95,479.0
Other services 263,497.0

4.3 Household expenditure • This is based on the family budget survey carried out for the working class in Bangalore City by the
Ministry of Labor, Government of India, in 1981/82. No such survey has been carried out since 1982.
• It is from published figures in the report on the 1981/82 survey of the income and expenditure of
working-class families in Bangalore City.
• The same figures were used in computing the consumer price index for the city every month.
4.4 Investment by sector • According to experts in economics, planning, and statistics who were consulted by the
consultant, data for this indicator can be generated only through extensive surveys.
• Private and corporate entities investing in social services (especially in education and health), industry,
and other services outnumber union, state government, local government, and statutory authorities.
4.5 Tourism Government of India Tourist Office (GI-TO), Bangalore
4.6 Major projects Karnataka Chamber of Commerce (KCC)
4.7 Cost of stay CDB team’s estimates
4.8 Corporate headquarters KCC

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure NAV

5.2 Telephone traffic Bangalore Telephones, Department of Communications (BT-DOC)
(million calls per year)
5.3 Internet hosts per thousand CDB team’s estimates, based on the figure obtained by the consultant from Videsh Sanchar Nigam
population population Limited (VSNL)
• In 1998 VSNL was the only Internet service provider (ISP). In 1999 there were seven ISPs:
VSNL
Sathyam
ETH
Bharathi BT
Munro
Manipal Control Data
Zigma Input Output Systems

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land Bangalore Development Authority (BDA) report on the revised comprehensive development plan for
Bangalore (1994) and the land-use survey carried out in 1990

240 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Bangalore
• The land-use classifications in the plan differ from the CDB categories.
Land Use Area (ha) % of Total
Residential 9,877.0 34.78
Commercial 675.0 2.38
Industrial 2,038.0 7.18
Public and semi-public 2,615.0 9.12
Parks 2,131.0 7.51
Unclassified (defense) 2,114.0 7.45
Transport 8,946.0 31.49
Total 28,400.0 100.00

6.2 Land developer multiplier BDA and inquiries with private developers
6.3 Developer contributions lbid.
6.4 Median time for planning lbid.
permission
6.5 Vacant land with planning lbid.
permission
6.6 Public open space BDA report on the revised comprehensive development plan for Bangalore (1994) and the land-use survey
carried out in 1990
• BDA requires land developers to set aside 15% of the planned area for parks.
6.7 Vacant government land lbid.
6.8 Price of prime commercial land Based on the estimates of several real estate agents, March 2000
• Real estate values have dropped since 1996.
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs Based on inquiries with several real estate agents, March 2000
• Demand for commercial space rentals has been declining.
6.10 Expenditure on development NAV

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type Family Budget Survey for Bangalore City, 1981/82, Bangalore Mahanagora Palike (BMP), BDA-Bangalore
7.2 Tenure type COI 1991
• The ownership pattern in 1998 was the same as in 1991.
7.3 Ratio of house price to income • The ratio is obtained by dividing the average cost of a house ($14,542.28) by the average annual
income of a wage earner ($1,454.228). Therefore, the ratio of house price to income is 14,542.28/1,454.228
= 10.
7.4 Ratio of house rent to income
7.5 Floor area per person Based on plans adopted for different income groups
7.6 Housing in compliance Consultant’s estimates; BDA
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio NAV
7.8 Houses with mortgages NAV
7.9 Mortgage loans for women NAV
7.10 Housing production Consultant’s estimates, 10 July 2000
• No government department (state or union) or organization keeps statistics on the number of new
houses built each year.
7.11 Squatter resettlement or • According to the Karnataka Slum Clearance Board (KSCB), there were 102,218 households in slum
normalization areas in 1999, and 5,768 households in all had been resettled up to that year. Annual figures are not
available.
• Major resettlement areas include slums behind Vijaya College (400 households), rehabilitated at Alahalli
Church of South India slum (300 households); rehabilitated at Leggeri, which has about 16 slums with
about 3,000 households; and multistoried building (government office complex) near Vidhana Soudha.
• Slum resettlement and normalization in Bangalore is insignificant.
7.12 Net housing outlays by • The Karnataka Housing Board (KHB) and KSCB were the main government housing departments during
government (per person) 1999/2000. The housing outlays of these departments were
KHB – $0.998 million, including $0.023 million for establishment
KSCB – $0.242 million, including slum services
Total – $1.240 million
Per person: $51,217,000/$4,328,000 = $11.83 per person

Notes and Sources 241

 Bangalore
8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB); Handbook on Statistics, BWSSB (HS-BWSSB)
8.1.1 Household connections BWSSB 1998/99
• Prepared for the National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi. BWSSB counts as one connection
a building that houses one or more households (as defined in census document).
8.1.2 Investment per capita HS-BWSSB 1995/96 and 1996/97
8.1.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditure
8.1.4 Cost recovery lbid.
8.1.5 Output per staff: Water lbid.
supplied per employee
8.1.6 List of providers BWSSB 1996
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water HS-BWSSB 1995/96 and 1996/97
a. Percentage of lbid.
unaccounted
for water
b. Interruptions in water • BWSSB document of February 2000 prepared for the National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi
service
8.1.8 Consumption of water lbid.
per capita
8.1.9 Median price of water, lbid.
scarce season • Water supplied to different categories of consumers is priced differently. The higher the consumption,
the higher the price charged per liter of water. Tariff rates are the same all year even during the scarce
season, unless revised by the government.
8.2 Electricity Bangalore Metropolitan Area Zone of the Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited (BMAZ-KPTCL)
8.2.1 Household connections BMAZ-KPTCL 2000
8.2.2 Investment per capita lbid.
8.2.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditure
• For the BMAZ-KPTCL areas, the costs cover not only residential supply but also the maintenance of
feeder lines, substations, and distribution systems for other uses that consume more energy.
8.2.4 Cost recovery (%) NAV
8.2.5 Output per staff: BMAZ-KPTCL, January 2000
megawatt hours of
electricity supplied
per employee
8.2.6 List of providers KPTCL
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity
a. Line loss for electricity BMAZ-KPTCL
• Transmission loss in high voltage-tension connections (11 kV and higher) is 3%.
• Distribution system loss in low voltage-tension connections (below 11 kV) is 15.44%.
b. Interruptions in power BMAZ’s estimates
supply

8.3 Sewage/Wastewater BWSSB 1998/99

8.3.1 Household connections lbid.
• A dwelling unit may contain one or more households (as defined in census document).
8.3.2 Investment per capita lbid.
8.3.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditure
8.3.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.3.5 Output per staff: lbid.
Wastewater discharged
treated per employee
8.3.6 List of providers lbid.

8.4 Telephone BT-DOC

8.4.1 Household connections As of 31 March 1991, from BWSSB 1998/99
8.4.2 Investment per capita lbid.

242 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Bangalore
8.4.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditure
8.4.4 Cost recovery BT-DOC
8.4.5 Output per staff: Consultant’s estimates, based on 31 March 1991 data provided by BT-DOC
Thousands of calls
per employee
8.4.6 List of providers • The sole provider of basic telephone systems is the Department of Telecommunications.
• Mobile phone systems are provided by two private companies: JTM and Spice.
• Internet services are provided by VSNL and six private operators.
8.5 Solid waste collection Health Department of Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (HD-BMP)
8.5.1 Households with Consultant’s estimates, based on information from HD-BMP
regular service
8.5.2 Investment per capita HD-BMP
8.5.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditure
8.5.4 Cost recovery lbid.
8.5.5 Output per staff: lbid.
Collected per employee
8.5.6 List of providers lbid.
• Health departments of City Municipal Councils on the fringe, 10%.

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated Health Department of Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (HD-BMP) 1999/2000
9.2 Household sewage disposal Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board (BWSSB) 1999/2000
(% of households)
9.3 Wastewater treated lbid.
9.4 Percent BOD removed lbid.
from wastewater
9.5 Air pollution concentrations Karnataka Pollution Control Board (KPCB) 1999/2000
9.6 Energy use per person Consultant’s estimates
• Based on data from oil companies for aviation fuel, petrol, diesel, kerosene, light diesel oil, and furnace
oil; Railways for coal; Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Limited for electrical energy; and
firewood dealers for wood (estimates). Data on LPG are not readily available.
9.7 Noise complaints Police Department (PD)
• Complaints on noise from vehicles are not officially recorded.
9.8 Disasters in last 10 years PD; BMP
9.9 Methods of solid waste disposal HD-BMP, March 2000

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel Consultant’s computations, based on statistics from Transport Department (TD) 1998
10.2 Median travel time Consultant’s rough estimates
10.3 Expenditure on road BMP’s revised budget estimates for 1998/99 and BDA budget for major road projects
infrastructure
10.4 Road congestion Expert’s opinion, based on a traffic survey made in 1999 by the Central Road Research Institute, New
Delhi, for the Karnataka Urban Infrastructure Development Finance Corporation
10.5 Automobile ownership Consultant’s estimates
• Computed from statistics obtained from TD (1998) and population estimates for 1998
10.6 Cost recovery from fares • Bangalore Mahanagara Transport Corporation (BMTC) is the only public transport provider.
10.7 Port/air activity • Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Government of India, runs the airport. It is the only airport in Bangalore
with domestic and international operations.
• Outgoing flights per month: 690 domestic, 52 international destinations including New York
• A new airport at Devanahalli, about 30 km outside the city, is being planned. It should be ready for
domestic and international operations by 2003.
• Bangalore is an inland city and has no seaport.
10.8 Goods carried
10.8.1 Road National Highway Department Government of Karnataka (NHD-GOK) 1996/97
• Survey carried out on all national highways around the city
10.8.2 Rail Railways 1999/2000
10.8.3 Air Air cargo of Indian Airlines for domestic, and Customs for international
10.8.4 Sea

Notes and Sources 243

 Bangalore
10.9 Transport fatalities PD (Traffic)

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events Consultant, 9 July 2000

11.2 Attendance at galleries lbid.
and museums
11.3 Participation in sports lbid.

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue Budget Document of the Bangalore Mahangara Palike (BD-BMP) 1999/2000
12.2 Capital and recurrent lbid.
expenditure per person
12.3 Collection efficiency, Annual Administration Report (AAR), BMP 1997/98
property taxes
12.4 Debt service charge BD-BMP 1999/2000
12.5 Employees BMP 1999/2000
12.6 Wages in budget BD-BMP 1999/2000
12.7 Contracted recurrent NAV
expenditure ratio
12.8 Business permits AAR-BMP 1997/98
12.9 Enterprise revenues • Revenue from major markets and shopping complexes in 1997/98:
($)
Shri Krishnarajendra Market 55,445.0
Russel Market 6,985.0
Shri. Jayachamarajendra Wholesale Vegetable Market 55,921.0
Jayanagara Shopping Complex 128,083.0
Public Utility Building 166,557.0
Subhashnagar Shopping Complex 53,715.0
Yeshwanthpura Shopping Complex 32,207.0
J. C. Road Shopping Complex 2,014.0
Rajajinagar Shopping Complex 25,988.0
Miscellaneous markets 102,531.0
Gate collection at SKRM 10,912.0
Revenue from other marketplaces 4,377.0
Subtotal 117,820.0
Grand total 644,735.0

12.10 Computerization of functions BMP

• Staff training has begun. Some functions, especially related to taxation and revenue, are expected to
be computerized by 2000/01.

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government • The local government conducts elections for the Council, the State Assembly, and the National
Parliament every five years or as often as necessary.
13.2 Delivery of annual plan NAV
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex Election Commission, Bangalore (ECB)
• The last elections for the Council were held in November 1996.
13.4 Independence from higher
government
13.4.1 Closing down the • The elected Council can be dismissed (superseded) by the government if it receives a report from the
council or removing Council or commissioner, a senior officer of the government, that the Council has misused its powers or
councilors from the is not governing effectively. Before issuing orders to dismiss the Council, the government must notify the
office mayor of the charges. If the government is not satisfied with the response made to the charges, it can
issue orders removing the Council and post a senior officer of the government as administrator.
13.4.2 Setting local taxes level • BMP is not mandated to set the tax level for local taxes. All proposals for new taxes must be approved
by the state government.

244 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Bangalore
13.4.3 Setting user charges • The levels of user charges are stipulated in the Karnataka Municipal Corporations Act. BMP cannot
for services increase taxes without state government approval.
13.4.4 Borrowing funds • BMP cannot borrow funds (enter into loans) or issue bonds without the approval of the state
government. The state government provides guarantees for all the monies borrowed by the local
government.
13.4.5 Choosing contractors • BMP is empowered to choose contractors for works costing up to $0.069 million. The state
for projects government must approve contractors for works costing more than $0.069 million

13.5 Elected and nominated councilors BMP

13.6 Representation of minorities • The Indian Constitution does not explicitly provide for reserving for minorities or representation of
minorities in the Council. However, the political parties choose candidates representing minorities for
council elections.
13.7 Planning applications refused (%) • Planning is not a function of BMP, which is not empowered to approve or reject planning applications.
Planning is done by BDA, a special organization created for planning and development of the 1,279 km2
Bangalore Metropolitan Area (which includes the 225 km2 BMP area).
• BMP is empowered to issue licenses for building construction. But the number of approved and
rejected applications for licenses is not readily available at the central office because this licensing power
is not centralized and has been delegated to lower levels.
13.8 Business satisfaction • Bangalore is one of the fastest -growing cities in India. The services sector has grown significantly.
Commercial taxes levied in the state are a major contributor to state revenues. It is estimated that nearly
80 percent of commercial taxes in the state are generated in Bangalore. Although the business community
feels that tax rates are high, the rapid growth of business establishments in Bangalore attests to the
favorable business environment in the city.
13.9 Consumer satisfaction • Consumer satisfaction is low because of poor-quality services from the local government. For example,
as already shown in 8.2.7b, consumers get only 690 hours of power supply per month, as against the
required 720 hours. Water supply is only 90 liters per capita (an average of three hours supply) per day, far
below the UNICEF norm of 140 liters per day.
13.10 Perception as place to live • While the business atmosphere is generally good for small to large businesses, poor urban services
have diminished the quality of city life. Living conditions have deteriorated as a result of industrial and
automobile pollution and high noise levels, as well as congestion in the core areas and the presence of
slums in the core and periphery.
13.11 Reported crimes PD; CDB team’s calculations
13.12 Access to information • Only annual administration reports are available for a price, with council approval.
• There is no regular and systematic recording of the city’s overall strategy/vision, economic strategies,
and social strategies. Obtaining information on any subject from the local government is difficult.
13.13 Contact with the public • There is no record of the number of meetings held by the mayor or CEO with the business sector.
The public can meet with the mayor, the chairmen of four standing committees, and the CEO at appointed
times.
The standing committees are:
Taxation, Finance, and Appeals
Public Health, Education, and Social Justice
Town Planning and Improvement
Accounts
13.14 Decentralized district units • The following functions have been decentralized to BMP:
Revenue – property assessment and property tax payment
Engineering – road maintenance, issuance of building licenses
Health – sanitation, issuance of trade licenses, and public health
• Law enforcement (police) is not a BMP function.

Notes and Sources 245

 Bishkek
Indicators
1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic; Social and Economic Development of the Kyrgyz
Republic Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1993–1997
Population, in thousands persons:
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Urban population 1,572,056 1,558,171 1,562,395 1,568,341 1,578,622
Total population 4,429,905 4,450,661 4,512,350 4,574,121 4,634,897

Urbanization – 34%

1.2 City population Urban Statistical Committee, Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
City Population
(data at the beginning of each year)
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
601,000 593,600 595,700 599,300 602,500 614,000

1.3 Migration Ibid.

• The city’s population grew by 53,790 when its boundary was extended.
• Migration from other parts of the country (net): 9,798 persons arrived, 6,524 persons left, gain of 3,274
• Other countries migration (net): 1,711 persons arrived, 3,759 persons left, outflow =(-2,048) persons
• Total net migration: 53,790 + 3,274 – 2,048 = 55,016 persons
1.4 Population net density Ibid.
Net residential land, ha = 14,736 – 87 + 229.5 = 14,778.5
City population = 614,000
Population net density = 614,000/14,778.5
= 41.55 persons/ha

1994 1995 1996 1997

Residential land 15,970 15,970 15,970 14,736
Population 601,000 593,600 595,700 599,300
Population net density 37.3 37.1 37.30 40.67

1.5 Age pyramid Ibid.

Age Total No. Males Females
(%) (%) (%)
Persons 0–14 136,600 10 12
Persons 50–59 404,100 31 35
Persons over 60 73,300 5 7

1.6 Average household size Official Inquiry, Urban Bureau of Technical Inventory, 24 January 1999
• Where all dwellings, houses, and apartments of the city are registered
Data at the end of 1998
Number of houses – 49,117
Number of apartments – 204,590
Total number – 253,707
Average Household Size – 614,000/253,707 = 2.4
1.7 Household formation rate Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
Year Marriages Divorces Household Formation Rate
1994 3,777 1,956 1,821 or 0.3%
1995 3,579 2,043 1,536 or 0.26%
1996 3,442 2,199 1,243 or 0.2%
1997 3,387 2,145 1,242 or 0.2%
1998 3,432 1,986 1,446 or 0.23%

Average household formation rate = 0.238%

1.8 Women-headed households National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic; Scientific and Research Institute of the North Carolina
Analysis of the statistical survey data, Autumn 1996 “Living Standard of the Population”

246 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Bishkek
1.9 Minority groups Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
• All nationalities include: Kyrgyz – 227.9 (37.1%); Russian – 278.3 (45.1%); Uzbek – 11.0 (1.8%);
Ukranian – 24.9 (4.1%); Tatar – 15.0 (2.4%); German – 0.7 (0.1%); Kazash – 10.4 (1.7%); Uygur – 12.7
(2.1%); Korean – 10.3 (1.7%); Azerbaijan – 2.9 (0.5%); Belorussian – 3.3 (0.5%); Dungan – 12.9 (2.3%)
1.10 Household types Ibid.
Social and Economic Development of the Kyrgyz Republic: Statistics Yearbook 1993–1997, operative data
1995–1998.
• In Indicator 1.10.4 the Adults and Children figure includes households with adult children.
1.11 Informal settlement Urban State inspection for construction and operation of individual apartment houses
• From 1992 to 1995, informal settlements were already legalized. At present, all inhabitants have
planning permission to the sites. There are 17,730 sites, 2,443 houses, 3,935 temporary apartment
houses, and 2,785 bases. All sites and houses are registered with the State for inspection and supervision
of construction and operation for individual houses. The Board of Capital Construction of urban municipality,
the headquarters of local and national government representatives responsible for settlements, decide
problems of settlements together with the local government.
The approximate population of all settlements is 53,790 persons.
• Main settlements: Bakay-Ata, Kok-Zhar, Ak-Orgo, Archa-Beshik

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic; Scientific and Research Institute of North Carolina
– Analysis of the Statistical Survey Data, Autumn 1996, “Living Standard of the Population”; Social and
Economic Development of the Kyrgyz Republic: Statistics Yearbook 1993–1999, operative data 1995–1998
• In 1998, 60% of the population were poor with incomes below $42.26 a month per capita, and 20%
of the population were extremely poor with only $10.60 a month per capita. The minimum wage was $4.8
a month per capita, average pensions were $23 a month per capita, and average wages $60 a month per
capita. Salaries and pension were not indexed. Many people are becoming impoverished while officers
of financial and credit orbs, high ranked state officers, and a small group of prosperous businessmen earn
high incomes.
• In 1998 the minimum consumer budget in Bishkek was $42.3 per capita per month.
2.2 Households below poverty line Ibid.
• The extreme poverty rate of $20.838 = $10.6 per capita a month or $127.2 per year.
2.3 Women-headed households lbid.
in poverty
2.4 Child labor Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistical Yearbook 1998
• The number of employed or economically active persons under 15 years of age is 59,000 or 9.6% of
the total population of 614,000.
2.5 Informal employment lbid.
Total workforce 318,400
Unemployed 15,000
Total labor force 176,200
Child labor 59,000
Informal sector = 381,400–15,000–176,200–59,000 = 131,200 or 34.9%
Informal activities include street trade, production of bread, production of soft drinks, production of sewing
and knitted items, production of articles of food, various repair services, construction, transportation
services, and hairdresser’s services.
2.6 Unemployment lbid.
Total labor force 176,200 persons
Unemployment officially registered 10,594 persons
Percentage of unemployed from total labor force 5.98%
2.7 Expenditure on poverty Urban Department of Social Defense, “The Report on the Totals of Work of Department of Social Defence
1998–1999”
Government Organizations:
Ministry of Labor and Social; Republican Social Fund
Fund and nongovernment organizations:
Beneficial Fund MEERIM; Fund of Charity; Social Innovations and Overcoming of Poverty; Fund
Many Children Family; Fund of Charity and Health; Soviet Federation of Trade Unions; International
Beneficial Organization ADRA

Notes and Sources 247

 Bishkek
• Recurrent expenditures on poverty reduction are as follows:
These State allowances from $285,224.10
the Republic’s budget
Material help $526,163.73
Request for heating from the local budget $109,828.09
Housing subsidies $ 82,959.01
Municipal shops $117,405.70
Municipal drugstores $ 38,391.40
Municipal hairdressing salons $ 7,198.38
Dairy kitchens $ 30,439.58
Scholarships of the mayor $ 34,878.58
Allowances for burials $ 12,731.54
Rest in boarding house $ 45,349.84
Installation of gas counters charged $ 3,895.76
to the Republic’s budget

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
Urban Department of Public Health
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
City population 601.1 593.6 599.3 614.0 614,000
No. of hospital
beds 9,217 10,172 10,241 11,527 11,535
Persons per
hospital bed 65.21 58.36 58.17 51.99 53.22

3.2 Child mortality CDB estimates

3.3 Life expectancy at birth UNDP Human Development Report, national figure of 67.9
3.4 Infectious diseases mortality Urban Statistical Committee; Personal communications, City Office, February 2000
Number of deaths from infectious diseases in 1998: 204 persons x 1,000 = 0.33
614,000
3.5 Family planning National Statistical Committee of the Kyrgyz Republic, Scientific and Research Institute of North Carolina
“Living Standard of Population,” analysis of statistical survey data, Autumn 1996
Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
3.6 Adult literacy rate Urban Educational Department, Official Communications 1998
3.7 School enrollment rates lbid.
Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
Personal communications, City Office, February 2000
3.8 Tertiary graduates Urban Statistical Committee, Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
3.9 Medium years of education Urban Educational Department, Official communications, 1998
3.10 School children per classroom lbid.
Primary School = 1–4 classes, 7–10 years, 32 children per classroom
Secondary School = 5–9 classes, 11–15 years, 32 children per classroom
Elder group of Secondary School = 10–11 classes, 16–17 years, 28 children per classroom
• In the city there are specialized schools, private, lyceums, grammar schools, and usual schools.
In private schools there are 10–12 children per classroom; in lyceums, grammar schools, 25–28
children in a classroom; at usual schools 38–43 children per classroom; and at schools in densely
populated regions there are 43–46 children in classrooms.

Tourists spent (international and national) $2,440,000 visiting the city in 1998.

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita CDB estimates based on urban population
4.2 Employment by industry Urban Statistical Committee, Bishkek Statistical Yearbook, 1998, Official communications, 1998

248 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Bishkek
Employment by Industry (‘000)

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Total Labor Force 223.5 198.4 188.1 176.8 176.2
Secondary and infrastructure 95.9 78.0 68.1 61.2 58.9
Consumer services 43.5 39.9 39.6 33.4 38.2
Product services 2.7 2.4 3.0 3.1 4.1
Social services 68.9 67.0 67.6 65.3 65.8
Other s 12.5 11.1 9.8 13.8 9.2
Growth is observed in Product services.

4.3 Household expenditure Ibid.

• CDB has adjusted figures equivalent to 100%.
4.4 Investment by sector Ibid.
Funds Invested per Person by Economic Sector
($ per annum, in 1998)
Physical infrastructure = 17.80
Housing = 7.94
Services = 132.48
Others = NAV

4.5 Tourism State Agency of Tourism and Sport of the Kyrgyz Republic
Tourists spent (international and national) $2,440,000 visiting the city in 1998.
Personal communications, City Office, January 2000
4.6 Major projects Official communications, Urban Department of Economic and Investment Activities 1998
List of Projects $ million
1. Reconstruction of urban roads with WB 13.5
2. Improving urban public transport with WB 0.95
3. Reconstruction of the urban street lighting system with Malaysia 2.5
4. Construction of a processing garbage factory with Italian firm “Ati-Wid,” 90,000,000
5. Creation of the public urban transportation enterprise to improve passenger 8,535,172
carriage by microbuses,
6. Introduction of helio-installations (solar energy converters) for deriving hot 1,371,440
water in residential regions of the city
7. Introduction of energy saving technologies in lighting Bishkek’s streets 50,000
using low power lamps and increased light
8. Creation of commercial network for products of the first necessity and 6,000,000
goods of daily demand in a wholesale warehouse
9. Creation of the enterprise on assembly, installation, and service counters 119,496
of cold water in apartment houses
10. Creation of autonomous systems of heating using energy-saving Transonic 3,000,000
for city establishments, financed from the local budget

4.7 Cost of stay Personal communications, City Offices, February 2000

Cost per day, including normal hotel and living expenses in 1998:
Hotel ($)
“Bishkek-Pinara” 194
“Dostuk” 98
“Issyk-Kul” 45
• CDB has also provided figures for this indicator.

4.8 Corporate headquarters NAV

• There are corporate headquarters with annual turnovers of $100 million or more in Bishkek.

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY New technology data are mostly from the Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998,
Official communications, 1998.

5.1 R&D expenditure Urban Statistical Committee, Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998, Official communication, 1998
Annual expenditure per person on R&D =$0.07
• There are no research facilities in Bishkek. Many research institutes in the city were disbanded
Private concerns prefer to borrow technologies.

Notes and Sources 249

 Bishkek
5.2 Telephone traffic Ibid.
(million calls per year)
5.3 Internet hosts per thousand Personal communications, City Office, January 2000
population • Only private firms are engaged in Internet connections. There is no official counting yet.

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
6.2 Land developer multiplier Official communications, Main Architectural Board, City of Bishkek, 1998
Publication of commercial prices of land in the special newspaper Absolut Express 1998
6.3 Developer contributions Official communications, Main Architectural Board, City of Bishkek, 1998
6.4 Median time for planning Center for design and consultation services at the Main Architectural Board, City of Bishkek, Official
permission communications, 1998
• To obtain planning permission, it is necessary to apply to the regional urban administration or muni-
cipality of the city. After the mayor signs the application the following decree is issued: “In the Urban
department of construction and architecture (preparation and coordination of the technical project), Urban
sanitation and epidemiological station (permission), Urban department of fire protection (permission), the
urban enterprises for supply by water, electric power, heat (permission), and many others.”
6.6 Public open space Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998; Official communication, 1998
• Built-up area – 14,736 ha or 100%
• Public open space (“green space”) in the built-up area – 1,086 hectares or 7.4%
6.8 Prime commercial land price Main Architectural Board, City of Bishkek
Personal communications, City Office of the agencies Absolut, Alfa Universal, and Elita, 2000
The publication of commercial prices of land in the special newspaper Absolut Express in 1998
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs Personal communications, City Office of the agencies Absolut, Alfa Universal, and Elita, 2000
• Rental and occupancy costs published in Absolut Express, Piramida, Panorama, and Vecherniy
Bishkek 1998.
• In the city there are several agencies that attend to sale, leasing, and exchange of housing accommo-
dation.

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
7.2 Tenure type Ibid.
• The high proportion of owned houses is due to restitution. The privatization of housing accommodation
was made according to the law on privatization of urban residential fund.
7.3 House price to income ratio • The average cost refers to the average revenue of the city dwellers.
7.4 House rent to income ratio Urban Statistical Committee, Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
Publication of rental costs in special newspaper Absolut Express in 1998
• The previous accounts of the rent were made without the lease of uncomfortable housing
accommodation (private houses without convenience), which rent for $5–$30 a month.
• Lease of apartments with convenience:
($)
1-room – 50
2-room – 100
3-room – 150

• Lease of housing accommodation without convenience: a room – $5; small house – $30
Average rent: 5 + 30 = 35/2 = $17.5.
• The average rent for housing accommodation is 86.5% of annual income.
7.5 Floor area per person Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
7.6 Housing in compliance Main Architectural Board City of Bishkek, Official communications, 1998
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio The collection “The Finance of Kyrgyz Republic” 1998
NAV
• The National Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic cannot divulge such information.
7.8 Houses with mortgages Ibid.
7.9 Mortgage loans for women Ibid.
7.10 Housing production Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
Official communications, 1998
7.11 Squatter resettlement or • The city practically has no deserted houses or squatters.
normalization • Some years back this phenomenon (construction of houses on land without permission ) was common,
but now strict monitoring is carried out.

250 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Bishkek
7.12 Net housing outlays by Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998; Official communication, 1998
government (per person)
Total net housing outlays by all levels of government on dwelling construction (per person) = $15.75
• Construction of municipal housing accommodation is in very limited sizes because of lack of funds in
the local and Republic budget.
7.13 Homeless people Personal communications, City Office, 10 February 2000
• The city has only one asylum for the homeless called “Colomto.” In 1998, 172 persons were sheltered
in this asylum.

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections Urban Statistics Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998; Official communication, 1998
8.1.2 Investment per capita Urban Water Supply Enterprise “Bishkekvodokanal,” Annual Report 1998
Official communications, 1998
• Capital expenditure per person = $0.7
8.1.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditures • Total O&M expenditure per person = $5.56
8.1.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
• Cost recovery = 0.045%
8.1.5 Output per staff: water Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
supplied per employee
8.1.6 List of providers Urban Water Supply Enterprise “Bishkekvodokanal,” a 100% state government enterprise
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
• The Government of the Kyrgyz Republic, municipality of Bishkek asks international donor financial
organizations to grant long-term credits of government guarantee for improving infrastructure. The urban
municipal structures develop the investment projects.
a. Percentage unaccounted Ibid.; Official Communications 1998
for water • In 1998, 91.9 million m3 of water was released to all consumers by the Urban Water Supply
Enterprise. Unaccounted for water = 42.5 million m3 or 45%
b. Interruptions in water • Bishkek has 1,123 km of water pipes. Failures and damage rate is 0.7 failures on 1 km per year. From
service 276 artesian slits, it is necessarily to liquidate 160 slits and instead bore new ones. About 539.6 drainage
systems or 362 km are due for replacement. Failures and interruption occur.
8.1.8 Consumption of water Ibid.; Official communications, 1998
per capita • Consumption of water per person = 0.31 m3 or 310 liters
8.1.9 Median price of water, Department of Water Economy Urban Water Supply Enterprise, Official Communications, 1998
scarce season • Median price of water = $0.023 m3
• There is actually no user charge for water. The urban municipal services, which supply city water,
often seek a price increase for water, but no decision has been made. There are also water vendors selling
water.
8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998; Official communications, 1998
8.2.2 Investment per capita Urban Enterprise of Electrical Networks, Annual Report 1998
• Capital Expenditure = $1.19
8.2.3 Operations and Ibid.; Official Communications, 1998
maintenance expenditure • Total O&M Expenditure = $ 1.08
8.2.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
• Cost Recovery = 0.024%
8.2.5 Output per staff: megawatt Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
hours of electricity
supplied per employee
8.2.6 List of providers Urban Enterprise of Electrical Networks, a 100% state government enterprise
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity
a. Line loss for electricity Urban Enterprise of Electrical Networks, Annual Report 1998
b. Interruptions in power supply

8.3 Sewerage/wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998; Official communications 1998
8.3.2 Investment per capita Urban Water Supply Enterprise “Bishkekvodokanal,” Annual Report 1998
• Capital expenditure per person = $0.69

Notes and Sources 251

 Bishkek
8.3.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure • Total O&M expenditure per person = $5.56
8.3.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
• Cost recovery = 0.0045%
• The supply is largely paid for by the State.
8.3.5 Output per staff: wastewater Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
discharged or treated per Official communications, 1998
employee
8.3.6 List of providers Urban Water Supply Enterprise “Bishkekvodokanal,” a 100% state government enterprise

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
8.4.2 Investment per capita Official communications, Bishkek Urban Telephone Station, Annual Report 1998
• Capital Expenditure per person = $19.047
8.4.3 Operations and Official communications, Bishkek Urban Telephone Station, Annual Report 1998
maintenance expenditure • Total O&M expenditure per person = $52.522
8.4.4 Cost recovery Official communications, Bishkek Urban Telephone Station, Annual Report 1998
• Cost recovery = 0.582%
• The urban telephone exchange is old; large expenditures to repair and modernize it required.
• It would be impossible to increase the payment because majority of the city population have low
incomes.
8.4.5 Output per staff: Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
thousands of calls
per employee
8.4.6 List of providers Bishkek Urban Telephone Station, a 98% state government enterprise; cellular companies, 2%: Katel, Bite,
private sector
8.5 Solid waste collection
8.5.1 Households with Official communications, Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
regular service • Households with regular service – 98%
8.5.2 Investment per capita Official communications, Urban Solid Waste Collection Enterprise, 1998 Annual Report
• Capital expenditure per capita – 0
8.5.3 Operations and Official communications, Urban Solid Waste Collection Enterprise, 1998 Annual Report
maintenance expenditure • Total O&M expenditure per person = $ 0.056
8.5.4 Cost recovery Official communication, Urban Solid Waste Collection Enterprise, 1998 Annual Report
• Cost recovery = 2.31%
8.5.5 Output per staff: Ibid.
collected per employee • Solid waste collected per employee per annum = 498,300 m3/176,200 employees = 2.83 m3
8.5.6 List of providers Urban Solid Waste Collection Enterprise, a 100% public sector enterprise

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated Urban Solid Waste Collection Enterprise, 1998 Annual Report
3
• Total waste generated – 550,000 m per year
Population – 614,000
550,000 m3/614,000 = 0.896 m3 per person

9.2 Household sewage disposal Official communications 1998, Urban Water Supply Enterprise “Bishkekvodokanal”
9.3 Wastewater treated Ibid.
Personal communications, Urban Sanitation and Epidemiological Station, City Office
9.4 Percent BOD removed Ibid.
from wastewater
9.5 Air pollution concentrations Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
Personal communications, City Office, March 2000
• Among the city’s ecological problems the most serious is air contamination from exhausts of
automobiles. Growth in the number of automobiles and population increase aggravated the problem.
Bad road conditions also increased propellant consumption and pollution. The city of Bishkek is in the
valley of the river Chu, which traps the polluted air and promotes formation of smoke above the city.
• Atmospheric air of the city is as follows: NOx – 1.7–3.0 times exceeding the maximum allowable
concentration; rigid particles (SPM) – 1.3–3.8 times;and carbon monoxide (CO) 3.2–4.8 times
(1998 data)
9.6 Energy usage per person Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998

252 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Bishkek
9.7 Noise complaints Personal communications, Urban Sanitation and Epidemiological Station, City Office, February 2000
• In 1998, 26 noise complaints were received from city dwellers. All complaints were registered,
checked and appropriate measures to remove sources the noise were taken. Some establishments
(restaurants, bars, and dancing halls) near dwellings were fined for creating noise.
9.8 Disasters in the last 10 years List of Large Fires in Bishkek, 1988–1998
Date Fire
23 May 1991 Factory of “Aynur,” an industrial building
5 Mar 1992 Residential area “Kok-Jar,”the trade hall, and two structures of building materials
15 Jul 1993 “Chempharmindustry,” a factory that manufactures medicines preparations, was
destroyed.
01 Jan 1995 Warehouses 1 and 2 of the leather factory Bulgaary were destroyed.
09 Dec 1997 The Lada building housing the automobile showroom was destroyed.
28 Jan 1998 Hotel Eldorado was destroyed.

9.9 Methods of solid waste disposal Personal communications, Urban Solid Waste Collection Enterprise, May 2000
• In Bishkek, 550,000–650,000 m3 of household garbage are generated annually. They are delivered to a
place behind the city, poured into a trench, and condensed. Each 2-meter stratum is covered by an isolating
stratum (river-sand). The trench was designed for 10 years, but is now 18 years old. Presently about
16 million m3 of scraps are stored in the trench.
• The local government has also concluded an agreement with an Italian firm for the installation of a
factory plant for processing household scraps.

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
Department of Coordination of Urban Transport
Personal communications, City Office, February 2000
Trips to Work by: (%)
Trolley bus 60
Private automobile 20
Bus or mini bus 10
Walking 7
Motorcycle 2
Bicycle 1

• Trolley buses are the main urban transport and work on 18 routes. over practically the entire city.
In 1998 it transported 64 million passengers. It is an ecologically sound transport that the Government
wants to develop. New trolley busses are needed.
• About 16 million passengers (10%) were transported by bus, but of 373 buses only 180 function.
10.2 Median travel time Personal communications, Department of Coordination of Urban Transport, City Office, February 2000
• More than 80% of all urban roads do not correspond to technical norms and are in bad or worst
condition. Transport units (buses, trolley buses, minibuses) are worn out. New communities on the
outskirts have extended the routes of buses and minibuses.
10.3 Expenditure on road Urban Budget
infrastructure 1996 1997 1998
City population (thousands) 595.70 599.30 614.00
Expenditure on roads
per capita (US$) 1.30 0.86 0.94

• Repair and reconstruction of urban roads are necessary.

• Provisional data indicate that about $82.7 million will be needed to repair roads. The national Govern-
ment and city administration are seeking World Bank financing for this purpose.
10.4 Road Congestion
10.5 Automobile ownership Urban state automobile inspection
Official communications, 1998
10.6 Cost recovery from fares Department of Coordinations of Urban Transport, Annual Report 1998
Personal communications, City Office, March 2000
10.7 Port/air activity Urban Statistical Committee, Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
• Name of airport – MANAS
In 1998 307,700 people travelled by air.
Freight Mail – 264.3 tons

Notes and Sources 253

 Bishkek
• Data of commercial flights per month is from the flight schedule of Kyrgyzstan Airlines, As of 29 March
1998 and 24 October 1998
10.8 Goods carried Ibid.
10.9 Transport fatalities Official communications, Urban Statistical Committee, 1998

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events Urban Board Culture, Official communications, 1998
Major Events
Independence Day
Day of City
People’s Holiday Nooruz (Muslim New Year Day, Day of Vernal Equinox)
Urban Olympic Games of the students
Festival of national creativity
Kurban Ait Day (Day of Remembrance)

11.2 Attendance at galleries Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
and museums Museum of Fine Art
Galleries
Museum of National Art
Historical Museum
Ethnographical Museum
Total attendance – 291,000 persons

11.3 Participation in sports • Football, light athletics, wrestling, boxing, horse sports, lawn tennis, tourism, mountain climbing,
mountain ski sports

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE Local Government Finance data are mostly from Urban Statistical Committee, Bishkek Statistical Yearbook
1998; Urban Finance Board, Urban Budget, 1995–1998
12.1 Sources of revenue Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
Personal communications, City Office, March 2000
• Main taxes are surtax from the population; excise tax; profit tax; tax from rendering of paid services to
the population and retail sales; tax from a casino; tax on incomes of the shares (dividends, commissions);
tax from the tourists; hotel tax; tax on advertising; tax from the holders of means of transport; land tax
from the citizens.
• Tax receipts make 65.3% of the local budget. Official transfer accounts for 12.7% of the Republic’s
budget. The local government is to survey new sources of income and development (1998 data).
• The local government prepares the offers to the global search NATIONAL Government about granting
transfer deeds.
• The World Bank offers credits to the Kyrgyz Republic, which are guaranteed by the Government. The
Government reinvests the obtained credits in the economy or infrastructure of the city. The local govern-
ment is able to borrow money from any bank.
12.2 Capital and recurrent Urban Finance Board, Urban Budget, 1995–1998
expenditure per person Personal communications, City Office, March 2000
12.2.1 Capital expenditure Total Capital Expenditure ($)
1995 1,361,790,958.52
1996 39,461.56
1997 NAV
1998 1,223,725.88

City Population No.

1995 593,600
1996 599,700
1997 599,300
1998 614,000

Capital Expenditure per Person ($)

1995 0.44
1996 0.0001
1997 NAV
1998 1.99

254 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Bishkek
12.2.2 Recurrent expenditure Total Recurrent Expenditure ($)
1995 17,124.31
1996 18,477.81
1997 20,654.84
1998 19,721.08

Recurrent Expenditure per Person (%)

1995 55.55
1996 50.46
1997 41.37
1998 32.12

12.3 Collection efficiency, Urban Finance Board, Urban Budget, 1998

property taxes
12.4 Debt service charge Ibid.
12.5 Employees Structure of management of local government, 1997 & 1998
12.6 Wages in budget Urban Finance Board, Urban Budget, 1998
• The rest of the money goes to state services of general purpose, fund contingencies, defense, public
order and safety, education, public health services, social maintenance, social, physical culture and sports,
culture, public organizations, housing and municipal services, transport, capital investments.
12.7 Contracted recurrent Ibid.
expenditure ratio
12.8 Business permits Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government Protection of the environment and preservation and development of the best historical and cultural
traditions of the population Charter of the City of Bishkek
• The municipal government of Bishkek provides all services.
13.2 Delivery of annual plan Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
Urban Finance Board, Urban Budget 1998
• The item expenses on fulfillment of the annual plan are not stipulated in the local budget. In 1998 the
local budget had a deficit of $668,360, its debt to the national Government.
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex Official communications, City Council board 1999
• A total of 360,457 voters voted in the last municipal elections.
Adult males – 42%; Adult females – 58%
13.4 Independence from higher Bishkek City Profile
government
13.5 Elected and nominated Official communications, City Council Board 1999
councilors Elected councilors 36
Male 30
Female 6
Nominated Councilors 176
Male 135
Female 41
• In the city there are 36 constituencies. 176 deputies of the Urban Council candidates took part in the
election. From them 36 were elected as deputies. From these 36 deputies the Urban Council (Kenesh)
was formed.
13.6 Representation of minorities Official communications, City Council Board, 1999
• In the City Council there are 36 councilors. Minorities are represented as follows:
Russian 6
Ukrainian 5
Armenian 1
Uzbek 1
Ingush 1

13.7 Planning applications refused Personal communications, Application Division of the Local Government, 1999
• Main reasons for refusals are
1. The Urban Budget stipulates a small amount of financial assets for solving unforeseen problems.
2. Urban residential funds are mainly private, and municipal construction is conducted in limited sizes.

Notes and Sources 255

 Bishkek
13.8 Business satisfaction Program of Development of Small and Average Business in City of Bishkek, 1998
Department of Economic and Investment Activities
Personal communications, City Office, March 2000
• Urban government work is directed toward the creation of the most favorable conditions for developing
business. Each city dweller who wishes to engage in any enterprise will immediately be given permission
to begin operations. From 1994 to 1998, 27,284 sanctions were given.A mechanism for simplified taxation
of businessmen was developed. The local government undertook some measures to assist private business
in the use of credits from the World Bank, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and other
international financial organizations.The registration and permit system were greatly simplified and the tariffs
and quotations imposed by the local government on businessmen were also reduced. The development of
small and average businesses is a priority in developing the city’s economy. The following statistics indicate
the local government’s efforts.
• In 198 17,710 enterprises of small and average business were registered in the city of Bishkek.
The number of employees, 107,000 in 1998, increased by 7% in 1997. About 867 small and average
business enterprises operated in the city. In 1998, these enterprises produced 33.7% of the total volume of
production in the city. In the Free Economic Zone there were 45 small and average businesses. In 1998
these enterprises produced 18.6% of the total commodity output made by enterprises of small and average
businesses in Bishkek. For 1998 the volume of retail turnover of small and average businesses in Bishkek
increased by 11.3% over 1997.
• Som – National currency. Official exchange rate per $ in 1998: $1 = 20.838 soms.
• The indicated figures above show that business is developing successfully, which indicates that the
urban government’s efforts in the development of business are quite satisfactory.
• According to Kyrgyz Republic legislation all foreign companies are allowed to invest in the Kyrgyzs
Republic in any form such as joint ventures. Foreign investors may purchase property from juridical persons
and citizens of the Kyrgyz Republic without any limitations. If foreign investments are made in a convertible
currency, equipment or raw materials and exceed 30% of the enterprise’s capital fund or the total sum
earmarked for cooperative activities, or if the foreign investor owns no less than 51% of the stock, profits
from foreign investor enterprises or cooperative activities shall be tax free. Imported material goods,
earnmarked for capital investment during the period of formation, are free from customs tax. Raw materials
and components, imported for use in production by enterprises with foreign investors, are free from
customs tax. Foreign investors may independently determine the volume, direction, and efficiency of their
investments. According to the Constitution and laws, the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic and local
government of Bishkek guarantees the stability of foreign investors rights, and provide other forms of legal
protection.
13.9 Consumer satisfaction Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistic Yearbook 1998
Urban Department of Trade and Services
Urban Inspection on guarding the rights of consumers
Personal communications, City Office, March 2000
• The Government of Bishkek constantly works to perfect a structure of paid services and realization of
these services for the population of the city. The urban department of trade and services develops the plan
of measures on perfecting the different of services.
• In the Kyrgyz Republic there is a law that defends the rights of the consumers. Inspections to protect
the rights of consumers and to ensure the quality of goods are carried out regularly.
13.10 Perception as place to live • The majority of the population lives in apartments and houses with central heating, cold and hot water-
supply, gas, water drainage, and electricity. There are plenty of food shops and markets, where it is
possible to purchase all kinds of products. Many specialized shops offer footwear, furniture, utensils, and
building materials. Schools and higher educational establishments are available. There are museums,
galleries, concert halls, philharmonic society, theaters, and cinemas. Entertainment establishments like
restaurants, bars,dance halls, and bowling establishments are many. There are sports structures like
stadiums, tennis courts, pools. In the city, there are a lot of plants and trees and the streets are kept clean.
13.11 Reported crimes Urban Statistical Committee; Bishkek Statistics Yearbook 1998
13.12 Access to information Press conferences are held regularly to answer problems. Thematic speeches are also presented on
13.13 Contact with the public TV. The Mayor joins in festivals, competitions, presentations, and conventions of pensioners, doctors,
teachers, and students.
13.14 Decentralized district units Urban Department of employment of the population
Personal communications, City Office, March 2000
• The urban service of employment of the population includes four district boards of employment and the
urban department of employment. The district boards of employment
1. Trains and tutors the unemployed;
2. Renders practical help to the unemployed who wishes to attend an enterprise activity;
3. Places the unemployed in a job;
4. Assigns a status to the unemployed to enable him to claim an unemployment benefit.

256 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Bishkek
• The district boards of employment have a difficult task, as the enterprises and organizations declare
few vacancies because of production cutbacks. There is always a problem in finding a job for the youth,
graduates of schools, higher educational establishments, and women with little children.
• Bishkek is divided into four administrative districts, each headed by an akim (mayor). Each district is
similar to the urban structure of management: economic departments, social guard, employment, trade
and services, and financial departments. Each district has its own budget. The district administration
manages the social and economic development of the district, decides problems of housing construction,
selects sites for construction, reports to the mayor of the city and the Urban Council on the district’s
activities, and manages the district budget.

Notes and Sources 257

 Cebu
Indicators

1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization National Statistics Office (NSO)

• Population of urban area (urban area as declared by the Cebu City Council) over total city population:
1970 – 92%; 1975 – 91%; 1980 – 90%; 1995 – 89%
• The Cebu City Council has segregated the entire city into urban and rural barangays (villages) depending on
the dominant land use of each barangay. Generally, the urban barangays are on the coastal flatlands and their
land use includes residential, commercial, institutional, industrial, etc. Rural barangays are those on the
hilly lands and in the watershed area.
• The urban population is not decreasing, but its growth rate is falling. As the metropolis developed more
residential areas, there was a general movement of population from Cebu City to the neighboring cities of
Mandaue and Lapu-Lapu, which posted high urban population growth within the same period.
1.2 City population NSO
1.2.1 Resident population of • 1970 – 347,116; 1975 – 413,025; 1980 – 490,281; 1990 – 610,417; 1995 – 662,299
municipality • Growth rates (1990–1995) were calculated from NSO population data for 1990 and 1995 and calculations
were also made for urban and rural barangays: city –1.61%; urban –1.30%; rural–4.26%.
• There has been a net out-migration of population from Cebu City even during 1980–1990 with Mandaue
and Lapu-Lapu’s population growth reaching 4–5% within the last 15 years.
1.2.2 Population during NSO
daytime working hours
1.2.3 Annual rate of
population increase

1.3 Migration NSO

1.3.1 Other parts of the city Data are from the 1990 Census of Population.
1.3.2 Other parts of the lbid.
country, net
1.3.3 International migration, net lbid.
• No emigration data are available.
1.4 Population net density NSO
Basic data, City Assessor’s Office
• Calculated as total population of 655,000 divided by net residential land + the 3% parks and greens
(5,393.77+ 870.06)
1.5 Age pyramid NSO
1.6 Average household size NSO
1.7 Household formation rate Basic data, NSO
Population, 1995 No. of No. of
Households, 1990 Households, 1995
654,839 112,172 135,089
1.8 Women-headed households
1.9 Minority groups
1.10 Household types
1.11 Informal settlements

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution • NSO

2.2 Households below poverty line • Basic data, NSO National Statistical Coordination Board
2.3 Women-headed households • Not available (NAV)
in poverty
2.4 Child labor • Department of Labor and Employment
2.5 Informal employment • Interview with experts
2.6 Unemployment • NSO
2.7 Expenditure on poverty 1997 expenditures on city budget
reduction (per poor person) • These included $76,978,804 on housing development and $31,622,899 on social welfare.

258 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Cebu
3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed Basic data, Department of Health; NSO, Philippine Statistical Yearbook 1999
3.2 Child mortality CDB estimates
3.3 Life expectancy at birth DOH
3.4 Infectious diseases mortality Basic data, City Health Office
• The main cause is pneumonia.
3.5 Family planning Ibid.
3.6 Adult literacy rate NSO
3.7 School enrollment rates Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) – Cebu City Division
3.8 Tertiary graduates Commission on Higher Education
3.9 Median years of education Basic data, NSO
3.10 School children per classroom DECS – Cebu City Division

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita CDB estimates

4.2 Employment by industry Not applicable (NAP)
4.3 Household expenditure NSO
• In 1997 the major expenditures in Cebu City were on food – 44.5%; alcohol & beverages 1.1%; tobacco
– 0.7%; fuel, light & water – 5.5%; transportation & communication – 6.9%; household operation – 2.7%;
personal care – 3.2%; clothing, footware – 2.2%; education – 2.6%; recreation – 0.3%; medical care –
2.9%; non-durable furnishing – 0.3%; rent of dwelling units – 18.1%; house maintenance/repairs – 2.1%;
and taxes – 1.4%.
• The shelter figure (20.2%) is taken from Rent and House Maintenance.
4.4 Investment by sector NAV
4.5 Tourism Department of Tourism
4.7 Cost of stay CDB estimates
• $40/day as per interview with experts
4.8 Corporate headquarters None

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure NAV

• Cebu has six universities and 39 colleges. It is the center for education in the southern part of the
Philippines.
5.2 Telephone traffic Telephone services – 14; paging stations – 3; telegraph stations – 222; telex service – 5; AM radio
(million calls per year) stations – 13; FM radio stations – 20; post offices – 74
5.3 Internet hosts per thousand Telephone survey
population • Figures are per user, not per connection.
• Annual growth figures are for 1998.

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land Management Information and Computer System (MICS)

6.2 Land developer multiplier Interview with experts
• The figure was provided by the president of the local real estate board.
6.3 Developer contributions Ibid.
For development there is no government contribution apart from regulations and the provision of basic
infrastructure for accessibility. Almost all land development in Cebu is undertaken by the private sector.
6.4 Median time for planning lbid.
permission
6.5 Vacant land with planning NAV
permission
6.6 Public open space Interview with experts
• There is almost no green or open space. There is one golf course. All the other golf courses are
located outside of the city, but they primarily serve the city.
6.7 Vacant government land NAV
6.8 Prime commercial land price Interview with experts
6.9 Prime rental and lbid.
occupancy costs

Notes and Sources 259

 Cebu
7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type NSO

7.2 Tenure type lbid.
7.3 House price to income ratio Interview with experts
• Average per capita income is $849; average household income (4.9 persons) per household is house
price (including lot) is pegged; house price to income ratio is 2.2.
7.4 House rent to income ratio NSO
• Average rent is $61.13 per month; house to income ratio is $733.62 to $4,157.19 or 17.64%.
7.5 Floor area per person Interview with experts
7.6 Housing in compliance Ibid.
• This 30% noncompliance includes those constructed without building permits and those without clear
land titles with only tax declarations provided.
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio NAP
7.8 Houses with mortgages NSO
7.9 Mortgage loans for women NAV
7.10 Housing production 5,606 new units produced divided by 133,000 households is 4.2 per 1,000 households.
7.11 Squatter resettlement Cebu City Division for the Welfare of the Urban Poor (DWUP)
or normalization • The city government has prioritized preparing resettlement areas on-site or off-site.
7.12 Net housing outlays by • The city government’s annual budget for the housing sector is $2.87 per person.
government (per person)
7.13 Homeless people DWUP
• The city government has prioritized preparing resettlement sites as well as constructing high-rise
(condominium-style) living facilities for the urban poor.
8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections NSO
8.1.2 Investment per capita Official communications by CDB with Lasaro P. Salvacion, Metro Cebu Water District (MCWD), 6 October
2000
• The figure was converted from the local currency based on 1998 exchange rates provided by CDB.
8.1.3 Operations and MCWD
maintenance expenditures
8.1.4 Cost recovery lbid.
8.1.5 Output per staff: water Ibid.
supplied per employee
8.1.6 List of providers MCWD, a quasi-public organization, supplying only 68% of Cebu City total households
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water
a. Percentage unaccounted Asian Development Bank 1998, Second Water Utilities Data Book
for water
b. Interruptions in water Official communications by CDB with MCWD, 6 October 2000
service
8.1.8 Consumption of water lbid.
per capita
8.1.9 Median price of water, lbid.
scarce season

8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections Visayan Electric Corporation
8.2.2 Investment per capita lbid.
8.2.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditures
8.2.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
• Cost recovery, set by the national Government, is followed by the local provider.
8.2.5 Output per staff: lbid.
megawatt hours of
electricity supplied
per employee
8.2.6 List of providers National Power Corporation – 50%; Cebu Private Power Corporation – 39%; East Asia Utilities
Corporation – 11%
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity Ibid.

260 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Cebu
8.3 Sewerage/wastewater
8.3.1 Household connection • The city does not have a sewerage system for household connections..
Residences have septic tanks, the effluents of which go directly to the drainage system, or they have
unsanitary pits. People throw sewage in the drainage system or other disposal points.
8.3.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.3.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.3.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.3.5 Output per staff: NAV
wastewater discharged
or treated per employee
8.3.6 List of provider NAV

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections NSO
• No data were obtained from telephone operators in Cebu.
8.4.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.4.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.4.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.4.5 Output per staff: thousands NAV
of calls per employee
8.4.6 List of providers Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company; Island Telecommunications, Inc.

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with Cebu City Department of Public Service (DPS)
regular service • Citizens burn or dispose of the their trash in areas not sanctioned by the city government.
• Many households have no garbage collection and they individually dump their trash elsewhere.
8.5.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.5.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditure
8.5.4 Cost recovery lbid.
8.5.5 Output per staff: lbid.
collected per employee
8.5.6 List of providers DPS

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated DPS

• DPS collects 350 tons per year. However, DPS estimates that the city produces about 400 tons per
year. This results in per capita production of 0.61 tons per year.
9.2 Household sewage disposal As stated in 8.3.1
9.3 Wastewater treated
9.4 Percent BOD removed NAV
from wastewater
9.5 Air pollution concentrations NAP
9.6 Energy usage per person • Energy usage per person is 1 MWh per year
Residential 149,909 169,856 184,952 207,179 233,932
Commercial 120,543 116,701 124,472 141,727 149,306
Industrial 153,709 185,936 196,044 215,769 246,166
Others 14,559 15,104 15,318 15,641 15,497
Total 438,720 487,597 520,786 580,316 644,901

9.7 Noise complaints Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR)

9.8 Disasters in the last 10 years NAV
9.9 Solid waste collection NAV

Notes and Sources 261

 Cebu
10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel

10.2 Median travel time
10.3 Expenditure on road
infrastructure
10.5 Automobile ownership Land Transportation Office
10.6 Cost recovery from fares NAP
10.7 Port/air activity Mactan Cebu International Airport Authority; Philippine Ports Authority
10.8 Goods carried Ibid.
10.9 Transport fatalities NAV

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events NAV

11.2 Attendance at galleries NAV
and museums
11.3 Participation in sports Interview with experts

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue City Accountant’s Office (CAO)

12.2 Capital and recurrent lbid.
expenditure per person
12.3 Collection efficiency • The city government reported a collection efficiency of 70%.
12.4 Debt service charge CAO
12.5 Employees Office of the Administrator
12.6 Wages in budget CAO
• Reported budget expenditure is 38%. Based on the Local Government Code, expenditures for personnel
services are limited to 45% of the budget and most local government units use this total amount however
they can. Cebu City has many contractual employees whose remunerations are not reflected as personnel
services, but are classified under special projects. It is safe to assume that Cebu City spends the full 45%
on personnel services.
12.7 Contracted recurrent Ibid.
expenditure ratio • Recurrent expenditures are reflected in the general services budget.
12.8 Business permits Cebu City Management Information and Computer System
12.9 Enterprise revenues Time Deposit Transaction – $1,296,000; Market Operation – $611,000

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government City administrator

13.2 Delivery of annual plan
13.3 Voter participation by sex Commission on Elections
13.4 Independence from Local Government Code (LGC)
higher government
13.5 Elected and nominated • Only two councilors are nominated under the LGC.
councilors • The President of the Association of Barangay Captains is selected by the barangay captains of the
different city barangays.
• The Sangguniang Kabataan (SK) representative is the Federation Chairman elected by SK
chairpersons in each barangay. The representative also represents the youth sector.
13.6 Representation of minorities None
13.7 Planning applications refused NAV
13.8 Business satisfaction NAV
13.9 Consumer satisfaction NAV
13.10 Perception as to place to live NAV
13.11 Reported crimes Cebu City Police Office
13.12 Access to information Newsletter, press conference
• The local government acts on the premise that all public documents are accessible to the public.
However, the mayor’s daily press conference is a forum where all concerns of the city including what it is
doing are communicated to the people though print and broadcast media. The city publishes an annual
accomplishment report, and the city mayor regularly gives a state of the city address to the city council
which is likewise communicated to the people through print and broadcast media.

262 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Cebu
13.13 Contact with the public • This is done by public consultation, press conference, and public gatherings.
• As stated in 13.12, information is usually provided through media. However, the city mayor and the
council usually hold consultations all year.
• The City Development Council (CDC) is one of the primary fora by which the city government
connects to the people.
• Likewise, the CDC holds public hearings on important laws to be enacted.
13.14 Decentralized district units • Cebu City is part of a larger metropolis called Metro Cebu, which is composed of three cities and
seven municipalities. By law, the ten local government units are independent of each other. However, the
economic and urban interaction among the ten is so close it is sometimes difficult to distinguish where
Cebu City ends and Metro Cebu begins. Cebu City, by population and economic strength, remains the
driving force in the overall metropolis.
• The city is divided into 80 smaller political units which function as extensions of the city government.

Notes and Sources 263

 Colombo
Indicators

1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization 1994 Department of Census and Statistics (DCS)

• In Sri Lanka “urban“ status is statutorily conferred on an area purely for local administrative purposes by
the minister in charge. The urban administrative areas are categorized into Municipal, Urban, and Town
Council areas, which comprise about 5 percent of the country’s total land area. Of the 17.4 million total
population in 1993, about 3.9 million persons (or 21.8 percent of the total) lived in urban areas. The country’s
population grew at 1.2 percent per annum in 1993, whereas urban population rose at a rate of 1percent per a
annum. The rate of increase of urban population in Sri Lanka from 1946 to 1994 is given in the following table.
Year Rate of Increase in
Urban Population
1946 15.4
1958 15.3
1963 19.1
1971 22.4
1981 21.5
1994 25.0 *
* Estimated.
1.2 City population 1963 Centenary Volume (CV-VMC); 1996 Urban Development Authority (UDA); and 1998 Budget Report,
Colombo Municipal Council (BR-CMC)
• The total city population indicated in the table represents the total residential population of the CMC.
According to the 1998 budget report of the CMC, its residential population was estimated to be 1,000,000 and
the floating population was about 500,000. Daytime population of the city is higher because of the presence of
the floating population. Based on CMC estimates, the annual population growth of the city showed a decline
between 1971and 1981 and an increase in subsequent years.
Census Population Growth Rate (%)
1901 154,691 2.20
1911 211,274 3.66
1921 224,163 0.61
1931 284,155 2.67
1946 362,074 1.83
1953 425,081 2.48
1963 511,639 2.04
1971 562,430 1.24
1981 587,647 0.45
1994 721,443 1.75 *
2010 1,000,000 2.42 *
* Estimated by UDA.
1.3 Migration NAV
1.4 Population net density UDA, 1996 Land Use Survey
• For the city of Colombo, population net density is calculated as below.
Total city population - 800,000
Total land - 3,729 hectares (ha)
less (vacant, commercial,
industrial and other lands) - 1,049 ha
Net residential land - 2,680 ha
Population net density =800,000/2,680 = 298
1.5 Age pyramid DCS, 1994 Demographic Survey
• Age categories of population were last available in 1994.
Age Population % Male Female
0-14 166,032 24.9 25.1 24.4
15-44 364,738 54.7 54.7 54.7
45-64 101,353 17.2 14.9 15.5
65 and over 40,007 6.0 5.0 5.4

1.6 Average household size DCS, 1994 Demographic Survey

264 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Colombo
• Average household size was calculated for the city as
Population of the city = 800,000
Number of households = 110,000
Average household size = 7.3

1.7 Household formation rate CDB estimates

1.8 Women-headed households NAV
1.9 Minority groups 1998 BR-CMC
• Colombo City is a multiethnic city consisting of three main racial groups and other minority groups
living in harmony over centuries.
Racial Group Percent of population
Sinhalese 50.1
Ceylon Tamils 22.1
Indian Tamils 2.1
Ceylon Moors 21.0
Malays 2.4
Others 1.1

1.10 Household types NAV

1.11 Informal settlements Sustainable Township Programme (STP), 1998 Land Use Survey
• Based on a detailed enumerators survey carried out in 1997/98 by the Sustainable Township
Programme (STP) of the Ministry of Urban Development and Housing, different types of informal
settlements were identified as follows:
Type No.of Settlements % No. of Housing % Population
(approximate) Units
Slums 1,071.0 71.1 25,000.0 38.6
Shanties 183.0 12.2 13,313.0 20.2
Low cost flats 103.0 6.8 8,950.0 13.6
Relocated housing 97.0 6.4 14,814.0 22.4
Old deteriorated 31.0 2.1 2,575.0 3.9
Unplanned permanent 21.0 1.4 870.0 1.3
Total 1,506.0 100.0 66,022.0 100.0 481,960.0

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution CDB estimates

2.2 Households below Central Bank of Sri Lanka (CBSL) and Department of Poor Relief (DPR), 1998 Annual Reports
poverty line • The poverty line is defined as those whose monthly income was less than $15.48 and having more
than three dependents in the family. This category of poor is called Ultra poor, who constitutes about
19,732 households in the country. The total number of families who are beneficiaries of a government
implemented poor relief called ‘’Samurdhi Programme”’ included 1,973,183 or about 51% of the total
population of Sri Lanka who are considered poor.
2.3 Women-headed households 1993 United Nations Centre for Humana Settlements (UNCHS) Report
in poverty
2.4 Child labor CBSL, 1996/97 Consumer Finances & Socio-Economic Survey
• The number of employed or economically active persons below 15 years age are considered as
“child labor,” as defined in the Consumer Finances and Socio-Economic Survey report of the Central Bank.
Data available are at the national level. In 1986/87 the child labor component of total employed persons
was 0.35 percent; in 1996/97 this percentage declined to 0.07 percent. The declining trend of child labor
could be largely attributed to the new regulations enforced by the Government to prevent child labor as well
as the awareness programs launched by civil society organizations.
• The following table indicates the number of children employed in different occupations in the country.
There is no city level data available on this indicator.
Category 1986/87 (%) 1996/97 (%)
Sales Activities 6.6 20.0
Service Activities 35.6 30.0
Agricultural/Animal Husbandry/ 48.0 30.0
Forestry and Fishing
Production and related works 11.8 20.0
Total 100.0 100.0

2.5 Informal employment 1993 UNCHS Report

Notes and Sources 265

 Colombo
2.6 Unemployment 1996/97 Consumer Finances and Socio-Economic Survey, CBSL; CBSL June 1999 and 2000 BR-CMC
• Based on the above source, the term literacy implies the activity of people to read and write in a
language. This proficiency varies, therefore, the literacy can be defined on the basis of the level of
proficiency. The criteria used to define the literacy of a person is his ability to write his name and adress
and to read and understand a single sentence, for ages five years and above. For this indicator the city
level data is not available and the sectoral basis for the entire country as indicated in the table below
was used.
• Unemployment rates in 1998 at national level are as follows.
% of Labor Force
Male 6.9
Female 14.6
Total 9.7
Colombo City 17.5

Unemployment rates by age groups, sex, and sectors, 1996/97

Age All Sectors Urban Rural Estate
14-18 35.6 40.2 34.7 37.5
19-25 30.4 33.0 30.8 18.7
26-35 8.8 11.8 8.9 2.9
36-45 2.4 4.6 2.2 0.0
46-55 1.0 2.7 0.8 0.5
Over 55 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.0
All ages 10.4 13.4 10.2 6.9
Male 6.4 8.3 6.1 6.1
Female 17.5 23.9 17.7 7.9

2.7 Expenditure on poverty 1998 Annual Report, CBSL and 1998 BR-CMC
reduction (per poor person) • The Government of Sri Lanka has established two main institutions to deal directly with poor relief
activities in the country:
– Samurdhi Authority of Sri Lanka (SASL). The SASL Sri Lanka is responsible for executing the Samurdhi
Programme at the national level. During the past five years the Samurdhi Programme has grown into a
massive poverty alleviation program and has changed from a single income transfer scheme into much
more comprehensive programs including banking, insurance, savings, training, infrastructure development,
and self-employment.
– Department of Poor Relief (DPR). DPR is responsible for identifying beneficiaries and implementing relief
programs and nutritional programs, and distributing dry ration cards to displaced families.
• In addition to these two government institutions, the urban local authorities also allocate funds to
implement poverty reduction programs within their authority areas.
• The Colombo Municipal Council implements its Poor Relief Programme under the Charity
Commissioner’s Department. It provides monthly Poor Relief grants to destitute families in the city. In 1998,
12,241 persons benefited under the program. The Charity Commissioner’s Department carries out skill
training programs for the youth of poor families in the city. The department spent $1.43 million in 1998 on
these activities.

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed Ministry of Health (MH), 1998 Annual Health Bulletin, and CBSL 1998 CB Annual Report
• The country’s prominent service organizations are located within the city, for example, the National
Hospital of Sri Lanka. In calculating the number of persons per hospital beds, the following data were used:
No. of hospital beds in government hospitals 6,476
No. of hospital beds in private hospitals 1,600
Total beds in the city 8,076
Total no. of population 800,000
Ratio of persons per hospital bed 1,000:10

3.2 Child mortality CDB estimates

3.3 Life expectancy at birth MH, 1998 Annual Health Bulletin, and 1998 DCS
• Data on life expectancy at birth in Sri Lanka is available only at the national level. As indicated in the
Annual Health Bulletin of 1998, life expectancy at birth increased from 42.8 years in 1946, to 70 years in
1981, and 73 years in 1991. This reflects a dramatic improvement in the survival of those groups most
vulnerable and exposed to high risk of mortality, namely, infant and children in the age group 1-4 and
women of childbearing age.

266 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Colombo
3.4 Infectious diseases mortality MH, 1998 Annual Health Bulletin
• Infectious diseases include all that can be passed from person to person. Available data represent the
entire country and are given below:
Cases per 1,000 population Deaths per 1,000 population
1999 1998 1995 1998
17.58 26.53 0.132 0.158

*Excludes North and East.

3.5 Family planning CDB estimates
3.6 Adult literacy rate Consumer Finances & Socio-Economic Survey 1996/97
Literacy Rate, 1996/97
Sector Male Female Total
Urban 96.1 93.0 94.5
Rural 94.5 90.4 92.3
Estate 87.2 67.3 76.9
All sectors 94.3 89.4 91.1

3.7 School enrollment rates Consumer Finances and Socio-Economic Survey 1996/97
(primary, secondary) • Students who were attending schools, pirivenas (Buddhist religious schools), and universities and
those who were studying externally were considered as currently enrolled in formal education. Those
enrolled in formal education accounted for about one fourth of the population aged five and above in
1996/97. The available data indicates only sectoral perspectives of different economic sectors of Sri
Lanka.
Students in Formal Education, by 1996/97
Sector Primary Secondary Postsecondary
Urban 52.8 33.8 13.4
Rural 52.8 37.4 9.8
Estate 75.6 22.8 1.7
All Sectors 54.0 36.2 9.8

3.8 Tertiary graduates Official communications between the consultant and CBSL, 27 July 2000 based on CBSL, 1998 Annual
Report
3.9 Median years of education (years) NAV
3.10 School children per classroom CBSL, 1998 Annual Report
(primary,secondary) • An indirect way of deriving the indicator is indicated below. The data available were for the number of
pupils and teachers. Assuming one teacher is assigned per classroom, a ratio can be worked out by
dividing the number of pupils by the number of teachers.
1997 1998
Total number of schools 10,983 11,007
Number of pupils 2,260,989 4,286,894
• Data are not available for the city. The countrywide situation may be considered as the general trend
applicable to Colombo, since there is no disparity in national policies on education.

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita CDB estimates

4.2 Employment by industry Official communications between the consultant and CBSL, 27 July 2000 based on 1998 Annual Report
• According to the Colombo Municipal Council’s Budget, the economically active population of the age
group 15-64 were 698,998 people, which represents about 69% of the city population. In calculating the
city population by industry, the sectoral classification of employed labor force for Colombo district, which
is included in the Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan of 1998, was used.
4.3 Household expenditure CBSL, 1996/97 Consumer Finances & Socio Economic Survey
• The Consumer Finances & Socio-Economic Survey report of 1996/97 has provided sectoral level data,
which can be considered applicable to the city of Colombo. The following table indicates the expenditure
data in terms of food, shelter, transport, and others by sectors.

Notes and Sources 267

 Colombo
Expenditure/Month/Person
Expenditure (Rs) Percentage (%)
Urban Rural Estate Urban Rural Estate
Food 1,189.35 942.29 947.35 37.5 50.4 67.0
Shelter 627.00 164.57 38.88 19.8 8.8 2.3
Transport 225.57 92.77 38.84 7.1 5.0 2.8
Others 1,130.74 669.52 399.24 35.6 35.8 28.2
Total 3,172.66 1,869.15 1,414.31 100.0 100.0 100.0

4.4 Investment by sector CDB estimates based from 1998 Annual Report-CBSL and 1998 BR-CMC
4.5 Tourism Ceylon Tourist Board, Accommodation Guide, May-October 2000
• The following table shows the national growth trends of the tourism sector during 1997,1998, and 1999.
Year No. of Hotels No. of Rooms Tourist Receipts $ million
1997 158 12,370 366,165 216.7
1998 164 12,770 381,063 230.5
1999 164 12,918 436,440 274.9

• Sri Lanka recorded its highest tourist arrival in 1999 at about 436,440 tourists.
4.6 Major projects CBSL, 1998 Annual Report
• The major projects in the City of Colombo in 1998 are listed below.
Name of Project $ million
Base Line Road Rehabilitation Project 1,530
Sri Lanka–Japan Friendship Bridge -
Duplication Road Extension Project 52
Sustainable Township Program -
Clean Settlement Program 65
The Colombo Flood Protection Project -
Colombo Port Improvement Project
Eight-foot High Stacking Empty Container Yard 612
North Pier Development Project Phase 1 828
North Pier Development Project Phase 11 1,547
Queen Elisabeth Quay 16,560

4.7 Cost of stay CDB estimate

4.8 Corporate headquarters The Colombo Stock Exchange, 1999/2000
• The establishments falling under the category of having businesses with a turnover of $100 million or
more is small. The consultant has included establishments having a turnover of $50 million for information.
They are as follows:
Name $ million
Bank of Ceylon Over 100.0
People’s Bank Over 100.0
John Keels Holdings (Pvt) Limited 135.0
Ceylon Tobacoo Company 73.7
Hatton National Bank Limited 59.7
DFCC Bank 58.5
National Development Bank 56.4
Commercial Bank 51.2
Hayles Group of Companies (Pvt) Limited 49.7

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure CDB estimates from BR-CMC

5.2 Telephone traffic NAV
(million calls per year)
5.3 Internet hosts per CBSL, 1998 Annual Report
thousand population • Internet connection was recently introduced. According to the Annual Report of the Central Bank there
were 8,560 Internet and e-mail subscribers in Sri Lanka, about 90% of whom were in Colombo. There were
also 12 customers for the Packet Switching Facility registered with the Sri Lanka Telecom Office. No city
level data are available on this indicator.

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 Colombo
6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land 1996 City Profile, Colombo, Sri Lanka

• The total land area of the city is 3,729 hectares.
6.2 Land developer multiplier 1993 UNCHS Report
6.3 Developer contributions NAV
6.4 Median time for planning CMC, 1998 Guide for Planning Permission

6.5 Vacant land with planning NAV

permission
6.6 Public open space 2000 Playgrounds & Recreational Department (PRD), CMC
• Proportion of open space in the built-up areas can be considered as public open places.
6.7 Vacant government land NAV
6.8 Prime commercial land price 1998 Colombo Metropolitan Regional Structure Plan (CMRSP, Vol. IV and UDA-SL)
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs Official communications with the consultant, 4 August 2000
Based on Central Bank Survey, CBSL 1998 Annual Report
6.10 Expenditure on development 1998 & 1999 BR-CMC and 2000 Mayor’s Budget Speech
permission • The guidebook prepared by the City Planning Division of CMC in 1998 describes the procedure for
obtaining planning permission for a subdivision plan.

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type DCS, 1994 Demographic Survey

• According to the demographic survey carried out by the DCS, the city had a housing stock of 108,907
units in 1994.
7.2 Tenure type lbid.
7.3 House price to income ratio NAV
7.4 House rent to income ratio NAV
7.5 Floor area per person DCS, 1994 Demographic Survey
• Percentage floor area for the city has been calculated relative to the different floor area sizes of houses
in the city. The data available in the following table represent 1994 and no recent data are available.
7.6 Housing in compliance 1998 BR-CMC
• NAV
• One way to establish the number of housing units in compliance within the city is to assume that all
the permanent housing units and old tenement gardens are classified under this category. The municipality
collects property rates only from permanent housing units for which building permissions were issued by
CMC.
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio NAV
7.8 Houses with mortgages NAV
7.9 Mortgage loans for women NAV
7.10 Housing production NAV
7.11 Squatter resettlement or 2000 National Housing Development Authority, City Office, Colombo (NHDA-COC)
normalization • No squatter regularization has been done after 1994. It was 7,425 before 1994. The total number of
squatter families was 13,237 (1997/98).
Therefore, the percentage was = 7,425 x 100/ 13,237 = 56.1
7.12 Net housing outlays by CDB estimates based on CBC 1998 Annual Report
government (per person)
7.13 Homeless people 1994 Department of Probation and ChildCare (DPCC)
• No reliable data are available on this category of people in the city.
• A survey conducted by DPCC in 1994 indicates that the city had about 10,000 street children.
However, interviews by the consultant with staff of the National Social School of Colombo reveal that the
above number was reduced by about 50% due to the various rehabilitation programs of the Government and
religious and NGO programs carried out before.

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections 1998 Water Section (WS), CMC
Piped water connection is available only for about 51.5% of the houses in Colombo while the rest of the
houses depend on stand posts, shallow wells, tube wells and rivers water for their water needs.
8.1.2 Investment per capita 1998 BR-CMC

Notes and Sources 269

 Colombo
8.1.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditure
8.1.4 Cost recovery 1997, 1998, 1999 BR-CMC
8.1.5 Output per staff: water CDB estimates
supplied per employee
8.1.6 List of providers Water Supply Section (WSS0, CMC)
• Bulk water supply to the city is provided by the National Water Supply and Drainage Board. WSS-CMC
handles distribution within the city.
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water lbid.
• The percentage of nonrevenue water per month was around 45% or 19,922,998 m3. This could be
attributed to leaks, illegal connections, and meter related losses from public standposts.
a. Percentage unaccounted
for water
b. Interruptions in water service
8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections 1995-2000 MV Distribution Development Plan-Ceylon Electricity Board (MVDDP-CEB)
8.2.2 Investment per capita NAV

8.2.3 Operations and CDB estimates

maintenance expenditure
8.2.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.2.5 Output per staff: megawatt NAV
hours of electricity supplied
per employee
8.2.6 List of providers CMC, Engineering Division
1. Ceylon Electricity Board – 100 percent supply
2. Colombo Municipal Council – Operations and maintenance (100 %)
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity NAV

8.3 Sewerage/wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections CMC, Drainage Section
• The city has an underground sewerage system that stretches up to 250 km and covers approximately
80% of the city. The remaining 20% is served by septic tanks, pit latrines, or discharged directly to nearby
canals, drains, and swamps.
8.3.2 Investment per capita 1997, 1998, 1999 BR-CMC
• Major development works on sewerage system are carried out annually. The following per capita
investment ratios were calculated.
1997 1998 1999
Expenditure ($ million) 67.0 1,463.00 411.0
Population (million) 0.8 0.80 1.0
Investment per capita ($) 83.7 1,828.70 411.0
8.3.3 Operations and 1997, 1998, 1999 BR-CMC
maintenance expenditure
1997 1998 1999
O&M cost ($ million) 65.0 120.0 1,731.0
Population (million) 0.8 0.8 1.0
Per capita cost per person 81.0 150.0 1,731.0

8.3.4 Cost recovery NAV

8.3.5 Output per staff: NAV
wastewater discharge
or treater per employee
8.3.6 List of providers CMC 1998, Sewerage Section
• CMC is the sole provider of this service. It covers 80% of the city territory and CMC cleans septic
tanks in nonsewerage areas using vacuum tankers.

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections CBSL, 1998 Annual Report
• The Colombo Municipal area covers 53% of the total telephone connections in Sri Lanka.
Of the total private sector telephone connections about 70%–80% are distributed within the city limits.

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 Colombo
8.4.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.4.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure NAV

8.4.4 Cost recovery

8.4.5 Output per staff: thousands NAV
of calls per employee
8.4.6 List of providers Telecommunications Regulatory Commissions (TRC)
• Below is a list of providers of telephone connections to the city. However, data on their output are not
available.
1. Sri Lanka Telecom
2. Suntel Dialog
3. Mobitel
4. Dialog GSM
5. Lanka Bell

8.5 Solid waste collection Data are from Solid Waste Management Division of the Colombo Municipal Council (SWMD- CMC)
8.5.1 Households with SWMD-CMC
regular service • The officials of the SWMD-CMC claim that they cover 100% collection of solid waste of the city. The
frequency of collection varies from daily collection in the commercial areas to twice a week in residential
areas.
8.5.2 Investment per capita 1997,1998,1999 BR-CMC
1997 1998 1999
Total expenditure ($ million) 300.0 900.0 90.0
Population (million) 0.8 0.8 1.0
Investment per person ($) 375.0 1,125.0 90.0

8.5.3 Operations and 1998, 1999 BR-CMC

maintenance expenditure 1997 1998 1999
O&M expenditure ($ million) 1.6 59.0 57.0
Population 0.8 0.8 1.0
Expenditure per person ($) 2.0 74.0 57.0

8.5.4 Cost recovery NAV

8.5.5 Output per staff: 1998 BR-CMC
collected per employee • The output of solid waste collected per employee per month has been calculated using the following
data.
Total daily collection is : 625.0 metric tons (mt)
Total monthly collection is 625 x 30 : 1,875.0 mt
Total no. of employees in the division in 1998 : 2,395.0 mt
Output per employee per month : 7.8 mt
8.5.6 List of providers SWMD-CMC
• The provider was Colombo Municipal Council in 1998. However, at present part of the city’s solid
waste collection services has been contracted to the private sector. About 50% of the city’s solid waste
collection is handled by the private sector and the balance of 50% by the Council.

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated lbid.

• The total solid waste collection per day was 625 tons in the city. The volume of solid waste generated
per person per annum was calculated as follows:
Solid waste generated per annum : 625 x 30 x 12 = 225,000 mt
No. of households : 110,000
Solid waste generated per annum : 2.045 mt
9.2 Household sewage disposal CDB estimates
( % of households)
9.3 Wastewater treated CMC, Engineering Section
• There is no wastewater treatment system in operation. The city’s wastewater is discharged directly
to the sea.

Notes and Sources 271

 Colombo
9.4 Percent BOD removed NAP
from wastewater
9.5 Air pollution NAV
concentrations
9.6 Energy usage per person NAV
9.7 Noise complaints Central Environmental Auhtority-Protection Division (CEA-PD)
• There is no published data available on this indicator. Through interviews by the consultant with
the officials of the Environmental Protection Division of the Central Environmental Authority, the
following information was collected.
Type of Complaint No. of Complaints received in the city
Industrial and traffic noises About 100 per month
9.8 Disasters in last 10 years Police Reports
• The most common disasters that had affected the city include floods and terrorist-related incidents.
The following table presents some of the disasters that occurred during the last 10 years:
Disaster Year Lives Lost Dwellings
Destroyed
Flood 1992
Bomb blast, Armour St 1993 35 4
Bomb blast, Thotalaga 1993 24 2
Kolonnawa Oil Tank 1994 8
Building 1996 Over 100 Over 100
Bomb blast, Galaadri Hotel 1997 28 10
Bomb blast, Maradana 1997 15 15
Junction
Bomb blast Town Hall 1999 24
Grounds
Flower Road - opposite 1999 14
PM’s office
Floods 1999
Terrorist attack at Castle 2000 16
Junction

9.9 Methods of solid waste Official communications between Colombo City Office and the consultant, 23 June 2000
disposal

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel 1993 UNCHS Report

10.2 Median travel time lbid.
10.3 Expenditure on road CDB estimates
infrastracture
10.4 Road congestion NAV
10.5 Automobile ownership • Data are not available. National-level data are as follows:
Type of Vehicle 1996 1997 1998
Cars 17,671 31,338 41,151
Motorcycles 31,995 36,755 42,089
Dual purpose vehicles 4,250 16,293 18,455
Total 53,876 84,386 101,695
• The ratio of automobile ownership to the people of driving age (15-64 years old) for 1998 is 1:146.

10.6 Cost recovery from fares NAV

10.7 Port/air activity NAV
10.8 Goods carried NAV
10.9 Transport fatalities City Traffic Police, Colombo (CTPC)
• Due to heavy traffic, traffic-related accidents are frequently recorded in the city. CTPC is responsible
for maintaining the related data. The following table indicates the details.
10.9.1. Colombo City Year Total Accidents Fatal Deaths Per ‘000 population
1997 11,787 121 125 0.006
1998 11,649 94 95 0.008
1999 12,751 89 91 0.006

10.9.2. Pedestrian deaths • Data on pedestrian deaths were for 1999.

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 Colombo
11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events Official communications between national newspapers and the consultant, 4 August 2000 and Police
Reports
• Major public events in the city are few and the estimated attendance at these events as follows:
Event Estimated Attendance
Independence Day, 4 February More than 300,000
Wesak Celebrations, May More than 500,00
May Day Rallies , 1May More than 1.5 M
Cricket Matches (School level – January to April) 500,000 to 800,000
Division Level – all year
International – Nov. to April, June to September
Other sports activities 200,000
Nawam Perahera for Buddhists 300,000
Ramasan festival for Muslims 150,000
Christmas festival for Christians 200,000
Political meetings More than 200,000

11.2 Attendance at galleries 1998/99 weekly & monthly reports, Colombo Museum, and consultant interviews with officials of the
and museums centers
• There are some galleries, drama theaters, and a famous historical museum in Colombo. Colombo
Museum and the Art Gallery are two important places that attract local as well as foreign visitors.
Most of the other drama theaters cater to local participants. Data on attendance at these places are
givven below.
Cultural and Art Center
Estimated Annual Attendance
Colombo Museum 1998 1999
Local 182,691 280,654
Foreign 8,171 9,006
Galleries
Art Gallery 67,500
Lionel Wendt theater 54,600
JR Jayaradene Theater 25,000
Elphinstone Theater 80,000
Lumbini Theater 56,000
John De Silva Theater 62,000
Sugathadasa Indoor Stadium 50,000
Bandaranayake International 40,000
Conference Hall

11.3 Participation in sports Consultant’s interview with officials of sport bodies

• The list includes only the major sports activities participated in by the city residents.
Type of Sports No of Participants
(estimated)
Cricket 20,000
Athletics 8,000
Rugger 6,000
Soccer 8,000
Volley ball 4,000
Basketball 2,000
Net ball 2,000
Martial Arts 2,000
Bicycle Race 2,000

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue Official communications with the consultant, 27July 2000 and 1998 MTD-CMC and Budget Report of the
Municipal Council
12.2 Capital and recurrent CDB estimates
expenditure per person

Notes and Sources 273

 Colombo
12.3 Collection efficiency, 1998 Revenue Summary, BR-CMC
property taxes It was difficult to estimate the collection efficiency and arrears of property rates and taxes in the city. The
closest estimation that can be made for the above indicator is as follows:
Property rates and taxes as estimated for the year 1998 = $16.39
Total amount collected for the year 1998 = $703.85 million (66.50%)
Total arrears = $175.64 million (16.5 %)
12.4 Debt service charge NAV

12.5 Employees 1998 BR-CMC

• The total residential population of the city was estimated to be 0.8 million in 1988. Based on this figure,
the number of employees of the city council per 1,000 population was calculated as follows:
Total residential population of the city = 8,000,000
Total employees of the council = 10,853
Employees per 1,000 population = 1,000/73.7
= 13.6
12.6 Wages in budget 1998 Payments Summary, Account Branch, CMC
• The actual figures related to wages and recurrent expenditure of the Colombo Municipal Council for
1998 are presented as follows:
Total recurrent expenditure = $1,143,700 million
Wages for employees = $81,406 million
Percentage of employees wages = 71.17%
12.7 Contracted recurrent CDB estimates
expenditure ratio Name of Institution
Bank of Ceylon
People’s Bank
National Savings Bank
State Mortgage and Investment Bank
National Development Bank
National Water Supply Drainage Board
Ceylon Electricity Board
Sri Lanka Telecom Limited
Cooperative Wholesale Establishment
Sri Lanka Government Railway
Central Transport Board
Sri Lanka Customs
Sri Lanka Ports Authority
Sri Lankan Airline
Ceylon Tourist Board

12.8 Business permits • The business permits of the Colombo Municipal Council were issued by the Treasurer’s Department of
the Council. About 3,500 permits were issued annually from 1995 to 1999.
12.9 Enterprise revenues

12.10 Computerization of functions 1998 Municipal Treasurer’s Department (MTD), CMC

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government 2000 Senior Management staff of the CMC
• The usual functions of CMC are specified in Municipal Council Ordinance 29 of 1947 and the latest
amendments were made in 1987. The broad functions specified are as follows:
a. the regulation, control, and administration of all matters relating to public health, public utility services,
and public thoroughfares; and
b. the protection and promotion of comfort, convenience, and welfare of the people and amenities of the
municipality.
• Apart from the above usual functions, CMC also provides the following services:
a. setting up advisory committees (parallel to the 15 standing committees) consisting of volunteer senior
citizens and professionals to advise the mayor on different services the CMC is providing;.
b. creating a steering committee consisting of the mayor, deputy mayor, municipal commissioner, the two
deputy municipal commissioners, municipal engineer, municipal treasurer, and the municipal secretary
to decide on important management issues of CMC;

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 Colombo
c. conducting monthly meetings chaired by the mayor/deputy mayor, allowing representatives of
the community development council of low-income communities to bring their problems to the forum.
The forum is called ”Housing and Community Development Council”;
d. operating a public day every Wednesday for the people to bring their grievances to the mayor, deputy
mayor, and to the heads of departments of the council. This is a compulsory gathering;
e. forming a city watch committee consisting of senior citizens who voluntarily contribute to the
development of CMC. They give ideas and make constructive criticisms about council matters to
improve the city’s performance;
f. allocating council funds of $0.02 million per council member per year to spend on improving the basic
amenities of low-income settlements;
g. offering customer oriented training to municipal staff. The municipality has developed a corporate plan
for 1998-2002 outlining key issues, strategies, and specific actions to improve the quality of CMC
services; and
h. producing a service directory indicating the different services offered and contact personnel.
13.2 Delivery of annual plan NAV
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex NAV
13.4 Independence from higher Official communications with the consultant, 4 August 2000
government • The government administration of Sri Lanka has the following level of governance:
a. Central Government through national state of assembly
b. Provincial government with provincial councils
c. Local government with municipal and urban local authorities
d. rural areas with pradeshiya sabhas
• The provincial council is the immediate superior level of government operating above pradeshiya
sabhas, urban councils, and municipal councils. The affairs of these local bodies are to some extent
governed by the provincial council and the Government through its line ministries and departments.
13.4.1 Closing down the council • The government or the provincial council has no authority to remove councilors or to close down the
or removing councilors council. However, if the mayor gets involved in any corruption or misuse of his powers, the provincial
from office council has the authority to remove him or her from office.
13.4.2 Setting local tax levels • CMC should obtain approval from the chief secretary of the provincial council for setting local
tax levels.
13.4.3 Setting user charges • CMC may set user charges for services with the approval of the chief secretary of the provincial
council.
13.4.4 Borrowing funds • CMC may borrow funds, secure loans and debentures, and purchase credit from banks with the
approval of the chief secretary of the provincial council.
13.4.5 Choosing contractors d. The council may choose contractors for foreign-funded major projects involving other national level
for projects organizations by consulting with authorities in the provincial council, relevant ministry, and the donor
agency. However, for those projects involving programs of municipal services, selection of contractors is
handled by the CMC without seeking the approval of higher authorities.
13.5 Elected and nominated 1998 CMC
councils
13.5.1 Male NAV
13.5.2 Female NAV

13.6 Representation of minorities Official communications with the consultant, 4 August 2000
• Colombo is a multiracial city where about six racial groups live in harmony. Local government elections
are held democratically based on a multiparty system. The different racial groups are attached to
registered political parties. Thus, the members belonging to different racial groups get elected at a
democratic election. The racial composition of the present CMC is as follows:
Total number of representatives of the council = 53
Racial Group No. %
Sinhala 30 56.6
Muslims 16 30.2
Tamils 6 11.3
Malay 1 1.9
Total 53 100.0

13.7 Planning applications refused (%) 1999 Municipal Engineer’s Department, City Plan Unit (MED-CPU)

Notes and Sources 275

 Colombo
• The following table presents the planning applications refused by the CMC during 1998.
No. of planning applications forwarded 1,702.0
No. of applications refused 570.0
Percentage of refusal 33.4
Reasons for refusal
a. Plans are not prepared according to the requirements/regulations.
b. The land in question is a state land or had an unclear title.
c. Parking requirements were not fulfilled according to regulations.
13.8 Business satisfaction NAV
13.9 Consumer satisfaction NAV
13.10 Perception as place to live NAV
13.11 Reported crimes Crime Division, police headquarters
13.12 Access to information Municipal Secretary
Official communications with the consultant, 4 August 2000
13.13 Contact with the public Mayor’s Office, CMC
13.14 Decentralized district units • The City of Colombo is divided into 47 electoral divisions which are known as municipal wards. These
47 municipal wards are grouped into six municipal districts for municipal functions at district and ward
levels. Each district has a district office of the council. The main functions of the district office are public
health and engineering services (i.e., solid waste management, water, roads and sanitation, etc.). Medical
centers, libraries, sports, and recreational activities are also handled at the district level.

276 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Dhaka
Indicators
1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization World Bank. 1999. Towards an Urban Strategy for Bangladesh. South Asia Region, Infrastructure
Sector Unit, p.3
• The level of urbanization was 4.33% in 1951; 5.19% in 1961; 8.78% in 1974; 15.18% in 1981; and
19.83%
in 1991. Presently, it is estimated to be 23%.
1.2 City population Population data relate to 1995 estimated by City Development Strategy (CDS), World Bank team.
• The city population was 0.34 million, 0.55 million, 1.61 million, 3.44 million, and 3.68 million in
1951, 1961, 1974, 1981, and 1991, respectively.
1.3 Migration Net migration in previous period estimated by Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan (DMDP), 1995,
Dhaka Structure Plan 1995–2015, pp.2-9
• The reference period is 1991.
1.4 Population net density • Estimated as a ratio of city population with residential land use data.
1.5 Age pyramid Calculated from BBS, 1993, Bangladesh Population Census 1991, Community series, Table C02,
pp.153-184
1.6 Average household size ADB. 1996. Urban Poverty Reduction Project, Interim Report, cited in World Bank (2000); World Bank.
2000. Urban Development Strategy and City Assistance Program in South Asia (Bangladesh), Interim
Report. Dhaka, pp.2-6
1.7 Household formation rate HABITAT National Report. 1996. Dhaka: Ministry of Housing and Public Works, p.67
• The reference year is 1991–1993.
1.8 Women-headed households Ibid., p.67
1.9 Minority groups BBS, 1993, Bangladesh Population Census 1991, Zila Dhaka, Community series, Table C08, pp.344-375.
1.10 Household types Ibid., Table C10, pp.383-389
• Only single person data on these categories are available.
1.11 Informal settlements • Informal settlements known as slums are called bastees in Bangladesh. The largest bastee in Dhaka is
on government land and is called Agargaon bastee which houses nearly 0.6 million people. Estimates of
population and households in informal settlements reflect that 35% of the city population is squatting in
slums. From land use data it could be gathered that about 10% of residential land belongs to the informal
housing sector.

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution Recalculated from BBS, 1999, Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 1998, Dhaka; data assembled from
Household Expenditure Survey of 1995/96, cited in p.611
2.2 Households below poverty line World Bank. 2000. Urban Development Strategy and City Assistance Program in South Asia (Bangladesh),
Interim Report. Dhaka, pp.2-11
2.3 Women-headed households HABITAT National Report. 1996. Dhaka: Ministry of Housing and Public Works, p.67
in poverty
2.4 Child labor Bureau of Bangladesh of Statistics (BBS) Labour Force Survey, 1995/96
• City level data is unavailable. Data refers to national data.
2.5 Informal employment World Bank. 2000. Urban Development Strategy and City Assistance Program in South Asia (Bangladesh),
Interim Report. Dhaka, pp.2-7
2.6 Unemployment Ibid.
2.7 Expenditure on poverty The main government agencies are the Dhaka City Corporation, Local Government Engineering Department,
reduction (per poor person) and the Bangladesh Water Development Board. Fifty NGOs forming a coalition called Coalition for Urban
Poor (CUP) have different programs aimed at poverty reduction in the city.

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed HABITAT National Report. 1996. Dhaka: Ministry of Housing and Public Works, p.69
• The data reference year is 1993.
3.2 Child mortality National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT) 1997, Bangladesh – Demographic and
Health Survey 1996/97, p.102
• Data refer to the national urban situation and the reference year is 1996.
3.3 Life expectancy at birth World Bank. 2000. Urban Development Strategy and City Assistance Program in South Asia (Bangladesh),
Interim Report. Dhaka, p.2-17
3.4 Infectious diseases mortality BBS. 1999. Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 1998. Dhaka, p.573
Data refer to the national urban situation.

Notes and Sources 277

 Dhaka
3.5 Family planning National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT). 1997. Bangladesh – Demographic and
Health Survey 1996-97, p.55
• Data refer to the national urban situation; city level not available.
3.6 Adult literacy rate • This is a government declaration.
3.7 School enrollment rates World Bank. 1999. Dhaka CDS. pp.2-16
(primary, secondary) • Secondary school enrollment data is national because city data is unavailable and the source is
Banbies, 1998.
• For primary school enrollment the reference year is 1997 and for primary school enrollment the
reference year is 1997.
3.8 Tertiary graduates Estimated for Dhaka from BBS. 1999. Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 1998. Dhaka, p.55
3.9 Median years of education NAV
(years)
3.10 School children per classroom HABIITAT National Report. 1996. Dhaka: Ministry of Housing and Public Works, p.69
(primary/secondary) • The reference year is 1993.

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita World Bank. 2000. Urban Development Strategy and City Assistance Program in South Asia (Bangladesh),
Interim Report. Dhaka, p.2-4
4.2 Employment by industry NAV
4.3 Household expenditure BBS. 1999. Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 1998. Dhaka, p.616
• Data refer to the national urban situation of 1995/96.
4.4 Investment by sector NAV
4.5 Tourism Ibid.
• Data refer to the national urban situation of 1996.
4.6 Major projects Dhaka Urban Transport Project (DUTP), World Bank Loan, $234 million
Fourth Dhaka Water Supply Project, World Bank Loan, $148 million
Air Quality Management Project (AQMP), World Bank Loan, $155 million
9th and 10th Power Project, ADB Loan, $314/$330 million
Urban Primary Health Care, ADB Loan $60 million/GOB $42.5 million
Dhaka Power System Upgrade, ADB Loan $251 million
Dhaka Integrated Flood Protection Project, ADB Loan, $120 million
Flood Damage Rehabilitation Project, ADB Loan, $130 million
Southwest Road Network Development, ADB Loan, $134 million
Urban Basic Service Delivery, UNICEF/UNCHS Grant, $20.4 million
Installation of Incinerator for Hospital Waste and Development of Landfill in Dhaka City Corporation,
Netherlands Loan, $20 million
Procurement of Modern Remixing Plant for Development of Dhaka City Roads, German Grant, $10 million
4.7 Cost of stay CDB estimates
4.8 Corporate headquarters GOB, Ministry of Establishment, list of directorates/corporations under different ministries of the
Government

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure NAV

5.2 Telephone traffic NAV
(million calls per year)
5.3 Internet hosts per thousand • These are from daily newspapers and names are not indicated.
population

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land HABITAT National Report. 1996. Dhaka: Ministry of Housing and Public Works, p.67.
6.2 Land developer multiplier Ibid.
6.3 Developer contributions Communications with town planner, Capital Development Authority (RAJUK), Dhaka
6.4 Median time for planning Ibid.
permission
6.5 Vacant land with planning Ibid.
permission
6.6 Public open space Habitat Day Seminar, 1999, p.98
6.7 Vacant government land ADB. 1993. Formulation of Land Development Controls and Procedures for Dhaka City. Culpin Planning Ltd.
• The reference year is 1993.

278 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Dhaka
6.8 Prime commercial land price Communications with president, Real Estate and Housing Development Association of Bangladesh
(REHAB), Dhaka. Confirmed in an e-mail on 11 September by consultant.
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs Ibid.
6.10 Expenditure on development NAV

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type BBS. 1993. Bangladesh Population Census 1991. Community series Table C10-11, pp.373-389.
• The single family dwelling type is defined as having one to four persons in the family. Medium density
is five to six persons in dwelling units. Temporary dwellings are those with vulnerable roof materials.
7.2 Tenure type Habitat National Report. 1996. Dhaka: Ministry of Housing and Public Works, p.68
7.3 House price to income ratio Ibid., p.73
7.4 House rent to income ratio Ibid.
7.5 Floor area per person Ibid.
7.6 Housing in compliance Ibid.
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio Ibid.
7.8 Houses with mortgages NAV
7.9 Mortgage loans for women NAV
7.10 Housing production HABITAT National Report. 1996. Dhaka: Ministry of Housing and Public Works, p.73
7.11 Squatter resettlement or ADB. 2000. Urban Sector Strategy, p.3-18. Data refer to Dhaka and Chittagong.
normalization
7.12 Net housing outlays by NAV
government (per person)
7.13 Homeless people BBS. 1997. Bangladesh Population Census 1991, Urban Area Report, p.82
• The data year is 1991.

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections ADB. 1997. Second Water Utilities Data Book
8.1.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.1.3 Operations and
maintenance expenditures Dhaka Water and Sewerage Authority (DWASA). 1998. Annual Report 1997/98, p. 39
8.1.4 Cost recovery DWASA. 1998. Annual Report 1997/98, p. 39
8.1.5 Output per staff: water Ibid.
supplied per employee
8.1.6 List of providers Ibid.
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water Ibid.
a. Percentage unaccounted lbid.
for water
b. Interruptions in water NAV
service
8.1.8 Consumption of water Ibid.
per capita
8.1.9 Median price of water,
scarce season Ibid.

8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections BBS. 1999. Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 1998, Dhaka, p.46.
• Data refer to the national urban situation of 1994.
8.2.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.2.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.2.4 Cost recovery (%) NAV
8.2.5 Output per staff: megawatt NAV
hours of electricity supplied
per employee
8.2.6 List of providers • The Bangladesh Power Development Board generates power and in Dhaka City power distribution is
under the Dhaka Electricity Supply Authority generating power.
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity • This is from a national daily.
a. Line loss for electricity • Power supply during summer when demand is high is interrupted by load shedding.

Notes and Sources 279

 Dhaka
8.3 Sewerage/wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections This is from communications with DWASA.
8.3.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.3.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.3.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.3.5 Output per staff: wastewater NAV
discharged or treated per
employee
8.3.6 List of providers • DWASA provides sewerage in the city.

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections • This is estimated from Bangladesh Telephone and Telegraph Board supplied data.
8.4.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.4.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.4.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.4.5 Output per staff: thousands NAV
of calls per employee
8.4.6 List of providers BTTB

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) report
regular service
8.5.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.5.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.5.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.5.5 Output per staff: NAV
Collected per employee
8.5.6 List of providers DCC, CBOs

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated DCC, Solid Waste Management of Dhaka City
9.2 Household sewage disposal
(% of households) NAV
9.3 Wastewater treated This is from communications with DWASA.
9.4 Percent BOD removed
from wastewater NAV
9.5 Air pollution concentrations NAV
9.6 Energy usage per person NAV
9.7 Noise complaints NAV
9.8 Disasters in last 10 years • There were 734 fire hazards in 1998 and 858 in 1999.
In the 1998 flood, 67% of the city was under water for about 90 days.
9.9 Methods of solid waste
disposal

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel Dhaka Urban Transport Project, Phase II Consultancy, Final Report, prepared by PPK, Mott MacDonald and
DDC, 1999, p.17
• The reference year is 1993.
10.2 Median travel time Ibid.
• The reference year is 1993.
10.3 Expenditure on road NAV
infrastructure
10.4 Road congestion • Congestion is severe in the city but there is no data.
10.5 Automobile ownership BBS. 1999. Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 1998, p.278
• This includes cars and motorbikes.

280 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Dhaka
10.6 Cost recovery from fares NAV
10.7 Port/air activity NAV
10.8 Goods carried BBS. 1999. Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh 1998, p.286
• Data for air activity in 1996/97 are available.
10.9 Transport fatalities NAV

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events International trade fair

Art exhibitions
Computer fairs
Independence Day, 26 March
Language Day, 21 February
Victory Day, 16 December
Pahela Baishak
11.2 Attendance at galleries National Museum
and museums Art Gallery
11.3 Participation in sports Corporations and government departments organize athletic sports regularly.
Cricket and soccer are popular games and government departments, corporations, and universities
organize games.
Morning walks have become very popular among middle class families in which women also take part.
This is an indication of health consciousness among city people.

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue These include taxes, user charges, transfers, loans, and other income.
12.2 Capital and recurrent DDC Report
expenditure per person
12.3 Collection efficiency, DDC Report
property taxes
12.4 Debt service charge Ibid.
12.5 Employees Ibid.
12.6 Wages in budget Ibid.
12.7 Contracted recurrent NAV
expenditure ratio
12.8 Business permits Communication with DCC
12.9 Enterprise revenues NAV
12.10 Computerization of functions • DCC has a program to introduce computers in many activities.

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government NAV.

13.2 Delivery of annual plan • DCC does not prepare town or land use plans.
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex NAV
13.4 Independence from higher NAV
government
13.5 Elected and nominated NAV
Councilors
13.6 Representation of minorities None.
13.7 Planning applications refused • The Dhaka City Corporation does not exercise planning functions.
13.8 Business satisfaction NAV
13.9 Consumer satisfaction SIRIUS Marketing and Social Research, in ADB, Dhaka City Management Reform Pilot Project,
Final Report, 1998, pp. 69-84
Consumer Item +Level of Satisfaction
Gas 6.1
Telephone 5.3
Water and sewerage 5.0
Waste disposal 4.8
Public transportation 4.2
Roads and highways 4.6
Law and order 3.9

Notes and Sources 281

 Dhaka
Traffic control 3.1
Mosquito control 1.6
Parks and greenery 4.8
Steet lighting 4.6

13.10 Perception as place to live Previously the city was considered by many as a city of peace, but now it is regarded as a city of crimes
and violence. For the poor, the city is a city of employment.
13.11 Reported crimes Metropolitan Police Commissioner’s Office, Dhaka
• Data years are 1996, 1997, and 1998.
13.12 Access to information This is difficult.

13.13 Contact with the public NAV

13.14 Decentralized district units • A ward is a small elected unit of the city. In each ward, there is an elected ward commissioner who
looks after developing the ward. Recently, DCC has undertaken a pilot scheme to decentralize service
deliveries in five wards on a pilot basis.

282 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Hanoi
Indicators
1 POPULATION Hanoi Statistical Office (HSO) 1999, Hanoi Statistical Yearbook (HSY) 1998

1.1 Urbanization UNCHS Global Urban Indicators Database Version 1, 1998

http:// www.unobservatory.org/indicators/database/
1.2 City population HSO, HSY 1998
1.3 Migration Intersectional population survey, HSO 1998
1.4 Population net density HSO, HSY 1998
Hanoi area (km2): 927.39
1.5 Age pyramid Census survey in Hanoi at 1 April 1999
1.6 Average household size HSO 1997, Report from Wealth and Poor Survey
1.7 Household formation rate HSO 1998, Annual Report on Population
1.8 Women-headed households Ibid.
1.9 Minority groups • Minority groups comprise less than 10% of the total population.
1.10 Household types Census survey in Hanoi at 1 April 1999
1.11 Informal settlements Ibid.

2 EQUITY HSO 2000, Household Socio-Economic Survey (HSES) 1999

2.1 Income distribution HSO 2000, HSES 1999

2.2 Households below poverty line HSO 1997, Report from Wealth and Poor Survey
2.3 Women-headed households HSO, HSES 1999
in poverty
2.4 Child labor Calculated by CDB team based on figures (in percentages) given by the CDB consultant.
2.5 Informal employment Census survey in Hanoi at 1 April 1999
• There are 1,526 people working in informal sectors.
2.6 Unemployment HSO–Hanoi Department of Labor and Invalid Person, 1998 Labor survey report
2.7 Expenditure on poverty Hanoi Women Association; Department of Labor and Invalid Person; Peasant Association; and local
reduction (per poor person) authorities
• Expenditure on poverty reduction is mostly in cash and in kind like expenses for education and training,
health care programs, and interest subsidies that are implemented nationwide.

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed HSO 1999, HSY 1998

3.2 Child mortality HSO 1998, Annual Report on Population
3.3 Life expectancy at birth Ibid.
3.4 Infectious diseases mortality lbid., Annual Report on Health
3.5 Family planning lbid., Annual Report on Population
3.6 Adult literacy rate lbid., Annual Report on Education and Training, 1998
3.7 School enrollment rates Ibid.
(primary,secondary)
3.8 Tertiary graduates Ibid.
3.9 Median years of education Ibid.
3.10 School children per classroom Ibid.
(primary/secondary)

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita HSO 1999, HSY 1998

• The method used was under the System of National Account, introduced by the General Statistical
Office of Viet Nam.
4.2 Employment by industry HSO 1998, Annual Report on Labor and Income
4.3 Household expenditure HSO 1997, Report from Wealth and Poor Survey
4.4 Investment by sector HSO 1999, HSY 1998
4.5 Tourism lbid.
Tourists’ expenditure: HSO 1997, Study on System of National Account in Hanoi
4.6 Major projects NAV

Notes and Sources 283

 Hanoi
4.7 Cost of stay • About $6 is the current rate for regular hotels and daily living expenses are provided for government
servants. The cost of an international hotel fluctuates from $50 to $175 per day.
4.8 Corporate headquarters Consultant’s assessment based on interviews and survey

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure • The amount of R&D expenditure is the volume of value added from Science and Research Technology
Industries in Hanoi (HSO 1999).
5.2 Telephone traffic Hanoi Postal Services and Telecommunication
(million calls per year)
5.3 Internet hosts per thousand lbid., CDB estimate
population • There are 2.5 connections per thousand population.

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land Based on interview with Hanoi Housing and Cadastral Department
6.2 Land developer multiplier Ibid.
6.3 Developer contributions Based on interview and survey
6.4 Median time for planning Ibid.
permission
6.5 Vacant land with planning Ibid.
permission
6.6 Public open space Ibid.
6.7 Vacant government land Ibid.
6.8 Prime commercial land price Ibid.
• The interview was taken at Hangdao Street in the city center. The size occupied is small to
average at 8-10 m2.
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs Ibid.
6.10 Expenditure on development Ibid.

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type Census survey in Hanoi at 1 April 1999

7.2 Tenure type lbid.
7.3 House price to income ratio Ibid.
7.4 House rent to income ratio Ibid.
7.5 Floor area per person Ibid.
7.6 Housing in compliance Consultant’s assessment
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio NAV
7.8 Houses with mortgage NAV
7.9 Mortgage loans for women NAV
7.10 Housing production HSO 1999, Annual Report on Socio-Economic Condition
• Two or three households share a house.
7.11 Squatter resettlement or
normalization • Squatters are illegal and rarely normalized.
7.12 Net housing outlays by HSO 1999, HSY 1998
government per person
7.13 Homeless people Census survey in Hanoi at 1 April 1999

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES • Most services are provided by state-owned enterprises (SOEs). Water and solid waste collection are
under the Hanoi Authority. Mobile phones are partly served by SOEs and partly by joint ventures between
SOEs and foreign investors.
8.1 Water Interview with chief executives officers (CEOs) of Hanoi Water Supply Company, Water Supply No. 2
Company, and Than Xuan Company, ADB Second Water Utilities Data Book 1997
8.2 Electricity Interview with CEO of Hanoi Electricity Company
8.3 Sewerage/wastewater Interview with CEO of Hanoi Drainage Company
8.4 Telephone Interview with CEO of Hanoi Postal Service and Telecommunication and Mobil Phone Company
• The cost charged to users for setting up a line is $98 (2000).
8.5 Solid waste collection Interview with CEOs of Hanoi Urban Environment Company and estimate from Hanoi Institute for Socio-
Economic Development Studies

284 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Hanoi
9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated HSO 1999, Annual report on environment

9.2 Household sewage disposal NAV
(% of households)
9.3 Wastewater treated Hanoi Institute for Socio-economic Studies (HISEDS)
9.4 Percent BOD removed Not applicable
from wastewater
9.5 Air pollution concentrations NAP
9.6 Energy usage per person NAP
9.7 Noise complaints No records
9.8 Disasters in last 10 years No major disasters
9.9 Methods of solid waste HSO, Report on Waste Disposal 1998
disposal

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel Consultant’s assessment based on available sources in HSO report
10.2 Median travel time lbid.
10.3 Expenditure on road HSO 1999, HSY 1998
infrastructure
10.4 Road congestion NAV
10.5 Automobile ownership Hanoi Department of Transportation
10.6 Cost recovery from fares Hanoi Public Transport Company
10.7 Port/air activity Noibai Airport and Gialam Airport
• Hanoi has an inland water route, but it is used mainly for transporting goods and a few tourists.
10.8 Goods carried HSO 1999, HSY 1999
10.9 Transport fatalities HSO 1998, Annual Report on Crime

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events • The Tiger Cup was held in Hanoi in 1998 and 240,000 attended.
11.2 Attendance at galleries Data for 1999 was collected through interviews.
and museums • Military museums: 31,000 attendance; History Museum: 65,000 attendance; Revolution Museum:
176,000 attendance; Ho Chi Minh Museum: 3,030,000 attendance
11.3 Participation in sports Hanoi Authority of Planning and Investment 1999
• There were 350,000 participants or 15% of the total population.

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue Hanoi Department of Finance, Report on Budget Revenue and Expenditure 1998
• The local government is not permitted to borrow.
12.2 Capital and recurrent expenditure lbid.
per person
12.3 Collection efficiency, lbid.
property taxes
12.4 Debt service charge • There is no debt service as local governments are not permitted to borrow.
12.5 Employees HSO 1998, Annual Report on Labor and Income
12.6 Wages in budget Hanoi Department of Finance, Report on Budget Revenue and Expenditure 1998
12.7 Contracted recurrent • There are no contracted recurrent expenditures.
expenditure ratio
12.8 Business permits HSO 1998
12.9 Enterprise revenues • The data is the profit of Hanoi-based companies.
12.10 Computerization of functions • Computerization of functions is mainly done on archived periodical reports and data.
The network setup between local government offices and the city’s committee is not widely used.
• The city lacks computers to execute governance functions.

Notes and Sources 285

 Hanoi
13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government • Tasks 13.1.1, 13.1.2, 13.1.3, 13.1.4, 13.1.8, 13.1.6, belong to the local state enterprises, financed by
the local government.
13.2 Delivery of annual plan Consultant’s estimate
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex Hanoi Department for Personnel and Organization, 1999 Election
13.4 Independence from higher • Only the city’s committee has the right to close down the council or remove councilors from office at
government the lower level. It is not permitted to set local taxes but can submit extra charges and fees comparable
to central Government levels.
• Choosing contractors for projects is illegal except for fairly small projects which are mandated
by law.
13.5 Elected and nominated councilors • One chairperson, five vice-chairpersons, one Director of the Office of the Hanoi People’s Committee,
Director of Finance, three others
13.6 Representation of minorities
13.7 Planning applications refused • No planning application was refused in 1998 and two projects were refused in 1999.
13.8 Business satisfaction • Of the 6,300 SOEs only 930 include private sector ventures. More private companies are
choosing Hanoi as their headquarters.
13.9 Consumer satisfaction • This is an estimate gathered from the local committees’ report at the People’s Council in 1999.
• There were no such surveys in recent years.
13.10 Perception as place to live • There were no such surveys in recent years.
13.11 Reported crimes
13.12 Access to information • Relevant reports are widely published in newspapers and broadcast on radio.
13.13 Contact with the public NAV
13.14 Decentralized district units • There are four hierarchies of administrative management: central Government, provincial/city
governance, district governance, and commune governance. In Hanoi there are 12 districts and
229 communes.

286 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Hohhot
Indicators
1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization Statistic Yearbook of Hohhot (HSY) 1999

• The urban area of Hohhot consists of the area inside the Second Ring Road, and Jinchuan and the
Ruyi economic subdistricts.
1.2 City population HSY 1999
• Hohhot is part of the Municipal Region of Hohhot.
• The current municipal region of Hohhot is classified into four categories: City of Hohhot (City), Great
Urban Area of Hohhot (Great Urban Area), Metropolitan Area of Hohhot (Metropolitan Area), and Urban
Area of Hohhot (Urban Area). Before 1995, the City consisted of four districts and two counties/banners.
The four districts are Huimin, Yuquan, Xincheng, and Suburban. The two counties are Tuoketuo County,
and Tumotezuo Banner/County. In 1995, Helingeer County, Qingshuihe County, and Wuchuan County
were included in the administrative area of the City.
1.3 Migration Ibid.
• Population increase by 1998 was 40,862.
• Out-migration was 15,023.
1.4 Population net density Ibid.
1.5 Age pyramid Inner Mongolia Publisher 1992, Book of Development and Layout of Hohhot
• Based on the latest census of 1990 and projected population of 1998
1.6 Average household size Ibid.
• This is based on a 1997 sampling census of 400 households.
1.7 Household formation rate Ibid.
1.8 Women-headed households NAV
1.9 Minority groups • These are Mongolians, 14.12%; Hui (Muslim) 4.23%; and Manzhu 2.62%.
1.10 Household types
1.11 Informal settlements NAV

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution Based on a survey done by the Urban Census Team of Hohhot in 1998 using a sample of 400 households
2.2 Households below poverty line NAV
2.3 Women-headed households NAV
in poverty
2.4 Child labor • Child labor is illegal. Most families have only one child.
2.5 Informal employment HSY 1999
2.6 Unemployment Ibid.
Year Employed Unemployed
1990 403,699 103,000
1991 418,131 9,000
1992 435,525 5,000
1993 453,697 6,000
1994 463,334 9,000
1995 477,370 13,000
1996 472,391 15,000
1997 460,086 15,000
1998 433,662 29,634

2.7 Expenditure on poverty lbid.; Consultant’s estimate

reduction (per poor person) • There are many organizations involved in poverty reduction like the Hope Project, which sends poor
children to school. Normally poor households are cared for by their employers (state-owned enterprises).
It is difficult to estimate total expenditure on poverty reduction. According to the report of the implementa-
tion of the Economic and Social Development Plan in 1998 and 1999, $11.22 million was spent for the
retirement pension of SOEs, basic living alimony of laid-off SOE workers, and the lowest alimony of urban
citizens.

Notes and Sources 287

 Hohhot
3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed China Statistical Yearbook 1997

• This is Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region data.
3.2 Child mortality Hohhot Statistic Bureau 1999, Book of the Splendid 50 Years of Hohhot
• It summarizes the achievements since 1949 when the Government prioritized programs against
infectious diseases. It is projected that by 1998, the mortality of women in child delivery will be 40.8
persons per 100,000 people, child mortality will be 18.28 per 1,000, and the child immunity rate will be
above 98%.
3.3 Life expectancy at birth Ibid.
3.4 Infectious diseases mortality Ibid.
Hohhot Health Bureau
• The epidemic currency rate is 141.2 per 100,000 population in 1999 or 0.0034 per thousand people.
3.5 Family planning HSY 1999
3.6 Adult literacy rate Hohhot Education Commission 1998
3.7 School enrollment rates HSY 1999
(primary, secondary)
3.8 Tertiary graduates Estimated by 15 professors
3.9 Median years of education (years) NAV
• Nine years of education is compulsory. In urban areas, 90% of the population will finish studies in high
school, or 12 years of schooling. More than 80% of those who finish secondary education will go to
universities, technical schools, TV universities, vocational and technology colleges, etc.
3.10 School children per classroom Hohhot Education Commission 1998
(primary,secondary)

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita HSY 1999

4.2 Employment by industry Ibid.
4.3 Household expenditure Ibid.
Hohhot Statistic Bureau 1999, Book of the Splendid 50 Years of Hohhot.
4.4 Investment by sector HSY 1999
4.5 Tourism Ibid
4.6 Major projects Hohhot Planning Commission
• Name of Project Amount ($ million)
Water Supply Project 214.639
Second Phase Project of Wastewater Treatment 90.565
Second Phase of District Heating 69.871
Reconstruction of main and sub main roads 43.097
overpass at Gulou 42.276
Storm collection network reconstruction 34.545
reconstruction of water supply network 33.663
Expanding Jinhai Road 16.327
reconstruction of East First Ring Road 15.019
waste treatment plant of east of Hohhot 10.871

4.7 Cost of stay Cities Data Book (CDB) estimate

4.8 Corporate headquarters Hohhot Planning Commission

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure Science and Technology Committee of Hohhot

5.2 Telephone traffic HSY 1999
(million calls per year)
5.3 Internet hosts per thousand Digital Communication Bureau and based on CDB calculation
population • These rose from 0 in 1996 to 860 in 1998.

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land Hohhot Urban Planning Bureau; Final Report of ADB TA Project on Hohhot Urban Development, 1998
6.2 Land developer multiplier Estimated from data in final report of ADB TA project on Hohhot Urban Development, 1998
6.3 Developer contributions Hohhot Urban Construction Bureau
• Both government and private sectors implement large-scale projects.

288 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Hohhot
• Both government and private sectors implement large-scale projects.
6.4 Median time for planning Hohhot Urban Construction Bureau
permission • Responsibilities for review and approval are divided among the municipal government, the
autonomous region government, and the central Government.
6.5 Vacant land with planning NAV
permission
6.6 Public open space Hohhot Urban Construction Bureau
6.7 Vacant government land Ibid.
6.8 Prime commercial land price Ibid.
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs Ibid.
• The prime rental cost is $0.27 per month per square meter, and the occupancy cost is $144.94.
6.10 Expenditure on development Hohhot Urban Construction Bureau

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type Apartment storied buildings are the main type of dwelling. There are old traditional Chinese houses, but
data for other types of dwellings are unavailable.
7.2 Tenure type About 62% of residents live in the apartments provided by their employers. The Government is shifting
its policy and is now encouraging individuals to buy and own houses instead of renting them. Tenure
types are privately owned, partly privately owned, owned by enterprises and institutes, or rented.
7.3 House price to income ratio Housing Bureau of Hohhot; survey with housing developers
7.4 House rent to income ratio Ibid.
• House rent is $0.6 for a traditional Chinese house and $1.60 for an apartment per month per m2.
7.5 Floor area per person Statistic data and surveys
• The floor area per person increased from 7.66 m2 in 1995, to 8.19 m2 in 1997, and to 10.28 m2 in
1998.
7.6 Housing in compliance NAV
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio Ibid.
7.8 Houses with mortgages Ibid.
7.9 Mortgage loans for women Ibid.
7.10 Housing production • The total area of reconstructed and completed houses is 63,394 m2, and 36,942 m2, respectively, in
1998. The value of the completed houses is $1,658,413. The total area of newly developed houses being
constructed in 1998 is 1,357,554 m2 and 439,893 m2 is completed. The total value of completed houses
is $59,321,174.
7.11 Squatter resettlement or NAV
normalization
7.12 Net housing outlays by HSY 1999
government per person
• The total housing development investment is $56.33 million in 1998 or 70% more than that of 1997.
7.13 Homeless people Police Bureau of Hohhot

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections Hohhot Water Supply Company
8.1.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.1.3 Operations and maintenance Ibid.
8.1.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.1.5 Output per staff: water Ibid.
supplied per employee
8.1.6 List of providers Ibid.
8.1.7 Non revenue water Ibid.
a.) Percentage of Ibid.
unaccounted for water • About 0.04% of unaccounted for water is used for public purposes such as watering the city’s trees,
grass, and streets.
b.) Interruptions in Hohhot Water Supply Company
water service
8.1.8 Consumption of water per capita Ibid.
8.1.9 Median price of water, lbid.
scarce season
hours of electricity supplied
per employee

Notes and Sources 289

 Hohhot
8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections Ibid.
8.2.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.2.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure
8.2.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.2.5 Output per staff: megawatt lbid.
hours of electricity supplied
per employee
8.2.6 List of providers Hohhot Power Supply Bureau
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity
a.) Line loss for electricity Hohhot Power Supply Company
b.) Interruptions to Ibid.
power supply
8.3 Sewerage/wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections Hohhot Sewerage Management Bureau (HSMB) and Hohhot Urban Construction Bureau (HUCB)
• The total length of sewerage network is 402 km and the total annual sewerage quantity is 80.30 million
tons. The wastewater treatment plant has a capacity of 150,000 tons/day.
8.3.2 Investment per capita HUCB
• The first phase of the implementation of the wastewater project commenced in 1976. The total
investment is $1,682,643.
8.3.3 Operations and HSMB’s and HUCB
maintenance expenditure
8.3.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.3.5 Output per staff:
Wastewater discharged
or treated per employee Ibid.
8.3.6 List of providers • Hohhot Sewerage Management Bureau administrative agency and Xinxinban wastewater treatment
plant is the only one in Hohhot.

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections Hohhot branch of China Telecom and Statistic Yearbook 1999
8.4.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.4.3 Operations and
maintenance expenditure Ibid.
8.4.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.4.5 Output per staff: thousands
of calls per employee Ibid.
8.4.6 List of providers Hohhot branch of China Telecom

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with Night soil division; Hohhot Environment Sanitation Bureau of HUCB and HSY 1999.
regular service
8.5.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.5.3 Operations and
maintenance expenditure Ibid.
8.5.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.5.5 Output per staff: lbid.
collected per employee
8.5.6 List of providers Hohhot Comprehensive Waste Plant, Hohhot Construction Waste Plant

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated HSY 1999

9.2 Household sewage disposal lbid.
(% of households)
9.3 Waste water treated Ibid.
• About 5,475 tons of wastewater can be treated annually or about 40% of the total wastewater
undergoes primary processing.
9.4 Percent BOD removed Sewerage Management Bureau
from wastewater
9.5 Air pollution concentrations Environment Protection Bureau

290 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Hohhot
9.6 Energy usage per person Hohhot Urban Construction Bureau
9.7 Noise complaints Ibid.
9.8 Disasters in last 10 years Statistic Bureau of Hohhot and surveys
9.9 Methods of solid waste
disposal

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel HSY 1999

• Bikes outnumber cars nine to one. There were 301 buses on 35 routes and 3,483 taxis in 1998.
10.2 Median travel time • It takes about 25 minutes to travel to work by bicycle, and about 30 minutes by bus.
10.3 Expenditure on road • In 1998, the net length of roads increased by 47 km, which increased the net area of road by 390,000
infrastructure km2. Two overpasses were built. There were 11,696 street lamps in 1998 and 10,750 in 1997. Road
infrastructure expenditures were $19,367,073 in 1998, $8,830,777 in 1997, and $1,745,380 in 1996; the
average over the three years was $9,981,077.
10.4 Road congestion Hohhot Urban Construction Bureau
• The urban area has high bicycle traffic volumes. Many live close to work. Over 80% of the roads and
streets are paved with asphalt and concrete.
10.5 Automobile ownership HUCB
• About 14379 private automobiles or 44.8% of the total number of automobiles in the region are in
Hohhot.
10.6 Cost recovery from fares NAV
10.7 Port/air activity HSY 1999
• Hohhot is an inland city. Hohhot Airport connects to 11 domestic cities and to Ulaanbater in Mongolia.
About 133,000 passengers and 5,143 tons of goods were transported in 1998.
10.8 Goods carried HSY 1999
• About 101,858 billion ton of goods and 111,976 billion passengers were carried by road.
• About 2.23 million tons of goods and 2.79 million passengers were carried by rail.
• About 5,143 tons of goods and 133,000 passengers were carried by air.
10.9 Transport fatalities Traffic and Road Management Bureau of Hohhot

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events HSY 1999

11.2 Attendance at galleries Ibid.
and museums
11.3 Participation in sports Ibid.
• The most popular sports are chess, badminton, ping-pong, wrestling, and wushu (gongfu).

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue HSY 1999

• The total revenue in 1998 was $209.23 million.
• The sources of revenue were value increased tax, business tax, enterprise income tax, income
tax of joint ventures, personal income tax, resources tax, fixed property investment adjustment tax,
urban construction and maintenance tax, real estate tax, stamp tax, land use tax, land value increased
tax, vehicle use tax, slaughter tax, banquet tax, agricultural tax, special cropping tax, livestock tax,
cultivated land use tax, land contracting tax, amusement tax, and others.
• Revenues ($ million)
1990 93
1991 90
1992 100
1993 122
1994 98
1995 110
1996 161
1997 186
1998 209

12.2 Capital and recurrent • The total expenditure was $185,704,795.

expenditure per person

Notes and Sources 291

 Hohhot
• Total capital expenditure was $17,976,809 and urban infrastructure maintenance expenditure
$14,417,200. Expenditure on culture, education, and health was $40,802,029. Administrative xpenditure
was $20,579,780.
• The three-year average for 1996-1998 was $155,068,978.
12.3 Collection efficiency, property taxes NAV
12.4 Debt service charge Ibid.
No borrowings were done by the local government.
12.5 Employees HSY 1999
• There are 35,860 government employees.
12.6 Wages in budget
12.7 Contracted recurrent NAV
expenditure ratio
12.8 Business permits HSY 1999
• There were 5,459 or 25.9% more private enterprises than last year and 30,498 private businesses
or 12% more than last year. There were 5,459 registered private enterprises.
12.9 Enterprise revenues NAV
12.10 Computerization of functions NAV

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government

13.2 Delivery of annual plan • Total revenue was $209 million, which is 102.54% of the budget and 12.53% more than last year’s.
Expenditure was $186 million or 89.13% of the budget and 20.44% more than last year’s. The Urban
Area’s expenditure is $103 million or 86.24% of the budget.
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex People’s Congress of Hohhot
13.4 Independence from higher NAV
government
13.5 Elected and nominated councilors • Councilors or people’s representatives are all elected. About one fourths are female councilors and
three fourths are male.
13.6 Representation of minorities • The Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (IMAR) is Mongolian-dominated (11.5%), although Han is the
majority population group. There are more than 15 minorities in Hohhot. Minorities with more than 10,000
are Mongolians, Hui (Muslims) and Man. According to State policy, minorities have more rights, opportuni
ties, and priorities than the Han in minority-dominated areas. For example, minority families can have up to
two children in urban areas, whereas Han can only have one child; in universities, minority students
account for more than 20% of the total students. Minority officials consisting of 17.7% of the total officials
are given priority over Han officials. Officials above and equal to the level of the governors of a county
account for 38.6% of the total.
13.7 Planning applications refused NAV
13.8 Business satisfaction Ibid.
13.9 Consumer satisfaction Ibid.
13.10 Perception as place to live • Hohhot is an underdeveloped city. Urban infrastructure is poor and needs improvement, especially in
environment, wastewater, solid waste, roads and traffic, central heating, and housing. Most enterprises
are state owned which are operating at a loss and have laid off workers. Unemployment has risen.
13.11 Reported crimes Hohhot Police Bureau
13.12 Access to information Hohhot Daily, Hohhot Night Paper, Broadcasting, TV
13.13 Contact with the public People’s Congresses at different levels
13.14 Decentralized district units • Oil Refinery and Petrochemical Zone and Baita Chemical Engineering Zone, which are under the central
Government.

292 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Hong Kong
Indicators
1 POPULATION Since August 2000, the “resident population” approach has been adopted in place of the “extended de
facto” approach for compiling Hong Kong population figures. Revised population figures backdated to 1996
have been compiled and population-related figures revised accordingly. Notwithstanding the change, the
revised figures from 1996 onwards are broadly comparable with those of earlier years. Because of the
earlier timing of collating data for the Cities Data Book, population and population-related figures for Hong
Kong presented here refer to the old series.

1.1 Urbanization Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Urbanization Prospectus:
The 1996, Revision United Nations 1998, New York, p. 91
• The figure is a projection for 2000.
• Projection of the level of urbanization in Hong Kong between 1995 and 2030 in percent:
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
95.0 95.7 96.1 96.4 96.7 96.8 97.0 97.2

1.2 City population Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) Census and Statistics Department (CSD) 2000; Hong
Kong Annual Digest of Statistics (HK-ADS) 1999, pp. XIV and 4
• Population of Hong Kong between 1995 and 1999:
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
6,156,100 6,311,000 6,502,100 6,687,200 6,843,000

• The annual rate of population increase in 1999 was 2.3%.

1.3 Migration HKSAR Information Services Department (HKSAR-ISD) 1999; Hong Kong 1998, p.394
1.3.1 Other parts of the city
1.3.2 Other parts of the country • This refers to People’s Republic of China and Macau.
1.3.3 International migration
1.3.4 Total net migration • Formula: Total net migration = Immigrants–Emigrants
= 56,039 – 19,300
= 36,739
1.4 Population net density HKSAR-ISD 1999; Hong Kong: The Facts—Population;
Website of HKSAR-CSD http://www.info.gov.hk/censtatd/eng/hkstat/hkinf/population/pop5.htm
• The population net densities for 1994 and 1999 are 55.6 and 63.5, respectively.
1.5 Age pyramid HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p. 5
Hong Kong Monthly Digest of Statistics (HK-MDS) February 2000, p. 3
• In 1999, the age pyramid was
Male Female
(%) (%)
Persons 0–14 8.7 8.1
Persons 15–64 36.6 35.9
Persons 65 & over 5.0 5.7

1.6 Average household size HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p. 10

1.7 Household formation rate HKSAR-CSD website http://www.info.gov.hk/censtatd/eng/hkstat/hkinf/population/pop6.htm
1.8 Women-headed households HKSAR-CSD 1997; Population by census 1996
1.9 Minority groups HKSAR-CSD 1997
• There is no ethnic classification of population in the Demographic Statistics System. The following
1996 statistics reflect the population breakdown by first nationality: British (with right of abode in places
outside Hong Kong, China)–2.82%; Chinese (place of domicile other than Hong Kong, China)–1.04%;
Filipino–1.94%; Canadian–0.52%; American–0.47%; Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Sri Lankan–0.34%;
Portuguese–0.33%; Australian–0.33%; Japanese–0.31%; Thai–0.26%, and; Others–1.20%.
1.10 Household types HKSAR-CSD 1997
1.11 Informal settlements HKSAR-ISD 1999; Hong Kong: The Facts—Housing
HKSAR Housing Authority
• Informal settlements refer to squatter areas and illegal rooftop structures. There is no data on the
hectares of land occupied by informal settlements. In the fourth quarter of 1999, such structures numbered
95,900.
1.11.1 Population • This is December 1999 data.
1.11.2 Households CDB estimates
• This is September 1999 data.
1.11.3 Land occupied NAV

Notes and Sources 293

 Hong Kong
2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution HKSAR-ISD 1999; Hong Kong: The Facts—Population

• The average monthly income ($) in 1999 is top 20% 5,163 and above; next 20% 3,874–5,162; middle
20% 1,938–3,873; next bottom 20% 1,291–1,937; bottom 20% 0–1,290.
• In the 1996 Census, the upper limit of monthly salary was set at $129,110. Like many developed
countries, the salary of a CEO in major multinational corporations can be high. The quoted figure is only
for reference and cannot be regarded as the upper limit of monthly salary for the top 20% group.
2.2 Households below poverty line HKSAR-ISD 1999; HKSAR Social Welfare Department (HKSAR-SWD); Hong Kong Social and Economic
Trends (HKSET) 1999, p. 156
• There is no defined absolute poverty line.
• The HKSAR-SWD provides Comprehensive Social Security Assistance (CSSA) to households with
monthly income insufficient to meet recognized needs. The income limit differs from case to case.
• In 1998, the number of CSSA cases was old age 124,304; unemployed 31,942; single parent family
25,613; ill health 25,041; mentally ill 9,668; low earning 7,562; physically disabled 4,313; blind 550; deaf
210; others 3,616 – total 232,819.
• The number of CSSA cases does not equal the number of households below the poverty line. It only
represents the number of households which depend on government financial support.
2.3 Women-headed households
in poverty
2.4 Child labor • The Employment of Children Regulations made under the Employment Ordinance governs the employ-
ment of children in all economic sectors. A child means a person under 15 years who is prohibited from
working in industry.
• Children of 13 and 14 may be employed in nonindustrial establishments, if they attend full-time
schooling, if they have not yet completed Form III of secondary school education, and if they conform to
other conditions which aim to protect their safety, health, and welfare.
• Children under 13 are prohibited from employment. However, for art and training, the Commissioner
for Labour may give special permission for them to be employed as entertainers, subject to certain
stringent conditions as the Commissioner may specify.
2.5 Informal employment • Without official statistics on informal employment, the informal sector is assumed to be very small.
2.6 Unemployment HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p. 19.
2.7 Expenditure on poverty HKSAR-SWD 1999; HKSAR-CSD 1999; HKSET, p. 157
reduction (per poor person) • There is no objective definition of poverty.
• The HKSAR-SWD provides two main kinds of social security allowances: CSSA and Social
Security Allowance Schemes (SSA). In 1999 total expenditure was $2,293.78 million. The number of
cases for CSSA and SSA was 232,819 and 526,742, respectively.
• SSA includes disability allowance, old age allowance, criminal and law enforcement injuries
compensation, traffic accident victims assistance and emergency relief. See note 2.2 for details
about CSSA.
• The indicator represents the average allowance given per active case annually by the Social Welfare
Department. It is not equal to the expenditure on poverty reduction per poor person. In addition, an active
case may involve a single person or a family, in which the number of family members varies.

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p. 259
Cities Data Book (CDB) Formula: Persons per hospital bed
= Total population/ Total hospital beds = 6,687,200 / 32,836
= 204
3.2 Child mortality HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p. 4
3.3 Life expectancy at birth Ibid.
• CDB estimate – average of figures given by the consultant.
3.4 Infectious diseases mortality HKSAR Department of Health, Infectious Diseases Registry
3.5 Family planning • HKSAR Family Planning Association, “Knowledge, Attitude and Practice Survey on Family Planning”
1997, a territory study undertaken by the Association every 5 years.
3.6 Adult literacy rate HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p. 231
• The rate reflects the percentage of population aged 15 and over with primary education or above.
3.7 School enrollment rates HKSAR-ISD 1999; Hong Kong: The Facts—Education
• Secondary school education can be divided into two groups. Aged 12-14 equals years 1-3, while aged
15-16 equals years 4-5 in secondary school education.
3.7.1 Primary schools
3.7.2 Secondary schools The CDB estimate is derived from HK-ADS 1998.

294 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Hong Kong
3.8 Tertiary graduates The CDB estimate is based on the figures given by the consultant.
General Household Survey Section (2); HKSAR-CSD
3.9 Median years of education • The Government of HKSAR provides 9 years compulsory education for all Hong Kong, China citizens.
3.10 School children per classroom • The figure for primary schools is an estimate.

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita • The CDB used Method B in deriving the figure.
4.2 Employment by industry HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p. 21
4.3 Household expenditure Ibid., Household Expenditure Survey
• Data are based on the results of the 1994/95 Household Expenditure Survey conducted by CSD.
• Indicator 4.3.4 “Others” is an aggregate of fuel and light (2.4%), alcoholic drinks and tobacco (1.1%),
clothing and footwear (7.4%), durable goods (3.8%), miscellaneous goods (4.6%), and miscellaneous
services (12.5%).
4.4 Investment by sector HKSAR-CSD 2000; Gross Domestic Product 1961–1999, pp. 34-35
• Gross domestic fixed capital formation (GDFCF) in 1998 equaled $49,997 million.
• GDFCF for physical infrastructure in 1998 was $9,937 million. This includes nonresidential buildings
and other constructions.
• GDFCF for housing in 1998 was $8,066.44 million.
• GDFCF for services in 1998 was $11,186.27 million. This includes transfer costs of land and buildings
and real estate developers’ margins (REDM). Transfer costs are the expenditure incurred for transfer of
ownership of land and buildings, which includes stamp duties, legal fees, and agent’s commissions.
REDM requires taking the sales value of property less the sum of the current cost of the land which the
property stands on and the project development outlays.
• GDFCF for others in 1998 was $20,807.20 million. This includes investment in all machinery and
equipment.
4.5 Tourism HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p. 177, 179; HK-MDS February 2000, p. 97
• In 1999 10,678,640 tourists visited Hong Kong.
4.6 Major projects HKSAR Works Bureau; Government of HKSAR “Introduction to the Estimates” 2000-01; website of
Government Information Center at http://www.info.gov.hk
• The Hong Kong International Airport and the Airport Core Projects for $9.076 billion
• Priority Rail Projects for $15.247 billion including the West Rail (Phase I), KCRC Tsim Sha Tsui
extension and Ma On Shan Rail, Tseung Kwan O Extension and Sheung Shui to Lok Ma Chau Spur Line.
• The Strategic Sewage Disposal Scheme Phase I for $1.033 billion
• Science Park at Pak Shek Kok – Phase I for $308.57 million
• Container Terminal No. 9 for $348.60 million
4.7 Cost of stay • The CDB estimate is based on ADB and UN daily subsistence allowances.
4.8 Corporate headquarters • HKSAR Industry Department 1999; Survey of Regional Representative by Overseas Companies in Hong
Kong 1998, p. 14

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure HKSAR-CSD, Industrial Production Statistics Section

• In 1998, the total private sector R&D expenditure equaled $181.71 million.
5.2 Telephone traffic: HKSAR Office of the Telecommunication Authority (HKSAR-OTA)
million calls per year • The CDB estimate is based on data given by the consultant.
5.3 Internet hosts per thousand Ibid.; CDB estimates
population • In December 1999, the estimated number of Internet users was 1,859,245. This figure was based on
information from the Internet Service Providers (ISPs). It does not include users who are not customers of the
licensed ISPs, such as users of the campus networks in the universities.

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p. 340

6.2 Land developer multiplier • It is difficult to define urban fringe and undeveloped land.
6.3 Developer contributions • Developer contributions are not legislated.
6.4 Median time for HKSAR Planning Department
planning permission • According to section 16(3) of the Town Planning Ordinance, the Town Planning Board shall, within
two months of the receipt of the application, consider an application.
6.5 Vacant land with planning NAV
permission

Notes and Sources 295

 Hong Kong
6.6 Public open space HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p. 340
Formula: Proportion of public open space = Open space/ Total developed land
6.7 Vacant government land Theoretically, all land without clear entitlement to individuals or companies belongs to the Government of
HKSAR. This includes land such as woodland, grass, and scrub and will over-estimate the quantity
of usable land owned by the Government.
• In 1998, the Government disposed of 1,384,629 m2 of land through public auction or tender.
6.8 Prime commercial land price • There has not been a land sale in prime commercial areas since 1997 because land is scarce in
these areas.
• 1998 figure
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs HKSAR Rating and Valuation Department (HKSAR-RVD)
• Offices are classified into three grades. Grade A are of the highest quality in facilities and estate
management while Grade C provide only basic finishes, restricted layout, and average estate management.
• Indicator 6.9.1 represents the average rents per m2 per month in Central, the central
business district of Hong Kong, for private grade A offices in 1999.
• The average rents for grade B and grade C offices in 1999 were $55 and $40 per m2, respectively.
6.10 Expenditure on development HKSAR Territory Development Department
• The figure only represents the expenditure on land development projects in HKSAR.

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type Census Planning Section 2000; HKSAR-CSD

CDB estimates
• The classification of dwellings is different from that in the CDB.
Housing is classified as public rental housing, subsidized sale flats, private housing, nondomestic
housing, and public/private temporary housing.
• In September 1998, the proportion of each dwelling type was Public Rental Housing (33.6%);
Subsidized Sale (12.2%); Private Housing (50.6%); Nondomestic Housing (0.8%); and Public/Private
Temporary Housing (2.7%).
• Temporary housing in Hong Kong refers to transit centers, temporary housing areas, and interim
housing.
7.2 Tenure type CDB estimates
7.3 House price to income ratio HKSAR-RVD; HKSAR-ISD 1999; HK: The Facts—Population
• As shown in 7.5, average floor area per person for private permanent flats is 16.4 m2. It is
estimated that the median flat area for a household with four family members is 60 m2.
Formula: Estimated median house price = 60 m2 * $6,032.50 = $361,949.83
• Median annual household income = $30,985.00
7.4 House rent to income ratio HKSAR-RVD; HKSAR-ISD HK: The Facts – Population 1999; HKSAR Annual Report of Housing Department,
1998/99
• The estimated median flat area is 34 m2, which is the standard flat size of public rental housing for a
household with three to four family members.
Formula: Estimated median annual rent for public flats:
= $177.82 * 12
= $2,133.94
Estimated median annual rent for private flats:
= 34 m2 * $22.34 * 12
= $9,113.14
• In 7.1, it shows that the percentage of public rental housing is 33.6% while private housing and others
is 66.4%. The percentage of private rental housing is not available.
Using a weighted average method, the house rent to income ratio is = [($2,133.94 * 0.336) + ($9,113.14
* 0.664)] / $30,985.00 = 21.8%
7.5 Floor area per person Administrative Record of Housing Department, HKSAR (HKSAR-ARHD); HKSAR-RVD; HKSAR-CSD 2000
• The average floor area per person refers to public rental housing.
• For subsidized sales flats and private permanent housing, the average floor areas are 14 m2 and 16.4
m2, respectively.
7.6 Housing in compliance CDB estimates
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio HKSAR Hong Kong Monetary Authority
• The figure reflects the mortgage to credit ratio in the three-tier banking system in 1999.
This does not include quasi-government institutions, credit unions, trust companies, insurance companies,
and pension funds.
7.8 Houses with mortgages NAV
7.9 Mortgage loans for women NAV

296 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Hong Kong
7.10 Housing production HKSAR-ARHD; HKSAR-RVD
• There were 58,540 residential flats built in 1998. Figures showing whether the houses were built on
new land or land converted from other uses are not available.
• 1999 figure
7.10.1 On new (vacant) land
7.10.2 Conversions or infill NAP
from other uses
7.11 Squatter resettlement or HKSAR Housing Bureau
normalization • About 1,250 persons were resettled in 1998.
• Informal settlements held 249,000 people.
7.12 Net housing outlays by HKSAR Housing Authority “Housing Authority Annual Report” 1999
government (per person) • The figure represents public expenditure on housing in 1998. The mid-year population in
1998 was 6,502,100.
• The Hong Kong Housing Authority is a public organization which provides most of public housing. It also
builds subsidized flats for the low to medium income group. The programs are called Home Ownership
Scheme (HOS), Private Sector Participation Scheme (PSPS), Tenants Purchase Scheme (TPS), and Home
Purchase Loan Scheme (HPLS).
• The Housing Authority also manages temporary housing, namely transit centers, interim housing, and
temporary housing areas for victims of natural disasters and those whose eligibility is being assessed for
rehousing to permanent public estates.
7.13 Homeless people • The figure represents the total number of homeless people in September 1999.

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections HKSAR Water Supplies Department “Water Supplies Department Annual Report” (HKSAR-WSD-WSDAR)
1998/99, p. 82
8.1.2 Investment per capita Ibid., p.83
• Total capital investment in 1999 was $468.8 million.
8.1.3 Operations and
maintenance expenditures Ibid., pp.90-98
8.1.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.1.5 Output per staff: water ADB “Second Water Utilities Data Book”
supplied per employee
• CDB estimates
8.1.6 List of providers HKSAR-WSD (100%)
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water Ibid.
a. Percentage unaccounted
for water
b. Interruptions in water Ibid.
service • There were 1,935 main bursts in 1999.
• The total time of emergency supply interruptions from main bursts equaled 15,678 hours and the
average duration of each emergency supply interruption was 8.15 hours in 1999.
• The area and population affected are usually small and limited in each normal case of emergency
supply interruption.
8.1.8 Consumption of water HKSAR-WSD-WSDAR 1998/99, p. 80
per capita
8.1.9 Median price of water, NAP
scarce season

8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections HKSAR-ISD; Hong Kong: The Facts—Water, Power and Gas Supplies
• CLP Power Hong Kong Limited and Hongkong Electric Company Limited have 1.8 million and 513,000
customers, respectively.
8.2.2 Investment per capita CLP Holdings Annual Report 1998 (CLPH-AR) 1998, p. 36
• The figures in 8.2 are from CLP Power Hong Kong Limited, which provides 72% of Hong Kong’s
electricity.
• Capital expenditure in 1999 was $405.9 million.
8.2.3 Operations and Ibid., p.32
maintenance expenditure • The operating costs in 1999 were $297.7 million.
8.2.4 Cost recovery Ibid., p.31-32
• Total revenue from the sales of electricity in 1999 was $3,102.3 million.
• Total recurrent expenditure in 1999 was $1,455.6 million.

Notes and Sources 297

 Hong Kong
8.2.5 Output per staff: megawatt Ibid., p.36
hours of electricity supplied HKSAR-ISD; Hong Kong: The Facts—Water, Power and Gas Supplies
per employee • The company’s workforce was 4,420 in 1999.
• The local maximum demand was 5,304 MW.
8.2.6 List of providers • There are 2 electricity providers in Hong Kong. They are CLP Power Hong Kong Limited and the
Hongkong Electric Company Limited.
• CLP Power Hong Kong Limited supplies electricity to Kowloon and the New Territories, including
Lantau, Cheung Chau, and most of the outlying islands. In 1999, local sales amounted to 24.9 billion
kWh, which is 72% of the total consumption.
• Hongkong Electric Company Limited supplies electricity to Hong Kong Island, Ap Lei Chau, and
Lamma Island. In 1999, local sales amounted to 9,693 million kWh, which is 28% of the total
consumption.
• The electricity supply is 50 Hz AC, 220V (single phase) and 380/220V (three-phase).
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity NAV

8.3 Sewerage/wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections HKSAR Drainage Services Department (HKSAR-DSD)
8.3.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
• Formula: Investment per capita = Total investment/Total population
= $258,221,114.11/6,687,200
= $38.6
8.3.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure • Formula: Operations and maintenance expenditure per capita in 1999
= Total operations and maintenance expenditure / Total population
= $142,021,613.11/6,687,200
= $21.24
8.3.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
• Formula : Total revenue / Total recurrent expenditure
= 740,000,000 / 1,100,000,000
8.3.5. Output per staff: wastewater Ibid.
discharged or treated per • Wastewater discharged or treated in 1998/99 = 795 million tons
employee • There were 2,150 employees in HKSAR-DSD in 1999.
8.3.6 List of providers • HKSAR-DSD is responsible for 95% of sewerage treatment.

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections CDB estimates
8.4.2 Investment per capita Cable & Wireless HKT Telephone Limited Annual Report (C&W HKTL–AR) 1998
• The figure in this section reflects the situation of Cable & Wireless HKT only. The company is
the largest fixed telephone network provider.
8.4.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditures
8.4.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.4.5 Output per staff: thousands Ibid.
of calls per employee • There were 3,592,255 connections to HKT services in 1999. This represents 252 lines per employee.
8.4.6 List of providers • There are seven fixed telecommunications network services licensees. They are Cable & Wireless
HKT Telephone Limited, Hutchison Communications Limited, New T&T Hong Kong Limited, New World
Telephone Limited, SmarTone Mobile Communications Limited, Hong Kong Cable Television Limited, and
China Digital satNet Limited.
• At present, only Cable & Wireless HKT Telephone Limited, Hutchison Communications Limited, New
T&T Hong Kong Limited, and New World Telephone Limited provide fixed-line telephone services.

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with HKSAR Food and Environmental Hygiene Department (HKSAR-FEHD)
regular service
8.5.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.5.3 Operations and HKSAR-FEHD
maintenance expenditure • Total operations and maintenance expenditure per person for waste collection in 1999 was $24.7.
The expenditure refers to the expenses for street sweeping and refuse collection services.
8.5.4 Cost recovery • This indicator is not applicable in Hong Kong. The Food and Environmental Hygiene Department is
responsible for all domestic solid waste collection. This is a public service provided by the Government of
HKSAR and no fee should be charged.

298 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Hong Kong
8.5.5 Output per staff: HKSAR-FEHD
collected per employee • In 2000, the total of solid waste collected was 2,200,950 tons and in 1999 it was 2,129,673 tons.
The department has about 4,500 staff directly involved in sweeping and 2,200 staff in refuse collection.
8.5.6 List of providers • HKSAR-FEHD is the main domestic solid waste collection agent. It replaces the former Urban Services
Department and Regional Services Department in 2000.
• There are also private contractors operating independently of the Government of HKSAR.

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated 2000 HKSAR-CSD; 1999 HK-ADS, p.332.

• Solid waste can be classified as commercial, domestic, industrial, construction and demolition, special
waste, and recovered material. If the aggregate amount is used, the number will rise to 1.14 tons per
person.
9.2 Household sewage disposal HKSAR-DSD
• Methods such as septic tanks or pan collection are not used.
• Nearly all households are connected to the central sewage disposal system. The Strategic Sewage
Disposal Scheme Phase I, costing $1.02 billion, aims at improving sewage collection and treatment in
older urban areas.
9.3 Wastewater treated Ibid.
9.4 Percent BOD removed Ibid.
from wastewater • There is no aggregate figure available.
• 90% and 73% of BOD can be removed by biological treatment and chemical treatment, respectively.
9.5 Air pollution concentrations HKSAR Environmental Protection Department (HKSAR-EPD)
• The data reflect the air pollution in the Central and Western districts, which EPD classifies as general
and residential regions.
• Instead of NOx, the figure shows the concentration of NO2.
• The number of days exceeding WHO standards for SPM and Pb per annum is not available. In 1998,
the annual mean of SPM and Pb was 77 µg/m3 and 61µg/m3, respectively.
9.6 Energy usage per person HKSAR-CSD Industrial Production Statistics Section; HKSAR-CSD “Annual Report of Hong Kong Energy
Statistics” 1999
9.7 Noise complaints 2000 HKSAR-CSD; HK-ADS 1999, p. 337
• The Noise Control Ordinance governs noise from domestic premises and public places, construction
sites, intruder alarm systems, motor vehicles, and noisy products.
• The EPD and the Police Force of Hong Kong are responsible for noise complaints. Complaints can be
written or telephoned to the EPD local hotline or to a local police station.
• Any person who commits an offense under the ordinance is liable to penalty or imprisonment
depending on the offense.
9.8 Disasters in last 10 years • There has been no natural disaster for the last 10 years.
9.9 Method of solid waste disposal HKSAR-EPD
• In 1998, about 1.56 million tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) were recovered, representing 33%
of the total MSW or 13.8% of total solid waste.
• There has been no incinerator since 1997.

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel HKSAR Transport Department, Third Comprehensive Transport Study (HKSAR-TD-TCTS) 1997
The data were obtained in 1997/98.
Private automobiles include both private cars and motorcycles.
10.2 Median travel time Ibid.
The data were obtained in 1998.
10.3 Expenditure on road HKSAR Website of Transport Bureau, http://www.info.gov.hk/tb/press/keystat/3.htm
infrastructure • Total transport expenditures in 1996, 1997, and 1998 were $891.12 million, $603.37 million, and
$491.78 million, respectively. The three-year average of total transport expenditure is $662.42 million.
• The total transport expenditure includes expenditure by the Highway Department, Civil Engineering
Department, and Transport Department for all transport related projects such as the airport core program,
bridges, flyovers, ferry piers, and roads.
10.4 Road congestion HKSAR-TD-TCTS 1997
• The figure only reflects road congestion on the main roads and highways during morning peak hours.
If secondary roads are included, the figure will be much smaller.
• The data were obtained in 1998.

Notes and Sources 299

 Hong Kong
10.5 Automobile ownership HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-MDS February 2000, p.90; HKSAR-CSD Demographic Statistics Section
• In Hong Kong, the minimum driving age is 18.
• In 2000, there were 5,417,300 people above 18.
• 574,193 motor vehicles were registered in 2000.
10.6 Cost recovery from fares Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway (MTR) Corporation Annual Report 1999
• CDB has opted to use MTR for this indicator. The Kowloon-Cantoon Railway (KCR) is the other main
public transportation system.
10.7 Port/air activity HKSAR-CSD 2000; HKSAR-ADS 1999, pp. 158-159; HKSAR-CSD 2000, HK-MDS February 2000, p. 79
• The figures are monthly averages in 1998.
• The Port of Hong Kong has one of the highest turnover rates in the world. There are eight container
terminals.
• Hong Kong’s international airport is the Hong Kong International Airport.
• In 1999, there were 6,974 commercial flights leaving each month.
10.8 Goods carried HKSAR-CSD 2000, HK-ADS 1999, pp.82-83; HKSAR-CSD 2000, HK-MDS February 2000, pp.82-83
• The amount of cargo carried by river was 39,688,000 tons in 1999, which is not included in the
indicator.
• Amount of goods carried by various transport modes in 1999:
(millions of revenue tons per annum)
Road: 38,553,000; Rail: 466,000; Air: 1,976,000 (provisional figure)
10.9 Transport fatalities HKSAR Transport Department, Road Safety and Standards Division 1999; Road Traffic Accident Statistics
1998

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events HKSAR Leisure and Cultural Services Department (HKSAR-LCSD)
• The five largest public events in 1999:
Event Attendance
Lunar New Year Fireworks Display 577,000
The Hong Kong Flower Show 400,000
National Day Fireworks Display 380,000
Egyptian Treasures from the British Museum 310,000
22nd Hong Kong International Film Festival 188,000

11.2 Attendance at galleries HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p.318

and museums Venue Attendance
Hong Kong Science Museum 567,289
Hong Kong Museum of Art 541,014
Hong Kong Railway Museum 425,820
Sam Tung Uk Museum 399,523
Hong Kong Space Museum 334,839

11.3 Participation in sports HKSAR-LCSD

• Popular sports include swimming, windsurfing, canoeing, tennis, table-tennis, badminton, squash,
cycling, basketball, volleyball, and hiking.
• LCSD promotes “Sport-For-All”. It organizes inexpensive monthly sports activities and runs the
majority of public sports facilities. Around 9,000 activities are organized per year to meet the public’s
needs.
• LCSD also organizes sports programs for the elderly, overweight children, and people with disabilities.

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, p. 187

• The main direct taxes are the profits and salary taxes. Indirect taxes include the bets and sweeps
tax, entertainment tax, hotel accommodation tax, property tax and stamp duties, air passenger depar-
ture tax, cross harbor tunnel passage tax, duties, general rates, motor vehicle taxes, and royalties and
concessions.
• Hong Kong is an independent economic entity. Transfers here do not equal funding from the central
Government of the PRC. It refers to transfers from funds and reserves of the Government of HKSAR such
as the Land Fund, Capital Works Reserve Fund, Capital Investment Fund, and Loan Fund.
12.2 Capital and recurrent HKSAR Finance Bureau (HKSAR-FB)
expenditure per person • Figures are on a per capita basis. The total recurrent expenditure and capital expenditure in 1999
were $21,209.9 million and $28,250.8 million, respectively.

300 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Hong Kong
12.3 Collection efficiency, HKSAR Inland Revenue Department Annual Report 1998-99, pp. 9-11
property taxes • In 1999, the property tax collected equaled $172.18 million. Property tax accounted for 17.6% of the
“Total Earnings & Profits Tax” or 13.2% of the “Total Revenue Collected.”
• There is no separate figure for the collection cost of property tax. The overall cost of collection of
taxes is 1.21%.
• There is high compliance with the property tax. Indeed, the Inland Revenue Department has an
effective investigation and field audit unit. In 1999, there were 4,642 cases of property compliance
checks with understated rental income of $25.05 million. Back tax and penalties assessed equaled
$3 million.
12.4 Debt service charge • The Government of HKSAR has no national debt and bond obligation.
12.5 Employees HKSAR-CSD 2000; HK-ADS 1999, pp. 5, 21
12.6 Wages in budget Ibid., p.188
12.7 Contracted recurrent NAV
expenditure ratio
12.8 Business permits HKSAR Company Registry website, http://www.info.gov.hk/cr/key/chart2.htm
• Instead of business permits issued, the data show the number of companies incorporated during
the past five years.
• The number of companies incorporated during 1994 and 1998:
1994: 42,723; 1995: 33,008; 1996: 49,734; 1997: 49,275; 1998: 29,947
12.9 Enterprise revenues Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC) Annual Report 1999; Kowloon Cantoon Railway Corporation
(KCRC) Annual Report 1999
• MTRC and KCRC are 2 major public corporations.
• In 1999, the retained profit of MTRC was $688 million and KCRC’s net profit after tax was $211.6
million.
12.10 Computerization of functions HKSAR Information Technology Services Department (HKSAR-ITSD) website http://www.info.gov.hk/itsd/
• ITSD was set up in 1990 to hasten computerization and the use of information technology in
both government departments and the private sector.
• The government IT expenditure in 1999 was $261.8 million. The workstation ratio was 424 per 1,000
civil servants in December 1999.

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government The major functions of the district boards are public enquiry service, emergency services, rural planning
and improvement strategy, and licensing and building management.
13.2 Delivery of annual plan HKSAR-FB
• The budgeted expenditure on the annual plan was $32,051.44 million and the actual expenditure was
$30,903.39 million in 1999.
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex HKSAR Registration and Electoral Office website http://www.info.gov.hk/eac/english/update/rlce1609.htm
• The overall voter participation rate is 53.29%.
13.4 Independence from higher The Basic Law of Hong Kong:
government “The HKSAR shall be a local administrative region of the PRC, which shall enjoy a high degree of autonomy
and come directly under the Central People’s Government.” (Article 12)
• “The Central People’s Government shall be responsible for the foreign affairs relating to the HKSAR. “
(Article 13)
• “The Central People’s Government shall be responsible for the defense of the HKSAR. The Government
of HKSAR shall be responsible for the maintenance of public order in the Region.” (Article 14)
• “The HKSAR shall be vested with executive power.” (Article 16)
• “The HKSAR shall be vested with legislative power.” (Article 17)
• “The HKSAR shall be vested with independent judicial power, including that of final adjudication.”
(Article 19)
13.5 Elected and nominated HKSAR Legislative Council and Executive Council
councilors • The figure provided shows the situation in the Legislative Council.
• For the Executive Council of HKSAR, all 14 members are appointed by the Chief Executive.
13.6 Representation of minorities • As shown in 1.9, Hong Kong does not have any major minority group.
13.7 Planning applications refused HKSAR Planning Department
• This is 1999/2000 data.
• In 2000, there were 900 applications of which 154 were rejected.
13.8 Business satisfaction Oriental Daily News, Hong Kong 21 March 2000
• There are no local surveys or studies about business satisfaction with local government services.
• The Political and Economic Risk Consultancy Ltd. interviewed expatriates in 12 Asian countries to
investigate the level of bureaucracy in local government. According to the survey, the Government of
HKSAR has the lowest bureaucracy among the 12 countries.

Notes and Sources 301

 Hong Kong
13.9 Consumer satisfaction • All government departments in Hong Kong have their own performance pledge, which states the
services delivered, performance standards and targets, the monitoring system, and customer satisfaction
level. Reports are published every year by individual departments to report their performance for the year.
• For more information about performance pledges, please visit their websites or email:
pubenq@censtatd.gov.hk or write to ask for Performance Pledge Reports.
13.10 Perception as place to live
13.11 Reported crimes HKSAR-CSD 2000, HK-ADS 1999, p. 302; HKSAR-CSD 2000, HKMDS February, p. 150
• In 1999, the number of reported crimes per 1,000 people was 11.22. The number of murders, drug
related crimes, and thefts reported per 1,000 people was 0.009, 0.33, and 3.6, respectively.
13.12 Access to information • HKSAR-CSD publishes various statistical reports such as HK-ADS and Hong Kong Trade Statistics.
For details, please visit the website of the department at http: www.info.gov.hk/censtatd/eng
• All government bureaus and departments of HKSAR issue annual reports for the public. All information
can be accessed by visiting the HKSAR Information Center at http://www.info.gov.hk/eindex.htm
• Most of the departments have access to information officers, who are responsible for providing
information requested by individuals or companies.
13.13 Contact with the public Public Information Division, Legislative Council Secretariat; HKSAR Home Affairs Department
NAV
• The Government of HKSAR periodically collects public opinion and explains the policies through various
channels.
13.14 Decentralized district units Website of HKSAR Home Affairs Department, http://www.info.gov.hk/had/
• The major responsibilities of district councils are district administration, public enquiry service,
emergency services, rural planning and improvement strategy, licensing, and building management.
They also help new immigrants and organize overseas domestic helper centers.
• For more information about performance pledges, please visit their websites or e-mail :
pubenq@censtatd.gov.hk or write to ask for Performance Pledge Reports.

302 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Kathmandu
Indicators
1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization Udle/GTZ “Towards National Urban Strategy— A Discussion Paper (Udle/GTZ: TNUS-ADP), Vol. I Text 1998
1.2 City population
1.2.1 Resident population National Research Associates (NRA) of Nepal: Nepal District Profile (NDP) (A District-wise
of municipal area Socio-Techno-Economic Profile along with a Comprehensive National Profile) 1999
• The population estimation for 1998 is based on the 1991 census.
1.2.2 Population during daytime IUCN 1995: Regulating Growth—Kathmandu Valley. National Conservation Strategy Implementation
working hours Project-National Planning Commission/Nepal (IUCN: RG – KVNCSIP-NPC/Nepal 1995)
• In Regulating Growth: Kathmandu Valley, the floating population is estimated at 50,000.
1.2.3 Annual rate of population Udle/GTZ: TNUS-ADP, Vol. I Text 1998
increase • The estimation is based on the 1991 census.
1.3 Migration Cities Data Book (CDB) estimates
1.4 Population net density IUCN: RG – KVNCSIP-NPC/Nepal 1995; Housing and Urban Development in Nepal—Analysis and Design of
Participatory Development Process (HUDN-ADPDP), Jibgar Joshi 1998
• This is calculated from the net residential area (mixed use + planned residential area and land occupied
by squatters) to the total population.
1.5 Age pyramid His Majesty’s Government (HMG) Nepal Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) Population Census—Urban
Table; National Planning Commission Secretariat (NPCS) 1994
The CDB estimate is based on the data submitted by the consultant.
1.6 Average household size NRA of Nepal: NDP (A District-wise Socio-Techno-Economic Profile along with a Comprehensive National
Profile) 1999
1.7 Household formation rate Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning (MHPP) Report on Urban Indicator Program, Kathmandu 1995;
HUDN-ADPDP, Jibgar Joshi 1999
1.8 Women-headed households HMG Nepal, CBS National Planning Commission Secretariat (CBS-NPCS)
• These are calculated by the expert from the CBS by using primary data from the Nepal Living Standard
Survey Report 1996
1.9 Minority groups HMG Nepal, CBS-NPCS 1991
• The Kirats minority group covers 10% of the total population. They have a population of 56,166.
The minority group’s ethnic groups are the Limbu, Rai, Gurung, Thakali, Tamang, and Magar.
1.10 Household types HMG Nepal, CBS-NPCS Population Census—Urban Tables 1994
• CBS has categorized household sizes into nine groups according to the number of persons per
household.
1.10.1 Single person
1.10.2 Adults only NAV
1.10.3 Single parent family NAV
1.10.4 Adults and children CDB estimates

1.11 Informal settlements Condition of Low Income Settlements in Kathmandu Action Research in Squatter Settlements, Tanaka
Masako 1997
Ramhity, Kathmandu Metropolitan City (KMC) Ward 6: 729; Maharajgunj, KMC Ward 3: 633; Balaju
Chakrapath, KMC Ward 16: 531;Sankhamul: 504; Bansighat, Thapathali: 392

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution CBS

• The CDB estimate is based on the consultant’s data.
• This is calculated by the expert from CBS by using primary data from the Nepal Living Standard
Survey Report 1996.
2.2 Households below HMG Nepal CBS-NPCS
poverty line • The poverty line of $95 a month per household has been derived from the income distribution stated
in section 2.1.
2.3 Women-headed households Ibid.
in poverty • Out of 14.36% of women-headed households in Kathmandu City, 97% are estimated to be below the
poverty line.
• These are calculated by the expert from CBS by using primary data from the Nepal Living Standard
Survey Report 1996.
2.4 Child labor
2.5 Informal employment Ibid.

Notes and Sources 303

 Kathmandu
• This is calculated by the expert from CBS by using primary data from the Nepal Living
Standard Survey Report 1996.
2.6 Unemployment
2.7 Expenditure on poverty
reduction (per poor person)

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed Ministry of Health and SOGREAH for preparing the proposal on Kathmandu Hazardous Waste Management
1997 and primary data collection from additional private hospitals

Year Number of Hospitals Hospital Beds/Person

Public Private Total
1986 1,353 40 1,393 225
1997 2,000 1,077 3,077 197
1998 2,100 1,177 3,277 197

3.2 Child mortality M.P. Shrestha and I. Shrestha, 1999. Poverty and Development Paradigm: People’s Perspective. Paper
presented in IPHN/ WHOSouth Asia Dialogue on Poverty and Health, Bangalore, India (15-18 November
1999)
• There is no specific figure for child mortality in Kathmandu, however, a report on “ Poverty and
Development Paradigm; People’s Perspective “ estimated the child mortality rate as 9% in Kathmandu.
3.3 Life expectancy at birth NRA of Nepal: NDP (A District-wise Socio-Techno-Economic Profile along with a Comprehensive National
Profile) 1999
• The given figure is for Kathmandu District.
3.4 Infectious diseases mortality • The data collected are from Teku Hospital (the only hospital for infectious diseases) and Kanti Hospital
(the only hospital for children) records, 1998/99.
3.5 Family planning CDB estimates
3.6 Adult literacy rate “A Study on Willingness to Pay and Ability to Pay of Water Users in Kathmandu Valley,” New Era 1998
3.7 School enrollment rates District Education Office
• School children per grade is quoted from the District Education Office Record and the age-wise
population is projected to 1998 by using the formula (Pt=P0*ert) from the Population Census 1991.
The age groups considered for primary school enrollment and secondary enrollment are 5–10 and 11–15,
respectively, as per the Nepalese standard in the Nepal Living Standard Survey Report, 1996.
• The data for 1998 are projected from the 1991Census using the above formula, and the figure
mentioned here is estimated.
3.8 Tertiary graduates • Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 11 August 2000
Consultant calculated raw data from CBS.
3.9 Median years Tribhuvan University Central Department for Population Studies: “Employment Situation in Nepal,”
of education Kathmandu, Nepal 1997
• These figures are based on the current education system in Nepal.
3.10 School children per classroom Ministry of Education—Educational Statistics of Nepal 1995, 1996 and 1997
Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 5 July 2000
• The quoted figure is derived from HUDN-ADPDP, Jibgar Joshi 1999.
• From discussion with an officer from the District Education Office, there is no system to evaluate the
number of students per classroom. Though the Office prepares an annual database about schools, it does
not include this indicator in the survey format. Generally there are more students per classroom in public
schools than in private ones. The number of students per classroom is calculated as the ratio of the
number of students in primary and secondary levels to the number of primary and secondary schools.
1995 1996 1997
Primary 42 41 40
Secondary 25 24 23

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita The CDB estimate is based on the consultant’s data.
4.2 Employment by industry Udle/GTZ: TNUS-ADP, Vol. I Text 1998
• Employment by industry is quoted from the 1991census. It classifies the economically active population
engaged in different economic sectors as follows:

304 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Kathmandu
ISIC Division
Industry Population
(No.) (%)
1. Agriculture, forestry & fisheries 8,556 6
2. Mining & quarrying 154 0
3. Manufacturing 19,763 14
4. Electricity, gas & water 1,576 1
5. Construction 2,721 2
6. Commerce 34,810 25
7. Transport & communication 5,512 4
8. Finance & business services 4,503 3
9. Personal & commercial services 55,311 40
10. Others 1,230 1
11. Not stated 5,831 4

4.3 Household expenditure Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB) Quarterly Economic Bulletin. NRB Vol. XXXIII (1 and 2) 1998; Family Budget
Survey 1994
• Household Expenditure
Item Expenditure (1) Expenditure (2)
(%) (%)
Food 51.53 59.96
Housing 15.14 14.62
Transport & comm. 4.21 2.40
Others 29.12 23.02

Price Index of 1983 and NRA of Nepal: NDP(A District-wise Socio-Techno-Economic Profile along with a
Comprehensive National Profile)
4.4 Investment by sector Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC)—Management Information Report 1999; Nepal Telecommuni-
cation Corporation (NTC)—Management Information Report 1999
• The investment per person for Kathmandu City since 1998 has been separated from the investment for
the district.
($)
Roads 0.516
Water Supply and Sanitation 3.54
Total 4.06
Housing 4.00
Electricity 0.38
Education 0.14
Health 8.45
Total 8.97 per person

Other Sports and Culture—$13.4 per person (because of the 1999 South Asian Games in Kathmandu, the
amount spent in this sector was high in 1998).
($)
Tourism 8.14
Vocational Training 0.29
Local Development 5.26
Industry 0.076
Total 27.17

4.5 Tourism HMG Department of Tourism (DOT) 1998: Summary of Tourism Statistics, 1997 vs 1998, Ministry of
Tourism and Civil Aviation (MOTCA), Singh Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal
These are 1998 figures and do not include Indian tourists.
4.6 Major projects Project Coordinator, Kathmandu Urban Development Project (KUDP); Project Directorate, ADB; Nepal
Electricity Authority (NEA): Corporate Data Base, Monitoring and Evaluation Department Planning
Directorate 1993; Ministry of Population and Environment 1998/99; Bagmati Area Sewerage Construction/
Rehabilitation Project; HMG Nepal Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning (MHPP), Department of
Housing and Urban Development (DHUD), Kathmandu Valley Town Development Committee (KVTDC): “Land
Pooling in Kathmandu Valley,” S. B. Sanghachhe 1999

Notes and Sources 305

 Kathmandu
Project $ million
HMG/Nepal Electricity Strengthening Project 0.20
Kathmandu Urban Development Project, 1994–1999 8.00
Second Road Improvement Project (this includes only the expenditure 0.30
in road sections present in Kathmandu City), 1990–1997
Institutional Strengthening Project for Environmental Monitoring 0.58
Bagmati Area Sewerage Development Project, 3.80
1996 (ongoing)
Land Pooling Projects 8.98
Dallu Land Pooling Project, 1978 (ongoing) –
Gongabu Land Pooling Project, 1989–1997 –
Sinamangal Land Pooling Project, 1995 (ongoing) –
Gopi Krishna Land Pooling Project, 1995 (ongoing) –

4.7 Cost of stay HMG MOTCA, DOT: Tourism Statistics (unpublished report) 1998
• These are CDB estimates from ADB and UN sources.
• The cost of stay for tourists is $44, whereas for diplomats and executives the cost goes up to
$100–$150.
4.8 Corporate headquarters NAP
• Corporate headquarters are not established in Kathmandu as in the criteria given.

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure NAV

• City-specific R&D expenditures are not available.
5.2 Telephone traffic
(million calls per year)
5.2.1 Local Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 5 July 2000 re: 27 June comments
5.2.2 STD Ibid.
5.2.3 International Ibid.
5.2.4 Mobile or cellphone Ibid.
5.3 Internet hosts per Nepal Telecommunication Authority 1999
thousand population

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land KMC – Urban Development Department (KMC-UDD); IUCN: Regulating Growth, Kathmandu Valley 1995;
National Planning Commission Secretariat, National Conservation Strategy Implementation Project (NPCS-
NCSIP); Halcrow Fox Associates (HFA) ,PPK & CEMAT: Kathmandu Valley Urban Development Plans and
Program, Department of Housing and Urban Development, HMG/ADB, Nepal 1991
• Different land uses were interpreted from different sources:
Land use zoning map—KMC-Urban Development Department 1997; Existing land use map—Regulating
Growth: Kathmandu Valley 1995; Kathmandu Valley Urban Development Plans and Programs 1991
• There are no commercial, residential, industrial, or service land use zoning. Thus the figures are logical
interpretations of existing land use for which the total area of Kathmandu is considered as 5,076 hectares
(calculated and verified by KMC Geographical Information System Section).
• Mixed use includes the residential area in the city core and city centers with commercial uses.
• Others includes vacant land, water bodies, open spaces, V.I.P. diplomatic areas, and areas occupied by
squatters.
6.2 Land developer multiplier Verbal interaction with head of department, KMC-UDD and with acting secretary of KVTDC
• Land development projects caused land prices to rise by 2.5 times.
6.3 Developer contributions Discussion with the acting secretary of KVTDC and KMC on 21 February 2000
• There is no legal provision for contributing to infrastructure, but a 29% contribution was reported in a
recently completed project (Naya Bazar Land Pooling) of KMC. In Kathmandu, most land development
projects are self-financed, i.e., the public contributes for land development and the land contribution for
development of infrastructure like roads and open spaces varies from 10% to 40% in different land
development projects.
6.4 Median time for Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 11 August 2000
planning permission
6.5 Vacant land with NAV
planning permission • This is not yet applied because of inadequate land use regulations.

306 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Kathmandu
• There is zoning regulation for building by-laws based on 1950 land use. A land use plan for Kathmandu
Valley is being developed and will guide urban growth in the valley, so there is no guiding mechanism for
planning permission for vacant land.
6.6 Public open space Urban and Environmental Planning in Nepal, IUCN Nepal, Adhikari, A. 1998; KMC UDD; HFA, PPK & CEMAT:
Kathmandu Valley Urban Development Plans and Program, DHUD, HMG/ADB, Nepal 1991
6.7 Vacant government land
6.7.1 Amount of land owned IUCN 1995: Regulating Growth – Kathmandu Valley; National Planning Commission-NCSIP
by Government
6.8 Prime commercial land price Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 11 August 2000
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs Ibid., 29 July 2000
6.9.1 Prime rental per month This involved interaction with renters.
6.9.2 Operating costs per month Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 29 July 2000
6.9.3 Statutory charges per month HMG statutory provision for municipalities in Nepal is 15% of the rent.

6.10 Expenditure on development Project coordinator, KUDP; Project directorate, ADB; NEA: Corporate Data Base, Monitoring and Evaluation
Department Planning Directorate 1993; Ministry of Population and Environment; Bagmati Area Sewerage
Construction/Rehabilitation Project; HMG/Nepal MHPP, DHUD, Kathmandu Valley Town Development
Committee: Land Pooling in Kathmandu Valley, S. B. Sanghachhe 1999

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type Environment Improvement Works of KMC, KUDP 1999

• The data were not available in the given format and are estimated from available sources, i.e., Nepal
National Household Survey 1991, Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning; Nepal Living Standard Survey,
CBS 1996; Mr. Kishore Thapa, Housing Expert–Department of Housing and Physical Planning.
7.1.1 Houses
7.1.2 Medium density
7.1.3 Apartments
7.1.4 Temporary dwelling
7.1.5 Other (Institutions,hostels, etc.) • There are too few of these in the city for data to be included.
Dwelling Type in Kathmandu City Core
(%)
Single (family) 31.8
Medium density 50.2
Apartment 18.0

7.2 Tenure type CBS Nepal Living Standard Survey 1996

Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 5 July 2000 re: 27 June 2000 comments
• The data were not available in the given format and are estimated from available sources, i.e.,
Nepal National Household Survey 1991, Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning; and Nepal Living
Standard Survey, CBS 1996, Mr. Kishore Thapa, Housing Expert – Department of Housing and Physical
Planning. Tenure Type in Kathmandu Valley includes owned–65.75%; rented–28.67%; rent free–3.4%; and
others–2.1%.
7.3 House price to income ratio MHPP Report on Urban Indicator Program, Kathmandu 1995; HUDN-ADPDP, Jibgar Joshi 1999
• The figure is directly quoted from the book of Jibgar Joshi 1995.
7.4 House rent to income ratio NRB 2000: Household Budget Survey 1995/96 (unpublished report), Baluwatar, Kathmandu
• The data is based on Kathmandu Valley urban centers (Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, and Thimi).
7.5 Floor area per person New Era 1998: A Study on Willingness to Pay and Ability to Pay of Water Users in Kathmandu Valley
• The average size of dwelling units in Kathmandu is 55.75 m2 and the average household size is 5.2.
7.6 Housing in compliance KVTDC Litigation Section
NAV
Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 11 August and 5 July 2000 re: 27 June 2000 comments
• Though there are many houses not in compliance, these are not reported officially to KVTDC.
• Housing is mostly owner built and most land in Nepal is privately owned.
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio Informal discussion with Mr. Gehendra Chandra Bhandari, Deputy Director, Credit Guarantee Corporation
• Different commercial banks have different mortgage to credit ratios, however, 1:2 ratio is the common
practice.
7.8 Houses with mortgages NAV
7.9 Mortgage loans for women • Women can borrow without a mortgage; however, loans for women are rare.
7.10 Housing production Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 29 July and 11 August 2000
7.11 Squatter resettlement or NAV
normalization

Notes and Sources 307

 Kathmandu
7.12 Net housing outlays by NAV
government (per person)
7.13 Homeless people Estimates by Concern for Children in Nepal and Child Workers in Nepal

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections NWSC—Management Information Report 1999

8.1.2 Investment per capita Consultation with Mr. Bishnu Basnet, Department of Finance (DOF), NWSC
• The total capital investment for Kathmandu Valley is $4,936,700 of which 60% or $2,962,020 is in
the city.
8.1.3 Operations and NWSC Annual Budget Report, 1998-99 and consultation with DOF-NWSC
maintenance expenditures
8.1.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.1.5 Output per staff: water
supplied per employee
8.1.6 List of providers • NWSC is the only official agency supplying drinking water in city. There are several unregistered private
companies which also provide tanker service.
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water
a. Percentage unaccounted Metcalf & Eddy 1999. Water Demand Review, April 1999
for water • There is no official record on the 40% reduction in unaccounted for water.
• Losses arise from leakage and wastage in the distribution systems and old and complicated pipe
network.
b. Interruptions in water Melamchi Water Supply Development Board (HMG/ADB) 1999: Socioeconomic Survey Report on Present
service Water Use and Living Environment in Kathmandu Valley
• The distribution system is intermittent. According to this survey, the city’s water supply is
Supply Condition % of Households Hours Interrupted/Month
Fully interrupted 6.9 49.68
2 hrs. supply 83.7 552.42
4 hrs. supply 8.8 52.80
Fully supplied 0.6 0.00
Total 654.90

• The weighted hours of water supply interruption is 658.85 hours a month.

• On average, the water supply is good for two hours or less since water production is only 94 million
liters per day (mld) and water demand is 150 mld in Kathmandu Valley.
8.1.8 Consumption of water NWSC—Management Information Report 1999
per capita
8.1.9 Median price of water • The price of water during scarce season is the same during normal season. The price of water is $0.15
3
scarce season per m , but the cost can rise, depending on the size of connection pipes, to $0.36.

8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections New Era 1998: A Study on Willingness to Pay and Ability to Pay of Water Users in Kathmandu Valley—
Final Report
8.2.2 Investment per capita • The figure is calculated from NEC data based on communications with Dr. Shrestha, 11 August 2000.

8.2.3 Operations and NEA: Corporate Data Base Series, Monitoring and Evaluation Department Planning Directorate 1998
maintenance expenditure • Expenditure is calculated as follows:

Total O&M expenditure per annum in the country $23,550,000

% of total O&M in Kathmandu City 26% or $6,123,000
Population of Kathmandu City 575,652
O&M expenditure per capita $10.7

8.2.4 Cost recovery Ibid.; Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 5 July 2000 re: 27 June 2000 comments
8.2.5 Output per staff: Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 5 July 2000 re: 27 June 2000 comments
megawatt hours of
electricity supplied
per employee

308 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Kathmandu
8.2.6 List of providers • NEA is the only official agency that supplies electricity.
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity
a. Line loss for electricity NEA 1998: Monitoring and Evaluation Department Planning Directorate: Corporate Data Series
b. Interruptions in power NEA
supply • Ten hours interruption is fixed under supply and economic conditions.

8.3 Sewerage/wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections NWSC–Management Information Report 1999; NWSC– Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Rehabilitation
Project: Consumer Survey–SILT Consultant and Development and Resource Center (DRC) 1997
8.3.2 Investment per capita Consultation with Mr. Bishnu Basnet, DOF-NWSC
• The total capital investment for Kathmandu Valley is $2,616,763 of which 60% or $1,570,057 is in
Kathmandu City.
8.3.3 Operations and Consultation with DOF-NWSC and NWSC Annual Budget Report 1998/99
maintenance expenditure
8.3.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.3.5 Output per staff: Management Information Report, NWSC 1998; IUCN, Regulating Growth – Kathmandu Valley 1995
Wastewater discharged NCSIP-NPCS
or treated per employee
8.3.6 List of providers NWSC

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections Nepal Telecommunication Corporation (NTC)

• There were 108,781 telephone lines distributed in the city in 1998 and 68% of households are
considered to be connected.
8.4.2 Investment per capita • Investment is estimated as follows (1998 data):
Total capital expenditure in the country: $137,000,000
Total telephone lines distributed in the country: 181,302
Percentage of telephone lines distributed in Kathmandu City: 60% or 108,781
Capital expenditure in Kathmandu City: $82,380,000
Total population of Kathmandu City : 575,652
Investment per capita: $144
8.4.3 Operations and Management Information System–Nepal Telecommunication Corporation 1998
maintenance expenditure
8.4.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.4.5 Output per staff: thousands Ibid.
of calls per employee
8.4.6 List of providers NTC

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with KMC, Solid Waste Management and Environment Department (KMC-SWMED) and common practices
regular service observed in the city
• The city has different ways of collecting garbage. Though KMC is unable to provide door-to-door
collection, garbage is collected in containers or is piled up at different sites. Besides this, several areas
have door to door collection through local initiatives and private companies. Altogether solid waste
collection is estimated at 75% in the city.
8.5.2 Investment per capita ADB Technical Assistance (ADB-TA): Inception Report–Institutional Strengthening of KMC 1999
8.5.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure
8.5.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.5.5 Output per staff: KMC-SWMED 1998/99
collected per employee
8.5.6 List of providers ADB-TA: Inception Report–Institutional Strengthening of KMC 1999

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated KMC-SWMED

9.2 Household sewage disposal Urban Water Supply and Sanitation Rehabilitation Project, Final Report on Consumer Survey 1999. SILT
Consultant and DRC; NWSC
Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 29 July 2000
9.3 Wastewater treated • The only waste stabilization pond for treating wastewater is now nonoperational. All wastewater is
now directly discharged into the river. Though septic tanks were estimated as 40% (Metcalf & Eddy/

Notes and Sources 309

 Kathmandu
Kathmandu
CEMAT 1999), the treatment efficiency of septic tanks is unknown. Therefore, treated wastewater is
almost insignificant.
9.4 Percent BOD removed • Since there is no treatment plant and efficiency of existing septic tanks is also unknown, BOD removal
from wastewater rate from wastewater could not be estimated.
9.5 Air pollution concentrations World Bank: Urban Air Management Strategy in Asia—Kathmandu Valley Report, Metropolitan
Environmental Improvement Program 1996
9.6 Energy usage per person United Nations Environment Programme; International Center for Integrated Mountain Development: State
of the Environment Dataset Report: Strengthening Environment Assessment and Monitoring Capabilities in
Nepal 2000
• Energy usage is 501 kg (coal equivalent) per person nationally.
9.7 Noise complaints NAV

Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 11 August 2000

9.8 Disasters in last 10 years • No major disasters in the past 10 years have affected the population.
9.9 Method of solid waste disposal KMC-SWMED

10 URBAN TRANSPORT Department of Roads (DOR); Nepal Transport Corporation (NTC)

10.1 Mode of travel Japan International Cooperation Agency; HMG/Nepal Ministry of Works and Transport, DOR: The Study on
Kathmandu Valley Urban Road Development 1993
10.2 Median travel time • The median travel time is estimated at 35 minutes.
• There is no provision for charging for goods carried outside the city.
10.3 Expenditure on road DOR Kathmandu Division
infrastructure
10.4 Road congestion
10.5 Automobile ownership Valley Traffic Police (VTP)
10.6 Cost recovery from fares Records from Sajha Yatayat and Nepal Trolley Bus
• The cost recovery from fares from Sajha Yatayat (Public Transportation) is 36% and that from trolley
bus is 83% and the average cost recovery from fares is 59.6%.
10.7 Port/air activity Recorded from the Ministry of Tourism Civil Aviation Airport Branch
The airport is Tribhuvan International Airport.
10.8 Goods carried NAP
There is no provision for charging for goods carried outside the city.
10.9 Transport fatalitiy VTP

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events National Sports Council

• No records are available for attendance at public events since there are numerous public events where
people inside as well as outside the city participate in these events. Some of the major events that many
city people attend are Dashain, Tihar, Indra Jatra, Shiva Ratri, Democracy Day, and Martyr’s Day. In national
festivals like Dashain and Tihar, almost everyone participates (99%), but participation in other festivals like
Indra Jatra, Democracy Day, and Martyrs Day is about 20%.
11.2 Attendance at galleries Natural History Museum, Chauni; Tribhuwan and Mahendra Museum, Hanuman Dhoka; National Museum,
and museums Chauni
11.3 Participation in sports Registered records from the National Sports Council
• Sports include taekwondo, judo, karate, boxing, football.

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue KMC Budget 1997,1998

12.2 Capital and recurrent Ibid., 1997, 1998, 1999
expenditure per person
12.3 Collection efficiency, • Property tax has not yet been introduced because of the lack of household information. KMC, with
property taxes technical assistance from ADB, is conducting an institutional strengthening program. Under this program,
two wards have been selected for house numbering as a pilot project to help in designing guidelines for
collecting property tax.
12.3.1 Percent of liabilities NAP
actually collected Official communications with Dr. Shrestha, 11 August 2000
12.3.2 Costs of collecting NAP
property tax as percentage Ibid.
of receipts passed to the
local government

310 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Kathmandu
12.4 Debt service charge KMC Budget 1997/98
• KMC had debt service only in fiscal year 1997/98.
12.5 Employees Ibid.
12.6 Wages in budget Ibid.
12.7 Contracted recurrent Ibid.
expenditure ratio
12.8 Business permits Ministry of Industry; Chamber of Commerce
12.9 Enterprise revenues • There are 33 government enterprises in Kathmandu. The main government enterprises are Dairy
Development Corporation, Royal Drugs Limited, National Trading Limited, Nepal Oil Corporation,
National Construction Company of Nepal, Royal Nepal Airlines, Nepal Gorkhapatra Corporation, Nepal
Electricity Authority, Nepal Water Supply Corporation, Nepal Telecommunication Corporation, and
Rastriya Banijya Bank.
• Of 33 government enterprises, 18 are for profit.
12.10 Computerization of functions • Computerization of functions is partly complete.
12.10.1 Land registration
12.10.2 Rates collection • In the Finance Department almost all functions are computerized.
12.10.3 Salaries • These are partly computerized.
12.10.4 General finances • This is computerizred.

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government Local Government Act 1999 and Local Self-Governance
• Local government functions are listed in the Local Government Act, 1999 in Section 96 but many of
them are not practised.
13.1.1 Water • (a) to carry out plans for drinking water
(b) to operate, maintain, and repair water facilities
(c) to preserve water resources and carry out irrigation plan
13.1.2 Sewerage • (a) to carry out plans on sewerage
(b) to operate, maintain, and repair sewerage facilities
13.1.3 Refuse collection • to collect, transport, and dispose of solid waste
13.1.4 Electricity • to generate and distribute electricity within the municipal area.
13.1.5 Telephone • to arrange and supply communication facilities
13.1.6 Public or mass transport • (a) to arrange bus parks and parking places
(b) to register and control the numbers of pushcarts, rickshaws, and horse carts
13.1.7 Emergency (fire ambulance) • to operate an ambulance service
13.1.8 Road maintenance • to maintain and repair roads not classified under the responsibility of HMG
13.1.9 Education • (a) to establish and support the operation and management of pre-primary and schools
(b) to assist in providing primary level education in the mother tongue, to make arrangements for
scholarships to the economically weak, and to carry out adult literacy programs to establish and
manage libraries
13.1.10 Health care • to establish and operate hospitals, clinics, health posts, and subhealth posts; to formulate and
execute programs for family planning, vaccination, and preventive medicines; to ban the use
and sale of substances harmful to public health
13.1.11 Public housing • (a) to approve applications for construction of houses and buildings
(b) to construct community buildings
(c) to prepare and execute plans for land use and housing plans
13.1.12 Recreation/sports facilities • to manage sports development programs and events
13.1.13 Police • to regulate the hindrances in public spaces created by informal markets, temporary sheds, littering,
and to help demolish houses constructed against the building by-laws
13.1.14 Drainage/flood control • (a) to control and prevent flooding and soil erosion
(b) to prepare plans for water and drainage, and to protect forest and vegetation
13.1.15 Livelihood assistance • (a) to develop green areas, parks, museums, zoo, and recreation areas
(b) to maintain public toilets; to carry out sanitation programs; to plant trees beside roads and
other places; to control water, noise, and air pollution; to maintain street lighting
13.1.16 Others • (a) to prepare an inventory
(b) to maintain and repair cultural places and monuments
(c) to promote culture, languages, and objects
(d) to arrange for the burial of unclaimed deceased persons
(e) to make arrangement for orphans
(f) to carry out programs for the welfare of women and children
(g) to control pet animals and slaughterhouses
(h) to protect barren and unregistered land

Notes and Sources 311

 Kathmandu
(i) to determine and manage crematoriums
(j) to promote cottage, small, and medium industry

13.2 Delivery of annual plan KMC Budget, 1997/98

• In 1997/98 KMC allocated $19,438,886 for the fiscal year budget, but actual expenses amounted to only
$6,647,737. KMC over-estimated revenue generation but is now trying to avoid future shortfalls.
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex NAV
13.4 Independence from higher • After the introduction of The Local Self-Governance Act in 1999, KMC became an autonomous body,
government but the Government still oversees KMC’s activities.
13.4.1 Closing down the council The Local Self-Governance Act Section 86
13.4.2 Setting local taxes KMC has the authority.
13.4.3 Setting users charges KMC has the authority.
for local local services
13.4.4 Borrowing funds KMC has the authority.
13.4.5 Choosing contractors KMC has the authority.
for projects

13.5 Elected and nominated councilors Consultant’s estimate

13.6 Representation of minorities NAP
• It does not exist in the city context, however, in the national context, 1% of the seats is allotted to
minorities in parliament.
13.7 Planning applications refused • There are several projects planned, but due to lack of financial resources they are not implemented.
Therefore, they are not regarded as refused projects.
• Some planning applications to KMC are not implemented due to ambiguous government policy
(e.g. privatization of bus park). Other planning applications are refused because of political reasons.
13.8 Business satisfaction NAV
13.9 Consumer satisfaction Cited from 18 ward profiles out of 35
• No such surveys or studies have been conducted. But according to the ward profiles, generally,
consumers are satisfied with municipal services except for solid waste management. The Municipality is
not responsible for the various services provided in the city such as electricity, water, telephone, etc.,
since the related authorities are distributing them. Consumers do not have much to say about municipal
services, though they complain about the irregularities in the services.
13.10 Perception as place to live • Kathmandu City being the capital city of Nepal is perceived as a good place to live. All major
government institutions as well as socio-economic institutions such as hospitals, primary to tertiary
educational institutions and education-related facilities, national banks, insurance companies, major
industries, recreational facilities, internationally renowned religious areas, and security services are all
available here.
• In the past few years, rapid population growth has resulted in inadequate basic services such as water
supply, sanitation, housing, etc. Increasing land prices and congestion cause people to prefer living on the
outskirts of the city.
13.11 Reported crimes HMG Nepal, Home Ministry, Valley Crime Investigation Section
13.12 Access to information
13.12.1 Annual report/budget • KMC has a regular annual report and budget.
13.12.2 Strategy/vision • KMC does not have such specific strategy.
13.12.3 Economic strategy • KMC does not have such specific strategy.
13.12.4 Social strategy • KMC does not have such specific strategy.
• KMC has a regular monthly bulletin, website, and FM radio station.

13.13 Contact with the public • The consultants in their e-mail of 11 August 2000 assert this is not assessable.
13.14 Decentralized district units • KMC is the only local government body in Nepal and it has 35 wards.

312 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Lahore
Indicators

Indicators
1 POPULATION
1.1 Urbanization Government of Pakistan, Population Census Organization (GOP-PCO), Statistics Division, Population and
Housing Census of Pakistan (PHCP) – 1998, Provisional Results, July 1998; GOP-PCO Statistics Division,
1981 District Census Report of Lahore (DCRL), February 1984; GOP-PCO Ministry of Interior, States and
Frontier Regions (MISFR), DCRL, 1972
• The urban area is defined as all localities, whether metropolitan corporation, municipal corporation,
municipal committee, or cantonment at the time of the census.
• 1998 – 42,438,500 (32.5%); 1981 – 23,841,471 (28.3%); 1972 – 16,593,651 (25.41%)
• The daytime population consists of
Metropolitan Corporation 2,500,000
Municipal Corporation 500,000 to 2,500,000
Municipal Committee 30,000 to 500,000
Town Committee 10,000 to 30,000

1.2 City population Ibid.

City Population
1998 1981 1972
4,502,038 2,707,215 2,022,577

• About 300,000 commuters come to the city from within and outside the Lahore Metropolitan Area
(LMA) during the day. They include workers and students.
1.3 Migration GOP-PCO, Statistics Division, PHCP 1998, Provisional Results, July 1998; GOP-PCO, Statistics Division,
1981 DCRL, February 1984
• The 1981 population was 2,707,215 and with a national growth rate of 2.6%; the 1998 population is
estimated at 4,502,038.
• More than 310,000 people migrated to the LMA between 1981 and 1998. This includes both the natural
increase and immigration from abroad. Although the city growth rate is 3%, we use the 2.6% national
growth rate to work out migration. The birth rate is likely to be less than in the whole country.
• There is no document available showing net change in international migration to Lahore. However,
(unlike Peshawar, for example), Lahore has not been a great recipient of international migrants in recent
years.
1.4 Population net density Government of Punjab, Lahore Development Authority (LDA)–Integrated Master Plan for Lahore, Draft
Report, July 1998; PHCP, July 1998
• City Population 4,502,038
Net Residential Land 18,714 hectares (ha)
Population Net Density 240.57 persons per ha

1.5 Age pyramid GOP-PCO, Statistics Division, PHCP 1998, Provisional Results, July 1998; GOP-PCO, Statistics Division,
1981 DCRL, February 1984; GOP-PCO, MISFR, DCRL, 1972
District Census Report Lahore
1998* 1981 1972
Persons 0-14 1,924,957 1,145,575 860,575
Persons 15-59 2,369,533 1,410,150 1,055,814
Persons over 60 254,554 151,490 106,188
*projected figures

Males = 2,358,127; Females = 2,143,911

Male/Female ratio = 2,358,127/2,143,911 x 100 = 109.99 or 110%

1.6 Average household size GOP-PCO Statistics Division, PHCP 1998, Provisional Results, July 1998; Government of Punjab, LDA–
Integrated Master Plan for Lahore, Draft Report, July 1998
Average Household Size
1998 1981 1972
6.85 6.50 5.80

• Increase in household size is due to more live children per household and the emergence of extended
families sharing human and financial resources due to the rising cost of living.
1.7 Household formation rate GOP-PCO, Statistics Division, PHCP 1998, Provisional Results, July1998; GOP-PCO, Statistics Division,
1981 DCRL, February 1984

Notes and Sources 313

 Lahore
1.8 Women-headed households Experts Group Discussion (EGD), April 2000
1.9 Household types Cities Data Book (CDB) estimates
Adults only – 19%; Adults and children – 70%
• Normal households have both parents and children of all ages.
1.10 Informal settlements GOP, National Housing Authority (NHA), Shelter for Low Income Communities Project, Punjab Final Report,
Islamabad, 1992
• Like in all other urban centers of the Punjab province, there are two types of informal settlements:
the first are the legalized squatter settlements on government land called “Katchi Abadis”. There are over
300 in Lahore, about one fourth of which have since been developed. The second are the poorly served low
income areas, or slum areas. Located mainly at the urban edge, they consist of houses built on land
subdivisions carried out by private owners without planning permission, with no or inadequate urban
services.
• The katchi abadis and slum areas have been estimated to house 11% and 37% of the urban
population. It is estimated that 40% of the city population or 1.8 million people are living in informal
settlements in the Metropolitan Corpporation Lahore (MCL) area.
• Some of the better known katchi abadis in Lahore include Ahata Mool Chand, Muftpura, Marzi Pura,
and Pathi Ground. Slum areas are located mainly in and around the industrial areas of Badami Bagh, north
and northeast Lahore, Kot Lakhpat, Bilal Ganj, and Mughalpura.

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution Projected from the LDA, Lahore Urban Development and Traffic Study, Final Report, Volume 1-A, Lahore, 1980
with an inflation rate of 10%
LMA 1998 Household Income Distribution
($ per annum)
Top 20% More than 5,999
Next 20% More than 2,999–5,999
Middle 20% More than 1,500–2,999
Next 20% More than 749.83–1,500
Bottom 20% Less than 749.83

• The top 20% average computed at $18,750 weighted average. Sabri, 2000
2.2 Households below poverty line Tahir, Pervez. Debt, Poverty, Equity and Structural Adjustment, in Poverty Seminar Report. UNDP.
Islamabad, October 1996; Mahbub ul haq Center for Human Development (MCHD), UNDP, A Profile of
Poverty in Pakistan. Islamabad, February 1999
• Using the basic needs approach, the poverty line for annual household incomes, for urban areas of
Pakistan, has been determined at $990.40 per annum.
2.3 Women-headed households MCHD, UNDP, A Profile of Poverty in Pakistan. Islamabad, February 1999
in poverty Women-headed households are less prone to poverty as women are accepted as the head of the house-
holds only among the higher income groups.
2.4 Child labor Government of Punjab, LDA–Integrated Master Plan for Lahore: Draft Report, July 1998, pp.1-5; UNICEF:
Situation Analysis of Children and Women in Pakistan. Islamabad, 1992, p.84; UNICEF: Children and Women
in Pakistan: A Situation Analysis. Islamabad, 1998, p.55
Percent of children in the workforce = 30%
Number of children employed in the MCL area = 1.07 x 30/100 = 321,300
Number of boys employed = 73% (234,549)
Number of girls employed= 27% (86,751)

2.5 Informal employment EGD based on Stubbs’ and Clarke‘s Megacity Management in the Asia and Pacific Region, Appendix-B, Vol.
1. Manila: ADB, 1996; and LDA, Lahore Urban Development and Traffic Study: Final Report, Vol. 1-A. Lahore,
1980, resulted in the figure of 60%.
2.6 Unemployment GOP, Finance Division, Economic Adviser’s Wing, Economic Survey 1997/98, Islamabad
• These are national figures as there are no figures for Lahore:
Year Employed Unemployed Unemployment
(million) (million) Rate (%)
1997/98 36.13 2.05 5.37
1996/97 34.20 2.00 5.53
1995/96 33.26 1.94 5.51
1994/95 33.01 1.89 5.41
1993/94 32.08 1.68 4.98

2.7 Expenditure on poverty The Daily Awaz, 28 March 2000; Punjab Municipal Development Fund Company (PMDFC)
reduction (per poor person)

314 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Lahore
• Poverty alleviation has been the central theme of many external support agencies (ESAs). Major
investments have been in primary health and education, technical education, slum upgrading, and
improvement in urban sanitation. However, most of these ESAs now tend to focus on secondary cities in
Punjab, instead of the LMA. Recently the Government has provided a $40.5 million grant to Punjab
province for poverty alleviation. A part of this will be available to the city of Lahore. Another window for
obtaining financial assistance for poverty reduction is the recently established PMDFC, with seed capital
provided by the World Bank.
• The entire federal grant of $40.5 million targets poor people and is being spent on developing tertiary
infrastructure in low-income areas. About 10% of the sum available or $4 million is to be spent in Lahore.
As the number of poor persons is 29.9% of 4.5 million or 1.35 million, it works out to $2.96 per capita of
the urban poor. Other sources of funding, particularly PMDFC, are also available to urban local councils
for poverty reduction.

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed Government of Punjab, LDA–Integrated Master Plan for Lahore: Draft Report, July 1998
Number of hospital beds in the public and private sectors = 12,191
City population = 4,502,038
Persons per hospital bed = 4,502,038/12,191 = 369

3.2 Child mortality UNICEF, Punjab: A Better Future for Children and Women in Pakistan, 1995.GOP; UNICEF: Master Plan of
Cooperation 1999-2003 (Draft). Country Programme of Cooperation, March 1998; Federal Bureau of
Statistics (FBS), GOP–Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS), Islamabad, 1996
• The under–five mortality rate is 132 per thousand live births in Punjab. This indicates that one out of
seven children is likely to die before its fifth birthday. However, child mortality in urban areas in Punjab
hasbeen 82% of the figure for the whole province.
3.3 Life expectancy at birth GOP, Finance Division, Economic Advisor’s Wing. Economic Survey of Pakistan, 1997/98
3.4 Infectious diseases mortality Scott & Furphy. Punjab Urban Environmental Project. World Bank-funded project, 1993
MCL death register, March 2000
Deaths from infectious diseases = 155,617
Population of the Punjab province = 62.750 million
Infectious diseases mortality per 1,000 population in Punjab = 155,617/62,750,000 x 1,000 = 2.5

3.5 Family planning GOP, FBS-PIHS, 1996/97; Family Planning Association of Pakistan
3.6 Adult literacy rate GOP-PCO, Statistics Division–1981 DCRL, February 1984
Ibid.; MISFR, 1972
Adult Literacy Rate
1998* 1981 1972
(%) (%) (%)
66.00 51.50 32.97

• Adult literacy is higher in Lahore than in Punjab.

*Projected figures using literacy growth rate of 1.5%.
3.7 School enrollment rates Government of Punjab, Bureau of Statistics, Punjab Development Statistics, 1998
School Enrollment Rates
Male Female
(%) (%)
Primary School (5–9 years) 65.60 57.50
Secondary School (13–14 years) 32.10 20.90

3.8 Tertiary graduates Ibid.

• Male – 2.6%; Female – 3.9% Average = 3.25%
Projected 1998 literacy growth rate = 1.5%
• Lahore is the center for higher learning in Pakistan. The number of tertiary graduates in Lahore is at
least 50% higher than the provincial figure. Therefore, the estimated tertiary graduates in Lahore = 3.25 x
1.5 = 4.875%
3.9 Median years of education
3.10 School children per classroom GOP, FBS-PIHS, Islamabad, 1995/96; EGD, April 2000
No. of Children per Classroom
Male Female
Primary School 46 41
Secondary School 60 50

Notes and Sources 315

 Lahore
4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita CDB estimates

4.2 Employment by industry LDA, Lahore Urban Development and Traffic Study, Final Report,Volume 1-A, Lahore, 1980
• Sectoral Distribution of Employed Labor Force (% age) in LMA:
Sector %
Agriculture 0.01
Manufacturing 16.90
Construction 10.60
Trade/Commerce 27.90
Transport 10.20
Government/Social/Personnel 27.70
Others 6.00

4.3 Household expenditure GOP-FBS, Statistics Division, Household Income and Expenditure Survey, 1986/87
• Household expenditure in urban areas of Pakistan is as follows:
(%)
Food 41.2
Shelter 18.3
Travel 6.2
Others 34.3

4.4 Investment by sector CDB estimates based on Indicator 4.1, city product per capita
4.5 Tourism Office of Sales and Tours Promotions Department, Punjab Tourism Development Corporation, March 2000;
World Tourism Organization, A Report of World Tourism, 1996
Tourists Number Expenditure
(‘000) ($ billion)
National 42,800 0.004
International 348 0.112

• These are national figures.

• Assuming 30% of tourist flow in Lahore, then tourists visiting the city is estimated as:
Tourists Number Expenditure
(‘000) ($ billion)
National 12,840 0.0012
International 104.4 0.0336

4.6 Cost of stay Cost of stay rates provided by CDB

4.7 Corporate headquarters NAV

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure CDB Estimates

5.2 Telephone traffic Office of the Director Coordination Pak Telecom (North) Region, Lahore, April 2000;
(million calls per year) Discussions with Mobile Phone Vendors, June 2000
Participant Observation
Category Number of calls per annum (million)
1999 1998 1997
Local 958.378 914.922 875.358
STD 64.180 53.384 47.404
International 1.898 1.950 1.746

• There are three well-established and widely used cellular phone networks, Mobilink, Instaphone, and
Paktel. TV is universal. Dish antenna is commonly used. Cable TV is being provided in median density
neighborhood by the informal sector, but the providers are not licensed.
5.3 Internet hosts per CDB estimates
thousand population

316 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Lahore
6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land LMA

Land Use Area (ha) (%)
Residential 18,516 8.16
Business* 11,030 4.86
Services** 3,650 1.61
Transport 5,257 2.32
Mixed use 407 0.18
Others*** 188,010 82.87
Total 226,870 100.00

MCL
Land Use Area (ha) (%)
Residential 11,125 44.5
Business* 1,725 6.9
Services** 2,725 10.9
Transport 1,750 7.0
Mixed use 125 0.5
Other*** 7,550 30.2
Total 25,000 100.0

*Business = Commercial and Industrial

**Services = Educational, Institutional, Graveyards, Parks/Recreational
***Others = Water Body, Forest, Vacant/Agricultural Land

6.2 Land developer multiplier EGD, April 2000

• Median price of land of a developed plot at urban fringe = $ 4,443.5/kanal
Median price of raw undeveloped land in an area being developed (i.e., with planning
permission) = $ 3,776.96/kanal
Land development multiplier = 4,443.5/3,776.96 = 1.18
• Usually the land developer provides tertiary infrastructure including roads, water supply, sewerage,
electricity, etc. This does not include the cost of secondary infrastructure. Not included are the connection
charges for electricity, water, and sewerage. Again, development by the private sector is carried out with
the money deposited in advance by the purchasers of plots, while LDA does not charge any profits on land
and development.
6.3 Developer contributions Ibid.
• Developers contribute 100% of the tertiary infrastructure (excluding telephone and fuel gas).
All secondary and primary infrastructure is provided by the Government. There is, however, often a time
lag, particularly for trunk sewers, with wastewater accumulating in open spaces or discharged into nearby
agricultural fields.
6.4 Median time for planning Ibid.
permission • Planning permission is granted within two months.
6.5 Vacant land with planning EGD, April 2000
permission
6.6 Public open space Government of Punjab, LDA–Integrated Master Plan for Lahore, Draft Report, July 1998
• 1,148 hectares
6.7 Vacant government land Ibid.
• 75,623 hectares
6.8 Prime commercial land price Ibid.
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs Prime rental per month = $45 per m2
Operating cost per month = $11 per m2
Statutory charges per month = $4.44 per m2
6.10 Expenditure on development EGD, April 2000

Notes and Sources 317

 Lahore
7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type Ibid.

Dwelling Type %
Single Family Houses 48
Medium Density 43
Apartments 3
Temporary Dwellings 5
Others (institutions, hostels, etc.) 1

• High rise accommodation is not preferred because of weather conditions and the Islamic culture of
privacy (see Profile).
7.2 Tenure type GOP-PCO Statistics Division–1981 DCRL, February 1984*
Government of Punjab, LDA–Integrated Master Plan for Lahore, Draft Report, July 1998**
Year Owned Rented Rent Free
(%) (%) (%)
1981* 64 25 11
1989** 82 15 3

• All squatter settlements on government land have been regularized. There can be some squatters on
private land but their number is negligible (less than 0.5%).
7.3 House price to income ratio • A middle-income household in Lahore has an income of $2,250 per annum (average of middle 20% in
Section – 2.1).
• Type of Accessible Housing
Plot area 5 marla (112.5 m2)
Cost per marla = $1,110.864
Cost of plot – Rs250,000 = $5,554 – (i)
Covered area = 120 m2 (double-storied house)
Cost per m2 = $88.87
Cost of house = 120 m2 x 88.87 = $10,664 – (ii)
Total cost = (i) + (ii) $16, 218
House price to income ratio = $16,218/2,250 = 7.2

7.4 House rent to income ratio • With a middle-income household of $2,250 per annum
• Rent of a middle-income house = Rs3,000 per month = $798 per annum
House rent to income ratio = $798/2,250 = 0.35
7.5 Floor area per person EGD, April & August 2000
• Formal housing
Percent of households = 50%
Household size = 7
Floor area = 120 m2
Floor area per person = 120m2/7 =17 m2
• Informal housing slum areas
Floor area per person = 70m2/10 = 7 m2
• Informal housing: katchi abadis
Floor area = 30 m2 = 30/10 = 3 m2
• Overall weighted average
= (17 x 50 + 7 x 38 + 3 x 12) / 100 = 11.52

7.6 Housing in compliance Government of Punjab, LDA–Integrated Master Plan for Lahore, Draft Report, July 1998
• The ratio of 15.21 which was wrongly worked out using the total number of developed plots in the LDA
controlled area has been reworked after EGD, April 2000, deliberations as follows:
Type of Total Housing in Weighted
Housing Compliance Average
(%) (%) (%)
Formal sector
(public & private) 60 75 45
Slum areas 30 30 9
Katchi abadis 10 10 1
Total 100 100 100

318 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Lahore
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio
7.8 Houses with mortgages
7.9 Mortgage loans for women
7.10 Housing production *Ibid.
***EGD, April 2000
**GOP, NHA, The World Bank, Shelter for Low Income Communities Study, Final Report, Punjab,
Islamabad, 1992
7.10.1 On new (vacant) land • Many new households tend to live in the same dwelling with their parents, brothers, etc. through
incremental addition of rooms and utilities.
• *Formal single family houses = 1,884 per annum (in LDA schemes and private schemes in LDA
controlled area)
**Informal housing in slum areas = 37% of total or 58.7%
Informal housing in slum areas = 1,092 per annum
***Private sector apartment housing = 1,000 per annum
***Mera Ghar Scheme and other government housing = 2,000 per annum
Total = 5,976 per annum or 6,000 houses per annum
Housing units per 1,000 population = 6,000 x 1,000/4.5 = 1.33 units per 1,000 population

7.10.2 Conversions or infill No infill from other uses

from other uses

7.11 Squatter resettlement or Government of Punjab, LDA–Integrated Master Plan for Lahore, Draft Report, July 1998
normalization • All squatter settlements on government land having more than 40 houses in March 1985 have been
legalized in Pakistan and the people given proprietary rights to their pilots against nominal charges. Now
called “katchi abadis,” these settlements have been provided with urban infrastructure facilities, including
water supply, sewerage,street surfacing, street lighting, and solid waste management. In the province of
Punjab, the Directorate General of Katchi Abadis has been specifically established in the Local Government
and Rural Development Department to regularize and upgrade katchi abadis. The upgrading work in LMA
has however been delegated to the LDA, which has so far completed 73 of the 308 katchi abadis in
Lahore. The upgraded katchi abadis currently support 163,000 people.
7.12 Net housing outlays by LDA; Zafar, Naveed, “The Great Housing Gamble,” The Herald, Karachi, September 1999
by government (per person) • The repeal in 1985 of the Punjab Land Acquisition Act 1973 (which permitted compulsory acquisition
of land at below market rates) has incapacitated the LDA from carrying out its traditional business of sites
and services development. The entire housing sector is being managed essentially by the private sector,
which has an obvious focus on high-income and higher middle-income groups. However, there have been
two recent government initiatives:
a. Development by LDA of the sites and services scheme called “Jubilee Town,” primarily through
advanced “sale” of plots (prior to land acquisition and development). Spread over an area of 205 ha,
the Jubilee Town entailed an investment of $6.89 million to provide 4,882 plots.
b. Government construction of 10,000 dwelling units underway on government land at an estimated cost
of $136,000. The four-storey walk-up apartments units will be allotted on a nonprofit basis.
7.13 Homeless people GOP-CPO, MISFR, DCRL, 1972
• The number of homeless people is negligible. The problem is not so much with shelter as with access
to urban services. However, the “Mera Ghar” scheme aims to provide 10,000 dwelling units in Lahore.

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES Most of the data here are based on McIntosh’s and Yñiguez’s Second Water Utilities Data Book: Asian
and Pacific Region, published by ADB (Manila, October 1997). The other figures are from the MCL area,
which is under Water and Sanitary Agency (WASA) and Water and Power Development Authority
(WAPDA). It does not include cantonment and private housing schemes located outside municipal limits.
The data have been obtained under the seal of the agencies concerned and are generally reliable. It is,
however, important to note that the figures given are for legal connections only.

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections McIntosh, Arthur C. and Cesar E. Yñiguez, ed., Second Water Utilities Data Book: Asian and Pacific Region,
ADB, Manila, October 1997
8.1.2 Investment per capita Office of the Managing Director, WASA, Lahore, March 2000
8.1.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditures .• Total O&M cost = $16,485,226
Population =4,502,038
Per person O&M cost = $16,485,226/4,502,038 = $3.36

Notes and Sources 319

 Lahore
8.1.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
• Revenue = $13,486 million
Expenditure = $16,485 million
Cost Recovery = 82%
• Unmetered connections are charged at a flat rate according to the plot size. They are for smaller plots
of less than 250 m2. Although there is an element of undeclared cross-subsidy, the smaller plots have low
water pressure owing to their location toward the tail end.
8.1.5 Output per staff: Water McIntosh, Arthur C. and Cesar E. Yñiguez, ed., Second Water Utilities Data Book: Asian and Pacific Region,
supplied per employee ADB, Manila, October 1997
8.1.6 List of providers
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water
a. Percentage unaccounted Office of the Managing Director, WASA, Lahore, March 2000
for water
b. Interruptions in Ibid.
water service • Mechanical and electrical failures cause interruptions in water service. Interruptions usually occur
87 times per month. In terms of per hour, interruptions took place for 21 hours per week.
8.1.8 Consumption of water lbid.
per capita
8.1.9 Median price of water, lbid.
scarce season • There are no water vendors in Lahore.

8.2 Electricity Office of the Director of Statistics, WAPDA House Lahore, GOP, March 2000
Experts’ Group Discussion, April 2000
8.2.1 Household connections Ibid.
• No. of connections = 840,000
No. of households = 656, 896
Household connections = 128%
• All houses in Lahore, including those in slum areas, have an electric connection. Higher income
households often have more than one connection. It often takes several months to get connected
with the WAPDA system. People make informal arrangements with neighbors in the interim.
8.2.2 Investment per capita Estimated figure from Punjab Urban Development Project “North-East Lahore Upgrading and Walled City
Upgrading and Conservation Project” 1988/89 using inflation rate of 10% per annum.
8.2.3 Operations and EGD, April 2000
maintenance expenditure • Total O&M cost = $30.56 million
Population = 4.5 million
Per person O&M cost = $30.56/4.5 = $6.79
8.2.4 Cost recovery Office of the Director of Statistics, WAPDA House, Lahore, GOP, March 2000
• WAPDA has a budget deficit and the Government meets shortfall.
8.2.5 Output per staff: Ibid.
megawatt hours of • Megawatt hours (MWh) of electricity = 309 million
electricity supplied Total no. of staff = 137,000
per employee Output per staff = 2,255.5 MWh per employee
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity
a. Line loss for electricity GOP, Planning Department Power Wing, Power System and Distribution, WAPDA, January 2000
b. Interruptions in power Office of the Director Statistics, WAPDA House, Lahore, GOP, March 2000
supply • Following are the main reasons for power supply interruptions:
Kite flying
Overloading of system
Failure of transformers
Load shedding
• No. of hours per month that the service is not available:
Above 20 minutes per month = 500 times
Below 20 minutes per month = 9,000 times
• In recent years kite flying has become popular and people use their roofs. This causes
localized and brief breakdowns but sometimes results in more serious system breakdowns. In one
instance, it resulted in burning up of a major grid station, leaving a quarter of the city in the dark for the
whole night.

8.3 Sewerage/wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections Office of the Managing Director, WASA, Lahore, March 2000
• Total no. of connections = 398,452
Total no. of households = 656,896
Household connections = 61%

320 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Lahore
8.3.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.3.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure • Total O&M cost = $11,952,899
Population =4,502,038
Per person O&M cost = $11,952,899/4,502,038 = $2.66
8.3.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
• Sewerage charges are built-up as proportion of the water bill.
8.4 Telephone Telephone data are mostly from the Office of the Director of Coordination, Pak Telecom (North) Region,
Lahore, April 2000
8.4.1 Household connections Ibid.
• No. of connections = 408,000
Total no. of households = 656,934
% of households connected = 408,000/656,934 x 100 = 62
• There are 408,000 telephone connections in the city. 62% of the households have thus been
connected.
8.4.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.4.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure • Total O&M cost = $23.61 million
Population = 4.5 million
Per person O&M cost $23.610/4.5 = $5.38
8.4.4 Cost recovery Ibid.

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with Office of the Chief Corporation Officer, March 2000
regular service • The communal collection points consist of skips and containers, which are lifted by mechanical trucks
and arm roll trucks, respectively, for final disposal. The skips and containers are placed at street corners.
Usually skips and containers are emptied after 3-4 days. In some areas people pay waste-pickers to take
the solid waste from the house to a communal collection point.
8.5.2 Investment per capita MCL, Budget Document 1999/2000
• Capital expenditure = $10.89 million
Population = 4.5 million
Investment per capita = $2.42
8.5.3 Operations and Ibid
maintenance expenditure • Total O&M cost = $23.613 million
Population = 4.5 million
Per person O&M cost = 23.613/4.5 = $5.25
8.5.4 Cost recovery Office of the Chief Corporation Officer, March 2000

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated MCL, Budget Document 1999/2000

• 3,000 tons per day or 0.666 kg per person
9.2 Household sewage disposal Office of Managing Director, WASA, Lahore, March 2000
• Within the jurisdiction of WASA served area = 100%
• With the exception of the planned areas in the public or private schemes the WASA system remains
generally limited to the secondary level. Although some informal settlements have been provided with
household connections under Katchi Abadis Upgrading and the IDA-funded Lahore Area Upgrading Project,
most such areas, consisting of 30% of the population, make their own arrangements at the tertiary level.
Some NGOs have helped them to do so in certain localities such as in the Kot Lakhpat and Moghalpura
areas.
9.3 Wastewater treated Ibid.
9.4 Percent BOD removed Ibid.
from wastewater • Since wastewater is not treated the percentage of BOD removed from wastewater is practically nil.
9.5 Energy usage per person Projected from World Bank Reports (1980-1994)
• 300 kg of oil equivalent (at Pakistan level) = 0.3 tons
9.6 Noise complaints EGD, April 2000
• People living downtown complain against the noise created by auto-rickshaws,
most of which use tampered silencers aimed at reducing fuel consumption.
• There is no means for citizens to make formal complaints to the city government.
9.7 Solid waste collection Ibid., June 2000
9.7.1 Percent disposed to • Zero percent of solid waste is disposed to sanitary landfill.
sanitary landfill

Notes and Sources 321

 Lahore
9.7.2 Percent incinerated • Zero percent incinerated. Two incinerators have been installed in Shalimar Hospital and Mayo
Hospital but they are still inoperative.
9.7.3 Percent dumped or 100%
burned in the open
(and from disposal)
9.7.4 Percent recycled • Formal – 0%
(formal and informal) Informal – 75%
9.7.5 Others (any other formal No other means of disposal
means of disposal)

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel These are collatral projected figures (rounded off), using information from the Government of Punjab, LDA,
Lahore Urban Development Traffic Study, Final Report/Volume 3, 1980; Government of Punjab, LDA-I
Integrated Master Plan for Lahore, Draft Report,July 1998
10.2 Median travel time EGD, April 2000
10.3 Expenditure on road Ibid.
infrastructure • Total expenditure on road infrastructure = $2.22 million
Population = 4.5 million
Per person expenditure = $2.2/4.5 = $0.48

10.4 Road congestion Government of Punjab, LDA-Integrated Master Plan for Lahore, Draft Report, July 1999
•The volume/capacity (V/C) ratios for different roads indicate that during peak hours most of the roads are
severely choked. Circular Road and Ravi Road have the highest V/C ratios (2.70 and 3.25). Multan Road,
Ravi bridge, Lower Mall, Canal Bank Road, Ferozepur Road, and Wahdat Road have V/C ratios ranging
from 1.85 to 1.35.
10.5 Automobile ownership Government of Punjab, Bureau of Statistics, Punjab Development Statistics 1997* and 1998
(projected for 1998**)
Year No. of Vehicles
1997 671,821*
1998 561,949*

Minimum driving age = 18 years

Persons of driving age = 2,329,596 (people of 18 years and above)**
Ratio of automobiles to persons of driving age = 0.24
• All these figures are Lahore-specific.
• Projected 1998 figures are lower than 1997 owing to the discontinuation of Prime Minister Nawaz
Sharif’s Yellow Cab Scheme. This scheme involved the supply of yellow cabs (taxis) in easy installments
through bank financing, which had bad defaults.
10.6 Cost recovery from fares EGD, April 2000
NAP
• 100% of the capital and O&M cost of vehicles, as the entire transport is in the private sector.
10.7 Port/air activity The News International, a daily newspaper, 19 September 1998
• Name of Airport: Lahore International Airport
Commercial flights for
National destination – 977
International destination – 244
10.8 Goods carried EGD, April 2000*; Government of Punjab, LDA–Integrated Master Plan for Lahore, Draft Report, July
1998**; Government of Punjab, Bureau of Statistics, Punjab Development Statistics 1997 and 1998***
Goods Carried
(million tons)
Road* = 700
Rail** = 0.57
Air*** = 547

10.9 Transport fatalities Punjab Development Statistics 1998, Bureau of Statistics, Government of Punjab*
EGD, April 2000**
10.9.1 Transport related deaths *All transport-related deaths per 1,000 population = 109/4,502,038 x 1,000 = 0.024
10.9.2 Pedestrian deaths **Pedestrian deaths per 1,000 population = 0.012

322 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Lahore
11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events Office of the Director General of Sports, Lahore, March 2000
Event Attendance
Urs Hazrat Ali Hajveri Data Ganj Baksh 10,000,000
Urs Madhu Lal Hussain 7,000,000
Jashan-e-Baharan, Basant Mela 6,000,000
Horse and Cattle Show 2,500,000
Exhibition at Fortress 5,000,000
Cricket One Day International 40,000
Cricket Test Matches 18,000
Hockey Matches 15,000

11.2 Attendance at galleries Lahore Art Council, 50 Years of Lahore, Sang-e-Meel Publications, 2000; Office of the Deputy Director
and museums (Administration), Lahore Art Council, March 2000; Office of the Coordinator, Art Galleries, Lahore, March
2000
Gallery Attendance
Alhamra Art Gallery 6,000
Co-opera Art Gallery 2,500
Shakir Ali Art Gallery 2,000
Permanent Art Gallery 1,500
Lahore Art Gallery 1,500

Other galleries include Punjab University Art Gallery, NCA Art Gallery, Sami’s Art Gallery, Ejaz’s Art Gallery,
Croweaters Gallery, Zaviay Gallery, Chen One Art Gallery, Iqbal Hussain Art Gallery
Museum Attendance
Lahore Fort Museum 1,200,000
Lahore Museum 60,000
Shakir Ali Museum 30,000
Science Museum 20,000
Iqbal Museum 12,000
Chughtai Museum 20,000

11.3 Participation in sports • Most popular sports: Cricket, Hockey, Squash, Football, Snooker, Bridge, Chess,. Table Tennis,
Volleyball, Badminton, Kite Flying, Martial Arts, Boxing, Wrestling, Kabadi.

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue MCL, Budget Documents 1995–2000

• Sources of Revenue (1999/2000)
Taxes – 50.74%; User Charges – 24.89%; Other Own Source Income (Profit-Specific
Investment) – 0.33%; Transfers – 0.33%; Loans – 0.79%; Other Sources – 22.92%
• Sources of Revenue (1998/99)
Taxes – 52.44%; User Charges – 4.78%; Other Own Source Income (Profit-Specific)
– 0.39%; Other Sources – 42.39%
• Sources of Revenue (1997/98)
Taxes – 83.46%; User Charges – 4.78%; Other Sources – 11.76%
• Sources of Revenue (1996/97)
Taxes – 83.29%; User Charges – 7.54%; Other Sources – 9.17%
• Sources of Revenue (1995/96)
Taxes – 76.19%; User Charges – 10.73%; Other Sources – 13.08%
• Other sources include Penal Rent (Zonal Secretaries), Fines (Zonal Magistrates), Fine on Vehicles,
Rent of MCL property, Board Rent, Mulba Rent, Market Rent, Sale of Land, Municipal Stock, Temporary
Registration, Road Cut Deposits.
• In 1998, Octroi was the main source of revenue (70%) for the urban local councils. Urban Immovable
Property Tax (UIPT) constituted 10% of the revenue, while the rest was contributed by various other taxes,
like tax on transfer of property, cinema tax, etc. The Government abolished the Octroi Tax following large-
scale irregularities in its collection and the Urban Local Councils (ULCs) have to depend on Federal grants to
meet their development and recurring expenses. UIPT is collected by the Provincial Government on behalf
of ULCs for which service the Government retains 15% of the tax collected.

Notes and Sources 323

 Lahore
12.2 Capital and recurrent Ibid., 1999/00
expenditure per person • Average capital and recurrent expenditure over the last three years:
Capital expenditure: $17,340,669
Recurrent expenditure: $21,515,804
Population = 4,502,038
Capital expenditure per person = $17,340,669 / 4,502,038 = $3.852
Recurrent expenditure per person = $21,515,804 / 4,502,038 = $4.779
12.3 Collection efficiency, Ibid.
property taxes • Percentage of liabilities actually collected = 9.96% (1998/99)
Costs of collecting property taxes = 20%
• There is a long exemption list to UIPT, e.g., widow and retired government servants, and owner
occupied properties are taxed at a much lower rate than rented properties. The Government has lately
revised the criteria and rates of this tax, new surveys have been carried out, and assessment lists
prepared.
• This is likely to result in a two- to three-fold increase in the UIPT-based revenue in the next financial
year (2000/2001).
12.4 Debt service charge EGD, April 2000
• The Government makes an at-source deduction in the MCL share of UIPT against repayment of
Federal or external loans
12.5 Employees MCL, Budget Document 1999/2000
• No. of employees = 14,676 (as indicated in 1999/2000 Budget Document)
• Ban had been imposed on new recruitment since 1988/89 up to the present.
12.6 Wages in budget • 1999/2000 figure.
• Total amount of budget which goes to wages in the form of annual pay, annual allowance,
annual leave/group insurance, and pension fund is $20,207,780.
12.7 Contracted recurrent EGD, April 2000
expenditure ratio • Development is carried out, almost entirely through Federal grants. Some external support agencies
like Japan International Cooperation Agency and Department for International Development also help.
12.8 Business permits NAP
• Most businesses are registered with various agencies, such as the Joint Registrar of Companies, the
Income Tax Department, and Department of Excise and Taxation. They are registered as a sole
proprietorship, partnership or (private or public) limited company. Current government policies disfavor the
setting up of manufacturing units in the LMA. This explains the rapid shift in Lahore from primary toward
tertiary and service industries.

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government Pakistan Planning Commission, “Report of the Committee on Poverty Alleviation, Social Sectors and Urban
Services,” Islamabad, 1996; A. Chaudhry, Mushtaq, New Local Government Laws in Punjab, Municipal
Law Publishers, Lahore, 1998
• The local government laws are essentially of British origin. However, there is an Islamic Ideology
Council, which ensures that none of them are contradictory to Islam. (For example,the Punjab Land
Acquisition Act of 1973, which allowed the Government to compulsorily acquire private land for public
projects (e.g., housing schemes) against nominal compensation, was abolished in 1985 because it violated
the rights of citizens provided for in Islam.
• Other than Islamic jurisprudence, the laws of Islamic origin in force are those pertaining to social
welfare and poverty reduction, known as “Zakat and Ushr”. Operating formally since 1990, the Zakat and
Ushr system consists of a 2.5% compulsory deduction, annually (on the First of Ramadan), on all profit-
bearing accounts and agricultural produce. The funds are managed by a Zakat Council and are distributed
to each district in proportion to population. 60% of the funds are distributed in the form of cash payments to
“Mustahkeen” (Deserving) individuals, and the remaining 40% is channeled to institutions such as
hospitals, orphanages, blood banks, etc. There were 1.1 million Mustahkeen in the country in 1992,
each receiving an annual subsistence of $75.
Functions of Local Government
Function Compulsory Optional
Regulatory Building Regulations Environmental
and Control, Pollution
Traffic Control,
and Preparation
of Master Plans

324 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Lahore
Service Provisions Sanitation Markets
Solid Waste Disposal Zoos and
Water Supply Gardens
Drainage Social Welfare
Flood Control
Street Lighting
Fire Fighting
Community
Development
Education
Health

13.2 Delivery of annual plan EGD, April 2000

• There are two reasons:
a. The P & D Department applies “economy cuts” while releasing money to executing agencies.
b. There are delays in contract awards, etc., owing to a long approval process.
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex
13.4 Independence from higher A. Chaudhry, Mushtaq, New Local Government Laws in Punjab, Municipal Law Publishers, Lahore, 1998
government • The provincial government has full control on the affairs of ULCs to the extent that it can ask for a
complete revision of the local council budget. It can (and has), by notification, suspend the local council if
there are reasons to believe that the council is
a. unable to discharge or persistently fails to discharge its duties;
b. unable to administer its affairs or meet its financial obligations;
c. generally acts in a manner contrary to public interest; or
d. otherwise exceeds or abuses its powers.
13.5 Elected and nominated Office of the Chief Corporation Officer, LMC, March 2000
councilors Ibid.
• Councilors (Either Sex) Female Councilors
Elected 275
Nominated 14 26

• The election of Muslim and Non-Muslim seats in a local council are held on the principle of separate
electorates. The representatives of peasants, workers, and women are elected by the directly elected
Muslim and Non-Muslim members. Any member of the Local Council may propose the name of any
person who is duly qualified to be elected as a member. If the number of nominated councilors is more
than the number of seats to be filled-in, then a poll is held by raising hands.
13.6 Representation of minorities Ibid.
• Representation of Minorities
Male 10
Female 1

• Minorities include: Christians, Sikhs, Qadianis, etc.

13.7 Planning applications refused EGD, April 2000
• Major reasons for rejection include disputed land title, and noncompatibility with the bylaws and
standards. The refusals pertain mainly to housing schemes, commercial-cum-residential complexes,
hotels, etc.
13.8 Business satisfaction Ibid.
13.9 Consumer satisfaction INNOVATIVE, “Situation Analysis of Urban Environmental Sanitation in Pakistan,” Draft Final Report,
February 1999 (UNDP-World Bank Water & Sanitation Program, Regional Water & Sanitation Group–South
Asia)
13.10 Perception as place to live GOP-NHA, The World Bank, “Shelter for Low Income Communities Study,” Final Report, Punjab, Islamabad,
1992
13.11 Reported crimes Punjab Police, Lahore, January 2000
Reported Crimes
Crime 1997 1998 1999
Murders 500 420 450
Drug-related 4,760 5,250 3,125
Thefts 5,825 5,150 5,920

13.12 Access to information Office of the Chief Corporation Officer, Lahore Municipal Corporation, March 2000

Notes and Sources 325

 Lahore
13.13 Contact with the public Ibid.
• The Mayor holds a single meeting with 1,000 people. This meeting is for the general public. As far as
business meetings are concerned, about 50 persons participate during two meetings in a week. While
everyday officials and councilors meet with the Mayor, on the average, about 60 officials and councilors
meet with the Mayor in a week.
13.14 Decentralized district units • There are 8 zones of MCL. Zonal offices are located in various parts of the city. Each zone is
headed by a Deputy Mayor. The functions of each zone are: sanitation, water supply and drainage;
removal, collection and disposal of refuse; register births and deaths; take preventive measures against
infectious diseases; prohibit picketing or littering in street; education; town planning; building control;
arboriculture; etc.

326 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Mandaluyong
Indicators
1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization Official Communications with National Statistics Office (NSO), 14 February 2000
% of National Population Residing
Year in Urban Areas
1999 61.66
1990 48.60
1980 37.30

• “Urban Areas” refers to all cities regardless of their population density, and to municipalities with a
population density of at least 500 persons per km2.

Growth rate, r = (0.486/0.373)1/10 – 1

= 0.0268
Urbanization (1999) = (0.486) (1.0268)9
= 0.6166

1.2 City population 1996 and 1997/98 Socio-Economic and Physical Profile (SEPP); Official communications with NSO dated
14 February 2000; Consultation with Urban Development Department, 6 March 2000.
• Resident population of municipal area
Year Population
1998 314,476
1993 269,817
1988 237,245

Computation: Growth rate, G = ( B/A )1/t – 1

G = 286,870 1/5
246,131 – 1
= 0.0311, or 3.11 %

• Population estimate, Pn = Po ( 1 + r )t
1998 = (286,870) (1.0311)3 = 314,476
1993 = (246,131) (1.0311)3 = 269,817

• Population during daytime working hours

Year Daytime Population
1999 972,768
1994 556,416
1989 362,345

• There is no published information or similar study on the daytime population of Mandaluyong City.
It is therefore suggested that estimates be based on the manual Whither, Migrant to Metro Manila, which
gives the daytime population of fully urbanized parts of Metro Manila, such as Makati City, as 3-4 times
the nighttime population, based on a study done in early 1990.
• Mandaluyong is among areas that are fully urbanized. In other parts of Metro Manila, in contrast, the
daytime population is estimated at 1½ or twice the nighttime population.
• Computation of estimated daytime population for 1999:
Assumption: Daytime population = 3 x nighttime population
Population = (286,870) (1.0311)4 = 324,256
Daytime population = (3) (324,256) = 972,768

1.3 Migration 1990–1993 SEPP; City Civil Registry in 2000

Origin 1999 1998 1997
Other parts of the city 602 560 266
Other parts of the country 3,236 3,008 1,428
International migration 49 46 22
Total net migration 3,887 3,614 1,716

Notes and Sources 327

 Mandaluyong
• Annual increase in population determined by using growth rate, r = 3.11%
Year Population Annual Increase
1999 324,256 9,780
1998 314,476 9,485
1997 304,991 9,199

• Using 1990 figures provided by the NSO (which provides figures at ten-year intervals), the participatory
rate of migration (arrivals – departures) was determined.
Origin Number (‘000) Rate (%)
Other parts of the city 3,848 15.49
Other parts of the country 20,679 83.2
International migration 315 1.27
Total 24,842 100.00 %

• Natural Increase = births – deaths

Year Births Deaths Increase
1999 7,799 1,906 5,893
1998 7,736 1,865 5,871
1999 9,355 1,872 7,493

• Approximate number of migrants, using the following formula:

net migration = annual increase – natural increase
migrants = net migration x participation rate

1.4 Net population density 1997–1998 SEPP; 1998 Land Use Map
Year Density
1998 670 persons/ha
1990 55 persons/ha
• The net residential land area in 1998 was determined using the millimeter grid method.

1.5 Age pyramid 1996 and 1997/1998 SEPP; Official communications with Commission on Population (COP), 8 February
2000
1998 1999
Age Male Female Male Female
0–14 49,408 46,979 43,635 42,464
15–59 96,968 107,347 81,487 91,412
60 and over 5,822 7,952 4,717 6,102

1.6 Average household size 1996 and 1997/1998 SEPP; Official communications with NSO, 14 February 2000; Official communications
with COP, 14 February 2000; “Census Facts and Figures,” NSO, May 1993; (3) 1993; (2) 1996 and 1997/
1998; (1) 2000
Average Household Size
Year Mandaluyong City Philippines NCR (Metro Manila)
1998 4.6 4.9 4.6
1993 4.7 5.2 4.9
1988 5.0 5.4 5.1
Population
1995 285,584 68,431,669 9,411,697
1990 246,131 60,703,206 7,948,392
1980 205,368 48,098,460 5,925,884
Number of Households
1995 61,096 13,508,747 1,985,299
1990 49,774 11,407,262 1,569,588
1980 38,881 8,607,187 1,103,563

Projected population: using data from 1.2

a. Growth rate
r1 = 49,774 1/10 – 1 = 2.50%
38,881
r2 = 61,096 1/5 – 1 = 4.18%
49,774

328 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Mandaluyong
b. Number of households
1998 = (61,096) (1.0418)3 = 69,082
1993 = (49,774) (1.0418)3 = 56,280
1988 = (38,881) (1.0250)8 = 47,373
c. Average household size
1998 = 314,476/69,082 = 4.6
1993 = 269,817/56,280 = 4.7
1988 = 237,245/47,373 = 5.0

1.7 Household formation rate 1996 and 1997/1998 SEPP; Official communications with NSO, 14 February 2000; Official communications
with COP, 8 February 2000
• Indicator was computed using the growth rate formula from 1.2 to 1.6.
1.8 Women-headed households Official communications with COP, 8 February 2000; 1995 COP
Year Percentage
1995 17.44
1990 14.48

Given: Total number of households in 1995 = 61,096

Number of women-headed households = 10,657
Percentage of women-headed households = 10,657/61,096 (100)
= 17.44%

Description Number Percentage

Widowed 5,997 9.82
Separated/Divorced 1,897 3.10
Single mother 1,957 3.20
Unknown 806 1.32

1.9 Minority groups 1996 SEPP

Group Percentage
Chinese 0.15
Americans 0.05

• NSO has not disaggregated the data locally. The data stated above were derived from the local
publication “Socio-Economic Profile of Mandaluyong City.” Unless a special research procedure exists,
it is best to refer to this information for reference evaluation.
1.10 Household types NAV
1.11 Informal settlements Official communications with Mandaluyong Housing Development Authority (MHDA), 11 February 2000
Informal Settlers, City of Mandaluyong, 1998
Barangay Population No. of Households Land Area (ha)
Addition Hills 44,375 8,875 27.6500
Bagong Silang 32 6 0.0120
Barangka Drive 1,720 423 0.2196
Barangka Ibaba 728 147 0.1929
Barangka Ilaya 1,132 280 0.2462
Barangka Itaas 476 169 0.1340
Buayang Bato 336 99 0.7611
Burol 1,206 300 2.7000
Daang Bakal 11 2 0.0160
Hagdang Bato Libis 163 40 0.0802
Highway Hills 808 202 0.1580
Hulo 468 117 0.0566
Mabini J.Rizal 208 50 0.0620
Plainview 1,122 74 0.2178
Pleasant Hills 1,780 445 0.3402
Poblacion 169 106 0.2872
Vergara 492 148 0.1928
Total 58,275 12,443 37.0520

Notes and Sources 329

 Mandaluyong
2.1 Income distribution 1997 Family Income and Expenditure Survey, National Statistics Office (FIES-NSO)
Total Number of Families, by Income Class
(in $)
Income Class No. of Families Average Income
Under 344.84
344.83–689.63 326 592
689.67–1,034.47
1,034.50–1,379.33
1,379.34–1,727.14 326 1,555
1,724.17–2,068.97 326 1,830
2,069.00–2,758.64 4,876 2,337
2,758.67–3,448.31 2,468 3,219
3,448.34–5,172.47 12,918 4,230
5,172.51–8,620.81 19,651 6,517
8,620.85–15,517.49 17,429 11,964
15,545.98 and over 4,315 23,716

2.2 Households below Government Estimate Property, Commission on Population Publication, 15–28 February 1999; Abraham
poverty line Calamba, urban poor leader,10 March 2000; MHDA, “Towards a Humane World-Class Metropolis,”
November 1999
Year Poverty Incidence (%)
1997 32.1
1991 39.9
1988 40.2
• Metro Manila has a higher poverty incidence, at 44.2%..

2.3 Women-headed Bureau of Women and Young Workers, Department of Labor and Employment fax of 10 February 2000
households in poverty Year (%)
1997 31.8
1994 35.5
1988 40.2

2.4 Child labor Official communications with City Social Welfare and Development (CSWD), 11 February 2000
Using 1998 figures
Number of employed under 15 years old = 50
Total number of children below 15 years old = 96,387
% of total = 50/96,385
= 0.00052

• Child labor figures were also referred to the National Bureau of Investigation and NSO for comparison
with local data. The NBI said that it has not yet investigated any labor case involving children from the city
of Mandaluyong. The NSO groups Mandaluyong with “Other Metro Areas.” Further, data were not
diseggregated by city or municipality.
2.5 Informal employment Official communications with Public Employment Service Office (PESO), Office of the Mayor, 24 February
2000
• Ma. Socorro Nobleza Garcia, PESO chief, gave the following information:
Year % of Informal Employment
to Total Employment
1999 40
1998 45
1997 50
1995 50
1995 50

2.6 Unemployment Special Release (Gazette), No. 3, Series of 1999, Office of the Regional Administrator, NSO
Year (%)
1999 15.750
1998 16.275
1997 12.550
1999 April 17.000
1999 July 14.500

330 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Mandaluyong
2.7 Expenditure on poverty Statement of Income and Expenditure, City of Mandaluyong
reduction Year Expenditure per Poor Person ($)
1999 52.23
1998 46.83
1997 53.92
1996 46.45

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed Official communications with City Health Department (CHD), 15 February 2000; consultation by telephone
with Arch. Zeny Gablon, Bureau of Licensing and Regulations, Department of Health, 13 April 2000
• Persons per Hospital Bed, 1998
Mandaluyong City 63
Metro Manila 412
• The city’s hospital bed ratio is obviously better than Metro Manila’s because Mandaluyong has fewer
people and more hospital beds. A national government hospital is located in the city.
Given (1998 figures):
Number of beds, public 4,305
private 655
Population 314,476
Persons per hospital bed 314,476/4,960 =63
• Mandaluyong is served by 22 health centers strategically located in various barangays. These are
supervised by the City Heath Office, which provides general medicine,dental and optical laboratory, family
planning, nutrition supplements, immunization, and other services. Secondary and tertiary medical services
are provided by the Mandaluyong Medical Center, which is owned and operated by the city government.
Three other private hospitals provide medical support and other related services to the city and neighboring
cities and municipalities. The ratio of health center services to population is 1: 14,000 (versus Metro
Manila’s 1:23,932) and of persons to hospital beds is 1:63 (versus Metro Manila’s 1:412).
3.2 Child mortality Official communications with City Civil Registry, 16 February 2000
Year No. of Deaths Annual Births % Probability
under 5 yrs. Old of Deaths
1999 196 7,799 2.51
1998 204 7,736 2.64
1997 260 9,355 2.78
1996 253 8,748 2.89
1995 214 8,008 2.67
• Cases of child mortality, morbidity, and infectious diseases have been considerably reduced.

3.3 Life expectancy at birth Official communications with CHD, 15 February 2000
Year Expected Age
1998 69
1993 67

3.4 Mortality from infectious lbid.

diseases Year Mortality per (‘000) Population
1998 0.20
1993 0.27
1988 0.23

3.5 Family planning lbid.

• In 1998, CHD conducted a cluster survey in the different barangays to determine the extent to which
married couples practice family planning. Of the 930 respondents 51% said they were engaged in family
planning in some form.
3.6 Adult literacy rate 1996 and 1997/98 SEPP
Year Percent
1995 99.38
1990 99.48
1995: Rate = 178,796 = 99.38 %
179,916
1990: Rate = 157,918 = 99.48 %
158,714

Notes and Sources 331

 Mandaluyong
• Philippine manpower is among the best in Southeast Asia, if not in the whole of Asia. because of the
relatively high rate of literacy. Records show that, for many years, the city has had a 97% adult literacy
rate and that a little more than 30% are college graduates, higher than 14.6% for Metro Manila.
3.7 School enrollment rates Official communications with Division of City Schools, 10 February 2000
(primary/secondary) • The city has 87 private and public educational institutions, or about 3.2% of all the schools in Metro
Manila. Of the 87, 39 are preschools; 26, elementary; 8, secondary; 6, tertiary; and 9, technical and
vocational. School enrollment is 94%, with 45 students per class in primary schools (versus 56 in Metro
Manila) and 56 students per class in secondary schools (versus 53 in Metro Manila). The city has
continually increased its budget for school facilities and training programs.
for teachers.
3.8 Tertiary graduates lbid.
3.9 Median years of education lbid.
Year Median Years of Education
1998 14–15
1993 14–15
1998 14–15

3.10 School children per classroom lbid.

(primary/secondary)

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita 1997 FIES, Vol.2I, Provincial/Key City Final Report, Integrated Survey of Household Bulletin Series,
November 1998, NSO
• In the absence of industry employment figures at the local level, the consultant used method B,
obtaining figures directly from the source.
Year City Product per Capita ($)
1997 2,434
1994 2,240

Given: (1997 figures):

GNP of the Philippines = $86,997.61 (millions)
Total household income in the Philippines = $0.060 (trillions)
Average household income in the city = $8,213.08
Number of households in the city = 62,635 (actual, from source)
City product = ($86,997.61 x 106)(62,635)(238,175)
1.748 trillions
= $742,470,390.81
Population = (286,870)(1.034)2
= 304,991
City product per capita = $2,434.00

4.2 Employment by industry 1995 NSO Survey

4.3 Household expenditure 1997 FIES, Vol.2 Provincial/Key City Final Report, Integrated Survey of Household Bulletin Series, November
1998, NSO
Expenditure Percentage
1998 1997 1994
Food 45.5 42.8 43.5
Shelter 19.2 19.4 19.9
Travel 6.6 5.8 6.6
Others 28.7 32.0 30.0
• “Other” expenditures comprise: fuel, light, and water; personal care and effects; taxes paid; clothing,
footwear, and other wear; household operations; education; furniture and equipment; medical care; tobacco
;alcoholic beverages; and recreation.
4.4 Investment by sector Capital Investment Report, Business Permit and License Office, Mandaluyong City, 10 March 2000
• “Other Investments”: amusement place, amusement device, advertising, ambulant stores,
producer/importer, pawnshops/moneyshops, and subdivisions.
Sector 1989 ($) 1994 ($) 1999 ($)
Physical infrastructure 27.62 1,488.23 971.84
Housing 14.08 8.83 4.55
Manufacturing 1,204.74 1,129.75 487.22
Services 2,955.79 3,959.94 3,925.95
Others 2,613.92 1,872.79 2,743.09

332 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Mandaluyong
4.5 Tourism Official communications with Office of Tourism Development Planning; Department of Tourism for 1997
data, 8 February 2000
Using 1997 figures:
Number of tourists = 140,038
Average stay = 2 nights
Cost per day = $172.42 (including hotel and living expenses)
Total amount spent by tourists = (172.42)(140,038) (2)
(0.984) 29.471)
= $48,289,858.05

4.6 Major projects Official communications with City Engineering Department (CED), 15 February 2000, and Department of
Transportations and Communications (DOTC), 10 February 2000
4.7 Cost of stay CDB estimate
4.8 Corporate headquarters 1999 City Business Permit and License Office (CBPLO), Mandaluyong City, 16 February 2000
• The city has two corporate headquarters with an annual turnover of at least $100 million, and eight
between $26 million and $100 million.

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure NAV

5.2 Telephone traffic NAV
(million calls per year)
5.3 Internet hosts per thousand NAV
population

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban Land Department Order No. 71-96, Revised Zonal Values of Real Properties in the City of Mandaluyong,
29 April 1996
• As the city is highly urbanized, the consultant used the prevailing market price based on the Bureau of
Internal Revenue (BIR) Zonal Valuation (Department Order No. 71-96) reference to compute the price of
land. Mandaluyong has three types of residential zones: low-medium-and high-density zones. Low density
zones have the highest zonal valuation while high-density zones have the lowest.
• The consultant used the prevailing market price based on the BIR Zonal Valuation (Department Order
No. 71-96) to compute the price of land.
6.2 Land developer multiplier lbid.
6.3 Developer contributions Presidential Decree (PD) No. 1216, City of Manila, 14 October 1977
• PD 1216 requires subdivision owners or developers to allocate 30% of the gross area of the subdivision
for roads, parks, playgrounds, and recreational use. When the project is completed, these areas are
donated by the owner/developer to the city or municipality concerned.
6.4 Median time for planning Official communications with Housing and Urban Land Use Regulatory Board (HLURB), Quezon City,
permission 15 February 2000
• The City of Mandaluyong processes and approves subdivision plans for residential, commercial, or
industrial purposes. On the other hand, HLURB, a national agency, processes and approves development
permits for residential and commercial condominium projects. Assuming that all requirements are met, a
development permit takes about 14 working days to process while the Certificate of Registration (CR) and
the License to Sell (LS) take 40 working days. For the CR to be issued, a notice of filing of registration
must be published in two newspapers of general circulation once a week for two consecutive weeks.
The CR is issued once the prescribed fees are paid.
6.5 Vacant land with planning 1997/98 SEPP, Mandaluyong City
permission • Open spaces, which are mostly green and recreation areas, are unevenly distributed. A large portion of
open space is in Wack-Wack Golf and Country Club, which is a private property; the definition provided in
the Urban Indicators list excludes this property as public open space. The city has about 1.5 percent of
remaining open spaces reserved for sport facilities, community parks, and landscaped areas.
6.6 Public open space 1997/1998 SEPP, Mandaluyong City
• Significantly, a large portion of open space is occupied and owned by Wack-Wack Golf and Country
Club.
6.7 Vacant government land 1999 Declaration of Real Property, Mandaluyong City
6.8 Price of prime commercial land 4th Revision of Zonal Values of Real Properties, City of Mandaluyong, 1996
6.9 Rental and occupancy costs of Survey of Commercial Establishments, Mandaluyong City, February 2000
prime commercial land
6.10 Expenditure on development Official communications CED, 15 February 2000; Official communications DPWH Manila, 10 February 2000;

Notes and Sources 333

 Mandaluyong
Certified Statement of Income and Expenditure, Mandaluyong City.
Year Expenditure per Person ($)
1998 08.70
1997 15.86
1996 21.26
1995 75.17
• Expenditure on development per capita has decreased over the years due to the following reasons:
a. Existing facilities and utilities are still in good condition and needs little repair.
b. Required equipment/facilities were already acquired/developed during the previous years.
c. Demand for new outlay is less since existing facilities and utilities are designed to serve projected
population for next few years

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type Metro Manila Urban Area, Environmental Karte, Main Text, Vol. 1, Metro Manila Authority (MMUA-MMA),
March 1994
Type Number % of Total
Single family houses 27,957. 56.17
Medium density 17,522. 35.20
Apartments 3,761. 7.56
Temporary dwellings 302. 0.61
Others 232. 0.46
Total 49,774. 100.00

7.2 Tenure type lbid.; Official communications with MHDA, February 2000
Total houses = 49,774
Owned by occupant = 25,981
Ratio = (25,981/49,774) (100) =52.19 %

7.3 Ratio of house price to income Official communications with consultant, 26 June 2000
7.4 Ratio of house rent to income Official communications with consultant, based on 1997 FIES-NSO, 17 August 2000
7.5 Floor area per person MMUA-MMA, March 1994
• Given (1998 figures): Average area = 50.30 m2
Household size = 4.6 persons
Floor area per person (sq2) = 50.3 / 4.6
= 10.93 m2

7.6 Housing in Compliance Official communications with City building official, 9 February 2000
7.7 Ratio of mortgage to credit
7.8 Mortgaged houses 1990 Census of Population and Housing, National Capital Region, National Statistics Office, Manila,
August 1992
7.9 Mortgage loans to women Official communications with MHDA, March 2000
7.10 Housing production lbid., 11 February 2000; Office of the Building Official, actual counting of building permits, 9 March 2000
• a. Dwellings produced on vacant land
population = (286,870) (1.0311)4
= 324,256
dwellings produced per thousand population
= (94) (1,000)/324,256
= 0.29
b. Dwellings produced as infill (no. of units)
private = 94
government = 169
San Miguel = 64
row house = 105
Total = 263
Dwellings produced per thousand population
= (263) (1,000)/324,256
= 0.81
7.11 Squatter resettlement or Official communications with MHDA, 11 February 2000
normalization
7.12 Net housing outlays by lbid.
government • Ave. cost of government housing per unit (1999) = $12,277
Squatter population (1999):

334 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Mandaluyong
7.13 Homeless People Official communications with CSWD, 28 February 2000
• Average = 45 street children
No. of street people = (45) (1,000)
per thousand 314,476
= 0.14

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water supply Official communications with Manila Water Company, Quezon City, 15 February 2000; Interview with
Arnaldo Palo, Unit Head, Customer Assistance, San Juan/Mandaluyong Branch,
9 March 2000; Ayala Corporation 1998 Annual Report
8.1.1 Household connections • The remaining 17% of unconnected households get their supply of water from communal water
systems, own use/shared deep wells, shallow wells, peddlers, or rainwater.
8.1.2 Investment per capita • Assumptions:
Revenue = Direct cost + Indirect cost
where Direct cost = Investment cost
Indirect cost = 25 % of Direct cost
$23.40M = Investment cost + 0.25 x Investment cost
Investment cost = $23.40M/1.25
= $18.72M
Investment share of the city = ($18.72 M) 25,000
300,000
= $1.54 M
Investment per capita = $1.54 M
(314,476)
= $ 4.90

8.1.3 Operations and • Expenditure = $14,672.44

maintenance expenditure (110) (30)
= $4.45
8.1.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.1.5 Output per staff: water CDB estimates based on Second Water Utilities Data Book, ADB 1997
supplied per employee
3
• Water supplied = (1 m per capita) (314,476) (1.41)
3
= 443,411.16 m
Output per employee = 443,411.16/110
3
= 4,031 m
8.1.6 List of providers NAV
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water NAV
8.1.8 Consumption of water NAV
per capita
3
8.1.9 Median price of water, • Price of water = $0.057/m
scarce season

8.2 Electricity Official communications with Manila Electric Company (MERALCO), 9 February 2000
MERALCO 1998 Annual Report
8.2.1 Household connections
8.2.2 Investment per capita • Given (1998 figures): Capital investment (thousands) = $192,739.86
Population = 17,680,815
Capital Investment per capita = ($192,739.86x103)/(17,680,815)
8.2.3 Operations and Official communications with City Budget Office (CBO), 3 February 2000
maintenance expenditure • Given (1998 figures): O&M expenditure (thousands) = $1,689,499.82
Expenditure per capita = ($1,689,499x103)/(17,680,815)
= $ 95.56
= $ 10.90
8.2.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.2.5 Output per staff: megawatt • Given (1998 figures): Electricity sales (‘000 kWh) = 20,306,091
hours supplied per employee Total no. of employees = 7,211
kWh per employee = 2,815,988
8.2.6 List of providers MERALCO
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity NAV

Notes and Sources 335

 Mandaluyong
8.3 Sewage/Wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections NAV
8.3.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.3.3 Operations and NAv
maintenance expenditure
8.3.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.3.5 Output per staff: wastewater NAV
discharged or treated per
employee
8.3.6 List of providers NAV

8.4 Telephone National Telecommunication Commission (NTC); Official communication with Department of Transportation
and Communications, 7 February 2000
8.4.1 Household connections • Given: No. of households = 69,082
Telephone connections = 60,215
% of households with telephone connections= (60,215/69,082) (100)
= 87 %
8.4.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.4.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.4.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.4.5 Output per staff: thousands NAV
of calls per employee
8.4.6 List of providers Provider Service Type % Supplied
Phil. Long Distance Co. Telephone NAV
Ayala Ave., Makati City

Globe Telecom Telephone NAV

Pioneer St., Mandaluyong

8.5 Solid Waste Collection Official communications with Environmental Sanitation Center (ESC), 21 February 2000

8.5.1 Households with NAV

regular service
8.5.2 Investment per capita • Given: Cost per truckload = $83.58
Total trips = 23,025
Total cost = ($83.58 (23,025)
= $ 1,924,504.00
Investment per capita = $ 5.94
Population served = (286,870) (1.034)4
= 324,256
8.5.3 Operations and
maintenance expenditure • Given: O&M expenditure = $996,776.34
Population served = 324,256
Expenditure per capita = $996,776.34
(324,256)
= $3.07

8.5.4 Cost recovery • Given: Total recurrent expenditure = $2,877,307.14

Total revenue = $238,809.21
Percentage of recovery = 8.29 %

8.5.5 Output per staff: • Given: Collection and transport personnel = 300
3
collected per employee Total waste collected = 345,375 m
3
Annual output per employee = 1,151 m
3
Daily output per employee = 3.15 m

8.5.6 List of providers City Government of Mandaluyong

336 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Mandaluyong
9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated Official communications with Environmental Sanitation Center (ESC), 21 February 2000; 1997/98 SEPP
3
• Given (1998 figure): Total household waste generated = 373,500 m
3
Waste in tons = 373,500 x 450 kg/m x 2.2 lbs/kg x 0.9072 tons/2,000 lbs
= 167,702 tons
Tons per person per year = 167,702 /314,476
= 0.53

9.2 Household sewage disposal 1990–1993 SEP

• Total no. of households (HHs): 49,774
Type of disposal HHs with Type of Disposal Percent to Total
Sewerage type 0 0
Septic Tank 43,190 86.77
Underground pit 4,694 9.43
Underground commercial 322 0.65
Pan collection 973 1.95
Open ground or touch 143 0.29
Others 452 0.91
9.3 Wastewater treated 1990–1993 SEPP; Official communications with Sanitation Division, City Health Office (SD-CHO) ,
9 March 2000
• % of wastewater treated = Vol. of wastewater treated / Total vol. of wastewater
3
= 76,600/93,564 m
= 81.87%

9.4 Percent BOD removed River Rehabilitation Secretariat, Pasig River Rehabilitation Program (RRS-PRRP), 1997 Year-End Report,
from wastewater April 1998
9.5 Air pollution concentrations Official communication with Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), National Capital
Region, 16 February 2000
• Since there are no monitoring stations in the city, the DENR could not provide the data requested, but
gave the air quality monitoring data for Makati and Pasig stations:
Year 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993
Makati 33–417 109–474 118–591 41–485 47–324 63–286
218 302 279 210 188 179
Pasig 77–390 139–219 27–314
201 191 154

• To provide a measurement of the extent of pollution from other pollutants, the results of the study
made by Asian Development Bank during 1990-1994 are shown in the following three tables.
• THE DENR-NCR Air Quality Monitoring Project
1997 Summary of Ambient Lead Monitoring
(24–hour averaging time /ug /Ncm)
Station Month 3-Months Ave. Minimum Maximum
Viejo Feb-April 0.31 0.249 0.488
Quezon Ave. Jan-Mar 0.700 0.300 0.925
Las Piñas Jan-Mar 0.191 0.107 0.370
Araneta Feb-Mar 0.456 0.113 0.747
East Ave. Jan-Mar 0.509 0.334 0.890
Valenzuela Jan-Mar 0.800 0.449 1.736
Pag-Asa Jan-Mar 0.378 0.159 0.656

Guideline = 1.5 ug / Ncm

3
• TSP concentration (pg/m ) measured on sites located on or near streets
Station Street TSP concentration Period No. of
Average Max. 24 h 1991/92 Observations
Ermita, Manila Taft 256 549 Aug-Feb 49
ADB, EDSA EDSA 497 843 Aug-Feb 47
Monumento EDSA 400 489 Feb. 92 5

Notes and Sources 337

 Mandaluyong
3
• Lead, TSP and PM (ug/m ) from ADB/EMB study, 1991/92
10

Lead PM TSP
10
Mean No. of Mean/Max. No. of Mean/Max No. of
Measurement Measurement Measurement
Ermita 1.07 (36) 144/258 (62) 256/549 (49)
ADB 2.30 (34) 219/321 (47) 497/843 (47)
Monumento 1.00 (4) 198/241 (5) 400/489 (5)

• In the absence of established air monitoring equipment in the area, the consultant used the measure-
ment readings to determine if standards were exceeded. Readings from stations that may approximate
that for Mandaluyong (e.g., Makati station) were also considered.
9.6 Energy used per person Official communications with MERALCO, 22 March 2000
• Total energy used per person per year, in metric tons (mt) of coal equivalent (1998 figures):
Total electricity sales (‘000 kWh) = 20,306,091
Coal equivalent (mt) = 8,592,169
Population = 17,680,815
Energy use per person (mt/person) = 0.4860

9.7 Noise complaints Official communications with the Pollution Control Officer, Mandaluyong City, 8 February 2000
9.8 Disasters in last 10 years Official communications with City Social Welfare and Development, 11 February 2000; Official communica
tions with Bureau of Fire Protection, Dept. of Interior and Local Government, 17 February 2000; 1996–1998
SEPP
• Fifteen typhoons caused flooding in the city, displacing 460 families.
• More than 4,700 families were affected and rendered homeless by fires. Property damage
was estimated at P403,355,950 ($10,077,062). Fourteen people died and 67 were injured.
9.9 Methods of solid waste ESC; 1997/1998 SEPP
disposal • Solid waste collected = 179,373 tons
Total waste generated = 199,303 tons
Percent disposed in sanitary landfill = 90%

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel Official communications with consultant, 26 June 2000

10.2 Median travel time lbid.
10.3 Expenditure on road Official communications with City Engineering Department, 15 February 2000; Official communications
infrastructure with Department of Public Works and Highways, Main Office, Manila, 10 February 2000
• Road infrastructure gained priority in 1995 and 1998 when the city government paved secondary roads
with concrete and rehabilitated the flood control system particularly for low-lying areas.
• Given (1998 figures): Expenditure on city roads = $953,708.46
Expenditure on national roads = $145,139.09
Total expenditure on roads = $1,098,847.55
Expenditure per capita = $1,098,847.55
(314,476)
= $3.49

10.4 Road congestion 1995 Traffic Volume Data, Traffic Engineering Center, Manila (TEC); “Course Notes on Transportation and
Traffic Technology 1983,” Transport Training Center, UP Diliman, Quezon City 1990–1993
• Volume/Capacity ratio:
AM = 1,263/1,125 = 1.12>0.8
PM = 1,054/1,125 = 0.94>0.8

10.5 Car ownership Official communications with Land Transportation Office, National Capital Region
• No. of Vehicles = 48,518
Population, 1995 = 178,260
Population, 1990 = 149,910
Population, 1998 = (178,260) (1.0311)3 = 195,414
Ratio per thousand = (48,518) (1,000)
195,414
= 248

338 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Mandaluyong
10.6 Cost recovery from fares NAV
10.7 Port/Air activity 1998 Philippine Statistical Yearbook
10.8 Goods carried Official communications with Business Permit and License Office (BPLO), 3 March 2000
10.9 Transport facilities Official communications with Traffic Enforcement Group, NCR, Philippine National Police (TEG-NCR-PNP),
Mandaluyong City, 21 February 2000
10.9.1 Transport-related 1998 = (12) (100) = 0.04
deaths 314,476
10.9.2 Pedestrian deaths 1998 =(12) (1,000) = 0.04
314,476
11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public Official communications with Executive Secretary, 14 February 2000; Official communications with the City
events Administrator, 15 February 2000; Official communication with Cultural Affairs Office (CAO), 10 February
2000
Event Attendance
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Liberation Day Festivities 15,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
EDSA People’s Revolution Anniv. 2,000 2,000
Alay Lakad 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000
Christmas Gift Giving 15,000 15,000 15,000 20,000 20,000
Turnover of Mayoralty Post 5,000
City Address 1,500 2,000 2,000 4,000 4,000
Manila Social Forum 1,500
Cinemanila Festival 5,000

11.2 Attendance at galleries Official communications with CAO, 10 February 2000; Survey, March 2000
and museums Gallery/Museum Attendance
Contreras Sculpture 5,520
Galleria Duemila 2000 36,000
Gallery Genesis 7,200
Pacheco Art Gallery 11,040
West Gallery 36,000
Gallery Y 21,600
Nemiranda Art Homes 11,040
The Crucible 7,680
The Museum Shop 11,040
• Listed galleries have an attendance of at least 5,000. All are located at the SM Megamall.

11.3 Participation in sports Official communications with Division of City Schools, 10 February 2000

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue Official communications with CBO, 3 February 2000, Statement of Income and Expenditure, 1998
• Total income = $20,456,702.30
Taxes = $13,467,681.32 x 100% = 65.84%
$20,456,702.30
User charges = $119,100.96 x 100% = 5.86%
$20,456,702.30
Other own source = $174,889.21 x 100% = 0.85%
$20,456,702.30
Transfers = $5,615,030.81 x 100% = 27.45%
Loans = 0%
Other income = 0%

12.2 Capital and recurrent Official communications with CBO, 3 February 2000
expenditure • Capital expenditure
Given 1999: Population = 314,476
Expenditure = $2,187,790.97
Expenditure per person = $2,187,790.97
314,476
= $6.96

Notes and Sources 339

 Mandaluyong
• Recurrent expenditure
Given 1999: Expenditure = $4,349,148.16
Expenditure per person = $4,349,148.16
314,476
= $13.83

12.3 Collection efficiency, Official communications with CBO, 3 February 2000

property taxes
12.4 Debt service charge lbid.
12.5 Employees Official communications with Human Resource Management Department, 16 February 2000
• Given 1999: Total number of employees = 3,485
Employees per 1,000 population = 3,485 (1,000)
314,476
= 11
12.6 Wages in budget • Given 1999: Wages = $7,196,884.87
Budget = $20,357,825.67
Ratio of wages to budget = $7,196,884.87 (100)
$20,357,825.67
= 35%

12.7 Ratio of contracted to Official communications with ESC, 21 February 2000

recurrent expenditures Given 1999: Contracted expenditures = $1,861,207.34
Recurrent expenditures = $20,357,825.67
Ratio of contracted to recurrent expenditures = $1,861,207.34 (100)
$20,357,825.67
= 9%
12.8 Business permits Official communications, BPLO, 16 February 2000
12.9 Enterprise revenues Official communications with BIR, Revenue District Office No. 41, 14 March 2000; BPLO, 10 March 2000
• BIR is barred from divulging such data by Republic Act No. 8424 (Tax Reform Act of 1997), Section 270,
and Republic Act No. 6388, Section 26. Instead, a summary list of the top 10 enterprises with their annual
gross sales revenues was provided.
• The consultant computed the net income on the basis of the BIR formula, using the amount of tax paid.
• Taxes paid = Net taxable amount x 33 %
$1,596,138.47 = Net income x 0.33
Net income = $5,060,006.06

12.10 Computerization of functions Official communications with City Information Technology, 21 February 2000

12.10.1 Land registration • This function is fully automated and integrated with the City Management Information System
(CMIS), which includes automated records tracking, tax order of payments billing, recording, auditing ,
and reports operation.
12.10.2 Rates of collection • The Electronic Data Processing Department devised a Financial Management Information
System, which is not fully implemented.
12.10.3 Salaries • Payroll is fully automated and integrated with the CMIS together with the PMIS.
12.10.4 General finance • The Financial Management Information System, of which this General Finance System is a part,
has not yet been implemented.
12.10.5 Business permit • It is fully automated under the fully functional Business Permit and License Tax Administration
System.
13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Local government functions 2000 ,1996 SEPP; Official communications with CED, 15 February 2000; Official communications with
the City Administrator, 16 February 2000
13.2 Delivery of annual plan Official communications with CED, 15 February 2000; Official communications with City Accounting
Department (CAD), 15 February 2000
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex Official communications with Commission on Election (COMELEC) Field Office, 3 February 2000
13.4 Independence from higher NAV
government
13.5 Elected and nominated councilors Official communications with COMELEC, 3 February 2000
13.6 Representation of minorities Local Government Code of 1991, Annotated, First Edition, 1992
• The Local Government Code of 1991 states that local governments and people’s organizations
may enter into mutual arrangements to promote basic rights and enhance the economic and social
well-being of the people, especially the cultural minorities.

340 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Mandaluyong
13.7 Planning applications refused (%) Official communications with City Building Official, 15 February 2000; Official communications with City
Council, 7 February 2000
13.8 Business satisfaction
13.9 Consumer satisfaction
13.10 Perception as place to live
13.11 Reported crimes Official communications with Mandaluyong City Police Station, PNP, Eastern Police District, 24 February
2000
Nature of Crime Cases Filed
1999 1998
Murder 8 5
Drug-related 493 174
Theft 306 171
Others 245
Total 807 595

Population 324,256 314,476

Crimes per thousand 2.48 1.89

13.12 Access to information Official communications with the City Administrator, 15 February 2000
• Significant publications
Supplements every 9th of February
Oplan Lingap-Bulletin – a quarterly on the Anti-Drugs Campaign
City Magazine – optional, as ordered by the Mayor
13.13 Contact with the public Official communications with Epifanio De Guzman, Executive Secretary, 14 February 2000;
Official communications with Victor Victoria, City Administrator, 15 February 2000
• The City Mayor uses different media of communication like news coverage to report on major infra-
structure; development activities; the Ulat sa Bayan (Report to Constituents); the Mayor’s State of the
City Address, which outlines ongoing and proposed projects; and public forums to consult constituents
or to get information about the city’s problems; and barangay meetings through which the Mayor
oversees the implementation of health care programs and other barangay projects and printed forms.
13.14 Decentralized district units Official communications with Barangay Operations Center, 23 February 2000;
Local Government Code of 1991, Annotated, First Edition, 1992
• Mandaluyong City has 27 barangays, divided into two districts for political purposes.
Each district elects six city councilors. Each barangay elects a chairman, seven barangay councilors,
and one youth representative.
• The barangay implements government policies, plans, programs, projects, and activities at the
community level, and serves as a forum instead for minor disputes outside formal judicial processes.

Notes and Sources 341

 Medan
Indicators
1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) Report 1993
1.2 City population Statistical Board, City of Medan, Medan in Figures 1998 (SBCM) 1999
• Population of Medan between 1994 and 1998
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
1,876,100 1,909,700 1,942,000 1,974,300 2,005,000
1.3 Migration SBCM, Survey of Population Inter Census 1995
• Total net migration = Immigrants – Emigrants
1.4 Population net density CDB estimates
1.5 Age pyramid SBCM
1.6 Average household size lbid.
• Number of households in Medan
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
300,626 302,408 313,142 316,090 320,834
1.7 Household formation rate lbid.
1.8 Women-headed households Social Economics Survey (SES) conducted by SBCM (SES-SBCM) 1998
1.9 Minority groups Social Politics Affairs of Medan (SPAM)
• Ethnic classification of population was based on Demographic Statistics System in Medan.
1.10 Household types SBCM
1.11 Informal settlements Regional Development Planning Board of Medan–Evaluation of Landscape of Medan (RDPBM-ELM) 1997
1.11.1 Population December 1996 data
1.11.2 Households December 1996 data

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution CDB estimates

2.2 Households below poverty line SES-SBCM 1998; Survey of Village Potential, Central Bureau of Statistics, (SVP-CBS) 1999
2.3 Women-headed households RDPBM 1997; SES 1998
in poverty
2.4 Child labor University of North Sumatra, Marginal People in Medan 1997
• According to the Labour Ordinance in Medan, it is illegal to employ children as workers.
2.5 Informal employment SES-CBS 1998
2.6 Unemployment Census of Population, Social Economics Survey by CBS (CP-SES-CBS)
2.7 Expenditure on poverty RDPBM; Family Planning Coordination Board of Medan (FPCBM)
reduction (per poor person)

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed Survey of Gross Regional Domestic Product of Medan Sector Services by CBS (SGRDPM-CBS) 1999
3.2 Child mortality Population Registration, Mid-Year and End of Year, CBS
3.3 Life expectancy at birth SBCM, Survey of Population Inter Census 1995
3.4 Infectious diseases mortality Health Affairs of Medan; SES
3.5 Family planning FPCBM
3.6 Adult literacy rate SES-CBS 1998
• The rate reflects the percentage of population aged 10 and over.
3.7 School enrollment rates CP 1990; SES 1998
• In Medan, secondary school education can be divided into two groups: aged 12-14 equals years 1-3
in secondary school education while aged 15-17 equals years 4-6.
3.8 Tertiary graduates SES 1998
3.9 Median years of education • The Indonesian Government provides 9 years compulsory education free to all Indonesian citizens.
3.10 School children per classroom SBCM 1999

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita CDB estimates

4.2 Employment by industry
4.3 Household expenditure SES-CBS 1998
• Survey conducted by SBCM

342 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Medan
4.3.1 Food
4.3.2 Shelter
4.3.3 Travel
4.3.4 Others This is an aggregate of fuel and light, alcoholic drinks and tobacco, clothing and footwear, durable goods,
miscellaneous goods, and miscellaneous services.
4.4 Investment by sector
4.5 Tourism Tourism Affairs of Medan and North Sumatra Province (TAMANSP); Statistical Board City of Medan of
North Sumatra Province (SBCMNSP)
4.6 Major projects TAMANSP
4.7 Cost of stay Tourism Affairs of North Sumatra Province (TANSP)
4.8 Corporate headquarters

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure CDB estimates based on the Local Government of Medan, Regional Development Budget (LGM-RDB)
5.2 Telephone traffic CDB estimates based on the Office of the Telecommunication Authority, Medan (OTAM)
(million calls per year)
5.3 Internet hosts per thousand OTAM
population

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land RDPBM

6.2 Land developer multiplier Associates of Real Estate Indonesia, Branch Medan
6.3 Developer contributions lbid.
• Developer contributions must follow Housing and Estate Laws which provide that open space, roads,
a social building and other infrastructure be included in the development of the area.
6.4 Median time for planning Land National Board, Building Affairs City of Medan (LNB-BACM)
permission
6.5 Vacant land with planning NAV
permission
6.6 Public open space RDPBM
6.7 Vacant government land LGM, Secretariat and Administration Section
6.8 Prime commercial land price NAV
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy • In Medan, offices are classified into three grades. Grade A offices are of the highest quality in facilities
cost and estate management while Grade C offices provide only basic finishes, restricted layout, and average
estate management.
6.9.1 Prime rental per month This represents the average rent per square meter per month in Central, the CBD of Medan, for private
grade A offices in 1998.
6.9.2 Operating costs per month
6.9.3 Statutory charges per month
6.10 Expenditure on development

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type Housing Affairs of Medan (HAM)

7.2 Tenure type SES-CBS 1998
7.3 House price to income ratio National Housing Company branch, City of Medan; SBCM, “Gross Regional Domestic Product of Medan
City , 1993-1998”
• As shown in Note 7.5, the average house price was collected by the National Housing Company
branch, City of Medan.
• It is based on the average income per capita from GRDP of Medan City.
7.4 House rent to income ratio SBCM, “Gross Regional Domestic Product of Medan City, 1993–1998”
7.5 Floor area per person HAM; SES-SBCM 1998
7.6 Housing in compliance lbid.
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio Bank of Indonesia branch City of Medan, “Quarterly Report”
• The figure reflects the mortgage to credit ratio for all types of banks.
7.8 Houses with mortgages HAM; SES-SBCM 1998
7.9 Mortgage loans for women lbid.
7.10 Housing production UNCHS Report 1993

Notes and Sources 343

 Medan
7.11 Squatter resettlement or RDPBM
normalization
• People resettled were fishermen at “Fishermen Village”.
7.12 Net housing outlays by HAM
government (per person)
7.13 Homeless people RDPBM; CP 1990

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections CDB estimates based on the Second Water Utilities Data Book, Asian Development Bank (SWUDB) 1997
8.1.2 Investment per capita Water Supplies Corporation of Medan City (WSCMC)
8.1.3 Operations and WSCMC
maintenance expenditure
8.1.4 Cost recovery
8.1.5 Output per staff: water CDB estimates based from SWUDB
supplied per employee
8.1.6 List of providers
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water lbid.
a. Percentage unaccounted
for water
b. Interruptions in water
service
8.1.8 Consumption of water CDB estimates based from SWUDB
per capita
8.1.9 Median price of water, WSCMC; Perusahaan Dearah Air Minum Tirtanadi Annual Report 1999
scarce season

8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections National Electric Corporation, Regional (NEC-R)
8.2.2 Investment per capita lbid., Annual Report 1999
8.2.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditure
8.2.4 Cost recovery lbid.
8.2.5 Output per staff: megawatt lbid.
hours of electricity supplied
per employee
8.2.6 List of providers
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity
a. Nonrevenue/line loss lbid.
b. Interruptions in power CDB estimates based on SWUDB
supply

8.3 Sewerage/wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections UNCHS Report 1993
8.3.2 Investment per capita WSCMC
8.3.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditure
8.3.4 Cost recovery lbid.
8.3.5 Output per staff: wastewater
discharged or treated
per employee
8.3.6 List of providers

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections Telecommunication Corporation branch, City of Medan (TCB-CM)
8.4.2 Investment per capita lbid.
8.4.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditure
8.4.4 Cost recovery

344 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Medan
8.4.5 Output per staff: thousands TCB-CM
of calls per employee
8.4.6 List of providers • There are three cellular telecommunication network services licensees in Medan. They are Cable &
Wireless Telkomsel Limited, Satelindo Limited, and Komselindo Limited.
• At present, only TCB-CM provides fixed-line telephone services in Medan.

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with Cleaning Affairs, City of Medan (CA-CM)
regular service
8.5.2 Investment per capita CA-CM
8.5.3 Operations and lbid.
maintenance expenditure
8.5.4 Cost recovery
8.5.5 Output per staff: lbid.
collected per employee
8.5.6 List of providers • The main provider is CA-CM, but every building has its own cleaning service.

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated Survey of Potential Village by Statistical Board, City of Medan 1999
9.2 Household sewage disposal lbid.
9.3 Wastewater treated Drainage Affairs City of Medan
9.4 Percent BOD removed lbid.
from wastewater
9.5 Air pollution concentrations NAV
9.6 Energy usage per person
9.7 Noise complaints NAV
9.8 Disasters in the last 10 years • There were no natural disasters in the last five years in Medan based on CDB’s definition.
9.9 Solid waste collection UNCHS Report 1993

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel Transport Department, Sumatera Utara, Annual Reports 1997
10.2 Median travel time Transport Study conducted by University of North Sumatera (UNS) 1995
10.3 Expenditure on road CDB estimates based on 1998/1999 Local Government City of Medan–Budget Report
infrastrucrure
10.4 Road congestion Transport Study conducted by UNS 1995
10.5 Automobile ownership Statistical Board of North Sumatera Province, “North Sumatra in Figures 1998” (SBNSP)
10.6 Cost recovery from fares Transport Department, North Sumatera Province; Road Authority Affairs, City of Medan
10.7 Port/air activity • The port of Belawan is one of the international ports in Indonesia. It has two container terminals now.
• Medan has one international airport, the Polonia International Airport.
10.8 Goods carried SBCM
10.9 Transport fatalities RAACM; Police Department of Medan City

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events

11.2 Attendance at galleries
and museums
11.3 Participation in sports Tourism and Cultural Services City of Medan

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue Local Government City of Medan, Budget Annual Report (LGCM) 1998/1999
12.2 Capital and recurrent UNCHS Report 1993
expenditure per person
12.3 Collection efficiency,
property taxes
12.4 Debt service charge Bank of Indonesia branch of Medan
12.5 Employees UNCHS Report 1993

Notes and Sources 345

 Medan
12.6 Wages in budget LGCM, Budget Annual Report 1998/1999
12.7 Contracted recurrent NAV
expenditure ratio
12.8 Business permits
12.9 Enterprise revenues
12.10 Computerization of functions

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local RDPBM

government
13.2 Delivery of annual plan
13.3 Voter participation by sex SPAM
• Information on the proportion of adult males/females voters who voted in 1997.
13.4 Independence from higher
government
13.5 Elected and nominated The Legislative Council of Medan City
councilors
13.6 Representation of minorities
13.7 Planning applications refused
13.8 Business satisfaction NAV
13.9 Consumer satisfaction • All government affairs in Medan have their own performance pledge, which indicates the level and
state of services delivered, the performance standards and targets met, monitoring system and customer
satisfaction level.
13.10 Perception as to place to live
13.11 Reported crimes SBCM 1998, Crime Statistics
13.12 Access to information
13.13 Contact with the public
13.14 Decentralized district units

346 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Melbourne
Indicators
1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) website “Australia Now – A Statistical Profile of Population
Distribution”
• Figure used in CDB is for Australia in 1996.
• Data for other years:
Year Urban Population
(%)
1911 57
1928 63
1945 68
1962 81
1979 86
1996 86

1.2 City population ABS Cat. 3218.0, Regional Population Growth

Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 25 August 2000
1.2.1 Resident population Department of Infrastructure (DOI) from ABS data
• Figure used in CDB is the estimated resident population for the City of Melbourne in 1999.
• Estimated resident population for the City of Melbourne since 1976:
Year Resident Population
1976 39,275
1981 38,582
1986 35,889
1991 34,659
1996 39,716

• Since the request was for data at 5- or 10-year intervals, data at 5-year intervals from 1976 have
been provided. These years are all census years, and the data are therefore more reliable than estimates
made for noncensus years.
1.2.2 Daytime population City Plan, Municipal Strategic Statement, City of Melbourne 1999
• This is the daytime business, working, and visiting population in the City of Melbourne.
1.2.3 Population increase ABS Cat. 3218.0, Regional Population Growth
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 25 August 2000
• This figure is the annual growth rate from 1991 to 1999. The city’s population grew by 12,841 over this
period, at an average rate of 1,606, or 4.6%, each year.
1.3 Migration Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 7 August 2000
CDB estimates
1.4 Net population density • Current land zoning information on the City of Melbourne was obtained from the City Council (through
their geographic information system). Residential zones and areas devoted to roads and open space were
then selected and added to 90% of the total of mixed-use zones to yield the net residential figure of
1,366,53 hectares. This figure was then divided by the city’s 1999 estimated resident population of 47,500.
1.5 Age pyramid ABS Census 1996
• Data provided are from the 1996 census for the City of Melbourne, and include all people who were in
Melbourne (except international visitors) on census night. The total population on census night was 45,253,
higher than the estimated resident population of 39,716 at that time.
1.6 Average household size The first three figures from DOI “Victoria in Time: 1981, 1986, 1991 Census Statistics for Victoria’s New
Local Government Areas.” 1996. Figure for 1996 from DOI “Melbourne in Fact” 1998.
• Data for the City of Melbourne:
Year Persons per Household
1981 2.19
1986 2.15
1991 2.12
1996 2.02

1.7 Household formation rate DOI, “Melbourne in Fact” 1995 and 1998 editions
• Figures provided in CDB is for the City of Melbourne for 1991–1996. In 1991 there were 11,677
households in the city; by 1996 this figure had increased to 14,423, an average annual increase of 4.7% or
a compounded rate of 4.3%.
1.8 Women-headed households NAV

Notes and Sources 347

 Melbourne
1.9 Minority Groups ABS Census 1996
• No single minority group in the city has at least 10% of the population. More than 130 countries are
represented among the birthplaces of the city’s residents.
Top 10 foreign birthplaces of residents:
Country % of Melbourne Residents
Born There
UK 4.8
Malaysia 3.1
Viet Nam 2.9
People’s Republic of China 1.8
New Zealand 1.7
Singapore 1.5
Indonesia 1.4
Italy 1.3
Hong Kong, China 1.3

1.10 Household types ABS Cat. 4130, Survey of Housing Occupancy and Costs
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 25 August 2000
1.11 Informal settlements NAP

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution ABS Cat. 6530, 1998/99 Household Expenditure Survey (HES)
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 25 August 2000
2.2 Households below poverty line NAV
2.3 Women-headed households in NAV
poverty
2.4 Child labor Negligible, as it is illegal to employ children in Australia.
2.5 Informal employment NAV
2.6 Unemployment Department of Employment, Workplace Relations and Small Businesses, “Small Area Labor Markets”
• The figure quoted is for December 1999 2nd quarter and is for the inner part of the City of Melbourne,
which is approximately the CBD. The figure for the rest of the city, which includes the bulk of the city’s
residential areas, is 6.7%.
• Unemployment figures for the December quarter in the previous two years:
1997 1998
(%) (%)
Inner Melbourne 4.4 4.4
Rest of Melbourne 6.0 6.2

2.7 Expenditure on poverty ABS Cat. 5512.0, Government Finance Statistics Australia; Commonwealth Department of Health,
reduction (per poor person) Government Budget Estimates; Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), Australia’s Welfare 1999;
Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services Annual Report 1998/99; Victorian
Department of Human Services (VDHS), Government Budget Estimates
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 25 August 2000

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed VDHS

• The figure in the CDB refers to the number of beds in public and private hospitals in the city in 1999.
The number includes only acute beds in public hospitals (general and psychiatric) and overnight beds in
private hospitals.
• Public hospitals in the city are the Royal Melbourne Hospital, Royal Children’s Hospital, Royal Women’s
Hospital, Royal Victorian Eye and Ear Hospital, North West Hospital, The Alfred Hospital, Mercy Public
Hospital East Melbourne Campus, St. Vincent’s Hospital, Peter MacCullum Cancer Institute, and Dental
Health Services Victoria. (These hospitals have 2,946 acute beds.)
• Private hospitals in the city are the Cliveden Private Hospital, Frances Perry House (Royal Women’s
Hospital), Freemason’s Hospital, Mercy Private Hospital, and St. Vincent’s Private Hospital. (These
hospitals have 757 overnight beds.)
• The total number of beds per person is calculated as follows: 2,946+757/47,500 (1999 population of
the city).
3.2 Child mortality Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 25 August 2000

348 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Melbourne
3.3 Life expectancy at birth ABS Cat. 4101-2, Social Indicators Victoria No. 1 for 1971–1982 figures; 1993 figures from same source
as for 1996 figures
CDB estimates are the average of figures given by the consultant.
3.4 Mortality from infectious diseases ABS Cat. 2302.2
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 25 August 2000
3.5 Family planning CDB estimates CDB estimates are the average of figures given by the consultant.
3.6 Adult literacy rate ABS Cat. 4228.0, “Aspects of Literacy: Assessed Skill Levels,” 1996
• The Aspects of Literacy survey focused on the skills that Australian adults need to understand and
use information from printed materials in English and encountered in everyday life. Literacy skills were
assessed by using tasks of varying degrees of difficulty and posing questions that required open-ended
answers. The tasks were based on common examples of printed materials.
• Three types of literacy skills were assessed:
Prose literacy— the ability to understand and use information from various kinds of prose texts, including
texts from newspapers, magazines, and brochures
Document literacy—the ability to locate and use information contained in materials such as tables
schedules, charts, graphs, and maps
Quantitative literacy—the ability to perform arithmetic operations using numbers contained in printed texts
or documents
• Proficiency in each of the three types of literacy was ranked according to the following levels:
Level 1 – very poor skills
Level 2 – some difficulties in using many of the printed materials encountered in daily life and at work
Level 3 – ability to cope with a variety of material
Levels 4 and 5 – good to very good literacy skills
• The figure presented in the CDB is the proportion of adult Australians aged 15–74 with at least level 2
prose literacy, as defined in this survey. This level seems to best fit the CDB definition of literacy (“able to
read and understand a simple paragraph in their first written language”).
3.7 School enrollment rates ABS Schools Australia Cat. 4221.0 and advice from the Victorian Education Department
• Participation in education in Victoria is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15. School enrollment
rates are not collected for children aged 6–14, but participation is estimated to be close to 100% for these
years.
• Participation rates are collected for 15-year-old students. The average participation rate for all students
of this age at all schools in Victoria in 1997 and 1998 was 94.15%.
• Among 15-year-olds participation was slightly higher for females (average of 95.1%) than for males
(average of 93.25%) in 1997 and 1998 in all schools in Victoria.
• Students can leave school once they turn 15 years. Since the statistics collected are as of 1 July each
year, those students who turn 15 before that date, but after the start of the school year, can leave, thus
accounting for some of the decline from 100%.
• Even when schooling is no longer compulsory, participation rates are still high. For example, at age 16
the average participation rate for all schools in Victoria in 1997 and 1998 was 86.75%.
3.8 Tertiary graduates ABS Census 1996
• The figures in the CDB are for residents of the city in 1996. They relate to people with the following
qualifications:
Higher degree Postgraduate diploma; Bachelor’s degree; Undergraduate diploma
• In 1996 Melbourne had 12,116 people with these qualifications, out of a total population of 45,253.
3.9 Median years of education Consultant’s assessment of census data published in DOI “Melbourne in Fact” 1998
• The education system in Australia is the responsibility of state education departments, which look
after primary and secondary education, and the Federal Government, which is responsible for tertiary
education. These bodies seem to have no interest in median years of education; the level of education
attained is the more important indicator, as shown by the type of questions asked in the national census
carried out by the ABS.
• A basic estimate of median years of education can be gleaned from the 1996 census, in which nearly
54% of Melbourne residents 15 years and over who answered the question relating to ‘”highest level of
educational qualification obtained” had no qualifications. If it is assumed that these people had at least
the compulsory years of education—six years of primary school and three years of secondary school—
then the median years of education for Melbourne residents aged 15 years or more was nine years. This is
the figure used in the CDB.
3.10 School children per classroom UNCHS Report 1993

Notes and Sources 349

 Melbourne
4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita ABS Cat. 5220.0

Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 23 September 2000
CDB estimates
4.2 Employment by industry DOI ”Melbourne in Fact” 1998
• Figures quoted are for the city from the 1996 census.
• Census categories were merged into the ADB categories as follows:
Secondary and Infrastructure–Census categories “Manufacturing,” “Electricity, Gas and Water,” and
“Construction”; Consumer Services–Census categories “Communication Services,” “Transport and
Storage,” “Accommodation, cafes and restaurants,” “Cultural and Recreation Services,” “Personal
and Other Services,” “Wholesale Trade,” and “Retail Trade”; Product Services–Census categories
“Finance and Insurance” and “Property and Business Services”; Social Services–Census categories
“Government Administration and Defence,” “Education,” and “Health and Community Services”; Others–
Census categories “Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing,” “Mining,” and “Non-classifiable and not stated”.
4.3 Household expenditure ABS Cat. 6533.0, “Household Expenditure Survey Australia”
• Figures quoted are for the city, which equates with the broader Melbourne metropolitan area
(Melbourne Statistical Division). They are taken from the 1993/94 Household Expenditure Survey (HES).
• HES categories have been merged into the four ADB expenditure categories as follows:
Shelter–HES categories “Current Housing Costs (selected dwelling),” “Fuel and Power,” “Household
Furnishings and Equipment,” “Household Services and Operation,” “Mortgage Payments Principal,” and
“Other Capital Housing Costs”; Food–HES category “Food and Non-Alcoholic Beverages”; Transport–
HES category “Transport”; Others–all other HES categories, e.g., “Alcoholic Beverages,” “Tobacco,”
“Clothing and Footwear,” “Medical Care and Health Expenses,” “Recreation,” “Personal Care,” “Miscella-
neous Commodities and Services,” “Income Tax,” “Superannuation and Life Insurance”.
• Comparable data for previous years are as follows:
% of Household Expenditures
1984 1988/89
Shelter 26.1 24.6
Food 14.7 13.9
Transport 11.8 10.9
Others 47.4 50.5

4.4 Investment by sector CDB estimates are based on State of Victoria Accounts, ABS Cat. 5220.0
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 25 August 2000
4.5 Tourism Bureau of Tourism research: international visitor survey and national visitor survey cited in “2000 Victorian
Year Book,” ABS Cat. 1301.2
• Provided by City of Melbourne, Strategic Research Branch
• Tourism expenditure data are available only for international visitors and are for the whole of Australia.
• Tourism numbers quoted are for visitors aged 15 years and over to the state of Victoria in 1998.
The total comprises :
Domestic visitors to Victoria: 18,995,000 (55,718,000 visitor nights)
International visitors to Victoria: 1,015,000 (19,915,000 visitor nights)
4.6 Major projects Advertisement (Central Equity), The Age, Saturday, 19 February 2000, p. 7
Project $ million
Crown Entertainment Precinct 1,380
City Link Tollway 1,173
New Residential Apartments, Southbank 414
Southgate and Yarra Promenade Redevelopment 345
Docklands Stadium 276
Redevelopment of Flinders Street Railway Station 90
Redevelopment of National Gallery of Victoria 90
Melbourne Exhibition Center 90
Federation Square 90
Jolimont Railyards Redevelopment 90

4.7 Cost of stay CDB estimates based on ADB and UN

4.8 Corporate headquarters Kompass Australia, “Australian Business Information” 1999
• The figure used in the CDB is for all companies with headquarters in the City of Melbourne with
annual turnover of at least $158.88.

350 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Melbourne
5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure ABS Cat. 8112.0

• The figure is for Victoria for 1996/97.
• The 1996/97 gross expenditure on research and development for Victoria was $3,173,821,688.59
including expenditure by business, Government, higher education, and private nonprofit organizations.
• The estimated resident population of Victoria in June 1997 was 4,605,100.
Expenditure per person was therefore $725.13.
5.2 Telephone traffic Paul Budde Communications, “Telecommunications Strategies in Australia 1999/2000,” 12th edition 1999
(million calls per year) and ABS
• Call statistics are for Australia in 1998. Figures for other years are
No. of Calls/Person
1996 1994
Local calls 576 558
STD calls 131 119
IDD calls 11 8
Mobile calls 80 61

5.3 Internet hosts per Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 14 August 2000
thousand population

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land Planning zones in the city were aggregated to form ADB categories.
6.2 Land development multiplier • The Urban Development Institute of Australia analyzed the costs of bringing residential lots into the
market in major growth corridors in five capital cities of Australia, including Melbourne. The costs were
based on a hypothetical subdivision of 10 hectares yielding 10 lots to the hectare. The costs in the
Melbourne example were:
($)
Acquisition costs (raw land + legal fees) 13,266.60
Selling price of serviced allotment 63,552.59

(Note: These costs reflect market conditions around the end of 1991.)
Therefore, the land development multiplier is 40,000/8,350 = 4.79 (63,552.59/13.266.60 = 4.79).
6.3 Developer contributions CDB estimates
6.4 Median time for • The city has no land that could be classified as “typical subdivision.” The figure quoted is quoted for a
planning permission typical subdivision on the urban fringe of metropolitan Melbourne in a priority growth corridor (as defined
by the State Government) on land that has already undergone urban zoning (and can therefore be
subivided).
6.5 Vacant land with DOI 1999
planning permission • The figure quoted is as of January 1999 and is for the City of Melbourne. The total area of 50 hectares
is expected to yield a total of 12,454 dwellings. Of these, 14 percent (1,749 dwellings) are mooted, 40
percent (5,013) are in the planning stage, and 46 percent (5,692) are under construction.
6.6 Public open space • This is based on the amount of land reserved as public open space in the Melbourne planning
scheme.
6.7 Vacant government land NAV
6.8 Price of prime City of Melbourne
commercial land • Figure quoted is for land in the center of the city, i.e., in the “Golden Mile,” as of 1 January 2000.
6.9 Prime rental and Special report for the city of Melbourne by Jones Lang LaSalle Consulting, published in City Index No.
occupancy costs 10, October 1999, by the City of Melbourne
• Original figures per square meter per year were:
($)
Prime rental 244.81
Operating costs 108.04
Statutory charges 26.35

• The figures were divided by 12 to get monthly rates, rounded off to the nearest whole dollar.
• The figures used in the worksheet are quoted in US dollars, but are per annum figures. They have
now been converted into monthly figures to meet the requirement.
6.10 Expenditure on development Development expenditures were obtained from Ratio Consultants, “Property Development in Metropolitan
Melbourne: A Comparative Analysis with other Australian Cities and Regions,” which was prepared for
the City of Melbourne, June 1998.

Notes and Sources 351

 Melbourne
7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type • This is based on both occupied and unoccupied dwellings, in the1996 census. Dwelling-type categories
in the census were merged with ADB categories as follows:
Separate house = no change
Semi-detached, row, etc. = “medium density”
Flat, unit, apartment = “apartment”
Attached shop/office, etc., and others, and not stated = “others”
7.2 Tenure type • ABS tenure categories were regrouped into ADB categories as follows:
Owned or purchased – ABS categories of “owned” and “being purchased”
Private rental – ABS categories of “buy/rent,” “rented - others”
Social housing – ABS categories of “rented – state or territory housing”
Others – ABS categories of “others,” “rented – not stated,” and “not stated”
7.3 Ratio of house price to income Survey of Housing Occupancy and Costs, ABS Cat. 4160.0, Greater Melbourne
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 25 August 2000
7.4 Ratio of house rent to income Survey of Housing Occupancy and Costs, ABS Cat. No. 4160.0, Greater Melbourne, weekly AUD
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 25 August 2000
7.5 Floor area per person CDB estimates
7.6 Housing in compliance Ibid.
7.7 Ratio of mortgage to credit NAV
7.8 Mortgaged houses ABS Census 1996 (proportion of households purchasing own home)
• The figure provided is for the city in 1996.
7.9 Mortgage loans to women NAV (not collected by lending institutions)
7.10 Housing production City of Melbourne Strategic Research Branch (Housing Monitor and ABS)
• Figures provided here are for the city between 1992 and 1997 (averaged over those years).
No. of Housing Units
New 3,192
Converted 2,400
Total 5,592
Population (average) 37,745

7.11 Squatter resettlement or NAP

normalization
7.12 Net housing outlays by CDB estimates based on AIHW, Australia’s Welfare 1999
government (per person) Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 25 August 2000
7.13 Homeless people “A Public Life,” a report to the city by the Department of Social Science and Social Work, Royal Melbourne
Institute of Technology (RMIT), May 1998; Thomson Goodall Associates Pty. Ltd., “Understanding Demand
for Crisis Accommodation,“ a snapshot analysis of current demand for major crisis accommodation
services in inner urban Melbourne, a report prepared for the Inter Agency Working Party, November 1999
• The figure used in the CDB is the midpoint of an estimate derived from a study that identified 1,005 to 4,533
people who were homeless or at risk of homelessness in the city in 1998.
This is believed to be a conservative figure.
• Another study that investigated the level of demand for crisis accommodation services in inner
Melbourne showed that 1,617 individuals or families (a total of 1,800 adults and 400 children) sought
accommodation on one or more occasions during the four-week period of the study.

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water City West Water Limited (CWWL), Annual Reports for 1996/97, 1997/98, and 1998/99 and Melbourne
Water (MW) Annual Report 1998/99
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 13 August 2000
8.1.1 Household connections Estimates provided by CWWL.
8.1.2 Investment per capita MW Annual Report 1998/99
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 13 August 2000
8.1.3 Operations and MW Annual Report 1998/99
maintenance expenditure
8.1.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.1.5 Output per staff: Water Ibid.
supplied per employee
8.1.6 List of providers CWWL is the sole retailer of water to properties in the City of Melbourne.

352 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Melbourne
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water
a. Percentage unaccounted • Figure supplied is for the whole of City West Water Limited’s supply area in 1998/99.
for water
b. Interruptions in water • Data required are not available. The company does not report on interruptions on a time basis.
service This measure would be meaningless because of the wide area served, i.e., an interruption may affect only
a small part of the region.
• The company does report that over the last three years more than 90% of water supply interruptions
were rectified within five hours. Therefore, the interruptions are estimated to be negligible per month.
8.1.8 Consumption of water Figures were converted to liters on the basis of the MW Annual Report 1998/99.
per capita Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 13 August 2000
8.1.9 Median price of water, CDB estimates
scarce season

8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections • Estimates by the consultant recognize that the City of Melbourne is a fully developed city with a well-
established electricity supply.
8.2.2 Investment per capita CDB estimates
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 13 August 2000
8.2.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure
8.2.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.2.5 Output per staff: megawatt
hours of electricity supplied
per employee
8.2.6 List of providers • Citipower is the main provider of electricity to properties in the City of Melbourne.
• Some customers with very high electricity needs can choose to be supplied by another
distributor, but details of this are unknown.
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 13 August 2000
a. Nonrevenue/line loss NAV
b. Interruptions in power CDB estimates
supply Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 13 August 2000

8.3 Sewage/Wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections • Estimates by the consultant recognize that the city is a fully developed city with a well-established
sewerage system.
8.3.2 Investment per capita CDB estimates
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 13 August 2000
8.3.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure
8.3.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.3.5. Output per staff: wastewater
discharged or treated
per employee
8.3.6 List of providers • City West Water Limited is the only organization that accepts sewage from properties and businesses
in the city.

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections • The percentage of households connected to a telephone service is unknown. However, the following
data indicate the level of coverage.
• Throughout Australia, Telstra Corporation (TC) (the nation’s largest provider of telephone services) had
6.93 million basic access lines in service for residences and 2.83 million access lines for businesses in
1998/99, giving a total of 9.76 million access lines. The national population in 1998 was 18,751,000.
8.4.2 Investment per capita CDB estimates based on TC Annual Report 1998
Official communications with Dr. J. Flood, 13 August 2000
8.4.3 Operations and TC Annual Report 1998
maintenance expenditure
8.4.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.4.5 Output per staff: thousands NAV
of calls per employee
8.4.6 List of providers Productivity Commission, “International Benchmarking of Telecommunications Prices and Price Changes”
December 1999

Notes and Sources 353

 Melbourne
• This indicator cannot be provided, as market participants and their share of telecommunications
services vary, as the following table shows:
Market Participants and Share of Selected
Telecommunications Services, Australia, 1998
Local PSTN* Long-Distance and Mobile
International PSTN
(%) (%) (%)
Telstra Corp. 97.0 80.0 52.0
Optus 2.5 15.0 31.0
AAPT 0.1
Vodaphone 17.0
Others 5.0

*PSTN: publicly switched telephone network

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with • Estimates by the consultant recognize that the City of Melbourne is a fully developed city with a
regular service well-established waste collection service.
8.5.2 Investment per capita NAV
• Garbage collection in the city is contracted to CityWide, a contract services company providing diverse
environmental services and infrastructure management to a wide range of clients. The company does not
report on separate contracts with specific clients.
8.5.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure Refer to 8.5.2 above
8.5.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.5.5 Output per staff: NAV, Refer to 8.5.2 above.
Collected per employee
8.5.6 List of providers CityWide is the sole contractor for the City of Melbourne.

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated City of Melbourne, Services Department

• Figures shown in CDB are for residential properties in the City of Melbourne, 1998/99.
Total garbage collected from residential properties includes kerbside collection (8,800 tons), recyclable
material (6,000 tons), and green waste (40 tons).
9.2 Household sewage disposal • Estimate provided by CWWL (provider of sewage services to the City of Melbourne).
9.3 Wastewater treated • Melbourne Water (the operator of metropolitan sewage treatment plants) says that all wastewater and
effluent received through the sewerage system in Melbourne is treated at metropolitan sewage treatment
plants.
9.4 Percent BOD removed • Melbourne Water says that 96– 99% of all BOD is removed from wastewater. Melbourne Water’s
from wastewater current environmental license specifies a median BOD of 50 (carbonaceous) for discharge of wastewater
after treatment.
9.5 Air pollution concentrations Environment Protection Authority Air Monitoring Data 1990 (undated, publication 311); 1991 (November
1993, publication 402); 1992–1995 (October 1997, publication 584); 1996 (May 1998, publication 614);
1997 (February 2000, publication 683)
• Victoria’s Environment Protection Authority monitors air quality in Melbourne according to adopted
air quality standards (known as Air State Environment Protection Policies).
The Authority says that its air quality standards are more stringent than those of the World Health
Organization.
• The following data are based on Victoria’s air quality standards:
No. of Breaches of Air Quality Objectives
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
Ozone
1-hour 0 1 3 1 0 0 1
8-hour 23 14 21 31 12 11 19
Carbon monoxide (no breaches of either the 1-hour or 8-hour objectives)
Visibility (particles)
1-hour 50 37 25 38 35 34 23
Nitrogen dioxide (no breaches of either the 1-hour or 8-hour objectives)
Lead (no breaches of the objectives)
Sulfur dioxide (no breaches of either the 1-hour or 24-hour objectives)

354 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Melbourne
9.6 Energy use per person For the city this is based on data generated for the Cities for Climate Protection Campaign of The
International Council for Local Environment Initiatives
• Total energy use for all sectors (residential, commercial, industrial, transportation, waste, and others)
in the municipality of Melbourne in 1996 was 17,477,320 gigajoules. This figure divided by the 1996
population (45,253) yields 386.2 Gj per person.
• Conversion from Gj to ton coal equivalent:
1 ton coal equivalent = 29,308 Gj
Therefore 386.2/293808 = 0.013 metric tons coal equivalent.
9.7 Noise complaints City of Melbourne, Health Department
• Figures quoted in CDB are the number of complaints generated in the municipality of Melbourne in
1999.
• Noise complaints were recorded in the following categories:
General, e.g., alarms, street noise
Industrial/Factory
Mechanical/Machinery/Motors
Music or Entertainment
9.8 Disasters in last 10 years NAP
No major disasters in the last decade.
9.9 Method of solid waste disposal • Waste is from residential properties (see 9.1). Waste collected in kerbside collection (8,800 tons)
is dumped in landfill sites; recyclable material (6,000 tons) is recycled. It is not known how the green
waste collected (40 tons) is disposed of, but it may be composted, mulched, or dumped in landfills.

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel ABS 1999; Government of Victoria, Victoria in Time: 1981, 1986, 1991- Census Statistics for Victoria’s New
Local Government Areas; DOI 1996
• Figures quoted are for the City of Melbourne, 1996, and refer to residents’ mode of travel to work.
• Comparable data for residents of the City of Melbourne in other years are as follows:
Percent of Modes Used for Journey to Work
Public transport Car Others
(train/bus/tram) (walk/cycle, etc.)
1981 23.0 42.6 34.5
1986 27.7 41.2 31.1
1991 26.3 43.3 30.4

10.2 Median travel time Transport Research Center, RMIT, based on Victorian Activity Travel Survey 1998
• Figures quoted in CDB is for all work trips within the Melbourne Statistical Division (the wider
Melbourne metropolitan area) in 1998.
• In comparison, a work trip to the Melbourne CBD takes only 25 minutes (median length).
10.3 Expenditure on road City of Melbourne, Engineering Department and VicRoads, Western Region Office
infrastructure • Figures used in the CDB are for the average road expenditure over the last two years (1998/99 and
1999/2000). They cover expenditure by the city for roads under its responsibility and expenditure by
VicRoads, the State road authority responsible for state highways and freeways.
The average for the two years is $12.36 million. This figure, when divided by the city’s 1999 population
(47,500), gives $106 per person.
10.4 Road congestion
10.5 Automobile ownership • Figures are an estimate only for the City of Melbourne.
• Figure are based on 1996 census data. An estimated 13,609 cars were garaged at houses in the city.
Since the population aged 18 years and over in 1996 was 39,896, there were 341 cars for every 1,000
persons.
10.6 Cost recovery from fares NAV
Victoria’s public transport network has recently been divided and the components have been leased to
various private operators, e.g., trains to Hillside Trains and Bayside Trains; trams to Yarra Trams.
Other arrangements have been made for the operation of stations.
10.7 Port/air activity • Shipping information is for the port of Melbourne (1998/99 data) and flight information is for Melbourne
Airport (1997/98 data).
10.8 Goods carried Melbourne Port Corporation, Trade and Transport Review 1998/1999; Federal Department of Transport
website www.dot.gov.au

Notes and Sources 355

 Melbourne
(tons)
Air
International 159,902
Domestic 74,497
Regional 122
Mail
International 5,423
Domestic 16,152
Sea 42,108,000 revenue tons

10.9 Transport fatalities VicRoads “Road Accident Facts Victoria 1999”

• Figure used in CDB is for fatalities in the state of Victoria in 1998. There were 390 transport
fatalities (motorists, passengers, pedestrians, motorcyclists, and cyclists).

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events City of Melbourne Strategic Research Branch

• The following events are held in Melbourne each year:
Event Attendance Duration Year
Comedy Festival 400,000 over 4 weeks 1999
Melbourne Festival 500,000 over 3 weeks 1999
Moomba 213,000 over 10 days 1999
Midsumma Festival 213,000 over 3 weeks 2000
Australian Formula One Grand Prix 345,300 over 4 days 1999
Australian Tennis Open 501,251 over 14 days 2000
Lygon Street Fiesta about 100,000 over 2 days 2000
Antipodean Festival about 100,000 over 2 days 2000
Chinese New Year about 100,000 over 2 days 2000
AFL Grand Final 94,431 1998
Spring Racing Carnival 432,533
(including the Melbourne Cup)

11.2 Attendance at galleries Ibid.

and museums • Major venues in metropolitan Melbourne:
National Gallery of Victoria 765,327
(includes attendance at paid exhibitions)
Scienceworks Museum 284,000
Immigration Museum 58,016
Hellenic Antiquities Museum 11,347

11.3 Participation in sports ABS Cat. 4177.0

• The best available data are as follows:
Participation in Organized Sports in Victoria among People 15 Years of Age
and Over,1998/99 (in descending order of popularity)
Sports (%)
Aerobics 4.5
Tennis 3.6
Golf 2.4
Basketball 2.4
Netball 2.2
Australian Rules Football 2.0
Swimming 2.0
Cricket 1.6
Cycling 1.0

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue City of Melbourne, Finance Department

• Figures used in CDB are the average over the last 3 years.
12.2 Capital and recurrent Ibid.
expenditure per person • Figures used in CDB are for the year 1999/2000.

356 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Melbourne
12.3 Collection efficiency, Ibid.
property taxes • Figures used in CDB are the average over the last 3 years.
12.4 Debt service charge Ibid.
• The city of Melbourne is debt-free.
12.5 Employees Ibid.
• Figures used in CDB are for the year 1999/2000.
12.6 Wages in budget Ibid.
• Figures used in CDB are the average over the last 3 years.
12.7 Contracted to recurrent Ibid.
expenditure ratio • Figures used in CDB are for the year 1999/2000.
12.8 Business permits NAP
• The city does not issue business permits.
12.9 Enterprise revenues CityWide Services
12.10 Computerization of functions • All functions listed are computerized.

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government • These include aged and disability services, family and children’s services, youth services,
environmental health services (including health inspections), animal management services, libraries, visitor
services, waste management, city cleaning, parks and recreation management, traffic management,
statutory and strategic planning, strategic research, engineering services (including road and footpath
maintenance), parking management and enforcement, and civic and ceremonial roles for the capital city.
13.2 Delivery of annual plan CDB estimates
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex Ibid.
13.4 Independence from higher NAV
government
13.5 Elected and nominated City of Melbourne, Governance Projects (CMGP)
councilors • At the last Council election in 1999, 14 women and 29 men were nominated to the Council. Of
these, 2 women and 7 men were elected.
13.6 Representation of minorities Ibid.
NAV
There are no special arrangements for minority groups to be represented on the Council.
13.7 Planning applications refused Ibid.
• In 1999, the City Council received 1,400 planning applications. Of this total, 978 were determined in that
year and 25 of those determined were refused. This gives a rate of refusal of 2.6%.
• The main reason for refusal was noncompliance with the City of Melbourne Planning Scheme.
13.8 Business satisfaction Refer to 13.9 below
13.9 Consumer satisfaction City of Melbourne Annual Report 1998/99 and Council officers
• The city carries out a biannual broad customer satisfaction survey. It covers a wide range of issues
such as what people like about the city and how they view the services provided by the Council. This
survey covers both businesses and residents.
• Other Council departments also regularly undertake survey of internal and external customers as part of
the Council’s “Best Value” program. This program aims to ensure that all services and activities of the
Council are relevant and are delivered effectively, and that this is clearly demonstrated to the community.
(Note: Not all departments of the Council have been through the Best Value process.)
• The State’s Department of Infrastructure also conducts an annual survey that measures customer
satisfaction, on behalf of all Councils in Victoria. The results are forwarded to the Councils and are
reported in their annual reports. The 1999 survey involved interviews with 350 Melbourne residents.
Community satisfaction is measured for
Overall performance of the Council
Key service areas and responsibilities
Local roads and footpaths
Health and human services
Recreational facilities
Waste management services
Enforcement of local laws
Economic development
Town planning policy and approvals
Council’s interaction and responsiveness
Advocacy and community representation on key local issues
13.10 Perception as place to live City of Melbourne Capital City Index July 1997

Notes and Sources 357

 Melbourne
• A survey commissioned by the City of Melbourne in 1997 revealed that residents believe the city is
an attractive city with a rich and diverse culture and a great place to live and visit.
• Some of the residents’ responses to the survey were:
% Who Agreed
Parks and gardens are among the city’s greatest attractions 96
Melbourne has a rich and diverse culture 92
Melbourne is a very attractive city 88
Melbourne is a good place to live 76
Melbourne is the best Australian capital city to live in 68
Melbourne is a cosmopolitan city 65

• The survey also checked the views of metropolitan residents (nonresidents of the city) and found that
89% agreed the city is highly accessible and 60% believed that public transport to, from, and around the
city is adequate, safe, and clean. Only 2% found it difficult to find a parking spot around the city.
13.11 Reported crimes Victoria Police “Crime Statistics 1997/98” 1998
• The figures provided are an estimate, as police records and population records do not coincide.
• The data are based on the records of Victoria Police Crime District A, which comprises the city of
Melbourne and the adjoining city of Yarra. However, the boundaries do not coincide with municipal
boundaries. The estimated residential population in Police District A was 110,648 in 1998. The police district
has a small resident population compared with the working-hour population and will therefore have a higher
number of offenses recorded per resident.
13.12 Access to information City of Melbourne Annual Report 1998/99 and Council officers
• Generally there is a high level of public access to Council documents and reports.
• The Council is required to advertise its annual budget before adopting it, and to publish an annual
report. Minutes of Council meetings are publicly available. The Council’s vision and strategies for the
city’s economic, environmental, and social development are set out in its City Plan and there are many
other strategic documents that spell out the Council’s directions or actions for specific issues or geographic
areas. These documents are all in the public domain. The Council also has its own website,
www.melbourne.vic.gov.au.
• Recognizing that the success of modern organizations depends in part on good marketing and
communications, the Council established a Marketing and Communications Division in 1999 to improve
communications with stakeholders and the community.
13.13 Contact with the public • The Council established a hotline to service telephone inquiries by internal and external customers.
• Neighborhood Officers and Safe City Neighborhood Officers provide on-the-street service to the
community.
13.14 Decentralized district units CMGP
• All services in the city are centralized.

358 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Naga
Indicators
1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization Based on Table 3 of the National Urban Development and Housing Framework, 1993-1998, which places
Philippine urbanization levels at
1950 – 27.1%; 1970 – 33%; 1990 – 42.7%; 2010 – 55.7%
• The above levels are based on the integration of three definitions of an “urban area”:
1. The National Statistics Office (NSO) definition which covers
a. cities and municipalities having a population density of at least 1,000 persons per km2;
b. poblaciones or central districts of municipalities and cities which have a population density of at
least 500 persons per km2;
c. poblaciones or central districts not included in (a) and (b) which have street pattern, at least six
establishments, and at least three of the following: (i) a town hall, church or chapel with
religious service at least once a month; (ii) a public plaza, park or cemetery; (iii) a market place
or building where trading activities are carried on at least once a week; and (iv) a public building
like a school, hospital, puericulture and health center or library; and
d. barangays having at least 1,000 habitants that meet the conditions set forth in (c) and where
the occupation of the inhabitants is predominantly nonfarming or nonfishing.
2. Republic Act No. 7279 definition which covers all cities regardless of their population density and
municipalities with a population density of at least 500 persons per km2.
3. The Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board Model Zoning Ordinance definition which covers all
barangays or portions of which include the poblacion and/or the CBD and the built-up area including
the urbanizable land in and adjacent to the CBD; and where at least more than 50% of the
population is engaged in nonagricultural activities.
1.2 City Population 1995 Census on Population (Camarines Sur), NSO
• The city’s resident population for 1999 (estimated at 137,546) was based on a 2.02% annual rate of
population increase.
Table 1 of the Naga City Land Use Plan, 2000-2004 presents the historical growth of Naga’s population as
follows:
Year Population
1975 83,337
1980 90,712
1990 115,329
1995 126,972

• The city’s resident population for 1999 (estimated at 137,546) was based on a 2.02% annual rate of
population increase. The growth rate was computed using the formula G = (B/A)1/t - 1, where B =
126,972, A = 115,329 and t = 5.
• The city’s incremental daytime population was estimated at 15%. This was based on traffic count
data generated by the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) 2nd Engineering District (for
national highways) and the University of Nueva Caceres Engineering Department (traffic engineering class)
for city streets. A net inflow of 16% was derived after factoring in capacity and assuming load factors of
75% and 50% for inbound and outbound traffic, respectively.
• This level also lies between the projected medium (10%) and high (25%) levels of incremental daytime
population made by the League of Cities of the Philippines. (See “Why Philippine Cities Deserve a Bigger
IRA Share—The Real IRA Per Capita as an Alternative Reference Measure,” 1995.)
1.3 Migration 1990 Census on Population and Housing, Report No. 3-24 E. Socio-economic and Demographic Characte-
ristics (Camarines Sur), NSO
• The 1990 Census on Population and Housing revealed that 22.32% of the household population in Naga
had been staying in their present residence only within the last five years. This represents the magnitude
of migration that occurred within the city during the same period.
• The same census also showed that 37.6% of the total population (or 30,700) was born elsewhere; the
balance (62.94%) was born in Naga. Applying this proportion to the migrant population, migration levels
within the city (14.05%) and into the city (8.27%) can be derived for the five years. The annual migration
rates (2.81% within and 1.65% from without) can be generated by dividing these levels by 5. Applying this
to the 1999 population, the magnitude of migration can be derived for the year (3,865 within and 2,275 from
outside Naga).
• Migration into the city can further be classified into domestic and international migration, which can be
generated by applying the proportion of migrants from other Philippine provinces (99.68%) and from foreign
lands (0.32%) to the total number of migrants who moved into Naga in 1999.

Notes and Sources 359

 Naga
1.4 Population net density Data for net residential land are from the Naga City Land Use Plan, 2000-2004, which presents actual land
use for 1977 (Table 126) and 1999 (Table 127).
The city’s comparative population net density is presented below:
Year Population Residential Land Population Net Density
1999 137,546 1,098.62 115.57
1977 87,218 696.96 125.14
• Populations for 1977 and 1999 were computed using the city’s historical population data described
under 1.2 above.
• If vacant land (146.76 ha) and informal settlement land (30.51 ha) are factored in, population net density
increases to 129.25. (Unfortunately, the city has no data on mixed-use land, which should drive the net
density higher.)
1.5 Age pyramid 1995 Census on Population, Basic Data, NSO
1.6 Average household size 1995 Census on Population and 1990 Census on Population and Housing, NSO
The comparative population, number of households, and household size are as follows:
Year Population Number of Households Household Size
1995 126,972 23,632 5.4
1990 114,898 20,488 5.6

1.7 Household formation rate Household formation rate was computed using the formula G = (B/A)1/t – 1, where B = 23,632, A =
20,488 and t = 5.
1.8 Women-headed households 1990 Census of Population and Housing (Marital Status of Household Population Ten Years Old and Over by
Age Group), Basic Data, NSO
• The figure assumes widowed and divorced/separated women from the age range 10-44 are likely to
become household heads. In 1990, widowed females in Naga belonging to these age groups totaled 403
for widowed and 231 for divorced/separated.
1.9 Minority groups 1990 Census on Population and Housing, Report No. 3-24 E. Socio-economic and Demographic Characte-
ristics (Camarines Sur), NSO
• Tagalog-speaking group – 6.585%. Otherwise, more than 95% of Naga’s population is Bikolano by
ethnicity and Roman Catholic by faith.
1.10 Household types Ibid.
• “Adults only” households (1,349) were derived from the number of married women without children.
“Single parent” families (656) were derived from the total widowed population in the 10-44 age group (497)
and half of the total divorced/separated population in the same age group (159). Households consisting of
adults and children (18,483) represent the balance after deducting the “adults only” and “single parent”
households from the total.
1.11 Informal settlements Urban Poor Affairs Office Report, Naga City, 28 February 2000

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution 1997 Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES) NSO, Basic Data
“Shelter Strategies for Region V” (December 1992) prepared by the Housing and Urban Development
Coordinating Committee (HUDCC) and the UN Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS-Habitat), supple-
mentary information
• In the absence of aggregated results for Naga City in the FIES, it was assumed that the income levels
of Naga residents lie between the income levels of Urban Philippines and Urban Bicol. An approximation is
provided under Table 2.13 of the Shelter Strategies study (shown below), which rates median monthly
income of Metro Naga households highest among Bicol households at all quintile levels.
Median Monthly Incomes by Income Group
Income Group Urban Metro Urban Metro Other Urban Rural
Naga (A) Legazpi (B) (C) (D)
(PhP) (PhP) (PhP) (PhP)
Lowest 20% 1,075 650 800 470
Next 20% 2,910 1,500 1,500 978
Next 20% 4,000 2,400 2,100 1,500
Next 20% 6,667 3,225 3,167 2,250
Highest 20% 13,900 5,100 6,000 4,425

• From the table, the ratio (R) of Urban Metro Naga households’ median monthly income to that of the
average Urban Bicol households can be derived, using the formula R = A/[(A + B + C)/3].

360 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Naga
Lowest 20% = 1.2772
Next 20% = 1.4772
Next 20% = 1.4118
Next 20% = 1.5316
Highest 20% = 1.6680

• Because the FIES survey expresses annual income levels in deciles, these were converted into
quintiles by getting the mean between the 1st and 2nd median income deciles to derive the median income
for the 1st quintile; the 3rd and the 4th deciles for the 2nd quintile; the 5th and the 6th for the middle
quintile; the 7th and the 8th deciles for the 4th quintile; and the 9th and 10th deciles for the 5th quintile.
• The ratios derived in step 2 were then applied to the relevant median income quintiles generated under
step 3 to generate the median annual income of Naga residents.
• The income ranges were derived by expressing annual into monthly incomes and computing the mean
between quintile monthly incomes. Rounded off to the nearest thousands, these are deducted from a
quintile income level to derive the lower limit, and added to that same income level to derive the upper
limit. These were then converted back into annual equivalents.
• The resulting median quintile income levels were inflated to their 1998 value by multiplying each by
1.083 (based on the 1998 inflation rate of 8.3%).
2.2 Households below poverty line 1994 and 1997 FIES, NSO, Basic Data
“Shelter Strategies for Region V,” HUDCC, UNCHS-Habitat, December 1992
• The annual per capita poverty thresholds for Bicol for 1994 and 1997 were taken from sectoral
statistics published by the National Statistics and Coordination Board, Region V at www.nscb.gov.ph/ru5/
secstats.htm. These were found to be
($)
1994 364.44
1997 361.97

• The median income quintiles were generated for 1994 and 1997 using the procedure described under
2.1. Each quintile was then divided by 5.4, the average household size, to generate the annual per capita
income. The results are summarized in the following table.
Annual Household and Per Capita Income
by Income Group, 1994 & 1997
Income Group Annual Household Annual Household
Income Income per Capita
1994 1997 1994 1997
(PhP) (PhP) (PhP) (PhP)
Lowest 20% (G1) 34,236 40,757 6,340 7,548
Next 20% (G2) 64,354 75,988 11,917 14,072
Next 20% 74,424 103,998 13,782 19,259
Next 20% 117,179 190,213 21,700 35,225
Highest 20% 288,165 461,223 53,364 85,412

• By ratio and proportion, the 1994 poverty incidence (P94) in Naga was derived using the formula P94 =
20%+ r, where r = (8,319 – G194) ÷ [(G294 – G194) ÷ 20%]. Simplifying, P94 = 27.1%.
Using the same formula, the 1997 poverty incidence (P97) in Naga would be P97 = 20% + r, where r =
(10,497 – G197) ÷ [(G297 – G197) ÷ 20%]. Simplifying, P97 = 29.04%.
2.3 Women-headed households • The figure assumes that the income of a woman-headed household would be diminished by at least
in poverty line 40%, the contribution of the male household head. This would generate the following per capita income
values for the five income groups, which would already allow the application of the formula in 2.2.
(PhP)
Lowest 20% 4,529
Next 20% (G1) 8,443
Next 20% (G2) 11,555
Next 20% 21,135
Highest 20% 51,247

2.4 Child labor 1999 Survey on Street Children and Homeless People, City Social Welfare and Development Office,
Naga City
• The survey identified a total of 978 urban working children in Naga, which represents 1.88% of the
52,083 projected for under-15 population in 1999.

Notes and Sources 361

 Naga
2.5 Informal employment 1999 Survey of Local Business Establishments, City Treasurer’s Office, Naga City.
• The survey covered a total of 1,554 existing establishments in seven barangays in the urban district of
the city. Of the total, 498 were found to be unregistered.
2.6 Unemployment 1990 Census on Population and Housing, Report No. 3-24 E. Socio-economic and Demographic
Characteristics (Camarines Sur), NSO Naga
2.7 Expenditure on poverty 1998 and 1999 Budgets, City Government of Naga
reduction (per poor person) Urban Poor Affairs Office (UPAO) report, Naga City, 28 February 2000.
• Kaantabay sa Kauswagan program budget was from the UPAO report, which presented total program
spending over the last 10 years, amounting to $2.58 million.
• The magnitude of poor people in the city was computed by applying the 1997 poverty incidence derived
in 2.2 to the projected city populations for 1998 and 1999.
• A 10% provision was made to cover spending on poverty reduction by national government agencies
(NGAs) and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) in the city.
Spending for the Poor, Naga City
Program/Office 1998 1999
($) ($)
Kaantabay sa Kauswagan Program 278,981.84 278,981.84
Urban Poor Affairs Office 29,341.20 42,406.49
Metro PESO Office 47,456.33 99,026.58
City Livelihood Programs 91,702.73 146,724.37
Naga City Hospital 297,159.36 297,891.76
City Social Welfare and
Development Office 124,739.83 149,597.48
Other Social Development Projects 97,816.25 97,816.25
Subtotal 967,197.56 1,112,444.80
Plus 10% for NGAs, NGOs 3,955,161.05 4,549,120.55
Total 1,063,917.34 1,223,689.29
Poor People Per Capita 27.17 30.64

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed Naga City Land Use Plan 2000-2004, Health Sector Report
• The total number of hospital beds in the city (943) was taken from the above source and the population
used is the 1999 projected population of the city.
3.2 Child mortality 1998 Annual Report, City Government of Naga, data on births and deaths
• Child mortality data were taken from figures provided by the City Health Officer.
• From the table below, the five-year average annual births can be computed (4,250.80), yielding a 1.67%
child mortality rate for 1999 and 2.42% for 1998.
Year Births Deaths Child Mortality
1995 3,902 731
1996 3,795 717
1997 4,378 638
1998 4,733 759 71
1999 4,446 668 103

3.3 Life expectancy at birth 1995 Census-Based National, Regional and Provincial Population Projection, NSO
• The figure represents the average of the projected life expectancy for the male (66.94) and female
(71.98) population in the province of Camarines Sur for 1995-2000.
3.4 Infectious diseases mortality Data on deaths from infectious diseases were taken from figures provided by the City Health Officer.
Population projections were based on a 2.02% annual rate of population increase.
Infectious Disease Mortality
Year No. of Cases Mortality Rate
1998 135 1.001
1999 160 1.163

3.5 Family planning 1999 Annual Report, City Population and Nutrition Office, Naga City
3.6 Adult literacy rate 1990 Census on Population and Housing, Report No. 3-24 E. Socio-economic and Demographic
Characteristics (Camarines Sur), NSO
• Most planning in the city is dependent on the NSO data conducted every 10 years. The land use plan,
for instance, also uses the same figure for lack of more recent ones.
3.7 School enrollment rates S/Y 1999-2000 School Enrollment Data, Division of City Schools, Naga City

362 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Naga
3.8 Tertiary graduates 1990 Census on Population and Housing, Report No. 3-24 E. Socio-economic and Demographic Characteris-
tics (Camarines Sur), NSO
• Tertiary graduates (“academic degree holders”) were placed at 12,683, which is 16.076% of the 78,893
population 20 years old and above.
• Most planning in the city depends on the NSO data conducted every 10 years. The land use plan, for
instance, also uses the same figure for lack of more recent ones.
3.9 Median years of education Ibid., basic data
• The figure was recomputed using 1990 census figures.
• Basic data was from the 1990 Census on Population and Housing, specifically household population 7
years old and over by school attendance. Effectively, seven would be the lower limit of the school-going
years.
• To determine the upper limit, the ratio of the household population attending school to the total house-
hold population in every age level starting from seven was generated and averaged (an average of 32.3%
are attending school for all age levels under consideration). The same procedure was applied for those not
attending school (average of 67.7% for all age levels under consideration).
• The average ratios were compared with the resulting ratios under status of school attendance to
identify the age level nearest to them. This yielded the age level of 22 (32% attending, 68% not attending
school) as the upper limit.
• The difference between these two limits (15 years) would represent the median years of education in
the city.
3.10 School children per classroom • Data show total elementary enrollment at 27,927 spread over 716 classrooms; and total high school
enrollment at 16,398 spread over 339 classrooms.

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY Naga

4.1 City product per capita • Data requirements are from the following:
a. Gross national product (GNP) at current 1998 prices was derived by multiplying the 1998 GNP per
capita of 37,175 with the estimated population of 75.16 million. These figures were taken from
estimates by the National Statistics Coordination Board published at www.nscb.gov.ph/sna/1999/4th99/
1999sna41.htm.
b. GNP sectoral share at current 1998 prices was derived after generating sectoral percentages to GNP at
constant 1985 prices—whose respective contributions to the total ($22.821 billion) are available from
the same webpage—and applying them to the GNP at current 1998 prices ($68.482 billion).
c. National employment figures for sectors (a) to (e) were derived from employment figures published
quarterly by the National Statistics Office, specifically for October 1998. The national Government
employment figure was sourced from the profile of government personnel maintained by the Civil
Service Commission (CSC) at www.csc.gov.ph/statisti.htm.
d. The city’s employment figures were generated through these steps:
i. results of the 1999 updating of the List of Establishments in Naga conducted by the Camarines Sur
provincial office of the NSO (the survey listed 3,213 establishments in the city employing a total of
20,498 workers);
ii. these NSO figures were adjusted, by ratio and proportion, to the level of 4,912 establishments that
registered with the City Treasurer’s Office in 1998;
iii. consistent with city treasury findings that 32.05% of local establishments are unregistered (see 2.5),
the figures under (ii) were further adjusted to include informal employment, generating a better
approximation of the local employment situation; and
iv. in the absence of official figures on government employment in the city, it was estimated to be 30%
of the 23,362 government personnel inventoried by the Civil Service Commission Regional Office for
Bicol.
• The city product was derived using method A.
• The resulting 1998 city product of $0.274 billion was divided by the city’s projected population for
the same year, yielding a city product per capita of $2,033.11.
• Applying the same methodology and procedures to 1993 data gathered from the same sources, the city
product for that year was likewise generated.
• The resulting 1993 city product of $2,247.27 was divided by the city’s projected population for the
same year (121,894), yielding a city product per capita of $1,490. It translates to a city product per capita
of $2,247.27 at current 1993 prices or to $ 2,488.67 at constant 1998 prices.

Notes and Sources 363

 Naga
4.2 Employment by industry Employing the basic data used in 4.1, the city’s labor force can be classified as follows:
Sector/Year 1998 1993
Secondary and Infrastructure 6,774 4,130
Manufacturing 4,907 3,046
Electricity, Gas & Water 868 839
Construction 999 245
Consumer Services 22,897 13,547
Wholesale and Retail Trade 15,378 8,310
Hotel & Restaurant 5,906 4,821
Transportation, Storage
& Communication 1,613 416
Product Services 4,316 2,836
Financial Intermediation 2,150 1,364
Real Estate and Business 2,166 1,472
Social Services 7,120 5,071
Education 3,969 2,557
Health and Social Work 1,502 1,288
Other Community and
Personal Services 1,649 1,225
Others 7,279 6,273
Agriculture and Forestry 270 196
Government 7,009 6,077
Total 48,386 31,857

4.3 Household expenditure Basic data are from 1997 FIES (for Urban Philippines) and 1990 Census on Population and Housing, Report
No. 3-24 E. Socioeconomic and Demographic Characteristics (Camarines Sur). Both were published by
NSO.
4.4 Investment by sector 1999 State of the City address of Mayor Sulpicio S. Roco, Jr.
Office records, 2nd Engineering District, Province of Camarines Sur
1998 Business Name registration records for Naga, Department of Trade and Industry Regional Office
• In the absence of aggregated data for the city, it was assumed that household spending in Naga would
be the mean between the household expenditure patterns of a typical urban Philippine household and a
household in the province of Camarines Sur.
• Their comparative spending by major items are shown below in percent.
Item Camarines Sur Urban Philippines Average
Food 53.2 40.3 46.8
Shelter 14.6 23.2 18.9
Travel 4.3 6.4 5.4
Others 27.9 30.1 29.0
• Basic data for investments in physical infrastructure for 1998 were taken from the 1999 State of the
City address of Mayor Sulpicio S. Roco, Jr., augmented by data provided by the 2nd Engineering District
of Camarines Sur.
• Investment data for housing was estimated based on the combined area of five housing projects
approved by the city government in 1998. The development cost factor was from the feasibility study of a
typical housing project in Naga.
• Data for investments in services and other sectors were taken from the 1998 Business Name
registration records for the city, courtesy of the Department of Trade and Industry Regional Office.
4.5 Tourism Naga City Resorts and Tourists Inns (1998), Naga City Tourism Council
Department of Tourism website at www.tourism.gov.ph.
• Data on tourists visiting the city were sourced from the publication Naga City Resorts and Tourist Inns
(1998), Naga City Tourism Council.
Year Domestic Visitors Foreign Visitors Total
1998 45,842 4,564 50,406
1997 32,217 1,399 33,616

• Data on average daily expenditures ($127.44) is sourced from the Department of Tourism homepage
at www.tourism.gov.ph/tourism/stat.htm
4.6 Major projects Basic data were from the DPWH (Regional Office V and 2nd Engineering District), the Air Transportation
Office (Naga Airport), the 1999 State of the City address of Mayor Roco, and the City Engineer’s Office.

364 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Naga
Name of Project Project Cost
($)
Rehabilitation of Maharlika Highway, Sipocot-Naga-Daraga 2,869,276.73
Various community infrastructure development projects 1,101,576.63
Improvement of Naga Airport Facilities 293,448.76
Magsaysay Bridge Rehabilitation 733,621.89
Malabsay Falls Development 733,621.89
School Building Program 586,897.51
Access Road to Central Bus Terminal 183,405.47
Naga River Flood Control Project 171,178.44
Water System Improvement 97,816.25
Rural Roads Development Project 48,908.13
Urban Renewal Projects 48,908.13

4.7 Cost of stay •Cost of stay was estimated based on the weighted average of room rates being offered by the city’s top
six hotels according to type of room (approximately $29.00), and an $11.00 allowance for food, beverages,
and other incidental expenses.
4.8 Corporate headquarters NAP

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure 1997-2000 Research Budgets, Naga College Foundation, Ateneo de Naga University and University of
Nueva Caceres
• Basic data were sourced mainly from three of the four local academic institutions that offer graduate
studies and conduct research and development. (See table below.)
• Multipliers of 1.25 (to account for Colegio de Sta. Isabel that failed to submit data) and 1.1 (to account
for R&D spending by other local NGOs) were applied to the annual total.
Institution S/Y1997/98 S/Y1998/99 S/Y1999/2000
($)
Naga College Foundation 84,500.00 95,500.00 93,500.00
Ateneo de Naga University 521,057.38 566,976.23 997,115.21
Unversity of Nueva Caceres 165,763.00 339,838.00 450,232.93

5.2 Telephone traffic Basic data are from 1998 National Direct Dialing (NDD) and International Direct Dialing (IDD) Traffic, Bayan
(million calls per year) Telecommunications Corporation (Bayantel) & Smart Communications, Inc. communications, 13 April 2000
• Because of stiff competition between two landline telecommunication companies (telcos) and among
three mobile telcos in Naga, the respondent companies (except for Smart Communications, Inc.) would not
share data with the project, allegedly because of confidentiality.
• Data on telephone traffic is also not available at the National Telecommunications Commission (NTC)
regional office in Legazpi City and incomplete at the NTC central office in Quezon City—limited to Bayan
Telecommunications Corporation’s (Bayantel) 1998 NDD and IDD traffic. Bayantel entered Naga by buying
out Nagatel.
• The data presented, therefore, was derived exclusively from the data provided by Bayantel and Smart.
• Figures for NDD and IDD were augmented by extrapolated NDD and IDD traffic for Digitel
Telecommunications Philippines, Inc. (Digitel) based on the following ratios:
a. Bayantel-Naga’s share in the total number of Bayantel subscribers nationwide allowed calculation of
Bayantel-Naga’s share of the company’s total NDD and IDD traffic.
b. Digitel-Naga’s subscriber ratio vs. Bayantel-Naga allowed calculation of Digitel-Naga’s proportionate
NDD and IDD traffic against Bayantel-Naga.
• Taken together, they represent Naga’s total NDD and IDD traffic.
Telephone Bayantel Bayantel-Naga Digitel-Naga Total Naga
Companies Total
No. of
Subcribers 253,324 10,097 3,326 13,423
Ratio (%) 3.99 (A) 32.94 (B)
NDD Traffic (mins) 42,969,000 1,712,660 564,159 2,276,819
IDD Traffic (mins) 1,108,000 44,163 14,547 58,710

• Figures from Smart showed an estimated annual mobile traffic of 4,271,181 minutes for 11,598
subscribers within Camarines Sur. Average traffic per subscriber can be computed (368.27 minutes) and
applied to the total mobile subscribers in Naga to derive the total annual traffic.
• The traffic per person is derived by dividing these totals by Naga’s projected 1998 population (134,823).

Notes and Sources 365

 Naga
5.3 Internet hosts per thousand March 2000 Survey of five local Internet service providers, with adjustments
population • The figure for 1999 is based on a survey of five local internet service providers (ISPs)—two school-
based and three commercial—with adjustments, factoring in inputs from key industry informants. These
are broken down into the following type of internet users:
Type of Subscriber Number
Dial-up – Home or office-based user with own PC 585
Institutional users – School-based users 17,975
Prepaid walk-in – Non-PC-owning subscriber
that prepays Internet service; walk-in with subscription 400
Walk-in without subscription – Internet café-type users 800
Total 19,760
• The total was divided by the city’s projected 1999 population and multiplied by 1,000 to generate the
number of internet connections per 1,000 residents.
• Annual growth rate in connections was based on the average growth in 1999 registered by respondent
ISPs.

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land Table 127, City Land Use Plan, 2000-2004, Naga City
• Table 127 presents existing land use (reproduced below). Another table (129) presents proposed land
use. Also, urban land as reckoned under the indicators focused on the built-up area, excluding water
bodies.
Land Use Area Percent
(in hectares) (%)
Total Land Area 8,448.00 100.00
Arable Land/Agricultural Area 6,939.97 82.15
Agricultural 6,325.28 74.87
Forest Parks & Reserves 611.14 7.23
Dumpsite 3.55 0.04
Water Bodies 43.72 0.52
Built-Up Area 1,464.31 17.33
Residential 1,098.62 13.01
Commercial 161.13 1.91
Institutional 150.29 1.78
Parks/Plaza/Open Space 2.49 0.03
Cemetery 13.11 0.20
Industrial 30.20 0.36
Transport Terminal 4.47 0.05

6.2 Land developer multiplier Office communications, City Assessor’s Office, Naga City, 3 March 2000
• This represents the multiplier for medium-class residential subdivisions and is corroborated by key
informants from the local real estate industry.
6.3 Developer contributions • This is based on inputs from key informants from the local real estate industry and corroborated by
City Planning and Development Office (CPDO) staff.
6.4 Median time for planning Data are from the Sangguniang Panlungsod, Naga City approved Resolutions for 1997/98.
permissiom • The definition in the Indicators Reference specified a typical subdivision. Therefore, computations were
made based on subdivision projects submitted to the Sangguniang Panlungsod.
• CPDO data show that on the average, individual housing or business permits average three days to
process (assuming complete documentation). This would however bring the median time drastically
beyond the scope of the definition.
• The list of planning applications, together with the time elapsed between filing and approval/disapproval
of application, are summarized below:
Applicant Days Equivalent
Elapsed in Months
1998
UPAO San Rafael Resettlement Site 6 0.20
Aeroville Housing Subdivision 83 2.77
Firm Builders, Inc. 9 0.30
Naga City Employees Low-Cost Housing 8 0.27
Villa San Felipe Subd. 233 7.77
Sitio Capilihan Land Acquisition Project 68 2.27

366 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Naga
Capilihan/Lerma/Sapang Laon HOA 60 2.00
Average 2.22

1997
Sabang Resettlement Site 23 0.77
Laura Villages Subd. 51 1.70
Monte Cielo de Naga IV 71 2.37
Sabang Resettlement Site 22 0.73
Sapang Laon Resettlement 51 1.70
San Francisco Village I 63 2.10
San Francisco Village I 56 1.87
Cokeville 5 0.17
DENIAL – BF Homes 222 7.40
Monte Cielo de Naga III 48 1.60
Ruby Shelters 58 1.93
Acacia Homeowners 10 0.33
Li Seng Giap 12 0.40
Average 1.65

6.5 Vacant land with planning City Land Use Plan, 2000-2004, Naga City, page 44
permission
6.6 Public open space • In Table 127, City Land Use Plan, 2000-2004, Naga City, the data represents the total of 3(d) and 3(e).
6.7 Vacant government land Official communications, City Assessor’s Office, Naga City, 3 March 2000
6.8 Prime commercial land price Ibid.
Communications with the consultant, 4 September 2000
• Data provided by the City Assessor’s Office were based on the high end of the going rate of
commercial lot purchases (placed between $978.16 and $1,222.70), particularly the purchase by Jollibee of
its adjacent property, which lies at the heart of the CBD at $1,223 per m2.
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs Official communications, City Assessor’s Office, Naga City 3 March 2000
• The figure was corroborated by key informants from the local real estate industry.
• Data on operating costs per month represent the average within the CBD, including a number of
commercial buildings with almost zero operating cost, having been built on long-term lease arrangement
and whose ownership have already reverted to lessors.
• Data on statutory cost represent taxes and other government charges.
6.10 Expenditure on development • Basic data for 1998 were taken from the State of the City address Mayor Sulpicio S. Roco, Jr.,
augmented by data provided by the DPWH Regional and 2nd Engineering District Offices.
• 1996/97 data were mainly from the 1997 State of the City report on Mayor Jesse M. Robredo.
• The various development projects from 1996 to 1998 are summarized below:
Project 1998 1997 1996
($) ($) ($)
Rehabilitation of Maharlika
Highway, Sipocot-Naga-Daraga 2,869,276.73
Various community infrastructure
development projects 1,101,576.63 1,398,029.15 1,448,301.19
Improvement of Naga Airport Facilities 293,448.76 43,800.75
Magsaysay Bridge Rehabilitation 733,621.89
Malabsay Falls Development 733,621.89
School Building Program 586,897.51
Access Road to Central Bus Terminal 183,405.47
Naga River Flood Control Project 171,178.44
Water System Improvement 97,816.25
Rural Roads Development Project 48,908.13
Urban Renewal Projects 48,908.13
Central Bus Terminal Project 1,413,819.23
Metro Naga Coliseum 1,810,378.29 2,083,864.55
Palaro Road Concreting Project 801,738.96 922,854.30
Streetlights Improvement 206,900.38
Tabuco-Sabang Bridge 517,250.94 595,389.87
Naga-Carolina 241,383.77 277,848.61
Del-Rosario-Carayan-Balatas 275,867.17 317,541.27
Naga City Coliseum 775,867.41 893,084.81
Total 6,868,659.83 7,855,045.04 6,538,884.60

Notes and Sources 367

 Naga
Per capita expenditure ($) 50.95 54.89 48.51
Three-year average ($) 52.65

• Per capita spending was derived by dividing annual totals by the projected city population for the
corresponding year.

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type 1990 Census on Population and Housing, Report No. 3-24 E. Socio-economic and Demographic
Characteristics (Camarines Sur), NSO
7.2 Tenure type Ibid.
Urban Poor Affairs Office report, Naga City, 28 February 2000
• Two adjustments were made to the NSO data on housing tenure: (1) Total number of households was
inflated to the 1998 level by dividing the projected 1998 city population by 5.4, the average household size.
(2) The 72.30% owning/amortizing their housing units was broken down to reflect beneficiaries of social
housing projects of the city government (39.33%).
• The data were based largely on the 1990 NSO. But it was adjusted to factor in accomplishments made
under the Kaantabay Program.
7.3 House price to income • Median household income $2,754.27 was based on data generated under 2.1 and 2.2. It represents the
annual household income of the middle 20% of Naga residents infated to its 1998 value.
• Median house price was generated using Method 2.
• A survey of housing projects in the city yielded the following, taken from ongoing informal (Habitat for
Humanity) and formal (Villa Karangahan for low and middle and San Francisco Village for high end) housing
projects.
Type of housing Price
($)
Informal housing (Habitat for Humanity) 2,328
Townhouse 500 6,372
Townhouse 600 7,598
Single attached 10,171
Single attached–low-end 14,779
Luxury 17,524
Average Price 9,777
Median Price 6,859

• The median house price was assumed to be 70% of the average. This was validated by Table 4.1
(“Affordability for New Housing by Income Group”) of the Shelter Strategies study by HUDCC and UNCHS-
Habitat, which determined a rowhouse to be the most affordable housing option for the middle 20% in
Metro Naga. The resultant median price also lies in between the Townhouse 500 and 600 rowhouse
options being offered by Villa Karangahan.
7.4 House rent to income ratio 1990 Census on Population and Housing, Report No. 3-24 E. Socio-economic and Demographic Characteris-
tics (Camarines Sur), NSO, Basic Data
• The median rent was assumed to be the upper limit in the median monthly rental of housing units
$21.25 in 1990. The figure was inflated to its 1998 level on a year-to-year basis, as shown in the following
table:
Year Inflation Rate Monthly Rental
(Camarines Sur)
(%) ($)
1991 16.1 22.80
1992 7.7 27.36
1993 7.9 27.49
1994 8.3 30.36
1995 9.2 33.08
1996 5.5 33.34
1997 2.6 29.72
1998 8.3 22.82

• Median household income of $2,754.27 was based on data generated under 2.1 and 2.2. It represents
the annual household income of the middle 20% of Naga residents inflated to its 1998 value.
7.5 Floor area per person Ibid., basic data
“Shelter Strategies for Region V” by HUDCC and UNCHS-Habitat

368 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Naga
• The Shelter Strategies study set the median house floor area for Metro Naga households at 48 m2.
The 1990 Census, on the other hand, set the household population to occupied housing units at 5.865.
7.6 Housing in compliance 1990 Census on Population and Housing, Report No. 3-24 E. Socio-economic and Demographic Characteris
tics (Camarines Sur), NSO, Basic Data
• The establishment of regulatory building units in the Department of Public Works and Highways in 1977
was recognized to have improved compliance to around 80%. Its devolution to the city government as a
separate office has sustained the same compliance level. The obstacle to attaining full compliance rests
on a number of new houses being built without permits (particularly in informal settlements), which the
office cannot monitor due to limited staffing.
• The figure represents an average of the estimated level of compliance with local building regulations
as perceived by the City Building Office. Before the establishment of local building offices in the late
1970s, compliance was estimated to be at 50%. With the operational building units by 1980, compliance
was estimated to have risen to 80%.
• The resulting compliance level is therefore estimated as follows:
Period Total Housing Units Housing Units in Compliance
Compliance Level
(%)
1980 or earlier 10,793 5,397 50.00
1981 and beyond 8,799 7,039 80.00
Total 19,592 12,436 63.47

7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio Survey of Local Financial Institutions, Naga City March 2000
• Data on mortgage credit presented below were taken from results of a survey among local financial
institutions relative to the CDB project.
• Data from banks were derived from the average of responses generated from three of the 11 local
banks surveyed through the Camarines Sur Bankers Association (CSBA)
Source of Loan Loan Amount Total Number of Mortgage Loans
($) Mortgage Loans to Women
Banks 156,699.50 143 26
Home Development Mutual Fund (HDMF) 2,749,600.36 795 424
Government Service Insurance System (GSIS) 3,325,364.14 819 532
Social Security System (SSS) 384,511.65 228 70
Total 6,616,175.65 1,985 1,052

• Data on total outstanding credit were provided by the CSBA ($0.076 billion) and the national agencies
engaged in housing (HMDF, GSIS, SSS–$0.006 billion).
7.8 Houses with mortgages Survey of Local Financial Institutions, Naga City March 2000
7.9 Mortgage loans for women Ibid.
7.10 Housing production City Building Office (CBuO) Report, Naga City, March 2000
Communications with the consultant, 4 September 2000
• CBuO staff place production of new units at 90% of the total.
• Total housing production was derived by applying the household-to-occupied housing unit ratio of 1.046.
This results in 24,351 housing units, which is 4,759 more than the 1990 figure (19,592). The difference
translates to an average annual housing production of 595 over the 8-year period, which yields the above
indicators using the city’s estimated 1998 population.
7.11 Squatter resettlement or Urban Poor Affairs Office Report, Naga City, 28 February 2000
normalization • On-site projects are aimed at regularization, off-site at normalization.
• The magnitude of poor people in the city was computed by applying the 1997 poverty incidence derived
in 2.2 to the projected city populations for 1999. The total number of urban poor households (7,397) was
derived by dividing the urban poor population by 5.4, the average household size.
7.12 Net housing outlays by Survey of Local Financial institutions, Naga City March 2000. Urban Poor Affairs Office report, Naga City,
by government (per person) 28 February 2000.
• Data for formal housing were taken from housing expenditures of national government agencies that
finance housing projects. Informal housing represent city government expenditures for its on-site and off-
site projects for the urban poor. Details are provided in the table below.
Formal housing 264,147,358.55
Informal housing 114,084,045.43
Total 378,231,403.98
Per Capita ($) 67.24

7.13 Homeless people 1999 Survey on Street Children and Homeless People, City Social Welfare and Development Office, Naga
City

Notes and Sources 369

 Naga
8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections Naga City Water Supply Profile, As of December 1999, Metro Naga Water District (MNWD), Naga City
Service Provider MNWD
Total households 26,491
Total households served 19,523
% of households being served 73.70
Total capital investment ($) 1,931,424.05
Investment per capita ($) 14.38

Total maintenance and other operating expenses (MOOE) 55,847,936.17

MOOE per capita ($) 0.24

Total revenues ($) 1,701,024.71

Cost recovery (%) 1.2754

Volume of water supplied (m3) 16,145,410.00

Total number of staff 147.00
Output per staff (m3) 109,832.72

• The profile does not reflect three other smaller waterworks systems independent of the MNWD—a
smaller Level III system in Barangay Cararayan serving a total of 102 households; and much smaller Level II
systems in Del Rosario and at Pacol-Carolina-Panicuason area serving an undetermined number of families
(Water Sector Report, Naga City Land Use Plan, 2000-2004).
8.1.2 Investment per capita Naga City Water Supply Profile, As of December 1999, Metro Naga Water District, Naga City
8.1.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditures
8.1.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.1.5 Output per staff: water Ibid.
supplied per employee
8.1.6 List of providers MNWD – 99%
Three community-based waterworks systems – 1%
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water Naga City Water Supply Profile, As of December 1999, Metro Naga Water District, Naga City.
a. Percentage unaccounted Ibid.
for water • There are two main reasons: (a) Leaks from the 80-year old water pipes in the city and (b) Illegal
connections that tap both transmission and distribution service lines.
• Offhand, the impact is not being felt directly by consumers in service quality (except for cost of
service) because of overcapacity.
• Between 1994 and 1999, actual production increased by 247% as additional pumping stations went
online. But actual consumption increased by only 87% during the same period, negating the increased
system loss from 20 to 57%.
b. Interruptions in water Ibid.
service
8.1.8 Consumption of water Ibid.
per capita
8.1.9 Median price of water, Ibid.
scarce season

8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections Official documents, Camarines Sur II Electric Cooperative, Naga City
1998 Annual Report, Camarines Sur II Electric Cooperative, Naga City
• Data on the number of staff taken from the 1999 List of Establishments were updated by the provincial
office of the NSO.
Electric Power Service Profile Camarines Sur II Electric Cooperative
Total households, 1999 26,491
Total households served, 1999 25,008
% of households being served 94.40

Total capital investment, 1998 ($) 2,150,009.05

Investment per capita, 1998 ($) 15.63

370 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Naga
Total MOOE, 1998 ($) 101,085,519.00
MOOE per capita, 1998 ($) 18.33
MOOE per capita, ($) 18.33

Total revenues, 1998 ($) 12,238,124.15

Cost recovery, 1998 (%) 1.0086

Total power sales, 1998 (MWh) 110,795.63

Total number of staff 335
Output per staff (MWh) 330.73

8.2.2 Investment per capita 1998 Annual Report, Camarines Sur II Electric Cooperative (Casureco II), Naga CIty
8.2.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expediture
8.2.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.2.5 Output per staff: megawatt Ibid.
hours of electricity supplied • Data on number of staff taken from the 1999 List of Establishments updating conducted by the
per employee provincial office of the NSO.
8.2.6 List of providers Casureco II – 100%
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity
a. Line loss for electricity Office documents, Camarines Sur II Electric Cooperative, Naga City
• Data covers 1999.
b. Interruptions in power Ibid.
supply • Interruption in power service can be classified into two types:
a. Interruptions at the level of National Power Corporation, the national utility that generates and
transmits power to area distributors like Casureco II; and
b. Interruptions owing to Casureco II system trip-offs.

8.3 Sewerage/wastewater NAP

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections Basic data are from the Bicol regional office (Legazpi City) and central office (Quezon City) of the National
Telecommunications Commission.
• These were augmented by published data at the respective websites of Digital Telecommunications
Philippines, Inc. (Digitel), Bayan Telecommunications, Inc. (Bayantel), Smart Communications, Inc. (Smart),
Pilipino Telephone, Inc. (Piltel) and Globe Telecommunications, Inc. (Globe).
• The city’s telephone service profile is summarized below. Some notes on the computations:
1. Data for landline subscribers were sourced from the NTC regional office.
2. Mobile subscribers were estimated, because of the companies’ reluctance to share data, allegedly to
protect confidential information (see 5.2). Estimates were based on their published national subscribers
base as of end 1998—assuming that the ratio of their combined subscribers base in Naga to the national
total would be proportional to the ratio of Naga’s population vis-à-vis the total population of Philippine cities.
3. Financial data of each telco were sourced from their 1998 annual report submitted to the NTC central
office. Similar to the procedure in estimating local mobile subscribers base, figures for local capital
investment and MOOE were derived as a proportion of their respective subscribers to total installed lines
(for landline operators) and national subscribers (for mobile operators). Per capita expenditure and MOOE
were derived by dividing local capital investment and MOOE by the projected 1998 city population.
4. Cost recovery was based on the telephone companies’ total revenues and MOOE nationwide.
5. Market share for landline operators were based on actual performance at yearend 1998. For mobile
operators, national market shares were assumed to be the same as their respective local shares.
Telephone Service Profile 1998
Landline Mobile
Service providers Digitel Bayantel Smart Piltel Globe
Total households 25,008
Total subscribers 3,326 10,097 5,679 2,461 5,780
% of households served 13.30 40.38 22.71 9.84 23.11
Market Share (%) 24.78 75.22 40.80 17.68 41.52

8.4.2 Investment per capita Basic data are from the NTC Bicol regional office (Legazpi City) and central office (Quezon City), augmented
by published data at the respective websites of Digitel, Bayantel, Smart, Piltel, and Globe.
8.4.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure
8.4.4 Cost recovery Ibid.

Notes and Sources 371

 Naga
8.4.5 Output per staff: Ibid.
thousands of calls per
employee
8.4.6 List of providers Landline (%)
Digital Telecommunications Philippines, Inc. 24.78
Bayan Telecommunications, Inc. 75.22
Mobile
Smart Communications, Inc. 40.80
Pilipino Telephone, Inc. 17.68
Globe Telecommunications, Inc. 41.52

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with regular Office document, City Environment and Natural Resources Office (ENRO), Naga City
service
8.5.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.5.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure
8.5.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.5.5 Output per staff: collected Ibid.
per employee
8.5.6 List of providers City ENRO - 100% output

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated Office document, City ENRO, Naga City
Solid Waste Collection Profile, 1999
Service Provider ENRO
Total households 26,491
Total households served 22,782
% of households being served 86.00
Total capital investment ($) 61,982.94
Investment per capita ($) 0.4614
Total MOOE ($) 29,366.96
MOOE per capita ($) 0.22
Total revenues ($) 9,911.19
Cost recovery (%) 0.3375
Volume of solid waste 13,708.8
collected (tons)
Total number of staff 68
Output per staff (tons) 201.60

9.2 Household sewage disposal 1990 Census on Population and Housing, Report No. 3-24 E. Socio-economic and Demographic
Characteristics (Camarines Sur), NSO
9.3 Waste water treated NAV
9.4 Percent BOD removed from NAP
wastewater
9.5 Air pollution concentrations 1999 Air Quality Monitoring Report, City ENRO, Naga City
• According to the regional unit of the Environmental Management Bureau of the DENR, its current
monitoring capability is limited only to one (suspended particulate) of the six pollutant types mentioned due
to equipment limitation.
9.6 Energy usage per person 1995 Household Energy Consumption Survey, NSO
• The computation of energy usage per person was based on data for urban Bicol lifted from the NSO
survey. The conversion of various energy types into their equivalent tons of coal per annum is shown in
the following table. In the absence of conversion factors for biomass residue and LPG, the conversion
factors for fuel, wood and natural gas, respectively were used.
Type of energy Annual Consumption Conversion Tons per
per Person Factor Annum
Gas & Diesel 0.19821 kiloliter 1.179 0.2337
Kerosene 0.01365 kiloliter 1.23 0.0168
Fuelwood 0.42288 ton 0.333 0.1408
Electricity 119.56 kWh 0.000123 0.0147
Biomass residue 0.1342 ton 0.333 0.0447

372 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Naga
Charcoal 0.06306 ton 0.986 0.0622
LPG 0.02513 ton 1.328 0.0334
Total 0.5462

9.7 Noise complaints Based on interview with staff of the City Planning and Development Office (CPDO), Naga City
• Noise pollution may arise from noise being generated by commercial activities like metal works, and
automobile repair shops within or near residential areas.
9.8 Disasters in the last 10 years Office records, Office of Civil Defense, Naga City
Typhoon Dwellings Destroyed Lives Lost
Typhoon Loleng, 1,391 total, 7,242 partial 10 dead, 14 injured
21 October 1998 dwellings damaged
Typhoon Rosing, 2,339 total, 7,743 partial 11 dead
1-2 November 1995 dwellings damaged
Typhoon Monang, 591 total, 6,433 partial 7 dead, 27 injured,
05 December 1993 dwellings damaged 7 missing

9.9 Solid Waste Collection Integrated Solid Waste Management Program in Naga City, City ENRO, Naga City
• With adjustments based on the figures contained in another City ENRO office document.

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel Basic data are from 1999 daily traffic counts conducted by the Camarines Sur 2nd Engineering District for
the Maharlika Highway and the University of Nueva Caceres Traffic Engineering classes under Engr. Rodolfo
Z. Fortuno for four city streets. The traffic counts were conducted over one week.
• These were supplemented by 1999 vehicle registration figures from the local unit of the Land
Transportation Office and the City Treasurer’s Office.
• To generate a comprehensive profile of various modes of transport in the city, the
following steps were taken:
1. Traffic count data for one week on four city streets were averaged to generate a single profile for
city streets traffic.
2. Factoring in results of the Engineering District traffic count, a city traffic profile was derived by
generating a weighted average of traffic in city streets (which accounted for 61.34%) and the
national highway (which accounted for 38.66%).
3. Total passenger capacity was generated by factoring in the average capacity per type of vehicle.
4. Percentage share of each vehicle type was computed by dividing total vehicle-specific capacity by
the total passenger capacity. Results are summarized below:
Private Jeepney Bus 3-Wheeled Total
Vehicles
National highway 10,169 4,327 2,391 4,347 21,234
City streets 14,694 9,320 88 29,334 53,436
Total traffic 24,863 13,647 2,479 40,418 81,406
Average capacity
per vehicle type 4 15 40 3
Total passenger
capacity 99,451 204,703 99,154 121,253 524,561
Percentage share 18.96 39.02 18.90 23.12 100.00
• The percentage share of 3-wheeled vehicles was further broken down into pedal-powered or
motorized vehicles by taking the proportion of registered pedal-powered (1,639 in 1999 based on City
Treasurer’s Office records) to the total motorized trimobiles (8,576 according to LTO records) and applying
this to the total 3-wheeled percentage share.
• Jeepney falls under the “other vehicles” category. CDB has re-categorized this and placed it in the
“Bus or Mini-Bus” category.
• In computing the percent of work trips by mode of travel, trucks and trailers were excluded factoring in
LTO’s explanation that these are used for cargo, not for passenger transport.
10.2 Median travel time This is based on the median travel time for sample trips undertaken during 20-26 February 2000 from three
points of origin near city boundaries.
10.3 Expenditure on road Basic data are from road projects comprising the total expenditure on development from 1996 to 1998
infrastructure detailed in 6.10, augmented by maintenance expenditures by the national Government through the 2nd
Engineering District of Camarines Sur.

Notes and Sources 373

 Naga
The computations are shown below in US dollars.
1997 1998 1996
Road construction
projects 4,202,404.42 2,302,250.55 1,673,546.82
Maintenance
expenditures 308,121.19 434,490.78 500,127.49
Total 4,510,525.61 2,736,741.34 2,173,674.31
Per capita
spending 33.46 20.38 16.13
Average (in constant
1998 values) 23.65

10.4 Road Congestion • This information is not currenty available from the Engineering and Traffic units of the City Government
and the local Philippine National Police station. An application using the geographic information system
capability of the local government is being considered as a result of the CDB project.
• Unfortunately, we are still having difficulty with this indicator. Traffic management in the city is mostly
based on perception and accumulated experience. The differentiation as regards entities responsible for
national (DPWH) and city roads (City Engineers Office) also comes into play.
• In addition, traffic management is beyond the consultant’s current specialization. A team approach (to
pool the expertise of DPWH, the chief executive officer, local schools and the PNP) might address the
problem.
10.5 Automobile ownership Basic data are from the 1999 vehicles registration report of the local unit of the Land Transportation Office.
• The total number of automobiles (6,587) was divided by the estimated population of driving age (18
years old and above, projected to be 75,377 in 1999). The quotient was multiplied by 1000 to generate
automobile ownership per 1,000 population.
• The proportion of population owning more than two cars is not currently available. LTO records have yet
to be computerized to allow retrieval of this specific information.
10.6 Cost recovery from fares This is not applicable to Naga City where public transportation is provided by the private sector subject to
government regulation.
• A 12% cap return from the authorized asset base is in place, according to the regional office of the Land
Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board.
10.7 Port/air activity 1999 Report on Take-Offs and Landings, Air Transportation Office, Naga Airport
Carrier No. of Takeoffs & Landings
Air Philippines 404
Philippine Airlines 590
Asian Spirit 832
Total 1,826
Average Takeoffs and Landings per Month 152.17
Average Takeoffs per Month 76.08

10.8 Goods carried Ibid.

Official communications, Philippine National Railways (PNR) Area VI, 03 March 2000
1995-97 Passenger and Cargo Performance Report, Philippine Airlines
• The PNR communication provided data on the tonnage of cargo shipped out of Bicol region.
It estimates that 30% of the total is accounted for by its Naga station.
• In the absence of published data for the movement of cargoes by road, the volume is assumed to be in
between the air and rail volume. This is based on the tri-modal interregional transportation prevalent in the
city.
Mode of Transport/Provider Volume of Cargo Carried
(kg)
By Air
Air Philippines 32,171.00
Philippine Airlines 123,754.00
Asian Spirit 254,237.45
Total 410,162.45
By Rail
Philippine National Railways 508,752.67
By Road
Various land forwarders
and bus companies 459,457.56

374 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Naga
• Factoring in data from Philippine Airlines operations from 1995 to 1997 when it monopolized the air
transportation industry, the growth of air cargo out of Naga is shown below:
(kg)
1999 410,162.45
1997 354,903.00
1996 157,320.00
1995 171,739.00

10.9 Transport fatalities Official communications, Philippine National Police (March 2000), Naga City
• The ratio of transport-related deaths was derived by dividing the cases of deaths by the projected city
population for the given year. The quotient was multiplied by 1,000 to generate the ratio per 1,000
population. These are detailed in the table below:

Year Transport-Related deaths Ratio per 1,000 pop.

1995 12 0.0945
1996 11 0.0849
1997 11 0.0832
1998 11 0.0816
1999 5 0.0364
Average 0.0761

• Pedestrian deaths were placed at 10% of the total cases annually.

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events Estimates based on expected space occupied by attendees were generated using the geographic
information system of the City Government.
• The major public events in 1998, with their respective estimated attendance, are presented below.
Event Attendance
Religious processions in honor of the Virgin of Peñafrancia every September 750,000
Civic and military parades, Peñafrancia fiesta celebrations 250,000
Candidates forum series, 1998 local elections 60,000
Palarong Bicol regional sports meet 20,000
City charter celebration parades 10,000
School torch parades for local achievers 5,000

• Peñafrancia fiesta activities dominate the major public events in Naga. The feast is celebrated every
third week of September, to honor Nuestra Señora de Peñafrancia, the Patroness of Bicol. It is the only
regional festivity of its kind in the Philippines today and perhaps, the biggest Marian devotion there is in
Asia. (City Land Use Plan, 2000-2004, Naga City)
11.2 Attendance at galleries March 2000 Survey of Local Museum, Naga City
and museums • The major galleries and museums in the city, with their respective attendance in 1998, are presented
below:
Gallery/Museum Attendance
Bicol Science and Technology Centrum 38,469
Museo Conciliar Seminario, Holy Rosary Minor Seminary 6,300
University of Nueva Caceres Museum 3,378

• The Bicol Science and Technology Centrum (BSTC) was established in 1993 in partnership with the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) to cater to the continuing education of the young,
professionals, teachers and sci-tech enthusiasts. It features interactive sci-tech gadgets, a skywatch
gallery, a sci-cubby hole for the kids, an audio-visual room, and a cyber café for Internet lovers.
• The Museo Conciliar Seminario at the Holy Rosary Minor Seminary showcases Bicol ancient relics
andartifacts like burial jars, chinaware, rare stones and ritual objects. Featured as well is the local church
history where old Roman Catholic Church vestiges and sacred objects are displayed.
• Located inside the University of Nueva Caceres campus, the UNC museum is one of the oldest
museums outside Manila and recognized by the International Association of Museums. It houses
historical artifacts of ancient Bicol, its people,and its culture. (City Land Use Plan, 2000-2004, Naga City).
11.3 Participation in sports Based on estimates by the Naga City Sports Council
• People participate in sports, according to sports council officials-at the village and city levels. At the
village level, participation ranges from 60 to 80% of the total population. At the city level, this ranges from
20 to 40%.

Notes and Sources 375

 Naga
• The most popular sports remains basketball, which is also the Philippines’ favorite sports pastime.
It is followed by swimming and chess.

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue Annual City Budgets, 1993 1999, City Budget Office, Naga City
• Taxes mainly come from real property and local business taxes being levied by the city government.
• User charges refer to regulatory fees and other charges being levied by the city government.
• Other own sources take the form of interest income from bank deposits and treasury bills placement
of the city government, as well as rental of government properties.
• Transfers refer mainly to the Internal Revenue allotment share of the city, augmented recently by
minimal share from lotto operations.
12.2 Capital and recurrent Basic data provided by the City Accountant’s Office, Naga City
expenditure per person
12.3 Collection efficiency, Official document, City Treasurer’s Office, Naga City
property taxes
12.4 Debt service charge Basic data provided by the City Accountant’s Office, Naga City
12.5 Employees Naga City Government Personnel Positions Inventory, (As of 31 December 1999) City Human Resource
Management Office, Naga City
• Comparatively, the city government had 785 employees as of 31 December 1994 (Political and
Administrative Sector Report, 1994 City Land Use Plan.) This translates to a ratio of 6.307 local govern-
ment employees per 1,000 population.
• If casuals (539) and contractual (37) are further excluded, this brings down the total employees to
458, which yields a ration of 3.33 per 1,000 population.
12.6 Wages in budget Basic data provided by the City Accountant’s Office, Naga City (see 12.2)
• The ratio of personal service to recurrent expenditures from 1997 to 1999 is shown below:
1999 1998 1997
Personal Service-to-Recurrent Exp. 0.4869 0.3917 0.3549

12.7 Contracted recurrent Basic data sources from the City Accountant’s Office, Naga City and the city’s expenditures on
expenditure ratio development (see 6.10)
• The city government’s locally funded infrastructure projects are contracted wholly to the private sector.
In addition, the newly constructed Central Bus Terminal was privatized; its operations would have cost the
city an estimated $71,642.76 million annually had it not been privatized.
12.8 Business permits • Official records, City Treasurer’s Office, Naga City
• An inventory of the city’s registered business establishments from 1995 to 1999 is shown below:
Year No. of Registered Business
Establishments
1995 4,581
1996 4,710
1997 4,898
1998 4,962
1999 4,937
Average 4,818

12.9 Enterprise revenues Basic data provided by the City Accountant’s Office, Naga City
12.10 Computerization functions Draft Naga City Information Systems Plan, Electronic Data Processing Unit, Naga City
Application Description, Financial Management System (FMIS), Electronic Data Processing Unit, Naga City
• Notwithstanding its size relative to other Philippine cities, the city government has been doing very well
in its computerization efforts. This is indicated by a national award (1996 Galing Pook Award as one of the
Philippines’ 10 most outstanding local government programs) for its computerization efforts using mostly
local resources. The government focused on land registration, financial and business progress.

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government Local Government Code of 1991, Department of the Interior and Local Governments (DILG)
City Land Use Plan, 2000-2004, Naga City
• The Local Government Code of 1991 (specifically Section 17, Chapter II, Book I) granted Philippine local
government wide-ranging authorities and functions, including
a. Water – This covers providing infrastructure facilities that are funded out of local funds, including
water supply systems. In Naga, this is being carried out through the three smaller waterworks
system not being served by the MNWD (see 8.1.)

376 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Naga
b. Refuse collection – This covers providing solid waste disposal or environmental management
system and services or facilities. Locally, this is being carried out by the City ENRO.
c. Electricity – This is being carried out by Casureco II (see 8.2.)
d. Public or mass transport – This is being carried out by the private sector subject to government
regulation (3-wheeled vehicles by the city government, 4-wheeled and above by the national
government).
e. Emergency – This is being carried out through the Emergency Rescue Naga program based at the
Naga City Primary Hospital.
f. Road maintenance – This is limited to city streets and bridges funded out of local funds.
g. Education – This is being carried out primarily by the Division of City Schools, the local unit of the
Department of Education, Culture and Sports (elementary and secondary); and state colleges and
privately owned colleges and universities (college and post-graduate). The city government,
however, is mandated to provide support for education services, which is being facilitated through
the City School Board. At the preschool level, preparatory education is being provided under the
Naga Early Education and Development Program through its citywide network of Montessori-based
day care centers.
h. Health care – This is being provided primarily through the City Health Office, the Naga City Primary
Hospital, the City Population and Nutrition Office, and other health-related agencies of the city
government, coordinated through the City Health Board.
i. Public housing – This covers providing low-cost housing and other mass dwellings funded out of
local funds. The Urban Poor Affairs Office, the city’s main shelter agency, is coordinating this.
j. Recreation/sports facilities – The operations and maintenance of these facilities is being handled
by various agencies of the city government, including the City Engineer’s Office and the Bicol
Science and Technology Centrum, coordinated through the Naga City Sports Council.
k. Police/Fire – This is being carried out by local units of two national agencies, the Philippine
National Police and the Bureau of Fire Protection. The city government, however, is mandated to
provide support for police and fire services.
l. Drainage/flood control – The provision of drainage, flood control and other infrastructure projects is
funded out of local funds. This is being provided through the City Engineer’s Office.
m. Livelihood assistance – This is being provided through the Metro PESO (which stands for Public
Employment Services Office).
n. Others - Including
- Economic enterprises. This covers the operation of public markets, slaughterhouses, and other
municipal enterprises.
- Information services. This includes research and development support (through the City Planning
and Development Office), job placement, and worker development services (through the Metro
PESO), civil registration (through the City Civil Registrar’s Office), and maintenance of a public
library (through the Naga City Public Library).
- Investment support services. These include investment promotion and granting of incentives,
which is being carried out by the Naga City Investment Board.
- Environmental management. This includes the rehabilitation and protection of the Naga River and
its watershed at Mt. Isarog, among other natural resources of the city. This is being undertaken
by the City ENRO.
- Social welfare services. This includes care, protection and rehabilitation of persons with
disability, street children, the homeless and other socially disadvantage citizens; of assistance to
disaster victims in times of calamities; and capability building of women, children and youth.
The City Social Welfare and Development Office is the lead agency for the provision of these
services.
- Integrated area development. This includes leadership, resources, and staff support for the Metro
Naga Development Council, an IAD partnership between Naga and its 15 neighboring towns.
13.2 Delivery of annual plan Based on evaluation of the City Budget Office for 1999
13.3 Voter participation by sex Basic data were sourced from the Commission on Elections, Naga City for the 1998 elections and the
Provincial Office of the National Statistics Office for the 1995 elections.
Voting by Gender, 1998 & 1995
Registered Actually Voted Turnout (%)
Total 59,210 52,663 88.94
Male 28,360 25,103 88.52
Female 30,850 27,560 89.34

13.4 Independence from higher government DILG Local Government Code (LGC) of 1991
• LGC 1991 has revolutionized governance by granting greater autonomy to local government units and
decentralizing power authority from the national to local levels of government. This high degree of
independence from the national government is manifested in:

Notes and Sources 377

 Naga
Closing down the council or removing councilors from office
Setting local tax level
Setting user charges for services
Borrowing funds
Choosing contractors for projects

13.5 Elected and nominated councilors lbid.

• The Sangguniang Panlungsod (or the City Council) of Naga City has 10 regular members, who are
elected directly by voters during regular elections every three years.
13.6 Representation of minorities • While Naga does not have minority groups of significant size, it has gained some recognition for
promoting greater people participation in local governance, particularly by the nongovernment sector. A
landmark legislation known as the “Empowerment Ordinance of Naga City” was crafted, mandating the
city to implement a revolutionary concept on participation.
• Under the Ordinance, a “People’s Council” consisting of duly accredited NGOs and people’s
organizations in the city was established. This Council appoints NGO representatives to local special bodies
of the city government; observes, votes, and participates in the deliberation, conceptualization,
implementation and evaluation of projects, programs, and activities of the city government; proposes
legislation, participates and votes at the committee level of the Sangguniang Panlungsod, and acts as the
people’s representatives in the exercise of their constitutional rights to information on matters of public
concern and of access to official records and documents.
• This novel partnership became the main engine of the Naga City Participatory Planning and Develop
ment Initiatives (NCPPDI). In 1998, this program was adjudged one of the 10 best practices worldwide by
the UN Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) and awarded the Dubai International Award.As pointed out
in 1.9, Naga does not have minority groups of significant size.
13.7 Planning applications refused Data was sourced from resolutions adopted by the Sangguniang Panlungsod, Naga City for 1997/98.
• Under 6.4, only one out of 20 applications was denied in 1997/98. Annually, this translated to a two-
year average of 3.33%. The reason behind disapproval was the failure to meet the basic requirements of
the city government.
13.8 Business satisfaction Based on interview with the Metro Naga Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MNCCI) Secretariat
• Presently, an existing mechanism for gauging business satisfaction is found in the annual Business
Indicators Survey being conducted by the MNCCI. It is, however, limited to its members’ assessment of
business performance for the year and their outlook for the next year. For instance, in 1998 when the
survey was last conducted, the MNCCI Update (the chamber publication) reported that “approximately 60%
of local enterprises surveyed were confident about their prospects in 1999. Fifteen percent did not see any
improvement. “Eighty-eight percent of them rated business in 1998 as bad, citing peso devaluation, high
interest rates and bad weather conditions as major contributory factors.” There are no questions that ask
respondents about their satisfaction with local government.
13.9 Consumer satisfaction A mechanism that may be strengthened and institutionalized is the public opinion survey conducted early in
the year by the Ateneo Social Science Research Center of the Ateneo de Naga University.
• Inspired by the national surveys being conducted by the Social Weather Station, the Ateneo
survey tried to measure the people’s satisfaction with the performance of the city government and local
city officials through rider questions to the Rapid Field Appraisal Surveys commissioned by the Associates
in Rural Development, Inc., main implementor of the Governnance and Local Democracy (GOLD) Project.
The survey became controversial with disclosure of results, the methdology adopted, and the manner of
implementation. If these are resolved properly, the survey is an opportunity that the city may take
advantage of to gauge consumer satisfaction.
13.10 Perception as to place to live “Investing in People—Business buzzwords work in the Philippines,” Asiaweek, 17 December 1999
1999 City Exhibit, GOLD Project Rollout, Naga City
• Over the last 10 years, Naga has developed a positive perception as a good place to live in, a
confirmation of what city residents feel about a city they call “maogmang lugar” (literally, a “happy place”).
• Most recently, it was cited by Asiaweek as one of four most improved cities in Asia for 1999 in
recognition of its participative processes, strong democratic traditions, and commitment to excellence.
• Its positive points, lifted from a city exhibit for the GOLD Project, include
– being recognized as a center of local innovations. Naga has built a reputation for being a model local
government unit, and a center for innovations in local governance. This is attested to by more than
40 national and international recognitions it has received from prestigious award-giving bodies on
diverse fields of governance, including the 1998 Dubai International Award for having one of the Top
10 Best Practices worldwide.
– being a livable city. Naga, likewise, is considered one of the Philippines’ most livable cities, says
Interface, the newsmagazine of the League of Cities of the Philippines.

378 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Naga
– being a strong nongovernment sector. Another outstanding feature of Naga is the strong presence of
a nongovernment sector, in the form of civic, business, and people’s organizations.
– being locally autonomous. The state policy to promote local autonomy and decentralization has
helped Naga mainly because it has helped itself, crafting a number of innovations that even
antedated the 1991 LGC. Naga
13.11 Reported crimes Official communications, Philippine National Police, Naga City. With adjustments. Population base used
was the 1999 projected city population.
Type of Crime Incidence Ratio per 1,000 Population
Murder 5 0.0364
Drug-related 21 0.1527
Theft 49 0.3562

13.12 Access to information Basic data sourced from office documents, City Planning and Development Office and City Information
Office, Naga City
• The following documents are available from the city government for reference:
(i) Annual report and budget: An annual report integrating accomplishments of the various
departments and offices of the city government is prepared by the CPDO for submission to the
DILG. The city mayor also delivers a State of the City Report before the Sangguniang Panglunsod
every year, highlighting key accomplishments and laying out planned strategies, programs, and
projects of his administration. Copies of the annual budget are also available from the City Budget
Office and are given to departments and offices of the city government.
(ii) City strategy, vision: The city’s medium-term development plans prepared every six years under
the supervision of the CPDO spell out the city’s overall development and sectoral strategies,
including the economic and social sectors. These strategies are always consistent with and
guided by the city’s corporate vision—“Maogmang Lugar”—which was shaped and periodically
refined through a participative process involving the various sectors of the community. These are
further amplified through derivative sectoral plans prepared by the six clusters of departments and
offices organized for governance.
(iii) Other communications media: The city government, through its Information Office, also regularly
publishes the Naga City Journal, its official publication, which updates the community about its
ongoing and planned programs, projects and activities .This information is published electronically
in the city government website www.naga.gov.ph.
(iv) Public consultations: Access to elected and appointed city officials is also aided through
community based regular consultations, held under the auspices of the NCPPDI program.
Important decisions that would have a long-term impact on the city can involve a citywide referendum.
In 1996, the city government conducted the first referendum of three development issues in the Philippines,
whose results continue to affect the city up to now.
13.13 Contact with the public Based on estimates by the Secretary to the Mayor and the Office of the Secretary to the Sangguniang
Panglunsod (SP), Naga City
· • The annual public meetings of the city government are summarized below, with their estimated
attendance.
Official/Office/Activity Meetings Meetings Attendance Attendance
per Week per Annum per Week per Annum
City Mayor 25 1,300 289 15,028
Urban Poor Affairs Office 2 104 30 3,120
City ENRO 1 per month 12 100 1,200
Ladies in Green 1 per month 12 95 1,140
SP – Regular Session 1 52 50 2,600
SP – Committee Hearings 12 624 10 6,240
Workshops 2 104 30 3,120
Totals 2,208 32,448

13.14 Decentralized district units Official documents, Metro Naga Development Council (MNDC) Secretariat, Naga City
• If the MNDC qualifies as a metropolitan unit, then with Naga as the core urban center, there are a total
of 16 local government units within the program area.
• As a footnote, the MNDC is a partnership forged in October 1992. Worried by the growing economic
disparity between Naga and its neighbors, these 16 local governments banded together for accelerated,
equitable, and sustainable growth and development within the program area.
• The MNDC is a unique entity. Unlike other Philippine metro bodies, this began as a local initiative, a
pioneering exercise of the expanded powers and prerogatives of LGUs under the 1991 Local Government
Code. On 18 June 1993, it was affirmed by President Fidel V. Ramos through Executive Order 102.

Notes and Sources 379

 Phnom Penh
Indicators

1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization Bureau of Statistics, Department of Planning, Statistics Yearbook; National Institute of Statistics (NIS),
Ministry of Planning (MOP), Demographic Survey of Cambodia, below October 1996
• Following is the proportion of the national population living in the urban areas of Phnom Penh over
the past decade:
Year Urban Population % of National
of Phnom Penh Population
1999 570,155 57.02
1998 561,196 57.07
1997 520,789 61.32
1996 467,390 58.19
1995 433,738 52.65
1994 402,509 49.44
1993 373,528 52.00
1992 346,634 51.40
1991 321,676 51.00
1990 298,515 48.47
• Phnom Penh municipality has four districts.
• In-migration has largely been responsible for the increase in population.
• Migration slowed in 1995–1999 consistent when refugees and soldiers moved to camps near the
border with Thailand.
• In 1998 the second round of national elections was held, resulting in a political crisis that kept interna-
tional migration low.
1.2 City population NIS, MOP, Demographic Survey and Socioeconomic Survey of Cambodia 1995, 1996, 1997
• The following table shows the resident population of the Phnom Penh municipal area between 1989
and 1998:
Year Total Population Male Female
1998 999,804 481,911 517,893
1997 849,262 412,027 437,235
1996 833,291 413,104 420,187
1995 823,743 405,883 417,860
1994 814,171 402,569 411,602
1993 718,365 340,388 377,977
1992 674,509 323,237 351,236
1991 631,172 299,596 331,576
1990 615,867 293,046 322,821
1989 606,820 283,413 323,407

• Population increase, 1989-1998

Year City Population % Increase over
Previous Year
1998 999,804 15.10
1997 849,262 1.90
1996 833,291 1.10
1995 823,743 1.20
1994 814,171 11.80
1993 718,365 6.10
1992 674,509 6.40
1991 631,172 2.40
1990 615,867 1.50
1989 606,820 1.04

• A population census was conducted in 1996, 1997, and 1998.

1.3 Migration Bureau of Police Department, Migration Yearbook; NIS, MOP, Demographic Survey of Cambodia 1996
• The number of migrants that arrived in the Phnom Penh municipal area between 1996 and 1999 was
as follows:

380 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Phnom Penh
Year No. of Migrants (thousands)
1999 121,213
1998 134,677
1997 139,153
1996 143,630

1.4 Net population density Department of Construction and Urbanization

• The net population density of the Phnom Penh municipal area is as follows:
Year Net Population Density
(persons per ha)
1998 69
1997 58
1996 57
• Density in settlements was not considered in computing the above figures.
1.5 Age pyramid NIS, MOP Socioeconomic Survey of Cambodia 1993/1994; Demographic Survey of Cambodia 1996,
• The age pyramid of residents in the Phnom Penh municipal area is as follows:
(thousands)
Year Total Ages 0–14 Ages 15–59 Ages 60 and over
Male Female Male Female Male Female
1998 996 169 161 293 328 18 27
1997 846 169 157 225 234 24 37
1996 831 170 155 215 223 27 41
1995 821 170 153 205 217 30 46
1994 811 170 150 195 212 33 51
1993 715 148 131 174 188 29 45

1.6 Average household size lbid.

• The average household size in the Phnom Penh municipal area is as follows:
Year City Population No. of Households Ave. Household Size
1998 999,804 173,678 5.70
1997 849,262 179,000 4.70
1996 833,291 140,030 5.95
1995 823,743 121,134 6.80

1.7 Household formation rate lbid.

Year No. of Households % Increase over Previous Year
1999 199,987 15.14
1998 173,678 3.00
1997 179,000 27.83
1996 140,030 15.59
1995 121,134 15.59

1.8 Women-headed households lbid.

% of Households
Year Total Households Headed by Women
1998 173,678 28.70
1997 179,000 29.20
1996 140.030 30.10
1995 121,134 27.95
1994 121,000 25.80

• The proportion of women-headed households was high because of the war.

1.9 Minority groups Migration Bureau, Department of Police, Ministry of Interior, February 1999
• The minority groups are mostly Vietnamese (3%), ethnic Chinese (1%), and Christians and refugees
(less than 1%).

Notes and Sources 381

 Phnom Penh
1.10 Household types CDB estimates; NIS, MOP, Socioeconomic Survey of Cambodia 1993/94; NIS, MOP, DeMographic Survey
of Cambodia 1996
Household Categories
Year 1–Person 2–5 Persons 6–9 Persons 10 or More Persons
1994 1.90 44.30 45.40 8.40
1996 2.30 49.60 42.20 5.90

1.11 Informal settlements Draft Final Report, Cambodia Development Strategy Study, March 1996
• In 1993/1994 the city had about 120,000 to 170,000 squatters. They were studied in some detail and
were provided community support by several NGOs. Squatters are mostly food sellers, small traders,
cyclo drivers, construction workers, etc. Most settle close to their work. Squatters occupy government-
owned land. Their ownership of land was contested in many areas like Toul Kork and Chamcar Morn
districts.
• Squatter settlements are found in these areas:
– Chamcar Morn district
– Boeng Salaang catchment areas
– Steung Mean Chey catchment areas
– Char Amp Riverside in Tonal Basic River, Khan Mean Hey
These areas have no water supply and electricity.
Household size is similar to that in the regular settlements.

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution CDB estimates

Income Range ($) Average Household
Income ($)
Q1–0 to 51 38.40
Q2–52 to 115 84.50
Q3–116 to 174 147.50
Q5–over 228 639.50
• Household incomes fell by 20 percent in 1999 with the devaluation of the Cambodian currency.
2.2 Households below the NIS, MOP, Socioeconomic Survey of Cambodia 1993/94; First Five-Year Socio-economic Development
poverty line Plan 1996–2000
• In 1993 94 percent of households were below the poverty line.
• The poverty line in 1997 was about 1,578 riels per capita per day. The first food poverty line was
calculated on the estimated cost of a reference food bundle of 2,100 calories per day (the average calorie
consumption of the middle-income quintile of Cambodia in 1993–1994)
• The daily per capita cost of this reference food bundle was calculated separately for three distinct
population strata. A second poverty line includes a modest nonfood allowance (based on the amount of
nonfood items consumed by those with per capita total expenditure just equal to the food poverty line).
2.3 Women-headed households General Directorate of Planning, MOP, Poverty profile of Cambodia, 1997; NIS,MOP, Socio-Economic
in poverty Survey of Cambodia, 1993/1994
Year Percentage
1997 20.70
1996 19.64
1995 19.12
1994 18.60
• Women-headed households in poverty generally suffer from poor nutrition and lack of skills.
• The number of women-headed households in poverty is estimated to be more than half the number
of men-headed households in poverty.
2.4 Child labor NIS, MOP, Labor Force Survey of Phnom Penh, Second Quarter 1998; NIS, MOP, Demographic Survey
of Cambodia, 22 October 1996
• In 1996, about 5 percent of children under 15 were in the labor force and more than half of them were
boys.
• In 1998, about 1.92 percent of children below 15 were in the labor force and 67.56 percent of them
were girls.
Year Children Under 15 Years of Age
Total Child Laborer Female % of Total
1996 126,660 6,333 2,959 5.00
1998 117,637 2,263 1,529 1.92

382 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Phnom Penh
• The number of children under 15 years of age in the labor force decreased by 64.26 percent from 1996
to 1998.
• Laws against child labor should be strengthened.
• The Government pledged its support for programs against child exploitation in 1996–2000 in coordina-
tion with various NGOs.
2.5 Informal employment After the second election in 1998 employment opportunities overseas opened up for Cambodians; as a
result, informal employment in Phnom Penh decreased.
2.6 Unemployment NIS, MOP, Socioeconomic Survey of Cambodia, 1993–1994, 1997; NIS, MOP, Labor Force Survey of
Phnom Penh, Second Quarter 1998; NIS, MOP, Demographic Survey of Cambodia 1996
• Unemployed people in Cambodia are those above 10 years old without work, currently available for work,
and seeking work as a percentage of the full-time work force (employed + unemployed).
Labor Force
Year Participation % Employed % Unemployed
Male Female Both Male Female Both Male Female Both
1998 48.60 54.00 43.80 97.90 98.30 97.50 2.10 1.70 2.50
1997 51.90 58.60 46.00 96.90 97.90 95.70 3.10 2.10 4.30
1996 55.10 58.80 51.90 93.50 96.70 90.30 6.50 3.30 9.70
1995 46.50 53.40 39.90 93.90 93.60 94.10 6.10 6.40 5.90

• From the table above, the rate of unemployment decreased from 5.90% in 1995 to 2.50% in 1998.
• The 1997 Socioeconomic Survey of Cambodia defined employment according to the international
standard definition; thus, a person who worked for even one hour during the reference week was accepted
as employed. This explains the low unemployment rate in Cambodia.
2.7 Expenditure on poverty MOP, Report of the Committee on Poverty Reduction 1998
reduction • In 1997, a survey was made of 379 urban poor settlements comprising 171,730 people, or 30,150
families. Another survey in 1998 covered 370 urban poor settlements with 170,000 people, or 30,000
families.
• The Government and the Phnom Penh Governor coordinated with UNDP, UK DFID, UNCHS, and the
Japanese Government on two major urban poverty reduction projects in Phnom Penh. The projects
cost more than $3 million and were to be implemented over three years.
• The biggest project on poverty reduction, CMB/00/03/01/56 Phnom Penh, was to be implemented from
February 2000 to January 2001 for $2,361,729.

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed MOP, Draft Report on the Results of Government Activities from 1993 to 1998, July 1998
Year Persons per
Hospital Bed
1997 227
1996 216
1995 259
1994 581
1993 309

3.2 Child mortality NIS, MOP, Socioeconomic Survey of Cambodia 1997

3.3 Life expectancy at birth First Five-Year Socioeconomic Development Plan 1996–2000, January 1997
• Life expectancy improved by 51.60% between 1960 and 1994.
3.4 Mortality from infectious First Five-Year Socioeconomic Development Plan 1996–2000; Department of Public Health, Phnom Penh,
diseases Yearbook Report, January 1997; Ministry of Health, Annual Health Bulletin, 1998
Year Mortality per
1,000 Population
1999 16.00
1997 15.94
1996 15.87
1995 15.75
1994 15.72
1993 15.63
1992 15.54
1991 15.52

• The main killer diseases are diarrhea, acute respiratory infection, dengue, hemorrhagic fever, malaria,
and HIV.

Notes and Sources 383

 Phnom Penh
3.5 Family planning • From 1995 to 1999, the percentage of married couples with females in the fertile age group increased
to 80 percent.
3.6 Adult literacy rate NIS, MOP, Socioeconomic Survey of Cambodia 1993/1994, 1996/1997
Year Adult Population % of Literate Adults
1994 492,573 82.00
1996 474,976 67.00
1997 558,390 82.20
1998 710,233 82.70
3.7 School enrollment rates Department of Youth, Culture and Sports, Phnom Penh, Yearbook Report; First Five-Year Socioeconomic
(primary,secondary) Development Plan 1996–2000, January 1997
% School % School
Year Enrolled Males Enrollment Enrolled Males Enrollment
Primary School
1989/90 65,445 73.47 35,535 75.30
1990/91 71,919 76.09 39,050 77.42
1991/92 75,183 78.71 40,822 79.54
1992/93 81,416 81.33 44,207 81.66
1993/94 88,495 83.95 48,050 83.78
1994/95 93,211 86.57 50,610 85.90
1995/96 95,066 89.19 51,618 87.77
1996/97 89,927 91.50 48,828 85.00
1997/98 98,292 94.50 53,369 87.60
1998/99 100,714 93.00 54,685 89.24
Secondary School
1989/90 23,257 88.15 9,741 75.30
1990/91 22,401 89.11 9,384 77.42
1991/92 23,810 90.07 9,972 79.54
1992/93 28,022 91.03 11,737 81.66
1993/94 32,419 91.99 13,578 83.78
1994/95 33,684 92.95 14,108 85.90
1995/96 34,064 94.95 14,267 87.77
1996/97 42,067 92.70 17,620 85.00
1997/98 36,797 93.80 15,412 87.60
1998/99 36,307 94.62 15,207 89.24
• In 1996/1997, the number of enrolled males decreased as more males of working age found
employment.
3.8 Tertiary graduates Government of Cambodia, Draft Report 1993–1998; NIS, MOP, Socioeconomic Survey of Cambodia
1993/94; Phnom Penh Municipality, Yearbook Report on the Economy and Culture 1979–1997
Male Adults Female Adults
Year No. % No. %
1993/1994 47,211 2.60 41,866 0.64
1994/1995 53,139 2.39 48,157 0.58
1995/1996 53,576 2.49 48,889 0.59
1996/1997 54,530 2.51 49,162 0.61
1997/1998 54,387 2.73 51,156 0.64
• Many students enrolled at the tertiary level dropped out because they could not afford the high costs of
tertiary education.
3.9 Median years of education NAV
3.10 School children per classroom Department of Youth, Culture and Sports, Yearbook Report
(primary, secondary) Year No. of School No. of Classrooms School Children
Children per Classroom
Primary School
1989/90 100,980 1,880 54
1990/91 110,969 1,965 56
1991/92 116,005 1,977 59
1992/93 125,623 2,072 61
1993/94 136,545 2,313 59
1994/95 143,821 2,554 56
1995/96 146,684 2,646 55
1996/97 138,755 2,784 50
1997/98 151,661 2,941 52
1998/99 155,399 3,077 51

384 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Phnom Penh
Secondary School
1989/90 32,998 716 46
1990/91 31,785 702 45
1991/92 33,782 736 46
1992/93 39,759 835 48
1993/94 45,997 906 51
1994/95 47,792 951 50
1995/96 48,331 1,009 148
1996/97 59,687 1,125 53
1997/98 52,209 1,076 49
1998/99 51,514 1,078 48

• The number of students per classroom has increased over the years because of the limited capital
budget for the Government’s educational program (e.g., expansion of school physical facilities and
classrooms).

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita NIS, MOP, Socio-Economic Survey of Cambodia 1993/94
4.2 Employment by industry lbid., 1997
4.3 Household expenditure lbid., NIS, MOP, Labor Force Survey of Phnom Penh, Second Quarter 1998
Household Expenditure (%)
Year Ave. Household Food Shelter Travel Others
Income ($)
1993 179.84 9.00 24.00 9.00 18.00
1994 191.27 49.00 24.00 9.00 18.00
1997 216.58 43.90 32.60 9.50 14.00
1998 173.58 40.44 37.56 10.00 12.00

4.4 Investment by sector NAV

4.5 Tourism Draft Report of the Royal Government of Cambodia Activities between 1993 and 1998
Year Tourists % Growth over
Previous Year
1997 218,843 16.00
1996 260,489 18.57
1995 219,680 24.38
1994 176,617 49.44
1993 118,183
• Cambodia (or Phnom Penh) has high tourism potential because of its many heritage buildings like the
Angkor Wat Temple and the Palace Royal.
• Moreover, the Government of Cambodia in recent years has improved its tourism-related policies to
attract more tourists.
4.6 Major projects Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority, Interim Report 1995–1999
Department of Public Works and Transport, Interim Report 1995–1999; MOP, Public Investment Program
for 2000–2002
Project Name Total Project Cost ($)
Phnom Penh Water Supply and Drainage Project
(Part A: Water supply) 15,360,000
Phnom Penh Water Supply and Drainage Project
(Part B: Drainage) 13,947,000
Cambodia Urban Water Supply Project,
Phnom Penh Component 25,961,500
Improvement of Water Supply Facilities
in Phnom Penh 17,147,058*
Construction of MPP Landfill Site 12,300,000
Study on Drainage Improvement and Flood 2,867,000
Control in MPP
Improvement of MPP Flood Control Facilities 41,600,000
Total 112,035,500
*converted to US dollar based on 1998 average rate per year of the international financial statistics
yearbook.
• The drainage and road congestion systems of the city need to be improved.

Notes and Sources 385

 Phnom Penh
4.7 Cost of stay CDB estimates
4.8 Corporate headquarters Investment Bureau, Phnom Penh Municipality, Interim Report 1999

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure NAV

5.2 Telephone traffic NAV
(million calls per year)
5.3 Internet hosts per NAV
thousand population

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land Study on Drainage Improvement and Flood Control in Phnom Penh Municipality, August 1999
Zoned Area Zoned Area
Category 1998 (ha) % of 2010 (ha) % of Zoned Area
Total Total 1998–2010
(%)
Residential 4,136 21.00 6,921. 35.40 7.00
Business and
Services 603 3.10 663. 3.40 10.00
Industry and
Infrastructure 287 1.50 431. 2.20 50.00
Agriculture 11,919 60.90 8,130. 41.50 -32.00
Mixed Use 793 4.10 1,586. 8.10 100.00
Others 1,833 9.40 1,840. 9.40 0.38
Total Area 19,571 100.0 19,571. 100.00 0.00

• The 195.71 m2 study area constitutes the greater part of Phnom Penh City (290 m2). The area is
within longitude 105 degrees 45’ E to 105 degrees 55’ E latitude 12° 27’N to 12° 40’N and is in the delta
plain of the Mekong River system with low altitudes ranging from 4 m to 14 m above the mean sea level.
2
6.2 Land developer multiplier • At the urban fringe the price of raw land was from $1–$2 per m in 1993/94. After development the
price of land went up to $10–$30.
• Planning permission is required before land can be developed.
6.3 Developer contributions NAV
6.4 Median time for planning NAV
permission
6.5 Vacant land with planning Department of Urbanization, Land Management and Construction of Phnom Penh City, Yearbook Report 1999
permission • Amount of vacant land with planning permission: 627 hectares
6.6 Public open space Study on Drainage Improvement and Flood Control in Phnom Penh Municipality (Final Report), August 1999
• Open space comprises about 209 hectares of the total land area of 19,571 hectares, or only 1% of
the built-up area.
6.7 Vacant government land Based on best estimates
6.8 Price of prime commercial Cambodia Urban Development Strategy Studies (Draft final Report), March 1996
2
land • In 1993/1994 land in prime commercial locations cost an average of $165–$400 per m based on
estimates.

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type Based on estimates

• Single houses: 60%–70%
Apartments: 30%–40%
7.2 Tenure type NIS, MOP, Demographic Survey of Cambodia 1996
Type of Land 1996 (%) 1998 (%)
Owned or purchased 92.60 84.00
Rented 3.40 11.53
Rent-free 3.70 3.76
Others 0.30 0.71

• The cost of acquiring a house has increased and more people would rather rent than buy their own
house.
• Tenure type includes formal and informal housing.

386 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Phnom Penh
7.3 Ratio of house price to income NAV
7.4 Ratio of house rent to income NAV
7.5 Floor area per person Year Median Floor Area
per Person (sq m)
1996 5.75
1997 8.81
7.6 Housing in compliance • There are no accurate records of housing data for the period 1988–1998 because of poor land
management and weak enforcement of the housing controlling law (or principal law).
• During the same period, the local government authorized the building of 7,130 houses.
• The principal laws and their enforcement must be strengthened to improve housing and land use
management in Phnom Penh City.
• There is a need for technical and financial assistance to improve housing and land use management
and control.
• In the last five years the percentage of dwellings in Phnom Penh that complied with the building code
increased from 30% to 40%.
7.7 Ratio of mortgage to credit NAV
• In Phnom Penh City, it is difficult to borrow money from any source to buy a house.
7.8 Houses with mortgage NAV
7.9 Mortgage loans for women NAV
7.10 Housing production Department of Urbanization, Land Management and Construction of Phnom Penh City, Yearbook Report
1990–1999; Land Title Department, MOP.
No. of Dwellings Produced Yearly
Year % Increase/Decrease per 1,000
Population over previous year
1999 556 0.54
1998 529 0.53
1997 603 0.71
1996 889 1.07
1995 625 0.76
1994 393 0.48
1993 1,279 1.73
1992 763 1.13
1991 490 0.78
1990 383 0.62
• The rate of housing production cannot keep up with the increase in population, especially given the
inadequate technical and financial support for housing production.
• Many workers from provinces, who come to the city looking for work, have been living in rented
houses.
• Although many houses were built without the approval of the local government, these houses cannot
rightly be called informal houses because the house owners can have their tenure approved at any time.
The median floor area of 7.5 m2 per person is adequate.
• Houses built on new (vacant) land averaged 651 units yearly between 1990 and 1999. Housing
production in 1999 was 540 units below the housing production requirement for that year, excluding
informal and squatter housing.
7.11 Squatter resettlement or Phnom Penh Government, Report on the Implementation of the Poverty Reduction Program 1999
normalization • In 1999, the start of the program, 441 of the 30,000 squatter households (1.47%) in Phnom Penh City
were resettled or normalized.
• The Phnom Penh government is concerned with reducing the number of poor people living in Phnom
Penh City.
• Technical and financial support from developed countries and NGOs is needed to strengthen the
squatter resettlement and normalization program of the local government.
• There is a plan to help alleviate the situation of squatters in Phnom Penh City, according to the poverty
reduction program of the government.
7.12 Net housing outlays by • The Phnom Penh government plans and makes housing outlays, but the amounts involved fall far short
government (per person) of the requirement, given the number of people living in Phnom Penh City.
7.13 Homeless people • There is no record of the number of homeless or street people on an average night. But from 1993 to
1998 there have been several hundred homeless or street people on an average night because of in
migration of people from other provinces looking for jobs or seeking to earn a living by begging.
The number of homeless or street people increases during the dry season.
• Homeless people are a source of much concern to the local authorities, but most come from other
provinces to earn a living and stay only for a limited time in Phnom Penh.

Notes and Sources 387

 Phnom Penh
8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA), Yearbook Report on Clean Water Production Activities
1997, 1998, 1999, 2000
• PPWSA was created as an autonomous state-owned enterprise of the Cambodian Government by
Decree No. 52, issued in December 1996.
• PPWSA currently has a permanent staff of 401 employees. There are about eight employees for every
1,000 connections.
8.1.1 Household connections
8.1.2 Investment per capita In 1998, the capital expenditure per person was $2.55, and expenditure would be increased 96% in 1999 if
compared to 1998. Total capital expenditure was approximately $5,123,495 in 1999.
8.1.3 Operations and
maintenance expenditure
8.1.4 Cost recovery Department of Finance, PPWSA, Yearbook of Water Production and Service Management Activities
8.1.5 Output per staff: Water CDB estimates
supplied per employee
8.1.6 List of providers • The main provider is the PPWSA.
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water
a. Percent unaccounted
for water
b. Interruptions in water • Water interruptions are normally localized and do not affect the whole system.
service
8.1.8 Consumption of water • The domestic sector (including the unserved areas) uses 1.22 m3 of water per person per day, or
per capita about 80 m3 of water per person per year.
8.1.9 Median price of water, • The median price of water per day is $0.39 m3.
scarce,season

8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections • The number of households with electric connections increased from 7,559 in 1995 to 10,583 in 1996,
largely because of the major projects in this area.
• The major projects are supported by the developed countries (such as France, Belgium, Ireland, and
Japan) and development finance institutions (such as the Asian Development Bank, the United Nations
Development Programme, and the World Bank).
8.2.2 Investment per capita • The investment in electric power per capita increased by 24% between 1996 ($76.56) and 1997 ($85).
Per capita investment in electricity in 1998 is estimated to have been slightly higher than the 1997 figure.
8.2.3 Operations and
maintenance expenditure
8.2.4 Cost recovery (%) Department of Finance, Electricité du Cambodge, Yearbook Reports
8.2.5 Output per staff: NAV
Megawatt hours
of electricity supplied
per employee
8.2.6 List of providers • A private company, Electricité du Cambodge, is the main provider.
• Unserved areas use charcoal, other fuels, and small generators for their cooking and lighting needs.
8.2.7 Non revenue electricity • There have been interruptions in the delivery of electricity.

8.3 Sewage/Wastewater Sewerage Division, Department of Public Works and Transport, Annual Report 1995–1999
8.3.1 Household connections • The percentage of households with sewerage and wastewater disposal connections remained the
same between 1997 and 1999.
8.3.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.3.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.3.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.3.5 Output per staff: NAV
Wastewater discharged
or treated per employee
8.3.6 List of providers Sewerage Division of Phnom Penh City
• In areas without wastewater disposal systems, people throw their wastewater into pits or canals
near their houses.

388 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Phnom Penh
8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections • The total number of households with telephone connections increased by 1.46% from 1998 to 1999, but
such households made up a smaller proportion of the total population of the city in 1999 (by 13.5%)
compared with the previous year.
8.4.2 Investment per capita • The investment in telephone service per person in 1998 was $8. The investment per capita is estimated
to have increased slightly in 1999.
8.4.3 Operations and
maintenance expenditure
8.4.4 Cost recovery Ministry of Post and Telecommunication, Yearbook Reports, 1998–1999
8.4.5 Output per staff: • The average duration of calls per employee per day in 1998 was 95 minutes.
thousands of calls
per employee
8.4.6 List of providers • The companies that provided telephone services in 1998 were Alcatel, Camitel, Fetex, Cam GSM,
Mamtel, Tricelcam, Casacam, and Camshin.

8.5 Solid waste collection Department of Public Works and Transport, Yearbook Reports, 1990–1999
• In 1990–1999, the number of households in Phnom Penh with access to regular garbage collection
services was increasing, as was the percentage of such households relative to the total number of house-
holds in the city.
• Financial support is needed to operate and extend the solid waste collection services.
• There are not enough landfill sites.
8.5.1 Households with • In 1998–1999, 94,159 of the 173,678 households in Phnom Penh (54.21%) had access to regular
regular service garbage collection services.
• In 1999, 85% of households in four urban districts (82,702 out of 97,296 households) and 10%–15% of
the households in three districts in the suburbs (11,457 out of 76,382 households) had access to regular
garbage collection services.
• In 1999 the government contracted solid waste collection to a private company. The government and
the company are monitoring each other’s compliance with the terms of the contract, and the government is
helping coordinate garbage collection by the private company within the city.
• The city government is helping coordinate garbage collection by the private company within the city.
• Solid waste in informal areas, which is not collected by the private company, is dumped or burned near
the houses.
8.5.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.5.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.5.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.5.5 Output per staff: Year Total Solid Waste Collected per
collected per employee Collected (mt) Employee (mt)
1990 98,500 145
1991 135,205 199
1992 137,965 203
1993 159,812 235
1994 185,609 249
1995 186,216 250
1996 195,384 262
1997 194,610 261
1998 230,893 310
1999 270,293 363
8.5.6 List of providers NAV

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated Year Solid Waste Generated

per Person per Year
1998 0.43
1996 0.44
9.2 Household sewage disposal • Phnom Penh has no wastewater treatment plant and does not separate wastewater produced by
(% of households) households with public sewerage connections (51% of all housing units from storm water). Both are
channeled to pumping stations through the same pipes before being discharged into rivers.
• The Cambodia Socioeconomic Survey of 1999 disclosed that 41.4% of all housing units were connected
to public sewerage pipes in 1998 (compared with 51% in 1997) and 36.7% units used septic tanks in 1998
(versus 25% a year earlier).

Notes and Sources 389

 Phnom Penh
9.3 Wastewater treated NAV
9.4 Percent BOD removed NAV
from wastewater
9.5 Air pollution concentrations • Air pollution problems occurring near the landfill sites have caused breathing difficulties among the
people living in the vicinity and given some of them, especially the children, respiratory diseases.
9.6 Energy use per person • The yearbook reports on the Cambodia socioeconomic surveys for 1994, 1996, 1997, and 1998 do not
contain information on the total energy use per person per year (in metric tons of coal equivalent).
The survey results show only the main sources of lighting and the types of fuel used for cooking in house-
holds.
• Most people living in Phnom Penh City use charcoal, wood, and kerosene to cook their meals.
9.7 Noise complaints • Authorities received a few complaints of noise from domestic (generator use for lighting) and industrial
sources during the year.
• Local authorities who received such complaints collaborated with the Phnom Penh Environment
Department, and the mayor or the Ministry of Environment acts on the complaints.
• Noise pollution regulations must be enforced more strictly in Phnom Penh City.
9.8 Disasters in last 10 years
9.9 Methods of solid waste disposal • In 1998/1999, of the total waste produced by the city:
About 50-60% was disposed in sanitary landfills.
About 1-2% was incinerated.
About 34-38% was dumped or burned in the open.
About 5-10% was recycled.

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel

• In the absence of a survey of the types of transport used in traveling to and from work, estimates
made by an experienced consultant with the Department of Transport and Public Works of Phnom Penh
Municipality were used.
Modes of Travel to and from Work, 1999
Mode % of Total Trips
Private automobile 10
Bus or minibus 15
Motorcycles 60
Bicycle 02
By foot 03
Others 10
• Problems related to energy use and urban congestion are expected to increase.
10.2 Median travel time • The average travel time to and from work is as follows:
Mode No. of Minutes
Private car 20
Bus or miniutes 25
Motorcycle 25
Bicycle 30
By foot 40

10.3 Expenditure on road Ministry of Finance and the Economy, Distribution of Funds to Phnom Penh City in 2000, December 1999
infrstructure • In 2000, the expenditure on roads per capita was about $0.83 (government budget only).
• Expenditure on roads in Phnom Penh Municipality is low because of the lack of financial support for
road maintenance every year.
• Technical and financial assistance for road infrastructure is needed from developed countries to reduce
road congestion and road accidents in Phnom Penh City.
• The central Ministry of Public Works and Transport supplies the budget for the construction and
maintenance of Phnom Penh’s main reads.
10.4 Road congestion • Road traffic increased gradually in 1995 to 1999.
• Road congestion was not a problem in Phnom Penh in 1998 or 1999.
10.5 Automobile ownership Draft Report on Government Activities in 1993 to 1998, July 1998
Year Private Cars
1997 8,421
1996 6,290
1995 7,982

390 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Phnom Penh
1994 7,383
1993 6,760
1992 10,798
1991 5,564

10.6 Cost recovery from fares NAV

10.7 Port/Air activity Draft Report on Government Activities in 1993–1998, July 1998
Year Departing Ships
1997 2,265
1996 1,721
1995 1,394
1994 1,540
1993 1,025
• Phnom Penh has a small port.
• Financial and technical assistance from developed countries is needed to extend and upgrade port
facilities.
• Economic reforms have led to increased activity in factories. Workers have been going to work on
motorcycles with hitched wagons This is the main explanation for the large figure in the Others category.
10.8 Goods carried
10.9 Transport fatalities Road Traffic Police Bureau, Phnom Penh Municipality, Yearbook Report on Transport Fatalities in 1990–1999

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events Phnom Penh Municipality, Report on Economic and Cultural Activities in 1979–1997
Year No. of Shows Attendance
1998 87 405,000
1997 139 890,000
1996 116 28,974
1995 123 738,000
1994 130 900,000
1993 78 169,867
1992 75 168,525
1991 70 157,290
1990 60 137,293
1989 36 30,000

11.2 Attendance at galleries NAV

and museums
11.3 Participation in sports NAV

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue Phnom Penh City, Yearbook Report on Activities in 1997,1998,1999; Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority,
Yearbook Report on Water Production in 1997, 1998, 1999; Department of Construction and Urbanization,
Phnom Penh City, Yearbook Report on Housing and Building Construction in 1997, 1998, 1999
Revenue Sources (%)
1997 1998 1999
Taxes 8.56 22.80 11.47
User Charges 17.20 44.20 27.83
Others 74.24 33.00 60.70

• The total annual budget of the city government is covered by taxes, user charges, and other sources
including transfers from the national Government. For more than ten years large transfers were made from
the Government but these budget transfers decreased significantly in 1999 and will continue to decrease,
in accordance with the principle of local budget autonomy. The budget autonomy granted to the water
supply authority in Phnom Penh explains much of the increase in the revenue of Phnom Penh. Also, it
charges those who use more than a certain minimum amount of clean water a higher price per m3 for the
extra water they use.
• The Others category also includes a large amount of revenue from the rental of assets. In 1999 this
amounted to $1,639,158.

Notes and Sources 391

 Phnom Penh
• The city imposes these taxes and other charges:
Tax on cultural assets
Patent licenses
Tax on the slaughter of animals
Tax on transportation services and all modes of transport
Tax on general lighting
.
12.2 Capital and recurrent NAV
expenditure per person
12.3 Collection efficiency, Phnom Penh City, Yearbook Report on Tax Collection Results for 1981 to 1999,
property taxes December 1999
Year Total Tax Collection % of Collection Receipts
(cost of land without building) Passed on to Local Gov’t
($)
1997 14,546 1.27
1998 2,063 0.13
1999 22,024 1.26

12.4 Debt-service charge • The poor community in Phnom Penh City needs to pay their low-interest loans from the local
government for building their houses.
12.5 Employees Phnom Penh City, Yearbook Report on Economic and Cultural Activities, 1979–1997
Year Local Government Employees
Number Per 1,000 Population
1999 11,330 11
1997 11,052 13
1996 11,241 14
1995 10,502 13
1994 10,759 13
1993 10,945 15
1992 11,234 17
1991 11,858 19
1990 11,897 19

12.6 Wages in budget Department of Finance and the Economy, Report on Phnom Penh City, 2000; Ministry of Finance and the
Economy, Report on the Management of Government Expenditure 1999
Year Wages ($) % of Recurrent Expenditure
2000 3,743,528 53.00
1999 5,208,444 57.59

12.7 Contracted recurrent • The major contracted recurrent expenditure was for clean water supply and the reconstruction and
expenditure ratio improvement of the road and drainage systems.
12.8 Business permits Phnom Penh City, Yearbook Reports on Economic and Cultural Activities, 1979–1997
Permits Issued to Businesses, 1993−1997
Year Export and Import Other Companies Total Permits
Companies Issued
1993 517 45 562
1994 740 65 805
1995 742 71 813
1996 752 70 822
1997 868 70 938
More business permits are being issued because of the improved political stability of Cambodia.
12.9 Enterprise revenues NAV
12.10 Computerization of functions NAV

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government • The local government controls all activities related to water supply, sewage collection, refuse collection
(in coordination with private companies), public transport, emergency services (fire, ambulance), road
maintenance, and health care. In partnership with higher government and in some cases with other
countries and with NGOs, it carries out activities in education, public housing, recreation/sports, police
services, drainage/flood control, and livelihood assistance.

392 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Phnom Penh
• Electricity and telephone services are functions of higher government.
13.2 Delivery of annual plan • Before 1993 (the year of the first government election) Phnom Penh government units delivered close
to 100% of the annual plan but now they deliver 50-60% of the annual plan.
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex NAV
13.4 Independence from • The local government cannot dissolve the Council or remove councilors from office.
higher government This decision belongs to the Government.
• The local government only implements taxes imposed by the central Government.

• The local government proposes user charges for major services to the higher government and submits
to the latter’s decision.
• The local government negotiates loans and terms with fund sources and then endorses the loan
documents to the higher government for approval and signature.
• The local government chooses project contractors and endorses these to the higher government for
decision.
13.5 Elected and nominated NAV
councils
13.6 Representation of minorities • The interests of the various minorities in the Phnom Penh municipality have been adequately
represented in their communities and in Parliament.
13.7 Planning applications refused
13.8 Business satisfaction • A survey of business satisfaction must be made to gauge the extent of responsiveness of local
government services to the needs of the business community.
13.9 Consumer satisfaction • A survey of consumer satisfaction must be made to gauge the extent of responsiveness of local
government services to the needs of consumers in general.
13.10 Perception as place to live • Public perception of the quality of life in the city has not been surveyed but in view of the decrease in
the number of poor people from 1993 to 1999, the quality of life can be said to have improved. Investors
have also increased in number between 1995 and 1998.
13.11 Reported crimes NAP
13.12 Access to information • The local government has carried out many activities to inform its various constituencies since 1992
but no documents detail the actual extent of public access to information.
13.13 Contact with the public • While there are no details of the actual number of local government meetings held each year and the
attendance at those meetings, it is estimated that such meetings occur at least 100 times yearly.
• Top officials meet an average of once or twice a week with their various constituencies.
13.14 Decentralized district units • There are seven districts with 76 communes within the Phnom Penh local government.

Notes and Sources 393

 Seoul
Indicators
1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization National Statistical Office (NSO), International Statistics Yearbook 1999
1995 1990 1985
(%)
81.3 73.8 64.9

1.2 City Population Seoul Metropolitan Government (SMG), Seoul Statistical Yearbook (SSY) 1999
1998 1993 1988
10,321.496 10,925.464 10,286.503

1.2.1 Resident population

of municipal area
1.2.2 Population during Daytime pop. = Nighttime pop. + Daytime inflow pop.- Daytime outflow pop.
daytime working Population (12 years old and over) during daytime working hours for 1995 was 8,873,370.
hours Resident (night) pop. for 1995 is 8,421.085. Therefore, the daytime population index is 105.4.
1.3 Migration SMG, SSY 1999
1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993
-134,013 -178,319 -211,237 -321,898 -236,497 -182,632

1.3.1 Other parts of the city, net 0 since SMG boundary has not been changed.
1.3.2 Other parts of the -134,013 since (In-migrants) – (Out-migrants) = 546,288 – 680,301
country, net
1.3.3 International migration, net NAV
1.3.4 Total net migration Total net migration is 134,013 for 1998.
• This includes the figure (birth) – (death) = 132,494 – 37,573 = 94,921.
• Where SMG is composed of 25 lower level local governments, the intra-local government migrants
are 1,256,643. However, those migrants still live inside the SMG and are not included in the net migration
calculation.
1.4 Population net density SMG, SSY 1999
1998 1993
480.7 520.8

• The classification of land area by land category used in SSY is dry paddy, rice paddy, orchard, pasture,
forestry, mineral spring, salt field, housing lots, factory site, school site, road, and railroad site. Total land
area and housing lot are 605.5 and 214.7 hectares, respectively. Thus, population net density is calculated
as SMG population divided by housing lot.
1.5 Age pyramid Ibid.
1998 Male Female
(%) (%)
Persons 0 – 14 10.11 9.11
Persons 15 – 59 36.69 36.07
Persons over 60 3.31 4.71

1990
Persons 0 – 14 12.98 11.78
Persons 15 – 59 35.15 34.72
Persons over 60 2.05 3.31

1.6 Average household size Ibid.

1998 1993 1988 1983
2.98 3.18 3.87 4.35

1.7 Household formation rate Ibid.

No. of Households
1993 1998
3,430,528 3,458,511

Thus annual rate of increase between 1993 and 1998 is 0.2%.

1.8 Women-headed households Ibid.; SMG Seoul Women White Paper 1999

394 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Seoul
1995 1980
Total households 2,965,794 1,849,324
Women-headed households 496,248 275,041
% 16.7 14.9

1.9 Minority groups Ibid.

• According to the census, the total number of foreigners was 50,990 out of a total population of
1,0321,496; that is, less than 0.5%. There is no specific ethnic group in the Republic of Korea. The 50,990
consists of Japanese (5,957), Americans (17,751), Chinese (10,856), British (731), French (931),
Germans (901), Vietnamese (657), Filipinos (1,659), and others (11,547).
• These figures exclude United Nations (UN) armed forces, civilians attached to the forces, diplomats
and members of UN organizations or missions of foreign governments and their families.
1.10 Household types NSO Population and Housing Census Report 1995
1995 No. of Households (%)
Single person 382,024 12.88
Adults only 368,579 12.43
Single parent family 241,392 8.14
Adults and children 1,973,799 66.55

• Here, children implies either parents’ or grandparents’ children. Thus children may include adults
who live together with their parents or grandparents.
1.11 Informal settlements SMG, SSY 1999
1998 1993
56,082 86,164

• Data on the number of old illegal housing are available.

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution NSO, Annual Report on the Family Income and Expenditure Survey 1998
Monthly average incomes per household in 1998: Q5.$5,314; Q4.$3,215; Q3.$2,439; Q2.$1,873; Q1.$1,198
• The above monthly average income figures are derived from monthly income per household by
income decile for households of all cities. The NSO does the sampling of 3,098 households among
households of all cities. The average monthly income for all cities was $2,808.
• Although NSO does not release the figures for Seoul, it reports the average monthly income per
household. For 1998, it is $2,890.
2.2 Households below SMG, SSY 1999
poverty line • SMG does not have any official poverty line, but provides the relief for livelihood, for the protected at
home, low-income persons, and the protected in institutional facilities.
Classification 1998 1993
Total Households 40.000 42.536
The Protected at Home 17.412 11.781
Low-Income Persons 22.588 30.755
The Protected at Institutional Facilities 0.100 0.086
All Households 3,458.511 3,430.528

2.3 Women-headed households SMG, Seoul Women White Paper 1999

in poverty • Though there is the relief for livelihood, it is not classified by the gender of the household head.
In general, women-headed households are regarded as more likely in poverty than average households.
This can be shown in working condition by genders.
1999 Women (Seoul) Men (Seoul)
Average monthly working days 25.3 25.0
Average monthly working hours 197.1 202.5
Average monthly earnings ($) 783.0 1,194.0

• Women earn only about 65.6% of what men earn.

2.4 Child labor SMG, SSY 1999; SMG, Seoul Women White Paper 1999
• There is no report on child labor in Seoul. However, the central Government and SMG try to protect
child-headed households and laborers under 20.

Notes and Sources 395

 Seoul
Number of Child-Headed Households
Year Total Household Head Household Member
1999 936 364 572
1998 985 589 396
1997 1,266 686 580
1996 1,105 579 526
1995 981 500 481
1994 875 448 427
1993 757 384 373

• Until 1997, the standard age for child-headed households was under 20. But the policy has been
changed to less than 18. Thus, the number of child-headed households decreased.
• According to employed persons by age group, the number of employed aged between 15 and 19 is
88,000, that is, about 1.98% of all 4,452,000 employed persons.
2.5 Informal employment NAV
2.6 Unemployment SMG, SSY 1999
Unemployment Rate
Year (%)
1998 7.6
1997 2.7
1996 2.4
1995 2.6

2.7 Expenditure on poverty SMG, The Summary of Budget 1999

reduction (per poor person) Category Amount ($)
Comprehensive Policy to Reduce Unemployment 414,938
Protection of Low-Income Group 48,159
Support for Poor Elderly 10,217
Support for Poor Disabled 3,997
Provision of Public Medical Service 39,253
Public Rental Housing 7,833
Total 624,397

• The following figure represents SMG’s expenditure on poverty reduction. Due to the Asian financial
crisis beginning in 1997, there was much expenditure on reducing unemployment in 1998.

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed SMG, SSY 1999

• For the 10,321,496 people in Seoul in 1998 there were 32,195 beds for all general hospitals, clinics,
special clinics, dental hospitals and clinics, oriental medical hospitals and clinics, dispensary clinics
midwife clinics, and city health centers.
3.2 Child mortality UN, World Population Yearbook 1995
UN, Monthly Bulletin 1998
1996 1991
0.53 0.59

3.3 Life expectancy at birth SMG, Major Administration Statistics in Seoul 1999
• The figures are national level data:
1995 1990 1985
73.45 71.27 69.00

3.4 Infectious diseases mortality SMG, SSY 1999

1998 1993
0 0

• There were cases of communicable diseases, but no deaths. The cases for 1998 were composed of
typhoid fever (107), paratyphoid fever (7), bacterial dysentery (22), whooping cough (1), mumps (87), and
others (520), which include scarlet fever, epidemic hemorrhagic fever, amebic dysentery, and tetanus.
3.5 Family planning 1997 National Fertility and Family Health Survey, Namhoon Cho, Seungkwon Kim, Aejeo Cho, et al., Korea
Institute for Health and Social Affairs 1997

396 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Seoul
• For Seoul, family planning rate is 79.7%. For the national level, the rates are 24.4% (1970), 54.5%
(1979), and 79.4 (1991). In addition, for Seoul the family planning methods are vasectomy (13.6%), tubal
ligation (24.9%), intra-uterine device (11.4%), oral pills (1.6%), condoms (16.8%), and others (11.5%).
3.6 Adult literacy rate Country Report, UNESCO Homepage: http://www2.unesco.org/efa/wef/countryreports/korearapport_2_1.
html
1998 1993
98.50 97.32

• The literacy rate is for 15 years or older.

3.7 School enrollment rates Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education, Statistical Yearbook of Education 1999; SMG 1999, Population
(primary, secondary) Statistics by Resident Registration 1998
• The number of students at primary school is 748,978, and the primary school age population is
765,956. Thus, the school enrollment rate for primary school is 748,978/765,956 = 97.78%.
• The number of students at secondary school is 956,778, and the secondary school age
population is 931,550. Thus the school enrollment rate for secondary school is 956,778/931,550 =102.71%.
3.8 Tertiary graduates NSO Advance Report of 1995 Population and Housing Census
NSO, 1995 Population and Housing Census Report
• The number of tertiary graduates (graduates from four-year college or university, and from graduate
school excluding two-year college graduates) 30 years or older = 3,095,287.
The population of 30 years or older = 22,153,356. These figures are for the national level data of 1995.
The proportion of tertiary graduates (3,095,287/22,153,356) = 13.81%.
• For Seoul, the number of tertiary graduates from four-year college or university excluding two-year
college graduates; from graduate school; and from college but not completed graduate school among
30 years or older = 1,137,341.
The population of 30 years or older = 4,932,660.
The proportion of tertiary graduates (1,137,341/4,932,660) = 23.06%.
3.9 Median years NSO, Homepage 2000
of education 1995 1990 1985
10.25 9.54 8.58

• Since the median is not available, the mean years of education are used. These are calculated as the
total number of educated years divided by (number of persons six years old or above) – (number of
students).
3.10 School children per classroom Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education, Statistical Yearbook of Education 1999
(primary/secondary) Primary school children per classroom = 748,978/20,453 = 36.62 and secondary school children per
classroom = 956,778/21,591 = 44.31.

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita SMG, SSY 1999

• The following figures are the per capita gross regional domestic product deflated for 1998 dollars, where
per capita GRDP = GRDP population in Seoul.
1997 1993 1990
($) ($) ($)
10,079.37 8,207.11 6,050.92

4.2 Employment by industry Ibid.

1998 1995
(no.) (no.)
Agriculture, Forestry, Hunting & Fishing 14,000 21,000
Mining and Manufacturing 835,000 1,128,000
Social Overhead Capital & Other Services 3,603,000 3,730,000
Total 4,452,000 4,880,000

4.3 Household expenditure Ibid.

1998 1993
(%) (%)
Food 28.3 29.7
Shelter 17.7 20.5
Travel 13.2 9.5
Others 40.8 40.3

Notes and Sources 397

 Seoul
• The classification used in SSY is different. ‘Food’ is for food and beverages; ‘shelter’ is a sum of housing
(3.6%), fuel, light & water charges (5.2%), furniture & utensils (3.6%), and clothing & footwear (5.3%);
‘travel’ is for transportation and communication; and “others” include medical care (4.6%), education (11.4%),
culture & recreation (4.7%), and other consumption expenditures (20.2%).
4.4 Investment by sector NAV
4.5 Tourism See http://www.knto.or.kr/Korean/
• The following figures are estimated from national level data. To estimate the tourism related-data for SMG
area, 0.70 – 0.80 is multiplied by the national level data since the relative importance of Seoul to tourism is
much greater than for the rest of the country. Here, the index of 0.75 is used. The expenditure figures are
adjusted to 1998 US dollars with price index.
1998 1997 1996 1995 1994
Persons (thousand) 3,188 2,931 2,763 2,815 2,685
Expenditures (million) 4,314 3,687 3,822 3,830 2,534

4.6 Major projects The Budget Outline of SMG 1998 $ million

Construction of the second-term subway project 648.3
Construction of the radial principal road 67.9
Construction of the inner circular road 61.3
Collectively supplied energy project 57.2
Maintenance and repair project of underground 56.7
shopping centers
Construction and design of the third-term subway project 43.8
Construction of recovery facilities of waste materials 34.6
Construction of water purification plants 33.3
Project to improve residential environment 31.4
Extension project of Ji-bong Street 20.8
4.7 Cost of stay Cities Data Book (CDB) estimates
4.8 Corporate headquarters NAV

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure NSO, International Statistics Yearbook 1999

5.2 Telephone traffic SMG, SSY 1999
(million calls per year) Internal source from Information Communication Promotion Association
• Since statistics for domestic phone calls are not separated into local and long distance calls, the national
average rate is applied.
• For mobile phones, only the numbers of subscribers for national level are available:
Year No. of Subscribers
1993 471,784
1998 13,982,919
1999 46,858,000 (August, about 43.4% of national population)

• For mobile phones, only the numbers of subscribers for national level are available:
471,784 in 1993 and 13,982,919 in 1998. Moreover, in August 1999 it became 46,858,000, about 43.4% of
Republic of Korea’s population.
• According to http://nca.or.kr/main/nca_main.htm, among the persons aged 13 – 59, about 19.5% of them
used Internet in 1998 (1,476,504/7,559,893).
Type of Call 1998 1993
(million calls) (million calls)
Local 2,122.7 3,439.4
STD 417.0 675.6
International 11.6 5.0

5.3 Internet hosts per thousand

population

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land SMG, SSY 1999

• The planning area used in Seoul is classified into four basic zoning areas.

398 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Seoul
Area/Zone 1998 1993
Residential Area (ha) (ha)
Exclusive Residential 417 534
Residential 28,766 29,217
First Class Residential 127 –
Second Class Residential 3 –
Mixed Residential 730 405

Commercial Area
Central Commercial – –
General Commercial 2,185 2,147
Residential Commercial 54 –
Distribution Commercial 94 –

Industrial Area
Exclusive Use Industrial Area – –
Industrial Area – –
Quasi-Industrial Area 2,891 2,908

Green Zone
Conservation a Green Zone 7 –
Nature a Green Zone 24,966 31,019
Production a Green Zone 355 368

Total 60,595 66,598

6.2 Land developer multiplier

6.3 Developer contributions
6.4 Median time for planning NAV/NAP
permission Development of housing land has been a public sector role. However, there has been a change in law to allow
private developers to provide typical subdivisions.
6.5 Vacant land with planning SMG, SSY 1999
permission Internal source from SMG Urban Redevelopment Division
• For 1998, the area of overall development plan (196.1hectares) – annual total area of development (28.4
hectares) was 167.7 hectares.
6.6 Public open space Ibid.
SMG Major Administration Statistics in Seoul 1999
• In 1998, there was 26.74% open space.
6.7 Vacant government land Ibid.
• SMG owns 10,944 hectares of city land. The lower level governments (Gu) own 2,955 hectares, but this is
not classified in detail so any part of Gu land is added to vacant property. The result showed 1.79% of
government land is vacant.
6.8 Prime commercial land price Seoul Development Institute 1998, Growth Management in CBD
One of the highest commercial land prices is in Myong-Dong area within CBD:
1998 1995 1994
($) ($) ($)
23,253 34,715 34,628

6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs

6.10 Expenditure on development SMG, Summary of Budgets 1998, 1999, 2000
• According to SMG’s summary of budgets, there is a ‘Housing and Urban Development’ category. Each year’s
budget is adjusted and deflated to 1998 US dollars and divided by the city population. Then the average of 3
years’ budgets is calculated:
2000 1999 1998 Average
($) ($) ($) ($)
93.97 68.18 65.37 75.84

• In the summary of budgets, there are other expenditure categories that can be regarded as expenditure on
development. However, those are not added since they are under a different category. Those items are
additional (or continuous) road construction projects, bridge construction, city highway construction, subway
construction, and others.

Notes and Sources 399

 Seoul
7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type SMG, SSY 1999

• Temporary dwellings, institutions, and hostels are not classified as dwelling types.
Type 1998 1993
(%) (%)
Single Family Houses 38.44 45.76
Median Density 18.74 16.68
Apartment 42.82 37.56

7.2 Tenure type Ibid.

SMG 1999, Major Administration Statistics in Seoul
• In the Republic of Korea, social housing, subtenant, and squatter are not classified as tenure types.
• However, in 1999 SMG, NGOs and religious groups operated many facilities.
such as 86 social and welfare houses, 31 disabled houses, 35 rehabilitation facilities for the disabled, 3
rehabilitation facilities for criminals, 4,064 nursery or child care facilities, 15 youth centers, 14 elderly welfare
centers, 49 women protection facilities, and others.
Type 1995 1990 1985
(%) (%) (%)
Owned or Purchased 69.57 74.66 80.51
Private Rental 29.57 24.19 17.84
Rent Free 0.83 1.15 1.65
Others 0.03 – –

7.3 House price to income ratio Ibid.

Internal source from Korea Research Institute for Human Settlements (KRIHS)
Income-Price 1998 1993
Monthly income per household (won ’000) (won ’000)
for salary and wage earner 2,213.00 1,615.70
Median house price (KRIHS) 120,000.00 150,000.00
House price to (annual) income ratio (%) 4.52 7.74

• According to the research project ‘Housing Master Plan in Seoul’ by Seoul Development Institute in 1998, the
ratio is 6.87 with their samples.
• Since the median income is not available, the average income is used.

7.4 House rent to income ratio Housing Master Plan in Seoul 1998
Type of Rent 1998
Tenement 35.6
Monthly rent with deposit in advance 40.0
Monthly rent without deposit 57.2

• The figures are drawn from the above source which mentioned that in general the households under the
median income level were more burdened with rent.
7.5 Floor area per person Housing Master Plan in Seoul 1998; Population and Housing Census Report 1995
• In 1995 the floor area per person was 15.77 square meters.
Note: This is from the appendix of the above source.
7.6 Housing in compliance NAV
7.7 Mortgage to credit ratio Korea National Housing Corporation 2000, Yearbook of Housing Statistics
http://www.nso.go.kr/cgi-bin/sws_999.cgi
• Housing loans data are collected from the Yearbook of Housing Statistics, and total credit data are from the
NSO’s homepage where it quotes data from Bank of Korea statistics.
Loan 1999
($)
Private housing loans (billion) 1.58
National housing fund’s
housing loans 370
Total housing loans 2,638
Total credits 113,002
Mortgage to credit ratio (%) 2.33

400 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Seoul
7.8 Houses with mortgages Ibid.
• The following figures are the housing units for which new loans were approved for each year; data on
cumulative loaned housing units are not available.
Loan 1999 1993
(units) (units)
Private housing loans 78,980 32,541
National housing fund’s
housing loans 6,976 17,273
Total 85,956

7.9 Mortgage loans for women NAV

7.10 Housing production Internal source from SMG Housing Planning Division 2000; SMG SSY 1999
Housing 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995
(units)
New housing construction 61,460 32,022 70,446 96,342 104,322
Housing redevelopment NAV 9,911 10,691 4,719 2,625
Annual production per 1,000 pop.
for new housing construction NAV 3.10 6.78 9.20 10.20
Housing redevelopment NAV 0.96 1.03 0.45 0.26

7.11 Squatter resettlement or SMG, SSY 1999

normalization 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993
(%)
1.97 8.66 10.99 8.01 5.35 4.12

Housing units that are redeveloped or legalized are treated as regularized or resettled housing.
7.12 Net housing outlays by NAV
government (per person)
7.13 Homeless people

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections SMG, SSY 1999
• In 1998 99.98% of households had connections and in 1997 there were 99.95% with connections.
8.1.2 Investment per capita SMG, Office of Waterworks, Waterworks Statistical Yearbook 1997, 1998
• Investment per capita was $18.36 in 1998, $26.25 in 1997, and $23.83 in 1996.
8.1.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure
8.1.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
1998 1997 1996 1995 1994
(%)
82.2 75.16 63.64 70.19 66.19

8.1.5 Output per staff: water Ibid.

supplied per employee 1998 1997
(m3) (m3)
412,168,644 27,141,622

8.1.6 List of providers SMG, Office of Waterworks supplies water for all households.
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water
a. Percentage unaccounted SMG, SSY 1999
water SMG, Office of Waterworks, Waterworks Statistical Yearbook 1998
The unaccounted for water in 1998 was 35.2%.
b. Interruptions in water NAV
service
8.1.8 Consumption of water SMG, SSY 1999
per capita • The per capita consumption in 1998 was 0.444 m3 per capita. It was calculated as total output/
population/365.
8.1.9 Median price of water SMG, Office of Waterworks, Waterworks Statistical Yearbook 1998
scarce season • The price was $0.21 in 1998. Since the median price is not available, the average price for all types was
used.

Notes and Sources 401

 Seoul
8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy, Yearbook of Energy Statistics 1998
• The percentage cannot be provided because the number of customers do not necessarily imply the number
of households since under the name of one customer several households can use the electricity together.
Year No. of Customers
1997 2,645,000
1992 2,088,000
1987 1,424,000

8.2.2 Investment per capita NAV

8.2.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.2.4 Cost recovery NAV
8.2.5 Output per staff: megawatt NAV
hours of electricity supplied
per employee
8.2.6 List of providers Korea Electric Power Corporation provides all electricity and do not provide statistics by region.
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity
a. Line loss for electricity Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy, Yearbook of Energy Statistics 1998
• In 1997 the loss was 4.85% for the Republic of Korea. It was calculated as net generation – power sold/net
generation.
b. Interruptions in power NAV
supply

8.3 Sewerage/wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections SMG, SSY 1999
• In 1998 there were 98.6% households connected and in 1994, 99.2%.
• The above figures are the diffusion rate of sewerage service that is calculated as wastewater for treatment
divided by total population. The wastewater for treatment is composed of wastewater with the first physical
treatment and wastewater with the second biological treatment.
8.3.2 Investment per capita Ibid.; Internal source from SMG Sewerage Planning Division
• The following amounts of total investment are divided by city population:
1998 1997 1996 1995 1994
(%)
10.09 19.24 27.07 29.94 29.95

8.3.3 Operations and Ibid.

maintenance expenditure
8.3.4 Cost recovery Internal source from SMG Sewerage Planning Division
• Cost recovery includes the construction expenditure on sewage treatment plants.
1998 1997 1996 1995 1994
(%)
60.49 43.94 46.02 52.45 39.07

8.3.5 Output per staff: Internal source from SMG Sewerage Planning Division and Construction Administration
wastewater treated Division
per employee • In 1998 the figure was 792,261 m3 and in 1993 782,185 m3.

8.3.6 List of providers SMG is responsible.

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections SMG, SSY 1999
• In 1998 it was 116.61% and in 1993, 106.37%.
• The above figure is calculated as the number of residence subscribers divided by the number of households.
There are increasing numbers of households with more than one telephone line, but there may also be
households without any telephone service.
8.4.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.4.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.4.5 Output per staff NAV
thousands of callls
per employee

402 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Seoul
8.4.6 List of providers • Korea Telecom, Dacom, and Onse Telecom are the three telephone service providers, but their market
share is not known.

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with regular SMG, SSY 1999
service
• This was 100% in 1998 and 1993.
8.5.2 Investment per capita Internal source from Waste Management Division, SMG
• The amount of investments by SMG and 25 local governments were added and then divided by city
population.
1998 1997 1996 1995 1994
($)
17.13 16.80 13.46 12.99 8.37

8.5.3 Operations and Ibid.

maintenance expenditure • The amount of operations and maintenance expenditure by SMG and 25 local governments were added
and then divided by city population.
1998 1997 1996 1995 1994
($)
19.43 31.50 34.04 43.46 42.75

8.5.4 Cost recovery Ibid.

• The cost is the investment and expenditure provided by SMG and 25 local governments and the revenue is
collected from local governments. However, the costs and revenues of private haulers are not added so that
the following cost recovery figures are underestimated.
1998 1997 1996 1995 1994
(%)
28 32 41 40 27

8.5.5 Output per staff: Ibid.

Collected per employee
8.5.6 List of providers Ibid.
• Approximately 25 local governments collected mixed waste, road waste, recyclable, and bulky waste; 107
private haulers collected mixed waste; and one private hauler collected road waste.

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated Ibid.

• In 1998 there were 3,929,225 tons. It was calculated by multiplying the total amount of discharge per day
by 365 days.
9.2 Household sewage disposal Ibid.
(% of households) • The figures of 98% by sewerage pipes and 2% by pan are actually for the treatment of night soil
collection, and the first one is a percentage of flushed toilet systems and the second one a percentage of
traditional toilets. Of course, there are different types of sewerage pipes. One is a separate pipe for the
usual household wastewater collection and for night soil collection. The other is that the two kinds of
waste are collected through one pipe. However, all collected wastewater or night soil go to water
treatment plants. Even the pan-collected night soil is treated at latrine treatment plants.
9.3 Wastewater treated Ibid.; Internal source from SMG Sewerage Planning Division
• In 1999 98.45% of wastewater was regarded as treated.
• There are two different wastewater treatments. The first treatment is physical and the second treatment is
biological and 98.45% refers to biological treatment.
9.4 Percent BOD removed from Ibid.
wastewater • BOD removal in sewage treatment plants is equal to flow (inflow BOD – discharge BOD)/inflow BOD:
1998 1997 1996 1995 1994
(%)
81.6 77.5 76.0 72.5 61.1

9.5 Air pollution concentrations SMG SSY 1999; Ministry of Environment, Environmental Statistics Yearbook 1998

Notes and Sources 403

 Seoul
• Republic of Korea’s measurements of air quality differ from WHO standards:
Pollutant 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994
SO2 (ppm/yr) 0.008 0.011 0.013 0.017 0.019
NO2 (ppm/yr) 0.030 0.032 0.033 0.032 0.032
CO (ppm/8 hrs) 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.5
O3 (ppm/8 hrs) 0.017 0.016 0.015 0.013 0.014
3
Dust (ug/m /yr) 62.0 72.0 85.0 85.0 78.0
3
Lead (ug/m /yr) – 0.1088 0.1495 0.1844 0.1907

9.6 Energy usage per person SMG, SSY 1999

• In 1998 523.26 mt were consumed per annum or 5.06 mt per person and in 1993 317.13 mt.
• Annual consumption per person is derived, and then multiplied by conversion factor found in the
Appendix of SSY 1999. Following is the annual consumption per person for each energy type:
Energy 1998 1993
Petrol 0.494 0.719
Kerosene 0.481 0.266
Natural gas 392.887 237.587
Coal 0.025 0.214
Electricity 2,534.68 1,818.73

9.7 Noise complaints NAV

9.8 Disasters in last 10 years Internal source from SMG Fire and Disaster Management Department
The following list covers 1994–1999:
1. Fire in apartment model housing, 20 December 1999: 3 dead and 1 injured
2. Partial collapse of stone embankment over Han Jin Apartment Housing, 14 May 1997: 1 dead and 6 injured
3. Fire in Jungsan apartment housing, 30 March 1997: 2 dead and 16 injured
4. Collapse of mold at TechnoMart construction site, 22 October 1996: 1 dead and 2 injured
5. Fire in Rolling Stones Rock Café, 29 September 1996: 11 dead and 3 injured
6. Collapse of Sam Poong Department Store, 29 June 1995: 502 dead and 940 injured
7. Fire in Wangsip-ri Market, 5 November 1995: 1 dead and 1 injured, 183 households lost homes
8. Gas explosion at Ahhyun-dong, 7 December 1994: 12 dead and 101 injured
9. Collapse of Sungsu Bridge, 21 October 1994: 32 dead and 17 injured
9.9 Methods of solid waste disposal SMG, SSY 1999
Method 1998 1993
(%) (%)
Landfill 56.76 80.71
Incineration 5.08 0.94
Recycle 38.16 18.35
Total 100.00 100.00

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel Ibid.

Mode 1998 1993
(%) (%)
Private automobile 20.1 14.2
Train (Subway) 32.3 25.6
Bus or minibus 29.1 38.6
Others 18.5 21.6

• Among ‘Others,’ 9.7% for 1998 and 11.8% for 1993 represent taxi users. The rest (8.8% and 9.8%) include
walking and bicycle users, but separate statistics are not available.
10.2 Median travel time SMG 1997, Traffic Census and Construction of Data Base in Seoul
• According to the 1997 census, the average travel time for a work trip takes 44.07 minutes. For modes of
trip, users of subway, commuting by bus, private automobile, and regular bus line take trip times of 48.18,
45.78, 43.23, and 41.36 minutes, respectively.
10.3 Expenditure on road SMG, The Summary of Budget 1998, 1999, 2000
infrastructre • According to SMG’s summary of budgets, there is a “Reducing Traffic Problem” category. Each year’s
budget is adjusted and deflated to 1998 US dollars and divided by the city population. Then the average of
three years’ budgets is calculated.

404 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Seoul
• The above figures can be overestimated since “Reducing Traffic Problem” category includes bus service
improvement, construction of welfare facility for taxi drivers, introduction of scientific traffic control system on
main roads, improvement of traffic signal and sign boards, added parking lots, city highway and all kinds of
road and bridge construction and maintenance, added subway construction and operation, and other items.
However, central Government expenditure on road infrastructure is not included.
10.4 Road congestion Internal source from SMG Office of Transportation
• The only available data related to road or traffic congestion is traffic speed in the city central area:
1998 1997 1996 1995 1994
(kilometers per hour)
16.85 16.44 18.25 20.04 19.97

10.5 Automobile ownership SMG, SSY 1999

• The number of registered motor vehicles including passenger cars, buses, trucks, and special cars per
thousand population is as follows. The minimum driving age in the Republic of Korea is 18.
1998 1993
(‘000 pop)
290.2 218.3

10.6 Cost recovery from fares NAV

10.7 Port/air activity Ministry of Construction and Transportation, Statistical Yearbook of Construction and Transportation 1997
• The number of flights leaving from Seoul is overestimated. For 1996, the total number of flights from all
airports in the Republic of Korea was 254,565 (154,838 domestic flights and 99,727 international flights), but
the flight numbers for Kimpo International Airport in Seoul are not available. However, most international flights
leave from Seoul and less than half of the domestic flights leave from Seoul. The number of commercial flights
leaving from Seoul could be less than 177,146.
10.8 Goods carried SMG, SSY 1999; Ibid.
Seoul Goods Carried
(million tons)
Road 54.8
Rail 0.15
Air 0.88
Sea NAP

• The road figure is for 1995 since recent figures are not available.
10.9 Transport fatalities SMG, SSY 1999
Transport Related Deaths
(per ‘000 population per year)
1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993
0.053 0.058 0.075 0.082 0.074 0.074

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events NAV

11.2 Attendance at galleries NSO, Regional Statistics Yearbook 1999; Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Culture and Arts Statistics in
and museums Korea 1998
• In 1998, there were 64 museums, 12 art museums, 29 exhibition halls and 224 galleries in Seoul. There were
757,590 visitors to the National Central Museum and 2,113,605 to the National Folk Museum in 1997.
11.3 Participation in sports Internal source from SMG Culture and Tourism Bureau; NSO, Regional Statistics Yearbook 1999
• In 1999, there were 6,297 life-related sports activity organizations with 313,924 members. However,
total numbers seem underestimated since there were 11,361 sports facilities registered in 1998.

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue SMG, SSY 1999

• The following figures are the percentage of budget revenues of “General Account” only. Here local taxes
include city (SMG) tax and Gu (25 local governments) tax. User charges include rents and fees, property rents,
and business receipts. Other own source incomes are interest receipts, proceeds from disposal of properties,
and funds repaid. Transfers are local share tax, control grants, and subsidies from central Government. Other
incomes are levy grants, surplus, carried over, deposits, charges, revenues from previous year and miscella-
neous. Among other income, Surplus is the biggest item at 6.4%. Miscellaneous is 2.9%.

Notes and Sources 405

 Seoul
Revenue 1998 1993
(%) (%)
Taxes 59.65 68.46
User charges 5.53 2.57
Other own source income 2.22 2.71
Transfers 17.33 13.80
Loans 2.57 0.11
Other income 12.71 12.36

12.2 Capital and recurrent SMG, Current Budget 1999

Expenditure • Capital expenditure : $216.48
Recurrent expenditure : $152.55
12.3 Collection efficiency, Internal source from SMG Tax Collection Division
property taxes • The percentage of liabilities actually collected for 1997 was 96.1%.
• Property tax is divided into two parts in the Republic of Korea: a tax on buildings, ships and airplanes, and
a tax on land. The ratios for each tax are 97.5% and 95.7%, respectively. But the recalculation of collections of
both taxes gives the above result. However, the cost of the second item is not applicable since it is a
local government tax.
12.4 Debt service charge Seoul Development Institute, Comprehensive Debt Management for Seoul, unpublished mimeo 1999
• The Republic of Korea’s foreign debt increased after the 1997 – 1998 economic crisis.
Debt Service Charge
1998 1995
(%) (%)
15.9 9.2

12.5 Employees SMG, SSY 1999

Total No. of Local Government Employees
1998 1993
(per ‘000 pop)
4.71 4.90

12.6 Wages in budget SMG, Current Budget 1999

• Total wages/recurrent expenditure were 14.95% of 1998 budget.
12.7 Contracted recurrent NAV
expenditure ratio
12.8 Business permits NAV
12.9 Enterprise revenues NAV
12.10 Computerization of functions Land registration was computerized recently, and some rates collections were also computerized so people
can use the Internet to pay them. Salaries have been provided on-line through banks for more than 20
years.

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government The checked items are the functions of not only SMG, but also 25 local governments. Electricity, education,
health care and police are central Government functions. Telephone provision has been privatized.
13.2 Delivery of annual plan SMG, SSY 1999
• The figure for 1998 was 96.5%.
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex See http:www.nec.go.kr/sinfo/sinfo.htm
• The National Election Committee collects the overall voter participation rates, but not by sex. Voter
participation rates in Seoul and the Republic of Korea as a whole were 54.3% and 57.2%, respectively, in the
National Assembly election on 13 April 2000.
13.4 Independence from higher • The Korean government system is three-tiered with the central Government, upper level local govern-
government ments (SMG and 6 metropolitan governments, 9 Dos), and 253 local governments (cities, Guns and Gus).
Among them Seoul is regarded as a special city. Under the SMG there are 25 Gus. The executives and
legislative branches of SMG and Gus are independent so that the executive branch may not close down
the council or remove councilors from office. Laws under central Government authority strictly regulate the
types of taxes and rates for any tax. Local governments determine user charges for local government
services, but many of them should pass through the councils. When SMG wants to issue government
bonds over a certain amount of money, it needs central Government permission. Same situation as in
13.4.4.

406 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Seoul
13.5 Elected and nominated councilors Internal source from Seoul Metropolitan Council
• All councilors are elected directly by the citizens:
Female 11 councilors
Male 93 councilors

13.6 Representation of minorities NAP

• In the Republic of Korea, there are few foreigners other than United Nations military personnel, but no
minority groups.
13.7 Planning applications refused (%) NAV
13.8 Business satisfaction Fortune, 2 November 1998
• Seoul was ranked 8th among Asian cities in the “98 Best Cities for Business” survey conducted by Fortune
magazine and Arthur Andersen Consulting.
13.9 Consumer satisfaction NAV
13.10 Perception as place to live Asiaweek, 17 December 1999
• Seoul was ranked 13th and tied with Bangkok in the “Asia’s best cities to live in” survey conducted by
Asiaweek magazine. It dealt with 40 quality-of-life indexes.
13.11 Reported crimes To be filed.
13.12 Access to information To be filed.
13.13 Contact with the public Internal source from SMG Mayor’s Secretarial Office
• In July 1998, the Mayor of SMG began meeting citizens in the “Public’s Date with Mayor” every
Saturday. It has been very successful for the citizens who have complaints against city policies. Between
July 1998 and December 1999, 596 complaints were discussed in such meetings.
13.14 Decentralized district units Please see 13.4

Notes and Sources 407

 Suva
Indicators
1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization 1996 census

• About 46% of the Fiji Island’s population now lives in urban areas, compared with 39% in 1986 and 37%
in 1976. The recasting of census enumeration boundaries to incorporate periurban districts previously
defined as rural pushed up the rate of urban growth since the designation of enumeration areas dictates
how the urban and rural populations are defined.
1.2 City population 1996 census
• Another 90,609 live in the periurban area, giving a total population for the Suva urban area (excluding
the contiguous towns of Nausori and Lami) of 167,975, or 21.6% of the Fiji Island’s total population. If
Nausori were included, the urban area would account for 30.4% of the Fiji Islands’ total population.
• The comparable figures for the past three decades are
Suva Greater Total Suva % of the
City Suva Urban Area Nat’l Pop’n
1986 69,665 71,600 141,273 19.7
1976 63,628 54,199 117,827 20.0
1966 54,157 26,112 80,269 16.8

• Suva City is growing slowly because only in-fill development is now possible, relatively high land
values are forcing people to move to cheaper areas, and the formalization of squatter settlements is halting
their growth through in-migration.
• The Suva City Council estimates that 60,000 people commute into the city daily (SCC, Draft Strategic
Plan 2000).
1.3 Migration 1996 census, Gutteridge, Haskins, and Davey (GHD) 1999
An estimated 4,300 rural migrants arrived in Suva each year between 1986 and 1996.
Suva City experienced zero growth from 1986 to 1996, while Greater Suva grew at an average of 1.7%
yearly. (The analytical report on the 1996 census ascribes the apparent 1.1% yearly increase in the
population of Suva City to the incorporation of Tamavua, a part of Suva’s periurban area located in
Naitasiri Tikina.) The fringes of Suva City are therefore growing faster than the city itself, and migration
from other parts of the country evidently accounts for much of this growth. Overall, however, the growth
of the Suva urban area is slower than the national urban average of 2.4% (which is understood to be an
overestimation).
• This growth cannot be properly broken down according to the place of origin of migrants because this
section of the 1996 census data has not been tabulated or analyzed. From provincial data in the 1996
census, GHD (1999) estimate that 4,300 rural migrants arrived in Suva each year between
1986 and 1996.
• The national population increased by around 0.9% over the decade. If it is assumed that the population
of Greater Suva conformed to the national averages for births, deaths, and emigration, then migration
accounted for around 0.8% of the annual growth of Greater Suva over the past decade.
1.4 Net population density 1996 census and the Suva City Council’s measurement of the residential area of the city (1,035.4 ha)
1.5 Age pyramid 1996 census
1.6 Average household size Ibid.
1.7 Household formation rate 1986 and 1996 national census
1.8 Women-headed households 1996 census
1.9 Minority groups Ibid.
• Suva has a multiethnic population. The largest ethnic group, Fijians, composes 50% of the population;
Indo-Fijians, 34%, and other main ethnic groups (Europeans, Chinese, Rotumans, and Pacific Islanders),
13.4%.
1.10 Household types Ibid.
1.11 Informal settlements Consultant’s estimates based on GHD 1999
• Informal settlements are of two types. One type, known as vaka vanua, is informal settlement on land
provided by traditional Fijian owners. These settlements tend to look like traditional Fijian villages. The other
type of settlement is more haphazard. The houses are often overcrowded, to the point where part of the
household separates and builds a new structure. Another reason for the seemingly large household size in
these informal settlements is the widespread informal subletting, where more than one family may occupy
a dwelling. This is often overlooked in surveys and censuses.
• According to a recent estimate (GHD 1999), around 40,000 people, or 16% of the population of the
total Suva urban area, live in informal settlements. Informal settlements in the Suva urban area are squatter
settlements, native settlements, and urban villages.

408 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Suva
• In 1996, squatter households made up 11.3% of households in Greater Suva and 5.6% of households in
the Suva urban area; 1.4% of households in Greater Suva and 1.4% of households in the Suva urban area
lived in urban villages.
• There are several squatter settlements in Suva City but informal housing is scattered throughout
Suva’s residential areas, complicating the estimation of the area occupied by informal housing. The main
settlements are Jittu Estate (with 602 households and over 2,700 residents in 1998, according to a survey
of the Department of Lands); Muslim League, Vunivau, Sanatan, Narain’s Land, and Villamaria
(contiguous), in the Samabula-Tamavua area; Vunimoli, Valenimanumanu, Nauluvatu, in the Walu Bay–
Tamavua River area; and Wailea, Veidogo, and Nanuku in the Vatuwaqa area.
• Urban villages (traditional Fijian settlements) and native settlements (mostly Fijians on informal lease
land) are mostly in the periurban area.

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution Based on a survey of Suva-Nausori households done by GHD in 1999
• The only other information on income distribution could come from the 1990/91 National Household
Income and Expenditure Report, which provides the most recent national data. The Household Income and
Expenditure Survey (HIES) data can be disaggregated to derive the figure for urban households, but not
specifically for Suva households.
• The household income distribution by a 10% group in the Suva-Nausori study area in 1999 was
as follows:
10% Group Average Household Ave. Annual Household
Income Range ($) Income ($)
1 1,660.96 – 2,617.27 1,926.72
2 2,617.27 – 3,925.91 3,266.06
3 3,925.91 – 4,711.09 4,476.55
4 4,711.09 – 5,234.55 4,801.19
5 5,234.55 – 6,543.09 6,020.23
6 6,543.19 – 7,851.82 7,283.57
7 7,851.82 – 9,160.46 8,239.88
8 9,160.46 – 10,469.10 9,772.50
9 10,469.10 – 13,609.80 12,275.50
10 13,609.80 – 13,086.40 24,056.30

2.2 Households below poverty line GHD 1999

• An estimated 15-20 % of households in Greater Suva live in poverty and around 6% (around 15,000
people) live in absolute poverty, according to a household survey in the Suva-Nasuori area in 1999. The
1997 Fiji Poverty Report estimated that 27.7% of urban households in the Fiji Islands live in relative poverty,
and that the incidence of poverty is only slightly lower in rural areas. This higher figure may therefore be
more accurate for Suva.
2.3 Women-headed households Derived from the Fiji Poverty Report
in poverty • The assumption is that Suva households are similar to all other urban households in the Fiji Islands,
and that the characteristics of households in poverty have not changed since the 1990/91 HIES.
2.4 Child labor CDB team’s estimates based on data provided by the consultant from the 1996 Fiji census and Ministry of
Education 1998
• The assumption here is that children who attend school are not involved in child labor. Many children,
particularly in the rural areas, nevertheless work to some extent. Underage children (below 15 years) have
been found working in factories, but the labor unions and the Ministry of Labour are cooperating to prevent
this.
2.5 Informal employment World Bank estimates for 1992
• This is calculated from the 1996 census because of the categories of employment and definitions
used, and the absence of other recent employment surveys. A UNDP study of the informal sector in
Pacific island countries found that, in general, the nonformal sector was large and growing (UNDP 1997).
The most recent national figure for the Fiji Islands (66.3% of the economically active population) was
estimated by the World Bank (1992) on the basis of 1986 census data. This may still provide a useful
estimate, for although informal employment could have been expected to grow considerably over the past
decade because of the increased proportion of the economically active population, much of this category
of workers (especially women) has been absorbed into employment in garment factories.

Notes and Sources 409

 Suva
2.6 Unemployment 1996 census
2.7 Expenditure on poverty Consultant’s estimates
reduction per poor person • This is based on the 1998 budget and information about NGO poverty assistance and the number of
poor people from the Fiji Poverty Report.
• This is a very crude estimate, for three reasons. First, the Department of Social Welfare says that it
cannot disaggregate its poverty alleviation expenditures to derive the figure for Suva. Second, the Fiji
Government, as a matter of policy, deals with poverty principally through development services, including
education and health, and not through welfare, but again this expenditure cannot be disaggregated. Third,
much poverty reduction work is done by NGOs, but the 1996 Fiji Poverty Report could not put a
monetary value to their assistance.
• The main government and quasi-government agencies involved in poverty reduction are the
Department of Social Welfare and the Housing Corporation (which provides cheap accommodation to low-
income workers). Other organizations are the Housing and Relief Trust (HART), the Bayly Trust, the
Salvation Army, Save the Children’s Fund, the Poor Relief Society, the Society of St. Vincent de Paul,
and World Vision Fiji.

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed Calculated by the consultant from Ministry of Health (MOF) data
• This is not a particularly relevant statistic for Suva, because its principal national hospital serves a
much larger population than the residents of Suva City.
3.2 Child mortality Derived from the 1996 census
• Suva serves as a medical center for a much larger population. Deaths in Suva cannot be broken down
by area of residence. The Ministry of Health said that the national child mortality rate of 14 per thousand
live births (17 per thousand for males; 12 per thousand for females) would be representative of the Suva
rate. Given the good access to medical services in Suva compared with other parts of the country,
however, the mortality rate for Suva may be lower than the national figure.
3.3 Life expectancy at birth Ibid.
• For the same reasons as in 3.1 and 3.2 above, the figure cited here is the national average of 65.1
years (63.4 years for males; 66.8 years for females).
3.4 Mortality from infectious NAV
diseases • The 1998 MOF Database gives the national figure, which also includes noncommunicable diseases.
3.5 Family planning Ibid.
3.6 Adult literacy rate Derived from the 1996 census
• As there have been no surveys of functional literacy, adult literacy rates in the Fiji Islands are derived
from the 1996 census, from the proportion of adults with at least four years of formal schooling. Adult
literacy in urban Fiji Islands is therefore 96.9% (97% for males; 96.6% for females).
3.7 School enrollment rates 1998 MOF Database
(primary, secondary)
3.8 Tertiary graduates 1996 census
• The figures are 132 per thousand for adult males and 101 per thousand for adult females.
• Suva serves as a national and regional center for tertiary education. The University of the South Pacific,
the Fiji School of Medicine, the Fiji Institute of Technology, the Fiji School of Nursing, the Fiji College of
Advanced Education, and the Fiji Campus of the University of Southern Queensland are all found in Suva.
As the national capital and main business center, Suva also offers most of the types of employment that
attract tertiary graduates.
3.9 Median years of education Ibid.
• The figures are 8.4 years for males and 8.2 years for females.
3.10 School children per classroom 1998 Ministry of Education
(primary,secondary) • Primary classes have an average of 31 students per class, against a national average of 23.
Secondary classes have an average of 29 students per class. (Suva schools are relatively crowded
because of the perceived high quality of education at its schools.)

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita

4.2 Employment by industry Data derived from the 1996 national census
4.3 Household expenditure NAV
• 1990/91 HIES. The national figure cannot be disaggregated to derive the figure for Suva.
4.4 Investment by sector NAV

410 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Suva
4.5 Tourism Suva City Council (SCC) 2000
This figure represents 8.5% of total annual tourists visiting the Fiji Islands. The Fiji Visitors Bureau has no
information on total or average tourist expenditure.
4.6 Major projects 1 Upgrading of Kings Road from Nasinu Nine Miles to Samabula, to accommodate more
vehicular traffic
2 Building of four high-rise office blocks along the Suva foreshore
3 Building of two large Fiji National Provident Fund complexes in central Suva
4 Expansion of the Vatuwaqa industrial district
5 Development of low-cost housing near Nasinu
• Several major development projects requiring foreign investment have remained on the drawing board
for most of the 1990s, chiefly because of investors’ concerns about political stability. Among those planned
developments is reclamation of the Suva harbor foreshore and the development of a trade center, major
hotels, a marina, and civic recreational facilities in the area. Another large-scale reclamation and building
program that seems to have been put on hold because of the political crisis since May 2000 is the regional
campus planned by the University of Central Queensland in the Suva Point area. The upgrading of the Suva-
Nausori Water Supply and Sewerage Systems is also planned, but no funds have as yet been secured for
the project. Besides the scanty overseas investment, the SCC’s financial difficultiesb throughout the 1990s
have been another brake on project implementation. Much of the development that has occurred has been
financed by the National Provident Fund, which is required by law to invest part of its funds in the Fiji
Islands.
4.7 Cost of stay CDB estimates
4.8 Corporate headquarters NAV
• Large corporations, such as Coca-Cola and Mobil Oil, have regional offices in Suva, but none have their
corporate headquarters in the city.

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure • No figures are available, but there is very little expenditure on R&D in Suva. R&D is not done in the Fiji
Islands but brought in from overseas.
5.2 Telephone traffic Telecom
(million calls per year) • This is the national figure. Telecom says that its traffic data cannot be disaggregated to give the figure
for Suva. Given the volume of the Fiji Islands business that is transacted in Suva, Suva could account for
half to two thirds of the traffic.
Vodafone declined to give information about mobile connections.
5.3 Internet host per thousand CDB team’s estimates, based on data from the Telecom consultant
population • There were 2,061 Internet connections in Suva in 1998. The growth in connections has been rapid since
1995, when the Internet was introduced: 1995, 60 connections; 1996, 407; 1997, 1,080; 1998, 2,061.
Growth since then has been even more rapid.

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land SCC

• Data on urban land came from SCC. Data on transport and mixed use are either insignificant or not
possible to disaggregate and are therefore included in “Others.”
6.2 Land developer multiplier Calculated by the consultant from data provided by real estate agents and SCC 1998
6.3 Developer contributions SCC
6.4 Median time for planning Ibid.
permission • This is the average figure, but the time varies, depending mostly on the size of the planned
development.
6.5 Vacant land with planning NAV
permission
6.6 Public open space SCC

6.7 Vacant government land NAV

6.8 Prime commercial land price Real estate agents in Suva
• Prices are strongly influenced by the tenure of the lease and location.

6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs Real estate agents in Suva
6.10 Expenditure on development SCC 2000
• The $808 million earmarked in the recurrent budget for capital projects will be gradually increased as
Council efforts to reduce costs and improve debt collection take effect, and as the city debt is
progressively repaid after 2003.

Notes and Sources 411

 Suva
7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type NAV

• A survey done in 1999 as part of the Suva Earthquake Vulnerability Study collected information on
single- or multiple-storey buildings, but not on dwelling type.
7.2 Tenure type Global Urban Indicators Database (GUID) 1998
7.3 Ratio of house price to income • Consultant’s estimates based on median household incomes (as estimated by GHD) and real estate
agents’ estimates of median house costs
7.4 Ratio of house rent to income Ibid.
7.5 Floor area per person • Census data on housing are provided by province only, and not by urban and rural areas. A planned
monograph on urbanization will probably include an analysis of data on urban housing, but it is not yet
known when the study will begin.
7.6 Housing in compliance GUID 1998
• The 1986 census-takers asked householders whether or not they were squatters––an unreliable
method of inquiry. In the 1996 census the two relevant questions related to residential class and dwelling
adequacy. The first question was asked only in urban areas. For the second question, enumerators ranked
dwellings in one of five categories, from superior to inferior, on the basis of a set of photos. The photo
answers were well correlated with wall materials, type of toilet, and other characteristics of individual
dwellings.
• Enumerators classed from 18% to 41% of housing tenure as “Miscellaneous.” This was not very
helpful.
• The photos, however, indicated that 13.5% of dwellings in Greater Suva and 25.5% of those in the Suva
urban area were “inferior” (roughly equated with informal) dwellings. These findings accord better with the
results of previous surveys.
7.7 Ratio of mortgage to credit
7.8 Houses with mortgages
7.9 Mortgage loans for women Consultant’s estimate, based on Fiji National Provident Fund
• Many mortgage loans to women are held jointly, often with the spouse or another family member.
7.10 Housing production
7.11 Squatter resettlement or • Since 1990, informal settlements within the Suva City boundary have decreased in number, while
normalization informal houses in the periurban area have increased. Most of the decrease in Suva City is due to formal
development of the land, rather than official programs of squatter resettlement. The National
Resettlement Committee is the coordinating body for the planning and implementation of programs for the
upgrading of squatter settlements.
7.12 Net housing outlays by • The only housing expenditures by the Government are those made by the national Housing Authority
government (per person) (which is charged with housing low- to middle-income earners) and the Public Rental Board (which
facilitates short-term low-cost rental accommodation). The local government of Suva does not spend for
housing.
7.13 Homeless people • There is no estimate of the number of homeless people in Suva, but officials of the Department of
Social Welfare say the figure is low, probably less than 300. This is because people can build squatter
houses or move in with relatives, and organizations such as the Housing Assistance and Relief Trust
(HART) and Habitat for Humanity have been exerting efforts to provide shelter for people in desperate need.
Many people live in substandard housing. Youths make up most of the homeless in Suva City.

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections • About 98% of the population living in the Suva-Nausori area have piped water supply from the Public
Works Department (PWD) (GHD 1999). There were 50,280 connections in the Suva-Nausori area in 1998.
Informal housing can get metered water.
8.1.2 Investment per capita GHD 1999, from Water and Sewerage Connection (WSC) data
8.1.3 Operations and maintenance Official communications with Quan Chung, 31 July 2000
8.1.4 Cost recovery Water and Sewerage Department (WSD) and GHD 1999
8.1.5 Output per staff (water
supplied per employee) • Water production in 1998 was 102 megaliters (ML) per day. With 298 Water Sewerage Section (WSS)
per day per employee. employees, this amounts to 0.342 ML.
8.1.6 List of providers PWD-WSS
• PWD-WSS provides 100% of output. Household water tanks are not permitted in the urban area.

412 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Suva
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water Official communications with Dr. Margaret Chung, 11 September 2000
a. Percentage of WSD and GHD 1999
unaccounted for water
b. Interruptions in water GHD 1999
service • There are regular service interruptions in some areas, particularly in periurban settlements such as
Kalekana. Demand currently exceeds supply. A community survey in 1999 found that 44% of participants
had experienced water shortages or low pressure over the previous 12 months because of the dry season
and operational problems. Suppressed demand is estimated at 15-20% of domestic consumption and
represents around 25–30 liters per capita per day (LPCD).
• Suva City Council reports many supply disruptions between February 1998 and January 1999.
The disruptions were due to the following:
Suspected burst mains: 940
Leaking service pipes: 5,126
Other causes (no water, low pressure, leaking pipe hydrant, etc.): 1,967
8.1.8 Consumption of water UNCHS 1993
per capita
8.1.9 Median price of water, PWD
scarce season • The price per cubic meter for the first 50 cubic meters is $0.168; above this volume the price increases
to $0.483. The price of water does not vary with the season but depends only on the quantity used by a
consumer.

8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections Fiji Electricity Authority (FEA)
8.2.2 Investment per capita NAV
8.2.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.2.4 Cost recovery
8.2.5 Output per staff: FEA
megawatt hours of
electricity supplied
per employee
8.2.6 List of providers Ibid.
• Electric power for the island of Viti Levu is generated by the Monosavu Hydroelectric Power Station in
central Viti Levu. All power distribution is controlled from the National Control Center on the western part of
the island, near the city of Lautoka. Power is transmitted to Suva by overhead power lines from Monosavu
to Tacirua, on the outskirts of Suva City. There is a backup oil-driven power station at Kinoya in the Greater
Suva area.
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity
a. Line loss for electricity NAV
b. Interruptions in power NAV
supply

8.3 Sewage/wastewater
8.3.1 Household connections GHD 1999
• There is a considerable backlog of around 10,690 domestic connections with access to trunk sewers
but no reticulation, plus another 1,200 commercial/government connections.
• The 1996 census information on all connections refers to formal houses only. Unlike previous census
reports, the 1996 census report gives housing characteristics not by urban and rural areas, but only by
ethnicity of household head. In the 1986 population census, 61% of urban households had a flush toilet
with waste either being retained in a septic tank or directed to connecting sewage mains. This figure is
likely to have decreased since then because of the growth of informal housing, which does not have such
connections.
8.3.2 Investment per capita
8.3.3 Operations and Derived from GHD 1999
maintenance expenditure
• The $212,654 expenditure figure covers the entire Greater Suva area, including Nausori, Naboro, Lami,
Nasini, and Rewa Delta. The figure is divided by the total population of the area (235,504) to give the O&M
expenditure per person.
8.3.4 Cost recovery Estimated by GHD 1999
8.3.5 Output per staff: GHD 1999
wastewater discharge
or treated per employee • 156,020 equivalent population (EP) per 44 employees

Notes and Sources 413

 Suva
8.3.6 List of providers PWD-WSD

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections Telecom Fiji Ltd.
• Only national data were provided.
8.4.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
• Only national data were provided.
8.4.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure
• Only national data were provided.
8.4.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
• Only national data were provided.
8.4.5 Output per staff: Ibid.
thousands of call • Only national data were provided.
per employee

8.4.6 List of providers

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with • Informal households have no waste removal services.
regular service
8.5.2 Investment per capita SCC
• In 1998 the City Council was in financial crisis and halted all capital expenditure and investment.
8.5.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure Expenditure totaled $778,727.10

8.5.4 Cost recovery Ibid.

• Recovered from rates.
8.5.5 Output per staff: Ibid.
collected per employee
8.5.6 List of providers Ibid.

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated Suva City Council

• Includes waste from 75% of households
9.2 Household sewage disposal 1996 census
(% of households) Data cannot be disaggregated to derive figures for sewerage pipe or septic tank disposal, or for
underground pit or underground communal disposal. Pan collection is not practised in Suva City, and open
trenches are not permitted in the urban area.

9.3 Wastewater treated • Estimation is difficult, since a large proportion of the septic tanks in Suva are ineffective (because
much of the city stands on marl or soapstone), and much effluent seeps into Suva’s many creeks. SCC
reports that the regular breakdown of its Gully Emptier trucks has created a backlog of households with
full and overflowing septic tanks, posing a grave health risk.
9.4 Percent BOD removed GHD 1999
removed from water • The WSS was reportedly unable to provide detailed operating records for treatment plants and major
pumping stations. There are few flow records at the main treatment plants because the flow meters are
not working. However, ”the large number of overflows indicates that Suva’s sewerage system is failing
badly and constitutes a significant health hazard and environmental impact. The impression is that this is
caused by faulty equipment, especially pumps, rather than lack of infrastructure as such.”

9.5 Air pollution concentrations ESCAP 1999

• There is no regular monitoring of air pollution and only fragmentary data from spot-checks. The latter
data show high dust and particulate levels in some locations, such as the Suva Bus Station. But as far
as can be determined, dust, particulate levels, and gas pollutants have not reached concentrations that
adversely affect human health.
9.6 Energy use per person NAV
9.7 Noise complaints NAV

414 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Suva
• Not listed by Fiji police. No estimate of the number of complaints is available but noise pollution is an
increasing problem in Suva. It is caused mainly by barking dogs at night, industrial processes, vehicles,
religious gatherings (particularly with microphones), and residential equipment and appliances (motorized
mowers and security alarms). Noise levels are not being monitored but spot-checks indicate that Suva is a
relatively noisy for a city of its size (ESCAP 1999).
9.8 Disasters in last ten years UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs, South Paciific Office, Suva
• Cyclone Kina in 1993 resulted in no deaths and caused minimal dwelling damage, but led to flooding in
periurban areas.

9.9 Methods of solid waste disposal Based on Quan Chung’s e-mail of 31 July 2000

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel • These are estimates based on information from the Greater Suva Transportation Study Inception Report
and other transport industry sources. The Greater Suva Transportation Study is underway, and the
preliminary data collection phase was planned to be completed by September 2000. The survey aims to
determine transport demands and review the strategic road plan within the context of land use planning
to guide the development of the road network and public transport for the Greater Suva area to 2030. The
study includes home interview surveys to obtain travel information such as origin and destination, travel
mode, purpose of journey, and trip time—data that are not yet available.
• Buses are the most-used transport in Suva.
• There are no bicycle facilities and very few cyclists in Suva. However, the Transportation Study now
underway recognizes that bicycles are a viable transport for Suva.
10.2 Median travel time UNCHS 1993
10.3 Expenditure on road • SCC (2000) reports that roads are a major problem, given the high rainfall, the large number of heavy
infrastructure vehicles with excessive axle loads, and poor road design and drainage. These cause the numerous
potholes in city streets and due to lack of resources, the Council is unable to maintain the roads. This is
an area of Council’s operations that needs urgent review.
10.4 Road congestion NAV
10.5 Automobile ownership • This is the national figure, derived from vehicle registration data. The ratio cannot be calculated for
Suva, which gets much traffic from other parts of the country, but the Suva figure could well be double the
national figure. Vehicle registrations have increased as follows: 1976, around 17,000; 1986, 20,000; 1996,
53,000.
10.6 Cost recovery from fares • This is zero, as Suva has no publicly owned or subsidized mass transportation facilities. The bus
transport industry in Fiji is privately owned. The Fiji Bus Operators Association has around 55 member
companies, with fleets ranging in size from 4 to 100 vehicles. Buses tender for their routes and the
Government maintains fare price ceilings.
10.7 Port/air activity Fiji Ports Authority
• Suva has no international airport. A domestic airport near the town of Nausori also serves some
international flights.
• Suva Port is one of two main ports in the Fiji Islands, the other being Lautoka, through which most
sugar exports pass.
10.8 Goods carried NAV
10.9 Transport fatalities Greater Suva Transportation Study Inception Report, 2000
• There were nine pedestrian fatalities in 1997/98. Pedestrian crossings on major roads is a serious road
safety issue in Suva.

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events • Because Suva is the only major urban area, public events, such as the annual Hibiscus Festival or
religious celebrations, attract people from all over the country. There are no records of attendance.
11.2 Attendance at galleries SCC 2000 report
and museums • “ For a capital city, Suva has relatively few venues for cultural activities and few cultural shows for the
public. This is an area of human activity that needs further development.”
11.3 Participation in sports SCC 2000
• Many people participate in team sports such as rugby, net ball, and soccer, or individual sports such
as swimming or golf. While there is no source of statistical data, sports participation is generally high.
Suva has adequate recreational facilities but also areas that need improvement. The city now hosts
international sporting events, and this attraction needs promoting.

Notes and Sources 415

 Suva
12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue Suva City Council

12.2 Capital and recurrent Ibid.
expenditure per person • In 1998 the City Council was in financial crisis and halted all capital expenditure and investment.
12.3 Collection efficiency, Ibid.
property taxes
12.4 Debt service charge Official communications with Quan Chung, 31 July 2000
• Total principal and interest repaid as a fraction of total expenditure is equal to 38.8%. This figure is
much higher than normal because of Suva City Council’s financial crisis in 1998. This crisis stopped all
capital expenditure.
12.5 Employees SCC
12.6 Wages in budget Ibid.
12.7 Contracted recurrent Ibid.
expenditure ratio
12.8 Business permits Ibid.
12.9 Enterprise revenues Ibid.
12.10 Computerization of functions Ibid.
• The Local Government Act prohibits the City Council from operating revenue-generating activities, and
this is a major constraint on city development.

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government Suva City Council

13.2 Delivery of annual plan Ibid.
• Given the usual behavior of Fiji voters, female and male voters are probably about equal in number.
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex Ibid.
13.4 Independence from higher Ibid.
government
13.5 Elected and nominated councilors • Councilors are nominated and elected by ratepayers.
13.6 Representation of minorities • Minorities are not specifically represented.
13.7 Planning applications refused (%) SCC
• The main reason for refusal is noncompliance with building codes or area use zoning.
13.8 Business satisfaction • No survey of business satisfaction has been done. However, businesses in the CBD regularly
complain about poor drainage and the threat of flooding, and problems of traffic congestion downtown. Like
other urban residents, business-owners are periodically affected by water cuts and shortages, and power
outages. In recent years, violent crime, including daytime armed holdups, has increasingly been a concern,
Most business-owners must fully secure their premises, particularly at night. It is important to mention
the looting and burning of the CDB in 2000, resulting in damages of at least $15 million, was
uninsurable because it was the outcome of civil unrest.
13.9 Consumer satisfaction • No survey of consumer satisfaction done
13.10 Perception as place to live • Compared with other Pacific island urban centers, Suva is an attractive place to live because of the
range of services and recreational facilities, the relatively good quality of educational institutions, and the
social life in this multiethnic community.
• Crime is a concern, however, and common house break-ins in the wealthier suburbs add to a
perception of compromised security. For this reason, some international organizations consider Suva a
hardship post.
• Other concerns are increasing poorly maintained roads and traffic congestion.
13.11 Reported crimes • Police crime data are reported by division. Suva is located in, and dominates, the Southern Division.
13.12 Access to information SCC
13.13 Contact with the public Ibid.
13.14 Decentralized district units Ibid.

416 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Ulaanbaatar
Indicators
1 POPULATION

1.1 Urbanization Consultant’s communications with National Statistics Office (NSO)

• 77.1% in 1990; 69.3% in 1995; 67.9% in 1999
• Changes in urbanization occurred because of social and economic reforms since 1990.
Population increased only in the three major cities of Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and Erdenet; it decreased in
smaller towns and villages as people left to find a better life in bigger cities or in the countryside.
• Before 1990, the smaller settlements were heavily subsidized from the center. The withdrawal of
these subsidies has rendered much of the local economies unsustainable and pushed many families into a
nomadic lifestyle. In addition, changes in residence and place of work were severely restricted.
• As defined in the CDB, urban areas have more than 1,000 people.
• According to the City and Settlement Law of Mongolia (1993), a city is an urban area with a population
of at least 15,000, while a settlement is an urban area with a population of less than 15,000.
1.2 City population Department of Statistics Information and Research of the City (DSIRC) 1998, UB Statistics Office 1998/99
• Ulaanbaatar had a population of 530,500 in 1990; 573,600 in 1995; and 725,300 in 1999. The population
of the capital city including the satellite towns of Nalaikh, Baganuur, and Bagakhangai was 574,900 in 1990
; 619,200 in 1995; 773,000 in 1999.
• The satellite towns are under the capital city government. Mr. Enkhbold is governor of the capital city
and mayor of the city of Ulaanbaatar.
• The 1990 and 1999 figures are based on the census. The 1995 figure is an estimate based on the
number of people holding Ulaanbaatar residency documents; the actual figure could be much higher, by
almost 100,000. Accelerated migration to Ulaanbaatar since 1995 has resulted in a significantly higher rate
of growth. Out-migration has mostly occurred from remote western regions, where the economic situation
is most difficult. The Ulaanbaatar city boundary has not changed.
• The daytime population is the same as the nighttime population. The city area is large and there is no
cross-boundary commuting.
1.3 Migration DSIRC
• Net migration in 1999 = 15,199 (in-migration) – 822 (out-migration) = 14,377
• There are no data available on international migration, which the Secretary of the Foreign Citizens
Council regards as negligible.
Net migration is increasing:
Year Migrants
1985 460 (2,380 – 1,920)
1989 3,315 (4,772 – 1,457)
1990 3,055 (5,157 – 2,102)
1995 7,717 (10,280 – 2,563)
1999 14,377 (15,199 – 822)

1.4 Net population density CDB estimates, based on the formula in the consultant’s kit
1.5 Age pyramid DSIRC 1999
Age Group Males Females
(%) (%)
0–14 15.27 15.18
15–59 30.69 33.85
60 and over 2.22 2.79

1.6 Average household size DSIRC 1999

1.7 Household formation rate • According to unpublished data from the City Statistician, households holding Ulaanbaatar residency
documents increased by 2.5% per year between 1995 and 1999 (from 92,500 in 1995 to 102,000 in 1999).
This is an obvious underestimate because not all immigrants are included (see note 1.2 above). Household
size, according to the census, declined from 5 persons in 1989 to 4.8 in 1999, and the size of households
with Ulaanbaatar residency documents declined from 4.9 persons in 1990 to 4.6 in 1999.
1.8 Women-headed households CDB team’s estimates, based on data obtained by the consultant from NSO 1999
• Given the 12,020 women-headed households in 1996 and 13,513 in 1997, there were about 14,854
such households in 1999.
1.9 Minority groups 1999 census
• Kazakhs, numbering 4,200 (0.006% of the population), make up the largest minority group.
1.10 Household types 2000 census
• The figures for adults and children were estimated by Joe Flood.

Notes and Sources 417

 Ulaanbaatar
1.11 Informal settlements • Nearly half of the people in Ulaanbaatar (48.7%) live in ger areas. A ger is a traditional Mongolian
dwelling. It is a circular, conical, felt-covered structure, which is easy to assemble and disassemble.
• These ger areas are provided with electricity. Water is delivered by water trucks to several distribution
points where people can fill their containers. Sewage is collected in pit latrines. There are no paved access
roads. Plots are fenced off and most households aspire to build permanent houses on these plots,
generally without the permission of the building standards office.

2 EQUITY

2.1 Income distribution DSIRC 1999 survey among 510 families

Range Ave. Annual Income
($) ($)
Top 20% 1,208.40 – 6,296.40 1,944.00
Next 20% 802.80 – 1,201.20 1,003.20
Middle 20% 520.80 – 801.60 656.40
Next bottom 20% 334.20– 520.80 426.00
Bottom 20% 40.08 – 332.40 218.40

Range Ave. Annual Expenditure

($) ($)
Top 20% 1,514.00 – 13,512.90 2,884.10
Next 20% 1,082.80 – 1,510.30 1,275.30
Middle 20% 749.70 – 1,082.70 925.30
Next bottom 20% 506.30 – 749.20 616.60
Bottom 20% 96.10 – 506.30 358.70

2.2 Households below poverty line Living Standards Measurement Survey (LSMS), NSO, DSIRC
• Percentage of households below poverty line: 35.1% in 1995; 34.1% in 1998; 27.1% in 1999
• The 1995 and 1998 LSMS differed somewhat in their survey methods, making a direct comparison of
the survey results difficult.
• The poverty threshold for 1999 was ($211.44) per person per year.
2.3 Women-headed households DSIRC 1999
in poverty
2.4 Child labor • There were about 300 children (0.04 % of the total) in 1999, according to an unpublished survey by the
City Statistician. The children mostly polish shoes, wash cars, and pull carts in the markets.
2.5 Informal employment 1999 Mongolia Informal Sector Survey, conducted for the USAID Economic Policy Support Project, April
2000 [what is the April 2000
• The principal informal sector is retailing, which accounts for 57% of the total informal employment.
The other informal sectors are transport (34%) and personal services (8%). Informal employment mainly
covers the retail trade (small kiosks, counters, containers), financial services (pawnshops and money
changers), transport (taxis, trucks, minibus, garages), and services (shoe repair, chemists, canteens,
barbershops, home-cooked meals).
2.6 Unemployment DSIRC 1999
• This official figure is commonly regarded as a gross underestimate since registering as unemployed
carries no benefits. The 1998 LSMS estimated real urban unemployment to be 30%.
2.7 Expenditure on poverty Unpublished data, 1999, from the City Poverty Alleviation Officer
reduction (per poor person) • A total of $5.5 million went to poverty alleviation programs for 196,232 poor people under the Poverty
Alleviation Project of the World Bank and the projects of the Social Care Authority.
Project $ million
a. Poverty reduction project 0.23
b. Income generation project for vulnerable groups 0.13
c. Women’s development project 0.12
d. Funds spent for poverty reduction 0.44
e. Social care pension 0.85
f. Social care allowance 1.30
g. Special favorable allowance for the elderly 0.30
h. Social care allowance for disabled people 0.02
i. Favorable allowance for firewood and coal 0.24
j. Social care allowance from donations 0.09
k. Social housing and ger provision 0.03
l. Social care hospital for the poor and homeless 0.20 and 1,265,500

418 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Ulaanbataar
m. Different social allowances, including free 0.06
camp for school children from vulnerable families,
presents for vulnerable elderly persons on the
occasion of the Lunar New Year, provision of
discounted passes to sanatoriums for
vulnerable elderly persons, etc.
n. Free social care services for the poor 0.10

3 HEALTH AND EDUCATION

3.1 Persons per hospital bed DSIRC 1999

3.2 Child mortality Ibid.
P0 = 532/10,508 = 0.0506
P1 = 134/10,028 = 0.0133
P2 = 27/10,384 = 0.0026
P3 = 29/10,762 = 0.0026
P4 = 11/12,517 = 0.0008
1 – (1 – 0.0506)(1 – 0.0133) (1 – 0.0026)(1 – 0.0026)(1 – 0.0008) = 0.0691
3.3 Life expectancy at birth Ibid.
• 61.7 years in 1997; 61.5 years in 1998; 61.5 years in 1999
3.4 Mortality from infectious DSRIC 1999
diseases
3.5 Family planning NSO, 1998 Reproductive Health Survey
3.6 Adult literacy rate Ministry of Enlightenment of Mongolia (MOEOM) 1999
• 99.6% in 1990; 99.1% in 1995; 97.1% in 1999
• Adult literacy is declining because of economic difficulties.
3.7 School enrollment rates Ibid.
(primary,secondary) 1990 1995 1999
(%) (%) (%)
Primary schools 105.8 93.4 103.8
Secondary schools 86.8 65.6 66.4

• An enrollment rate of more than 100% in the primary schools includes children below eight years, the
mandatory enrollment age according to the Education Law of Mongolia.
3.8 Tertiary graduates Ibid.
• 5.2 per 1,000 population in 1990; 6.5 in 1995; 10.9 in 1999
• The number of tertiary graduates has sharply increased in recent years because of the liberalization of
education policy and the establishment of several private colleges.
3.9 Median years of education Ibid.
3.10 School children per classroom Ibid.
(primary,secondary) 1990 1995 1999
(%) (%) (%)
Primary schools 32.7 33.7 35.7
Secondary schools 33.5 31.5 34.2

4 URBAN PRODUCTIVITY

4.1 City product per capita DSIRC 1999

• Total city product per year = $ 452,577.81 = $0.623
City population 725,300

4.2 Employment by industry DSIRC 1999

4.3 Household expenditure Ibid.; Mongolian Statistical Yearbook (MSY) 1999 for urban areas
• The Ulaanbataar figure for transport is much higher than the figure for all urban areas, which also
includes communication expenditure. The DSRIC and MSY surveys are different but the Ulaanbataar
transport figure is probably closer to the actual since many other urban centers have no public transport
services at all, and fares in Ulaanbataar have quadrupled recently. Because transport service prices
increased twice in 1998, the total expenditure for such service is high.
4.4 Investment by sector CDB estimates based on data obtained by the consultant from DSIRC 1999

Notes and Sources 419

 Ulaanbaatar
Sector $ million
Physical infrastructure 8.5
Housing 21.2
Services 17.8
Others 73.8

• This investment includes both public and private sectors.

4.5 Tourism Ministry of Infrastructure Development of Mongolia (MIDM) 1999
• These are national figures. All tourists enter Mongolia through Ulaanbaatar.
4.6 Major projects Data from the consultant
4.7 Cost of stay • Several private hotels and many restaurants, cafés, bars, and nightclubs have been established in
recent years.
4.8 Corporate headquarters • Businesses here do not qualify under the definition.

5 NEW TECHNOLOGY

5.1 R&D expenditure MOEOM

• $4.50 per person in 1995; $2.24 in 1999
• R&D expenditure has fallen because of economic difficulties. Satellite dishes, mobile phones, the
Internet, and cable TV are the commonly used R&D methods.
5.2 Telephone traffic Consultant’s communications with MIDM, 1999
(million calls per year)
5.3 Internet hosts per thousand CDB estimates, based on the data obtained by the consultant from MIDM 1999
population Number of Internet connections 3,000
Annual growth in connections (%) 250

• The Internet was first introduced in 1995. There are no restrictions on Internet use.

6 URBAN LAND

6.1 Urban land Consultant’s communications with Urban Design Institute of the City (UDIC) 1999
6.2 Land developer multiplier Consultant’s communications with the City Office, 1999
• Ulaanbataar, until recently a communist city, is now being developed into a market economy. The city
has a low density and presents many development opportunities. Services are not being extended at the
city periphery, and the prospect of change in this regard is very low. Development beyond the existing
serviced area is of the informal ger type described above.
6.3 Developer contributions Consultant’s consensus estimates, based on discussions with developers and public-sector experts
• Most formal, as opposed to ger area, development involves relatively short links to existing
infrastructure, rather than direct connections.
6.4 Median time for planning Consultant’s communications with the City Office, 1999
permission
6.5 Vacant land with planning Ibid.
permission
6.6 Public open space 1999 UDIC survey
• This figure may appear low by international standards.
6.7 Vacant government land Ibid.
6.8 Prime commercial land price City Office 1999
• Long-term use rights to the highest priced land in Ulaanbaataar cost $9.4 per m2 (1999 public auction).
6.9 Prime rental and occupancy costs Consultant’s communications with landlords, 1999
• The prime rental rate per month was $12.5 per m2 in 1999 for an artificial short-term situation.
The monthly rate in 2000 could be $8 per m2.
6.10 Expenditure on development City Office 1997–1999
• The figure cited is the average over the last three years.

7 HOUSING

7.1 Dwelling type DSIRC 1999

7.2 Tenure type Ibid.

420 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Ulaanbataar
• State-owned apartments were privatized in 1996 and 94% are now owned by the tenants.
7.3 Ratio of house price to income • Median house price = $10,969 = 11
Median household income $996
The median house price is calculated as follows:
Apartment Price Range Official Ave. 70 % Ave.
Type by District Price
($1.189)
1-room $6 – $9 $1.85 $6.80 $7.78 $5.44
2-room $8 – $11 $3.10 $7.90 $10.13 $7.08
3-room $12 – $15 $5.35 $33.18 $37.92 $26.54

7.4 Ratio of house rent to income City Office 1999

7.5 Floor area per person Ibid.
• The figure cited Includes informal housing.
7.6 Housing in compliance Ibid.
• These are just apartments with basic services.
7.7 Ratio of mortgage to credit • There is as yet no mortgage system.
7.8 Houses with mortgages None
7.9 Mortgage loans for women None
7.10 Housing production DSIRC 1999
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
Housing production 2,944 729 678 1,600 602 387 551 584

• Depending on their income, new households buy or rent apartments or move in with parents. People
sell their apartments and move to ger areas where they can buy or develop new plots more cheaply.
Parents often move to ger areas, leaving their apartments to their married children to share. All this means
that the ger areas are increasing.
7.11 Squatter resettlement or • None. The urban service improvement project being implemented by the Government with a loan from
normalization the World Bank is concerned mainly with providing water supply to the ger areas. A housing development
project to be implemented by the Government will partly improve ger areas.
7.12 Net housing outlays by City Office 1999
government (per person) • Economic difficulties almost put a stop to the Government’s investments in housing development. The
main housing outlays of the government are favorable allowances for senior citizens with high state titles
(Hero of Labor, People’s Artist, etc.) and investments in housing construction for repressed.
7.13 Homeless people City Office
• The Government provides homeless people with ger or low-cost housing, employment, and a favorable
allowance within the budget.

8 MUNICIPAL SERVICES

8.1 Water
8.1.1 Household connections City Office 1999 and Water and Sanitation Corporation (WSC)
8.1.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.1.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure
8.1.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.1.5 Output per staff: Water
supplied per employee Ibid.
8.1.6 List of providers WSC
8.1.7 Nonrevenue water
a.) Percentage City Office 1999 and WSC
unaccounted for water
b.) Interruptions in ADB “Second Water Utilities Data Book” 1997
water service
8.1.8 Consumption of water City Office 1999 and WSC
per capita
8.1.9 Median price of water, Ibid.
scarce season • Industry and households are charged differently for water: $0.23 per m3 for industry, $0.05 per m3
for households in formal housing without metered water and $0.03 per m3 for households in formal housing
with water meter, $0.58 for water distribution kiosks, and $1.16 for water truck deliveries in the ger
area. The number of households that get water by truck is small.

Notes and Sources 421

 Ulaanbaatar
8.2 Electricity
8.2.1 Household connections City Office 1999 and Electricity Distribution Corporation (EDC)
8.2.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.2.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure
8.2.4 Cost recovery (%) Ibid.
8.2.5 Output per staff: Ibid.
Megawatt hours of
electricity supplied
per employee
8.2.6 List of providers EDC
8.2.7 Nonrevenue electricity
a. Line loss for electricity City Office 1999 and EDC
b. Interruptions in power Ibid.
supply • 3,554.7 kWh
• Power plant failures caused power shortages.

8.3 Sewage/ Wastewater

8.3.1 Household connections City Office 1999 and WSC
• All wastewater from industry and formal housing goes to a treatment plant.
8.3.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.3.3 Operations and NAV
maintenance expenditure
8.3.4 Cost recovery • Industry and households (formal area) are charged differently for sewage disposal: $0.14 for industry
and $0.07 for households in formal housing.
8.3.5 Output per staff: Ibid.
wastewater discharged
or treated per employee
8.3.6 List of providers WSC

8.4 Telephone
8.4.1 Household connections Mongolian Telecom and Ministry of Infrastructure and Development
8.4.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.4.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance expenditure
8.4.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.4.5 Output per staff: Ibid.
Thousands of calls
per employee
8.4.6 List of providers Mongolian Telecom, Railway Telecom

8.5 Solid waste collection

8.5.1 Households with City Office 1999
regular service • There are authorized intermediate solid-waste points in ger areas where households may dispose of
their garbage. District solid-waste companies collect garbage from those points and transfer it to dump
sites.
8.5.2 Investment per capita Ibid.
8.5.3 Operations and Ibid.
maintenance and expenditure
8.5.4 Cost recovery Ibid.
8.5.5 Output per staff: Ibid.
Collected per employee
8.5.6 List of providers • Public solid-waste companies in each district.
• The Company Nuuts is responsible for the dump sites.

9 URBAN ENVIRONMENT

9.1 Solid waste generated City Office 1999

9.2 Household sewage disposal Ibid.
(% of Households)
9.3 Wastewater treated WSC 1999

422 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Ulaanbaatar
• This figure refers to the wastewater in the sewerage system. In ger areas, water consumption is very
low at 8 liters compared with 200 liters in formal housing. There is no wastewater treatment system in
the ger areas. Households in these areas use a pit for wastewater disposal.
9.4 Percent BOD removed WSC 1999
from wastewater
9.5 Air pollution concentrations Environment Laboratory 1999 and Ministry of Nature and Environment
9.6 Energy usage per person City Office 1999
Type of Energy Annual Conversion Total Annual
Consumption/Person Factor Consumption
Petrol (+) 0.10 1.179 75,000.0
Kerosene (+) 0.05 1.179 36,000.0
Aviation fuel (+) 0.01 1.179 7,000.0
Natural gas (m3) 0.02 1.23 14,000.0
Wood (m3) 269.32 0.333 186,100.0
Electricity (kWh) 2.69 0.000123 1,953,370.3
Coal (+) 4.37 1.0 3,171,700.0
Total 4.67 3,390,650.5

9.7 Noise complaints City Office 1999

• The noise complaints received by the city officer on duty pertain mostly to everyday occurrences, like
noise made by neighbors at night.
9.8 Disasters in last 10 years
9.9 Methods of solid waste
disposal

10 URBAN TRANSPORT

10.1 Mode of travel City Office 1999

• Privately owned minibuses, charging the same tariff as buses and trolley buses but offering much
greater speed and comfort, are used widely as public transport, almost putting the trolley buses out of
business. But the trolley bus operators cut their tariffs twice to attract passengers and stay in business.
10.2 Median travel time City Office
10.3 Expenditure on road DSIRC 1999
infrastructure
10.4 Road congestion None
10.5 Automobile ownership Traffic Policy Department (TPD) 1999
• The number of privately owned cars is increasing rapidly, although the Government imposed high import
duties on cars from 1997 to early 2000.
10.6 Cost recovery from fares City Office 1999
10.7 Port/Air activity Ibid.
10.8 Goods carried Ibid.
10.9 Transport fatalities TPD 1999
• Traffic accidents are due mainly to the bad condition of the roads, the rapidly increasing number of
vehicles, and the many new drivers with limited driving experience.

11 CULTURAL

11.1 Attendance at public events City Office 1999

11.2 Attendance at galleries Ibid.
and museums
11.3 Participation in sports Ibid.
• 34.5 % of the city population

12 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

12.1 Sources of revenue Ibid.

• The General Taxation Law of Mongolia mandates the imposition of two types of taxes: national and
local. Revenues from local taxes are negligible. Taxes fixed at the national level are paid as follows: major
taxpayers pay to the national taxation office, medium taxpayers pay to the city taxation office, and small
taxpayers pay to district taxation office.
• The sale of government-owned properties in the framework of privatization is another source of income.

Notes and Sources 423

 Ulaanbaatar
• There are some investment projects that are funded by the national Government or by a major
industry but belong to the national ministries. These do not have to report to the city.
12.2 Capital and recurrent CDB team’s estimates, based on data obtained by the consultant from City Office 1999
expenditure per person Expenditure per annum $ million
Capital 4.3
Recurrent 33.6

12.3 Collection efficiency, City Office 1999

property taxes
12.4 Debt service charge None
12.5 Employees City Office 1999
12.6 Wages in budget Ibid.
12.7 Contracted recurrent Ibid.
expenditure ratio • A part of road construction and maintenance and all repairs of schools, kindergartens, and government
hospitals are contracted by the private sector.
12.8 Business permits City Office 1999
12.9 Enterprise revenues NAV
12.10 Computerization of functions City Office 1999
• Computerization is being introduced gradually as funds become available for the purchase of computers
and associated facilities.

13 URBAN GOVERNANCE

13.1 Functions of local government City Office 1999

• Water supply, sewage and refuse collection, public transport, emergency services (fire, ambulance),
road maintenance, education, health care, public housing, recreation/sports facilities, police, drainage/flood
control, and livelihood assistance are the direct responsibilities of the city. These service units report to the
city, which finances most of them. Corporations under the Ministry of Infrastructure Development provide
electricity, telephone and centralized heating services. These do not report to the city but sell services to
it.
13.2 Delivery of annual plan Ibid.
13.3 Voter participation rates, by sex Ibid.
13.4 Independence from higher Ibid.
government • Political parties may remove councilors from office.
• The city government is legally independent from the central Government but is financially dependent on
the latter. The city budget must be approved by the City Assembly.
• The following describes the relationship between the Government and the city of Ulaanbaatar:
1. The mayor is nominated by the City Assembly and appointed by the prime minister (the prime minister
signs the contract specifying the mayor’s tenure).
2. The mayor with the approval of the Prime Minister appoints the deputy mayor.
3. The mayor submits his performance report to the prime minister twice a year.
4. The prime minister has the right to cancel the mayor’s decision, if it violates the law.
5. The Cabinet (according to the Urban Development Law) approves the city master plan.
6. The city is self-supportive and does not get any subsidies from the central Government. Its budget is
approved by the City Assembly. The central Government decides which economic entities should pay to
the appropriate tax offices (national, municipal, and district). Business taxpayers are allocated among
the national, municipal, and district levels according to tax revenue size. Central Government decisions
sometimes cause problems for the city. For instance, the companies Petrovis and Skytel traditionally
pay $0.93 million annually to the municipal budget, but the central Government has recently taken these
two companies out of the city budget in exchange for 10 other tax-paying companies, which pay a total
of only $0.19 million because of financial difficulties. In other words, the city loses more than $0.70
million annually.
7. A decision by the Government to grant salary increases to employees in the public sector after the
annual budgets have been approved would place immense pressure on the city budget.
8. The utility corporations (Ulaanbaatar Heating Network and Electricity Network) are under the Energy
Authority, which is a part of the Ministry of Infrastructure.
13.5 Elected and nominated City Office 1999
councilors • The voting system is a mixture of majority and proportional. There are 40 councilors in the City
Assembly. Nine of them (there are nine districts in the capital city) are elected from the candidates of
political parties and the remaining 31 are appointed by political parties according to the percentage of votes
obtained by each party. These councilors nominate the mayor and submit their nomination to the prime
minister for approval.

424 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 Ulaanbaatar
13.6 Representation of minorities NAP
13.7 Planning applications refused (%) City Office 1999
• The reasons for the high refusal rate are: too many applicants because of the low charge for the right
to state-owned land (many applicants keep the land without developing it, for lack of funds); the absence
of infrastructure on the land; or noncompliance of the applicant’s proposed development with the city’s
urban development requirements.
13.8 Business satisfaction No survey conducted
13.9 Consumer satisfaction No survey conducted
13.10 Perception as place to live No survey conducted
13.11 Reported crimes City Office 1999
13.12 Access to information Ibid.
• Community participation and reporting to the public are new in Mongolia and other postcommunist
countries. The City Development Strategy Project being developed by the World Bank has considerable
provisions for institutional capacity building, community participation, and public awareness.
13.13 Contact with the public Ibid.
• Meetings with the mayor and his deputies
13.14 Decentralized district units Ibid.
• Decentralization is ongoing but it is not very smooth despite the declared decentralization policy of the
government. The city is still very dependent on the central Government and the districts depend on the city
administratively and financially.

Notes and Sources 425

Appendixes
 Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD), the United
Appendix 1. Resources on the Internet: Nations Environment Programme, and a great many indepen-
A Directory dent activities known under the collective title of State of the
Environment (SoE) Reports. This has generally involved the
publication of yearbooks, and occasionally the development of
A. Indicators Systems comprehensive indicators systems, usually making reference
to a sectoral, strategic policy, and/or systems approach. The
Competitiveness SCOPE Project (Moldan and Billharz 1997) effectively synthe-
wbln0018.worldbank.org/psd/compete.nsf sizes all international research in the area.
www.imd.ch/wcy/methodology/methodology.cfm www.un.org/esa/sustdev/worklist.htm
www.unep.ch/earthw/indstat.htm
Governance
www.transparency.de/ COUNTRIES
Most developed countries, and many states/provinces and cit-
Index-Driven ies, have independently engaged in sustainable development
www.undp.org/hdro/indicators.html debates and consultations, and many have produced SoE Re-
www.who.dk ports, which investigate human components of sustainability
as well as the physical components. Some of the most notewor-
Needs-Based thy national activities have been
www.regeneration.detr.gov.uk/98ild/ Canada. SoE reporting through reports and brochures
carried out by Environment Canada is generally regarded as
Performance-Based state of the art. A comprehensive indicators database has been
www.telco-cpi.org.uk/ developed on most environmental aspects and this has been
www.reggen.vic.gov.au/ coupled with excellent outreach activities.
www.anao.gov.au/bpgs.html www.ec.gc.ca/ind/English/History/histor_e.htm
www.pc.gov.au/service/gtepubs.html www.ec.gc.ca/soer-ree/English/tools/ind_data.cfm
www.moe.edu.sg/esp/edunews/pr03097.htm The IISDNet Working Group on Sustainable Development
www.info.gov.hk/jud/performance/index.htm Indicators has been working on composite indexes of
www.urbanobservatory.org/indicators/analysis/ sustainability using clusters of related variables, similar to the
www.hsd.ait.ac.th/ihsa/si/a13lc/bombay/ui.html approach used in the Cities Data Book.
iisd1.iisd.ca/cgsdi/
Policy-Based United States. In the US, an Inter-Agency Working Group
www.ccsd.ca/lp.html on Sustainable Development Indicators (IWGSDI) has devel-
www.obm5.treas.gov.ab.ca/comm/perfmeas/ oped a framework to identify, organize, and integrate national
www.gov.calgary.ab.ca/finance SDIs, selecting 32 key indicators from a much larger set, to
monitor the capacity of the US to meet present and future needs.
Poverty Monitoring venus.hq.nasa.gov/iwgsdi/sdi_ol_framework.html
www.worldbank.org/poverty/data/povmon.htm Australia. One national SoE Report (1997) has been pub-
lished, together with several comprehensive state reports, for
Systems Approach Queensland and New South Wales. The national report included
www.who.dk/healthy-cities/ a system of indicators developed specifically for human settle-
venus.hq.nasa.gov/iwgsdi/sdi_ol_framework.html ments, and this has been subject to considerable peer review
and further development (as discussed in Newton et al. 1998).
Sustainable Development Hong Kong, China. Hong Kong, China has a system of
venus.hq.nasa.gov/iwgsdi/sdi_ol_framework.html Social Indicators of Quality of Life and also a system of
Sustainability Indicators sponsored by the Government.
B. Sustainability Indicators http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/hkiaps/INDICA/soc4~1.htm
http://www.info.gov.hk/planning/susdev/report_6/
Agenda 21 e_index.htm
The most widespread indicators movement, sustainable devel-
opment indicators, has been the successful outcome of recom- CITIES AND MUNICIPALITIES
mendations from Agenda 21, the policy document of the 1992 As well as national sustainability studies, of which there are rela-
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development tively few at present, an increasing number of cities and munici-
(UNCED) Rio Conference, which recommends that palities are undertaking community sustainability studies, encour-
sustainability monitoring systems be put in place. This has initi- aged by the Local Agenda 21 initiative. In such cases (see for
ated a process of sustainability monitoring in many countries example Besleme and Mullin 1997; Farrell and Hart 1998), the
and communities. community selects those indicators it considers most important
www.unep.org/Documents/Default.asp? DocumentD=52 for monitoring issues such as economic security, ecological integ-
Agenda 21 reporting includes direct reporting through a rity, and quality of life. The resultant material is used to raise
system of indicators and country profiles developed by the UN public awareness, identify achievable goals, make trends visible,

428 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

and help individuals, communities, and their governments estab- www.ciesin.org/.
lish priorities (several case studies are found in OECD 1997). ■ ESCAP Statistical Division maintains a time series data-
The US maintains an excellent network of city indicators base of social indicators in the Asian and Pacific region at
initiatives and newsletters, for example the Urban Quality Indi- unescap.org/stat/index.htm.
cators newsletter. These local government initiatives are mostly ■ Eurostat, the statistical arm of the European Union, main-
concerned with sustainability, as already discussed, and vari- tains several extensive databases, including the NewCronos
ous performance measurement exercises and community em- metadata system, which provides a good sectoral catalogu-
powerment initiatives. Some of the best known and well devel- ing system for social indicators.
oped of these are the Sustainable Seattle, maintained by the A number of other general and sectoral databases from
YMCA, which sought to establish indicators by public consulta- multilateral organizationsincluding ILO, UNIDO, UNESCO,
tion that would “capture the hearts as well as the minds” of UNHCR, WHO, and APEC, etc. are detailed in the Web Resources
Seattle citizens, and included such Seattle-specific indicators as listing, along with a listing of national statistical offices in the
“number of days you can see the Rockies,” or “wild salmon Asian and Pacific region.
running in streams;” and the Sustainability Plan for San Fran-
cisco, which combines an excellent strategic planning approach D. National and Local Collections
with sustainability. The Sustainable State of New Jersey indica-
tors are based on a strategic approach to city goals, with indica- At the national or city level, some of the main activities with
tors divided into thematic goal categories. index links in the Web Resources listing are
people.mw.mediaone.net/cyoakam/index.html ■ Australia. Many national and state departments and au-
www.andromeda.rutgers.edu/~ncpp/cdgp/commun.htm thorities maintain websites with sectoral statistics; for ex-
www.sustainable-city.org/ ample as part of the Australian Productivity Commission
www.njfuture.org/HTMLSrc/SSR/GoalsAndIndicators.html evaluation and reporting systems, Environment Australia,
Health Indicators in the ACT, the Bureau of Transport Eco-
C. Web-Based Statistical Collections nomics, the City of Melbourne, most public utilities, etc.
■ Hong Kong, China. There are social indicators for qual-
Most of the major multilateral agencies conduct general statis- ity of life and sustainability indicators.
tical activities partly as an information function or as part of ■ Japan. There are economic/business and consumer confi-
yearbooks, but increasingly as a formal part of policy goal set- dence, industrial and business statistics, demographic and
ting. The indicators programs of these agencies are linked to employment time series, science and technology indica-
organizational policy and strategy development, but generally tors, and gender indicators.
are not associated with a specific indicators approach. ■ India. India was active in the Habitat II Indicators prepa-
■ World Bank Development Indicators 2000. This database ration. India has been a focus for Global Urban Observa-
is available on CD-ROM and diskette. The 1995 Social Indi- tory training and indicators collection activities.
cators of Development may be accessed at www.ciesin.org/ ■ Indonesia. There are the Asian crisis poverty surveys and
■ Regional Social Indicators for East Asia has been devel- health indicators.
oped as a monitoring system following the East Asia ■ Nepal. There are aspects and incidence of Nepal poverty;
Crisis, at www.worldbank.org/eapsocial/indicat/index.htm. and the development database for Nepal regions.
■ The United Nations Statistical Division is the ultimate world ■ Singapore.
authority for harmonized international data definitions. It ■ Taipei,China. There are urban and regional development
maintains demographic data and social indicators. This can indicators, and science and technology indicators.
be found at www.un.org/Depts/unsd/statcom/statcom.htm, ■ Thailand. An indicators approach is encouraged by the
and maintains links with all member country statistical of- strength of the central planning agency, the National Eco-
fices. nomics and Social Development Board, for a comprehen-
■ OECD maintains a database of development indicators and sive if rather undirected statistical system, and a move to-
extensive data and metadata resources. This can be found wards more decentralized forms of local government (which
at www.oecd.org/dac/Indicators/index.htm and until the 1994 reforms were organs of the National De-
www.oecd.org/std/. partment of Local Administration) involving less control
■ UNCHS (Habitat) Statistical Programme maintains several and more accountability. Some of the main activities have
downloadable collections, including the Human Settle- been the Rural Database, the Village Basic Needs Indica-
ments Data Collection (time series of mostly national data) tors, an online Health Indicators system, Poverty Indica-
and Citibase, the results of a postal data survey of 3,500 tors, and a new Performance Indicators for the Local Gov-
cities in 1994/95. This can be found at www.unchs.org/ ernment scheme which will require submission of finan-
unon/unchs/habrdd/statprog.htm. cial and other data by all local governments in Thailand by
■ UNICEF Progress of Nations Report contains a range of 2000.
social indicators and league tables of country performance ■ US. Many pertinent government and commercial data
against various indicators. These can be found at websites are maintained in the US, including national level
www.unicef.org/pon97/stat2.htm. databases such as the Department of Housing and Urban
■ World Resources Institute: The environmental and social Development’s State of the Cities Report and Database,
database of this influential think tank is available at http://webstage1.aspensys.com/SOCDS/
www.wri.org/facts/data-tables.html, and interactively at SOCDS_Home.htm.

Appendixes 429
Appendix 2. The CDB Workshops

Participatory Workshop to compare cities’ performances. As measures of city perfor-

13–14 September 1999, Manila mance the indicators should be important, simple, easy to col-
lect, accurate, affordable, available, useful, and sustainable.
Fifteen representatives from 14 cities participated in the Par- The CDB team briefed the cities on the indicative time-
ticipatory Workshop on 13-14 September 1999. The cities were: table of the exercise. Six months after the workshop the con-
Bangkok, Bangalore, Bishkek, Cebu, Colombo, Hanoi, Hong sultants in each city were expected to be in place, and to have
Kong, Kathmandu, Mandaluyong, Medan, Naga, Phnom Penh, completed a draft of the survey results or draft values, a city
Suva, and Ulaanbaatar. The workshop was the initiating activity profile, and documented the sources of the data. The partici-
for work on the Cities Data Book (CDB). Its objectives were to pants noted that the CDB is not a mere collection of statistics.
■ develop a consensus on which urban data are most useful Goals and priorities should be established and the indicators to
for policy setting and evaluation by local governments; be used and later maintained should be policy oriented or per-
■ establish key indicators for monitoring and evaluating cit- formance-based.
ies in the region; and
■ establish a network of cities that can communicate experi- Dissemination Workshop
ences and transfer good practices in urban services, policy 15-16 February 2001, Manila
development, and data management.
To generate consensus among cities, criteria in selecting A dissemination workshop was held at ADB headquarters in
indicators were put forward. It was agreed that the exercise will Manila on 15-16 February 2001 to discuss the major findings of
highlight the promotion of cities which are human, sustainable, the Cities Data Book: Urban Indicators for Managing Cities.
innovative, efficient, participatory, and effectively managed. The The workshop recapped the regional technical assistance
criteria chosen were driven by objectives of funded by ADB to initiate an urban indicators system to pro-
■ improving linkages between central and local governments vide useful, timely, and relevant information on urban condi-
and the private sector; tions and trends in Asian and Pacific cities and to establish a
■ improving the management of resources; network among the cities to exchange good practices. Partici-
■ supporting the development of long-term urban sector pating cities included Bangalore, Bishkek, Cebu, Colombo,
strategies and plans; Dhaka, Hanoi, Hohhot, Kathmandu, Hong Kong, Lahore,
■ reducing levels of urban poverty; and Mandaluyong, Medan, Melbourne Naga, Phnom Penh, Seoul,
■ promoting sound governance. Suva and Ulaanbaatar. Among those present were mayors, city
administrators, and senior technical staff from the participat-
Under the above guidelines the participants identified and ing cities and statistics offices, representatives from interna-
prioritized the sectors. tional development agencies including the World Bank, United
■ From a long list of themes or sectors in the city participants Nations Development Programme’s Urban Management
selected the six priority sectors of environmental manage- Programme for Asia and Pacific, Japan Bank for International
ment, water supply, municipal services, governance, solid Cooperation, academic research institutions, and NGOs.
waste management, and economy. Sir Peter Hall of the University College London, Dr. Peter
■ For indicators, the sectors on environmental management Newton of the Commonwealth Science Research Organization
and municipal services were merged with solid waste and of Australia, Dr. Terrence McGee of the University of British
water supply, respectively. The groups gave most votes to Columbia, Canada, and Dr. Joe Flood and Mr. Giles Clarke, con-
the indicators of sultants to the Cities Data Book, comprehensively discussed
(i) environmental management including degree of pol- the development of indicators, adoption of an indicators sys-
lution and diseases caused by pollution; tem in the national policy context, and the use of policy-based
(ii) municipal services including connections or collec- indicators at the city level. The resource persons analyzed the
tion as for solid waste, expenditures on operations and mainte- cities’ development based on data generated by the Cities Data
nance, loss or unaccounted for services, consumption per Book exercise and illustrated comparative performance of cit-
capita, cost to connect, wastewaster treated, types of services, ies on selected aspects. The mayors and other city representa-
modes of travel, and travel time; tives likewise shared their cities’ experiences in developing a
(iii) governance including delivery of annual plan, busi- local information system and showed how indicators influenced
ness satisfaction survey, representation of minorities, compli- their local decision making.
ance to regulations, access to information, voter turnout, con- Key conclusions and recommendations reached during the
sumer satisfaction services, and processing and approval time; workshop were as follows:
and ■ The comparison of cities in the CDB should not be viewed
(iv) economy including investment for basic services, em- as criticism of the city but rather a challenge to the city to
ployment rate, economic growth, households below the pov- continue to strive to improve performance.
erty line, cities’ land structure, competitiveness as measured by ■ There was a clear justification for using the urban indicators.
skilled education composition, and tourism. ■ Parallel work in the application of indicators in city man-
Indicators selected would be considered in a questionnaire agement needed to be pursued and discussed with the
for data collection. Cities will adopt standard definitions of terms stakeholders.

430 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

■ Ownership of the CDB should be at the city level. At the
initial stages of its development, local ownership is more
important than quality data.
■ Data generated in the CDB exercise should be popularized
or packaged from the perspective of stakeholders such as
investors and the business community, to promote its wide
use.
■ Cities need to link urban indicators data to city goals and
priorities, and continually refine the process as priorities
change over time.
■ An information network among cities would promote ex-
change and sharing of information.

Appendixes 431
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet

432 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 433
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

434 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 435
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

436 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 437
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

438 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 439
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

440 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 441
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

442 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 443
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

444 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 445
Appendix 4. Calculations and Statistical Methods

446 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 447
Appendix 4. Calculations and Statistical Methods (continued)

448 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 449
Appendix 4. Calculations and Statistical Methods (continued)

450 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 451
Appendix 4. Calculations and Statistical Methods (continued)

452 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendix 5. Summary of ADB’s Urban same time, urban and rural sectors should be viewed as an
Sector Strategy interlinked, interdependent continuum in the development
process. We must begin looking past stand-alone projects
and seek holistic, integrated solutions.
A. The Context of the Strategy
B. The Challenges
■ Asia’s future is urban. Within a generation developing
Asia will be predominantly urban. In 1966, only 1 in 5 The challenges that the Asian Development Bank (ADB) faces
Asians lived in cities; today, with an urban population of in preparing an urban strategy are as follows:
1.3 billion, the ratio is 1 in 3. By 2020, every other Asian
will live in a city. Six (Beijing, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), ■ Reducing urban poverty. This goal is best achieved through
Jakarta, Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Shanghai, and Tianjin) well-targeted, integrated interventions in government strat-
of the world’s megacities (continuous urban areas with egies for poverty reduction, which provide a framework
over ten million people) are located in the region, and 11 for ADB assistance. Better efforts must be made at under-
more Asian megacities are projected to emerge by 2025 standing the multidimensional nature of urban poverty,
(Bangalore, Bangkok, Chennai (formerly Madras), Dhaka, where it occurs (through poverty mapping exercises), and
Hyderabad, Karachi, Lahore, Manila, New Delhi, Shenyang, causes and characteristics of poverty (which vary from
and Yangon). country to country). Slum upgrading and providing low-
■ The challenges are great. Today, 830 million people in cost housing present good entry points into urban poor
developing Asia lack safe drinking water; two billion lack communities and a platform to deliver other services. Ad-
sanitation facilities. Well-managed urbanization can facili- dressing urban poverty through urban development will
tate and sustain economic growth and broadly support require attention for (i) promoting income and wealth
improved quality of life and increased opportunities for poverty (through micro-finance and employment creation);
people. Conversely, weak policies, ineffectual management, (ii) improving quality of life poverty (infrastructure, ser-
and low levels of investment will prevent cities from achiev- vices provision and shelter); and (iii) reducing vulnerabil-
ing their full potential and erode previous gains. Without ity of the poor (through targeted fiscal policies such as
proper management and planning—for land, water, trans- subsidized user charges).
portation, housing, and the environment—Asia’s cities face ■ Improving urban services. The goal is to achieve market-
the prospect of becoming unmanageable sprawling slums. based provision of urban services based on delivery of
■ We must reach the urban poor. Increasing urban pov- appropriate and affordable services using, as possible,
erty and inequality threaten to undermine the promise of market competition and effective private sector participa-
sustainable urban development. Two thirds of the world’s tion. An important element is cost recovery through eco-
poor live in Asia, surviving on less than one dollar a day, nomic pricing, enterprise reform, corporatization, and ex-
with an ever-increasing proportion living in cities, or on ploring private sector participation (privatization, manage-
the peri-urban rim. Urban poverty is multidimensional and ment contracts, build-operate-transfer and biological oxy-
complex; the effect of cumulative deprivation brought on gen demand schemes, etc.).
by lack of employment and livelihood opportunities, poor ■ Promoting good governance. In the frontline of the ur-
education, inadequate shelter and squalid living conditions, ban development process, cities must pursue good gover-
health risks from poor sanitation, air pollution, crime, and nance through strengthened legislation, regulation, moni-
the absence of social safety nets. toring, enforcement, accountability, participation, predict-
■ We must enhance capacity and support partnerships. ability, and transparency. Performance indicators and
Local governments are in the frontlines of this urban trans- benchmarking can measure the effectiveness of policies.
formation, and serve as the interface between policy and Support for political and fiscal decentralization helps to
people. Decentralization and devolution of authority to empower local governments, who often lack capacity, with
local governments have strengthened their role in the ur- greater authority to deliver urban services.
ban development process, but central governments have ■ Strengthening urban management. Local governments
not always provided the resources to allow local govern- have essential roles in providing urban services, facilitat-
ments to fulfill the new roles. Local governments are ing the efficient and equitable access to urban land and
transitioning from their traditional role as a provider of promoting sound, balanced urban development through
urban services to that of an enabler, which in turn is creat- effective planning and policy. With an increasing array of
ing opportunity for the private sector. Increasingly, private responsibilities on the shoulders of local government un-
sector participation is being relied on to meet financing der decentralization, there is a need to improve capacity,
demands and to introduce efficiencies in the delivery of skills and expertise, while incorporating best practices and
services. Communities and nongovernment organizations innovation.
(NGOs) also play a vital role. Enhancing capacity and build- ■ Protecting the environment. Environmental improve-
ing partnerships are essential. ments require institutional coordination between public
■ We must think in new and innovative ways. The les- and private sector organizations, which have been difficult
sons being learned in Asia’s megacities provide an oppor- to achieve. Lack of political commitment and environmen-
tunity to address the same problems being replicated on a tal awareness and poor enforcement are cited as major
smaller scale in rapidly growing secondary cities. At the causes of low levels of investment in environmental man-

Appendixes 453
 agement facilities. The challenge is to move beyond reme- affordable supplies of clean water with commensurate sani-
dial actions for cleaning up pollution to preventative ac- tation facilities for wastewater management that improve
tions that can forestall future environmental degradation social welfare, environmental integrity, and economic
without imposing impossible financial burdens on govern- productivity, with projects in both larger urban centers
ment. and rural towns. Increasing participation among stakehold-
■ Achieving greater development impact. ADB urban ers is vital, particularly for women, NGOs, and the private
projects and programs should promote lasting improve- sector. Meeting rising demand, addressing affordability,
ments in outcomes, particularly in improving the quality of improving the management of systems, implementing mea-
life for the poor. ADB must improve its ability to work at sures for demand management, and achieving full cost re-
the strategic level while designing selective interventions covery through economic pricing are challenges to be met.
for maximum development impact. Through consultation For wastewater, there is a high need but low demand, with
and stakeholder participation, responsive and appropri- low levels of willingness to pay. Low cost sanitation ap-
ate interventions should be prioritized. proaches must be developed.
■ Urban development and urban management. Invest-
C. Urban Development Objectives and Priority Sectors ments in municipal infrastructure help unlock the poten-
tial of cities. Efforts must be made to improve operations
The overall objectives for the strategy are summarized as fol- and maintenance (O&M) to maintain existing systems for
lows. The current priority for ADB to respond to the economic urban service delivery, transport, drainage and flood con-
crisis and its aftermath is highlighting the key role of urban trol, and to protect investments already made. Capacity
projects in reducing urban poverty. building by urban managers and policymakers is closely
linked to the long-term sustainability of investments and
1. Maximizing the economic efficiency of urban areas through interventions. Urban planning systems must be strength-
a. increased contribution to gross domestic product; ened, with improved processes for resource allocation,
b. easier market entry for small businesses; prioritizing development, and reaching the urban poor.
c. creation of employment; Regional cooperation in benchmarking skills, networking,
d. attraction of inward investment; and and cooperation is important to allow one city to learn
e. availability of suitable land, infrastructure, energy and from another.
services to meet business demand. ■ Housing and housing finance. ADB has carried out rela-
2. Reducing urban poverty through tively few housing projects. Slum upgrading and improv-
a. reduced unemployment; and ing access to basic services in urban poor communities are
b. increased number of households with access to land, gateways for reaching the poor. Squatter communities of-
infrastructure, and services. ten need to be relocated from areas not fit for human
3. Improving quality of life through habitation. Opportunities exist for strengthening national
a. reductions in environmental pollution levels; housing finance systems to place them on sustainable foot-
b. improved support mechanisms for the disadvantaged; ings, to attract private sector capital and expertise, and
c. enhanced role for gender development; better involve community-based organizations. Interven-
d. reduced crime levels; tions in the housing sector offer a good opportunity to
e. reduction in serious illnesses; and address the three main crosscutting themes of poverty re-
f. availability of suitable land, infrastructure, and ser- duction, governance, and private sector participation.
vices to meet demand. ■ Solid waste management. Efficiency of systems needs to
4. Achieving sustainable urban development through be improved through private sector partnerships, and in-
a. reduced use of non–replaceable natural resources; tegrating informal waste collection to extend services to
b. increased use of energy taxation, pricing and energy the urban poor. Cost recovery, waste recycling and mini-
saving forms of land use and construction; mization measures, and support for inter-local coopera-
c. increased social equity in the distribution of social tion are tools to create sustainable solid waste manage-
benefits; ment systems.
d. reductions in environmental pollution levels; and ■ Urban land management. Land management is critical
e. improved management systems, including good gov- to successful business, social, and residential development
ernance, decentralization, private sector involvement, fund- in the city or megacity and where relevant, to the wider
ing mechanisms, and community participation. extended metropolitan region. Related to the shelter sec-
tor and housing for the poor, effective policies require a
The following are the proposed core sectors for urban sound understanding of urban land markets, developing
operations and where new opportunities are expected to the legal and institutional structures, land use planning,
emerge. Over the next two- to three-year time frame, the mix of zoning tenure, cadastral surveys, and titling. Capacity build-
work between and within these sectors will require some level ing actions are needed to accelerate the delivery of ser-
of refocusing and refinement to respond to the crosscutting viced land, using a variety of mechanisms. Geographical
concerns of poverty reduction, governance, gender equity, and information systems (GIS), with in-depth relational data-
private sector participation. bases, are powerful decision-making tools for urban plan-
■ Water supply and sanitation. Water and sanitation projects ners and policymakers, and can be utilized for poverty
aim to provide universal access to adequate, reliable and mapping.

454 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

■ Urban transport. There is scope for ADB to provide effi- mote the sharing of best practices and innovation in urban
ciency improvements through traffic management, munici- environmental management; and
pal-level public transit systems, and municipal road projects. ■ developing a new urban management agenda that promotes
Urban air quality issues can be addressed through improved public awareness, targets the poor, and helps clients phase-
fuel quality, reduced vehicular emissions, and improved in programs on the basis of available resources. Sound
traffic flow. ADB can also assist in establishing clear roles urban development must be viewed as a process, not a
for the public and private sectors and in generating com- result.
petitive market, including competition between modes.
■ Urban environmental management. This is a growth area E. Implementing the Strategy
to be addressed through the introduction of market-based
instruments, improved coordination across boundaries and In summary the recommended strategy is a combination of
jurisdictions, and by promoting holistic, multipronged ap- several options considered by ADB and its developing member
proaches to be applied by strong institutions in a well- countries and comprises
grounded legal and regulatory environment. In many in- ■ developing comprehensive urban sector policy frameworks;
stances, the poor have the greatest exposure to environ- ■ formulating improved integrated urban development
mental pollution, and benefit the most through interven- projects;
tions in this sector. ADB is building good experience in ■ expanding subsector programs in priority new areas such
wastewater management, environmental cleanup of river as poverty reduction, land management, and housing fi-
basins, and comprehensive approaches that bring both nance;
environmental and human development benefits. ■ providing policy-based loans;
■ Municipal finance. ADB needs to work more in this im- ■ supporting private sector investments;
portant area to improve fiscal autonomy, including com- ■ promoting cooperation with NGOs and community-based
puterization of accounting, billing and collection proce- organizations (CBOs); and
dures, contracting out some services, and developing man- ■ catalyzing information dissemination.
agement information systems. In addition, ADB should as-
sist in improved funding for municipal infrastructure The strategy also identifies the implications for ADB opera-
through financial intermediaries, strengthen capital invest- tions including lending and technical assistance, staff resources
ment planning and budgeting processes, improve local re- and research priorities, including collaboration with other agen-
source mobilization (cost recovery, revenue mobilization, cies in the region (external support agencies, academic institu-
and financial management), develop credit ratings and tions and NGOs/CBOs).
municipal bond markets, and introduce credit enhance-
ment mechanisms.
■ Tourism infrastructure. Development of tourism plans,
programs, and related infrastructure in close cooperation
with the private sector, are important for increasing in-
comes and employment opportunities for the poor.

D. Achieving the Strategy

We will ensure a future of sustainable, equitable Asian cities by

■ adopting pro-poor strategies, which will ensure that the
fruits of development and quality of life are extended to
all;
■ thinking of cities as complex, living organisms that must be
addressed in a holistic manner, with comprehensive solu-
tions that deliver interrelated programs;
■ providing support for decentralization, the empowerment
of local governments that brings the decision-making and
the provision of services closer to the people served, in a
more accountable, participatory fashion;
■ involving civil society in a more broad, transparent way,
through partnerships with universities, NGOs, beneficiary
communities, and other stakeholders;
■ promoting private sector participation to narrow the fi-
nancing gap to be met and bring increased competition
and efficiency to the delivery of urban services;
■ embracing the digital revolution, and information and com-
munications technology that is transforming the way cities
are managed;
■ pursuing enhanced networking and cooperation to pro-

Appendixes 455
Appendix 6. City Hologram Ranking Scale 8. City Product (PPP Adjusted) Per Capita ($)
1 = > 20,000
2 = 5,000–19,999
National Context Indicators 3 = 2,000–4,999
4 = < 2,000
A. Urbanization Level, 1998 (percent of national population 9. Gross Domestic Product Per Capita 1997 (Same as
living in urban places) Indicator 8)
B. National Population, 1999
C. Human Development Index Ranking, 1998 Sector D. Economic Characteristics Employment/
D. GNP Per Capita, 1999 Competition
10. Informal Population as Percent of Total City
City Context Indicators Population (%)
1= <9
A. City Development Index 2 = 10–19
B. City Population Density (persons per hectare) 3 = 20–30
4 = > 30
City Indicators 11. Secondary Employment Percent of Employed
Population (%)
Sector A. Demographic Indicators A 1 = < 15
1. City Size (in million) 2 = 16–22
1=<1 3 = 23–30
2 = 1–2.4 4 = > 30
3 = 2.5–5.0 12. Services Employment (total of consumer, producer,
4=>5 social) (%)
2. Annual Rate of Population Increase (%) 1 = > 60
1=<1 2 = 40–59
2 = 1–2.9 3 = 20–39
3 = 3–4.0 4 = < 20
4=>4 13. Cost of Business Stay Overnight ($)
3. Annual Household Formation Rate (%) 1 = >140
1=<1 2 = 111–139
2 = 1–2.9 3 = 80–110
3 = 3–4.0 4 = < 80
4=>4 14. No. of International Flights per Month
1 = > 1,000
Sector B. Demographic Indicators B 2 = 500–999
4. Life Expectancy at Birth (years) 3 = 100–499
1 = > 70 4 = < 100
2 = 65–69 15. Cost of Commercial Land ($ per m2)
3 = 60–64 1 = > 2,000
4 = < 60 2 = 1,000–1,999
5. Proportion of Total Population 0-14 years of Age (%) 3 = 500–999
1 = < 20 4 = < 500
2 = 21–27
3 = 28–35 Sector E. Poverty
4 = > 35 16. Percent of Households Below Poverty Line (%)
6. Child Mortality: (the probability that a child will die 1 = < 20
before five years as a percentage) 2 = 21–29
1=<3 3 = 30–40
2 = 3.1–5.9 4 = > 40
3 = 6.0–9.0 17. Percent of Households Below Poverty Line $1 a day
4=>9 (same as Indicator 16)
18. Percent of Total Work Force Unemployed (%)
Sector C. Economic Characteristics and Productivity A 1=<5
7. City Product Per Capita 1998 ($) 2 = 5.0–9.9
1 = 4,000–26,000 3 = 10–15.0
2 = 2,000–3,999 4 = > 15
3 = 1,000–1,999
4 = < 1,000

456 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 19. Percent of Household Expenditure on Food (%) 29. Local Government Wages as a Percentage of Recur
1 = < 30 ring Budget
2 = 30–39 1 = < 25
3 = 40–50 2 = 25–49
4 = > 50 3 = 50–74
4 = > 75
Sector F. Social Infrastructure 30. Source of Local Government Revenue: Proportion
20. School children per Classroom, Primary from Taxes
1 = < 30 1 = 75–100
2 = 30–39 2 = 50–74
3 = 40–50 3 = 25–49
4 = > 50 4 = 0–24
21. Persons (City Population) per Hospital Bed 31. Source of Local Government Revenue: Proportion
1 = < 200 from Transfers
2 = 200–399 1 = 0–24
3 = 400–600 2 = 25–49
4 = > 600 3 = 50–74
22. Percent Housing In Compliance with Local Govern 4 = 75–100
ment Regulations (%)
1 = 75–100
2 = 50–74
3 = 25–49
4 = 0–24
23. Floor Area per Person (m2)
1 = > 30
2 = 20–29
3 = 10–19
4=9

Sector G. Sustainability, Physical Infrastructure, and

Governance

24. Water Household Connections (%)

1 = > 86
2 = 73–85
3 = 60–72
4 = < 60
25. Electricity Household Connections (%)
1 = > 75
2 = 50–74
3 = 25–49
4 = < 25
26. Sewerage Household Connections (%)
1 = > 75
2 = 50–74
3 = 25–49
4 = < 25
27. Automobiles per ’000 Population
1 = > 225
2 = 150–224
3 = 75–149
4 = < 75
28. Local Government Employees per ’000 Population
1 = < 20
2 = 20–29
3 = 30–40
4 = > 40

Appendixes 457
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460 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes
 Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD), the United
Appendix 1. Resources on the Internet: Nations Environment Programme, and a great many indepen-
A Directory dent activities known under the collective title of State of the
Environment (SoE) Reports. This has generally involved the
publication of yearbooks, and occasionally the development of
A. Indicators Systems comprehensive indicators systems, usually making reference
to a sectoral, strategic policy, and/or systems approach. The
Competitiveness SCOPE Project (Moldan and Billharz 1997) effectively synthe-
wbln0018.worldbank.org/psd/compete.nsf sizes all international research in the area.
www.imd.ch/wcy/methodology/methodology.cfm www.un.org/esa/sustdev/worklist.htm
www.unep.ch/earthw/indstat.htm
Governance
www.transparency.de/ COUNTRIES
Most developed countries, and many states/provinces and cit-
Index-Driven ies, have independently engaged in sustainable development
www.undp.org/hdro/indicators.html debates and consultations, and many have produced SoE Re-
www.who.dk ports, which investigate human components of sustainability
as well as the physical components. Some of the most notewor-
Needs-Based thy national activities have been
www.regeneration.detr.gov.uk/98ild/ Canada. SoE reporting through reports and brochures
carried out by Environment Canada is generally regarded as
Performance-Based state of the art. A comprehensive indicators database has been
www.telco-cpi.org.uk/ developed on most environmental aspects and this has been
www.reggen.vic.gov.au/ coupled with excellent outreach activities.
www.anao.gov.au/bpgs.html www.ec.gc.ca/ind/English/History/histor_e.htm
www.pc.gov.au/service/gtepubs.html www.ec.gc.ca/soer-ree/English/tools/ind_data.cfm
www.moe.edu.sg/esp/edunews/pr03097.htm The IISDNet Working Group on Sustainable Development
www.info.gov.hk/jud/performance/index.htm Indicators has been working on composite indexes of
www.urbanobservatory.org/indicators/analysis/ sustainability using clusters of related variables, similar to the
www.hsd.ait.ac.th/ihsa/si/a13lc/bombay/ui.html approach used in the Cities Data Book.
iisd1.iisd.ca/cgsdi/
Policy-Based United States. In the US, an Inter-Agency Working Group
www.ccsd.ca/lp.html on Sustainable Development Indicators (IWGSDI) has devel-
www.obm5.treas.gov.ab.ca/comm/perfmeas/ oped a framework to identify, organize, and integrate national
www.gov.calgary.ab.ca/finance SDIs, selecting 32 key indicators from a much larger set, to
monitor the capacity of the US to meet present and future needs.
Poverty Monitoring venus.hq.nasa.gov/iwgsdi/sdi_ol_framework.html
www.worldbank.org/poverty/data/povmon.htm Australia. One national SoE Report (1997) has been pub-
lished, together with several comprehensive state reports, for
Systems Approach Queensland and New South Wales. The national report included
www.who.dk/healthy-cities/ a system of indicators developed specifically for human settle-
venus.hq.nasa.gov/iwgsdi/sdi_ol_framework.html ments, and this has been subject to considerable peer review
and further development (as discussed in Newton et al. 1998).
Sustainable Development Hong Kong, China. Hong Kong, China has a system of
venus.hq.nasa.gov/iwgsdi/sdi_ol_framework.html Social Indicators of Quality of Life and also a system of
Sustainability Indicators sponsored by the Government.
B. Sustainability Indicators http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/hkiaps/INDICA/soc4~1.htm
http://www.info.gov.hk/planning/susdev/report_6/
Agenda 21 e_index.htm
The most widespread indicators movement, sustainable devel-
opment indicators, has been the successful outcome of recom- CITIES AND MUNICIPALITIES
mendations from Agenda 21, the policy document of the 1992 As well as national sustainability studies, of which there are rela-
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development tively few at present, an increasing number of cities and munici-
(UNCED) Rio Conference, which recommends that palities are undertaking community sustainability studies, encour-
sustainability monitoring systems be put in place. This has initi- aged by the Local Agenda 21 initiative. In such cases (see for
ated a process of sustainability monitoring in many countries example Besleme and Mullin 1997; Farrell and Hart 1998), the
and communities. community selects those indicators it considers most important
www.unep.org/Documents/Default.asp? DocumentD=52 for monitoring issues such as economic security, ecological integ-
Agenda 21 reporting includes direct reporting through a rity, and quality of life. The resultant material is used to raise
system of indicators and country profiles developed by the UN public awareness, identify achievable goals, make trends visible,

428 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

and help individuals, communities, and their governments estab- www.ciesin.org/.
lish priorities (several case studies are found in OECD 1997). ■ ESCAP Statistical Division maintains a time series data-
The US maintains an excellent network of city indicators base of social indicators in the Asian and Pacific region at
initiatives and newsletters, for example the Urban Quality Indi- unescap.org/stat/index.htm.
cators newsletter. These local government initiatives are mostly ■ Eurostat, the statistical arm of the European Union, main-
concerned with sustainability, as already discussed, and vari- tains several extensive databases, including the NewCronos
ous performance measurement exercises and community em- metadata system, which provides a good sectoral catalogu-
powerment initiatives. Some of the best known and well devel- ing system for social indicators.
oped of these are the Sustainable Seattle, maintained by the A number of other general and sectoral databases from
YMCA, which sought to establish indicators by public consulta- multilateral organizationsincluding ILO, UNIDO, UNESCO,
tion that would “capture the hearts as well as the minds” of UNHCR, WHO, and APEC, etc. are detailed in the Web Resources
Seattle citizens, and included such Seattle-specific indicators as listing, along with a listing of national statistical offices in the
“number of days you can see the Rockies,” or “wild salmon Asian and Pacific region.
running in streams;” and the Sustainability Plan for San Fran-
cisco, which combines an excellent strategic planning approach D. National and Local Collections
with sustainability. The Sustainable State of New Jersey indica-
tors are based on a strategic approach to city goals, with indica- At the national or city level, some of the main activities with
tors divided into thematic goal categories. index links in the Web Resources listing are
people.mw.mediaone.net/cyoakam/index.html ■ Australia. Many national and state departments and au-
www.andromeda.rutgers.edu/~ncpp/cdgp/commun.htm thorities maintain websites with sectoral statistics; for ex-
www.sustainable-city.org/ ample as part of the Australian Productivity Commission
www.njfuture.org/HTMLSrc/SSR/GoalsAndIndicators.html evaluation and reporting systems, Environment Australia,
Health Indicators in the ACT, the Bureau of Transport Eco-
C. Web-Based Statistical Collections nomics, the City of Melbourne, most public utilities, etc.
■ Hong Kong, China. There are social indicators for qual-
Most of the major multilateral agencies conduct general statis- ity of life and sustainability indicators.
tical activities partly as an information function or as part of ■ Japan. There are economic/business and consumer confi-
yearbooks, but increasingly as a formal part of policy goal set- dence, industrial and business statistics, demographic and
ting. The indicators programs of these agencies are linked to employment time series, science and technology indica-
organizational policy and strategy development, but generally tors, and gender indicators.
are not associated with a specific indicators approach. ■ India. India was active in the Habitat II Indicators prepa-
■ World Bank Development Indicators 2000. This database ration. India has been a focus for Global Urban Observa-
is available on CD-ROM and diskette. The 1995 Social Indi- tory training and indicators collection activities.
cators of Development may be accessed at www.ciesin.org/ ■ Indonesia. There are the Asian crisis poverty surveys and
■ Regional Social Indicators for East Asia has been devel- health indicators.
oped as a monitoring system following the East Asia ■ Nepal. There are aspects and incidence of Nepal poverty;
Crisis, at www.worldbank.org/eapsocial/indicat/index.htm. and the development database for Nepal regions.
■ The United Nations Statistical Division is the ultimate world ■ Singapore.
authority for harmonized international data definitions. It ■ Taipei,China. There are urban and regional development
maintains demographic data and social indicators. This can indicators, and science and technology indicators.
be found at www.un.org/Depts/unsd/statcom/statcom.htm, ■ Thailand. An indicators approach is encouraged by the
and maintains links with all member country statistical of- strength of the central planning agency, the National Eco-
fices. nomics and Social Development Board, for a comprehen-
■ OECD maintains a database of development indicators and sive if rather undirected statistical system, and a move to-
extensive data and metadata resources. This can be found wards more decentralized forms of local government (which
at www.oecd.org/dac/Indicators/index.htm and until the 1994 reforms were organs of the National De-
www.oecd.org/std/. partment of Local Administration) involving less control
■ UNCHS (Habitat) Statistical Programme maintains several and more accountability. Some of the main activities have
downloadable collections, including the Human Settle- been the Rural Database, the Village Basic Needs Indica-
ments Data Collection (time series of mostly national data) tors, an online Health Indicators system, Poverty Indica-
and Citibase, the results of a postal data survey of 3,500 tors, and a new Performance Indicators for the Local Gov-
cities in 1994/95. This can be found at www.unchs.org/ ernment scheme which will require submission of finan-
unon/unchs/habrdd/statprog.htm. cial and other data by all local governments in Thailand by
■ UNICEF Progress of Nations Report contains a range of 2000.
social indicators and league tables of country performance ■ US. Many pertinent government and commercial data
against various indicators. These can be found at websites are maintained in the US, including national level
www.unicef.org/pon97/stat2.htm. databases such as the Department of Housing and Urban
■ World Resources Institute: The environmental and social Development’s State of the Cities Report and Database,
database of this influential think tank is available at http://webstage1.aspensys.com/SOCDS/
www.wri.org/facts/data-tables.html, and interactively at SOCDS_Home.htm.

Appendixes 429
Appendix 2. The CDB Workshops

Participatory Workshop to compare cities’ performances. As measures of city perfor-

13–14 September 1999, Manila mance the indicators should be important, simple, easy to col-
lect, accurate, affordable, available, useful, and sustainable.
Fifteen representatives from 14 cities participated in the Par- The CDB team briefed the cities on the indicative time-
ticipatory Workshop on 13-14 September 1999. The cities were: table of the exercise. Six months after the workshop the con-
Bangkok, Bangalore, Bishkek, Cebu, Colombo, Hanoi, Hong sultants in each city were expected to be in place, and to have
Kong, Kathmandu, Mandaluyong, Medan, Naga, Phnom Penh, completed a draft of the survey results or draft values, a city
Suva, and Ulaanbaatar. The workshop was the initiating activity profile, and documented the sources of the data. The partici-
for work on the Cities Data Book (CDB). Its objectives were to pants noted that the CDB is not a mere collection of statistics.
■ develop a consensus on which urban data are most useful Goals and priorities should be established and the indicators to
for policy setting and evaluation by local governments; be used and later maintained should be policy oriented or per-
■ establish key indicators for monitoring and evaluating cit- formance-based.
ies in the region; and
■ establish a network of cities that can communicate experi- Dissemination Workshop
ences and transfer good practices in urban services, policy 15-16 February 2001, Manila
development, and data management.
To generate consensus among cities, criteria in selecting A dissemination workshop was held at ADB headquarters in
indicators were put forward. It was agreed that the exercise will Manila on 15-16 February 2001 to discuss the major findings of
highlight the promotion of cities which are human, sustainable, the Cities Data Book: Urban Indicators for Managing Cities.
innovative, efficient, participatory, and effectively managed. The The workshop recapped the regional technical assistance
criteria chosen were driven by objectives of funded by ADB to initiate an urban indicators system to pro-
■ improving linkages between central and local governments vide useful, timely, and relevant information on urban condi-
and the private sector; tions and trends in Asian and Pacific cities and to establish a
■ improving the management of resources; network among the cities to exchange good practices. Partici-
■ supporting the development of long-term urban sector pating cities included Bangalore, Bishkek, Cebu, Colombo,
strategies and plans; Dhaka, Hanoi, Hohhot, Kathmandu, Hong Kong, Lahore,
■ reducing levels of urban poverty; and Mandaluyong, Medan, Melbourne Naga, Phnom Penh, Seoul,
■ promoting sound governance. Suva and Ulaanbaatar. Among those present were mayors, city
administrators, and senior technical staff from the participat-
Under the above guidelines the participants identified and ing cities and statistics offices, representatives from interna-
prioritized the sectors. tional development agencies including the World Bank, United
■ From a long list of themes or sectors in the city participants Nations Development Programme’s Urban Management
selected the six priority sectors of environmental manage- Programme for Asia and Pacific, Japan Bank for International
ment, water supply, municipal services, governance, solid Cooperation, academic research institutions, and NGOs.
waste management, and economy. Sir Peter Hall of the University College London, Dr. Peter
■ For indicators, the sectors on environmental management Newton of the Commonwealth Science Research Organization
and municipal services were merged with solid waste and of Australia, Dr. Terrence McGee of the University of British
water supply, respectively. The groups gave most votes to Columbia, Canada, and Dr. Joe Flood and Mr. Giles Clarke, con-
the indicators of sultants to the Cities Data Book, comprehensively discussed
(i) environmental management including degree of pol- the development of indicators, adoption of an indicators sys-
lution and diseases caused by pollution; tem in the national policy context, and the use of policy-based
(ii) municipal services including connections or collec- indicators at the city level. The resource persons analyzed the
tion as for solid waste, expenditures on operations and mainte- cities’ development based on data generated by the Cities Data
nance, loss or unaccounted for services, consumption per Book exercise and illustrated comparative performance of cit-
capita, cost to connect, wastewaster treated, types of services, ies on selected aspects. The mayors and other city representa-
modes of travel, and travel time; tives likewise shared their cities’ experiences in developing a
(iii) governance including delivery of annual plan, busi- local information system and showed how indicators influenced
ness satisfaction survey, representation of minorities, compli- their local decision making.
ance to regulations, access to information, voter turnout, con- Key conclusions and recommendations reached during the
sumer satisfaction services, and processing and approval time; workshop were as follows:
and ■ The comparison of cities in the CDB should not be viewed
(iv) economy including investment for basic services, em- as criticism of the city but rather a challenge to the city to
ployment rate, economic growth, households below the pov- continue to strive to improve performance.
erty line, cities’ land structure, competitiveness as measured by ■ There was a clear justification for using the urban indicators.
skilled education composition, and tourism. ■ Parallel work in the application of indicators in city man-
Indicators selected would be considered in a questionnaire agement needed to be pursued and discussed with the
for data collection. Cities will adopt standard definitions of terms stakeholders.

430 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

■ Ownership of the CDB should be at the city level. At the
initial stages of its development, local ownership is more
important than quality data.
■ Data generated in the CDB exercise should be popularized
or packaged from the perspective of stakeholders such as
investors and the business community, to promote its wide
use.
■ Cities need to link urban indicators data to city goals and
priorities, and continually refine the process as priorities
change over time.
■ An information network among cities would promote ex-
change and sharing of information.

Appendixes 431
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet

432 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 433
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

434 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 435
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

436 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 437
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

438 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 439
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

440 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 441
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

442 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 443
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet (continued)

444 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 445
Appendix 4. Calculations and Statistical Methods

446 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 447
Appendix 4. Calculations and Statistical Methods (continued)

448 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 449
Appendix 3. Cities Data Book Worksheet

432 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendix 4. Calculations and Statistical Methods (continued)

450 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendixes 451
Appendix 4. Calculations and Statistical Methods (continued)

452 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

Appendix 5. Summary of ADB’s Urban same time, urban and rural sectors should be viewed as an
Sector Strategy interlinked, interdependent continuum in the development
process. We must begin looking past stand-alone projects
and seek holistic, integrated solutions.
A. The Context of the Strategy
B. The Challenges
■ Asia’s future is urban. Within a generation developing
Asia will be predominantly urban. In 1966, only 1 in 5 The challenges that the Asian Development Bank (ADB) faces
Asians lived in cities; today, with an urban population of in preparing an urban strategy are as follows:
1.3 billion, the ratio is 1 in 3. By 2020, every other Asian
will live in a city. Six (Beijing, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), ■ Reducing urban poverty. This goal is best achieved through
Jakarta, Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Shanghai, and Tianjin) well-targeted, integrated interventions in government strat-
of the world’s megacities (continuous urban areas with egies for poverty reduction, which provide a framework
over ten million people) are located in the region, and 11 for ADB assistance. Better efforts must be made at under-
more Asian megacities are projected to emerge by 2025 standing the multidimensional nature of urban poverty,
(Bangalore, Bangkok, Chennai (formerly Madras), Dhaka, where it occurs (through poverty mapping exercises), and
Hyderabad, Karachi, Lahore, Manila, New Delhi, Shenyang, causes and characteristics of poverty (which vary from
and Yangon). country to country). Slum upgrading and providing low-
■ The challenges are great. Today, 830 million people in cost housing present good entry points into urban poor
developing Asia lack safe drinking water; two billion lack communities and a platform to deliver other services. Ad-
sanitation facilities. Well-managed urbanization can facili- dressing urban poverty through urban development will
tate and sustain economic growth and broadly support require attention for (i) promoting income and wealth
improved quality of life and increased opportunities for poverty (through micro-finance and employment creation);
people. Conversely, weak policies, ineffectual management, (ii) improving quality of life poverty (infrastructure, ser-
and low levels of investment will prevent cities from achiev- vices provision and shelter); and (iii) reducing vulnerabil-
ing their full potential and erode previous gains. Without ity of the poor (through targeted fiscal policies such as
proper management and planning—for land, water, trans- subsidized user charges).
portation, housing, and the environment—Asia’s cities face ■ Improving urban services. The goal is to achieve market-
the prospect of becoming unmanageable sprawling slums. based provision of urban services based on delivery of
■ We must reach the urban poor. Increasing urban pov- appropriate and affordable services using, as possible,
erty and inequality threaten to undermine the promise of market competition and effective private sector participa-
sustainable urban development. Two thirds of the world’s tion. An important element is cost recovery through eco-
poor live in Asia, surviving on less than one dollar a day, nomic pricing, enterprise reform, corporatization, and ex-
with an ever-increasing proportion living in cities, or on ploring private sector participation (privatization, manage-
the peri-urban rim. Urban poverty is multidimensional and ment contracts, build-operate-transfer and biological oxy-
complex; the effect of cumulative deprivation brought on gen demand schemes, etc.).
by lack of employment and livelihood opportunities, poor ■ Promoting good governance. In the frontline of the ur-
education, inadequate shelter and squalid living conditions, ban development process, cities must pursue good gover-
health risks from poor sanitation, air pollution, crime, and nance through strengthened legislation, regulation, moni-
the absence of social safety nets. toring, enforcement, accountability, participation, predict-
■ We must enhance capacity and support partnerships. ability, and transparency. Performance indicators and
Local governments are in the frontlines of this urban trans- benchmarking can measure the effectiveness of policies.
formation, and serve as the interface between policy and Support for political and fiscal decentralization helps to
people. Decentralization and devolution of authority to empower local governments, who often lack capacity, with
local governments have strengthened their role in the ur- greater authority to deliver urban services.
ban development process, but central governments have ■ Strengthening urban management. Local governments
not always provided the resources to allow local govern- have essential roles in providing urban services, facilitat-
ments to fulfill the new roles. Local governments are ing the efficient and equitable access to urban land and
transitioning from their traditional role as a provider of promoting sound, balanced urban development through
urban services to that of an enabler, which in turn is creat- effective planning and policy. With an increasing array of
ing opportunity for the private sector. Increasingly, private responsibilities on the shoulders of local government un-
sector participation is being relied on to meet financing der decentralization, there is a need to improve capacity,
demands and to introduce efficiencies in the delivery of skills and expertise, while incorporating best practices and
services. Communities and nongovernment organizations innovation.
(NGOs) also play a vital role. Enhancing capacity and build- ■ Protecting the environment. Environmental improve-
ing partnerships are essential. ments require institutional coordination between public
■ We must think in new and innovative ways. The les- and private sector organizations, which have been difficult
sons being learned in Asia’s megacities provide an oppor- to achieve. Lack of political commitment and environmen-
tunity to address the same problems being replicated on a tal awareness and poor enforcement are cited as major
smaller scale in rapidly growing secondary cities. At the causes of low levels of investment in environmental man-

Appendixes 453
 agement facilities. The challenge is to move beyond reme- affordable supplies of clean water with commensurate sani-
dial actions for cleaning up pollution to preventative ac- tation facilities for wastewater management that improve
tions that can forestall future environmental degradation social welfare, environmental integrity, and economic
without imposing impossible financial burdens on govern- productivity, with projects in both larger urban centers
ment. and rural towns. Increasing participation among stakehold-
■ Achieving greater development impact. ADB urban ers is vital, particularly for women, NGOs, and the private
projects and programs should promote lasting improve- sector. Meeting rising demand, addressing affordability,
ments in outcomes, particularly in improving the quality of improving the management of systems, implementing mea-
life for the poor. ADB must improve its ability to work at sures for demand management, and achieving full cost re-
the strategic level while designing selective interventions covery through economic pricing are challenges to be met.
for maximum development impact. Through consultation For wastewater, there is a high need but low demand, with
and stakeholder participation, responsive and appropri- low levels of willingness to pay. Low cost sanitation ap-
ate interventions should be prioritized. proaches must be developed.
■ Urban development and urban management. Invest-
C. Urban Development Objectives and Priority Sectors ments in municipal infrastructure help unlock the poten-
tial of cities. Efforts must be made to improve operations
The overall objectives for the strategy are summarized as fol- and maintenance (O&M) to maintain existing systems for
lows. The current priority for ADB to respond to the economic urban service delivery, transport, drainage and flood con-
crisis and its aftermath is highlighting the key role of urban trol, and to protect investments already made. Capacity
projects in reducing urban poverty. building by urban managers and policymakers is closely
linked to the long-term sustainability of investments and
1. Maximizing the economic efficiency of urban areas through interventions. Urban planning systems must be strength-
a. increased contribution to gross domestic product; ened, with improved processes for resource allocation,
b. easier market entry for small businesses; prioritizing development, and reaching the urban poor.
c. creation of employment; Regional cooperation in benchmarking skills, networking,
d. attraction of inward investment; and and cooperation is important to allow one city to learn
e. availability of suitable land, infrastructure, energy and from another.
services to meet business demand. ■ Housing and housing finance. ADB has carried out rela-
2. Reducing urban poverty through tively few housing projects. Slum upgrading and improv-
a. reduced unemployment; and ing access to basic services in urban poor communities are
b. increased number of households with access to land, gateways for reaching the poor. Squatter communities of-
infrastructure, and services. ten need to be relocated from areas not fit for human
3. Improving quality of life through habitation. Opportunities exist for strengthening national
a. reductions in environmental pollution levels; housing finance systems to place them on sustainable foot-
b. improved support mechanisms for the disadvantaged; ings, to attract private sector capital and expertise, and
c. enhanced role for gender development; better involve community-based organizations. Interven-
d. reduced crime levels; tions in the housing sector offer a good opportunity to
e. reduction in serious illnesses; and address the three main crosscutting themes of poverty re-
f. availability of suitable land, infrastructure, and ser- duction, governance, and private sector participation.
vices to meet demand. ■ Solid waste management. Efficiency of systems needs to
4. Achieving sustainable urban development through be improved through private sector partnerships, and in-
a. reduced use of non–replaceable natural resources; tegrating informal waste collection to extend services to
b. increased use of energy taxation, pricing and energy the urban poor. Cost recovery, waste recycling and mini-
saving forms of land use and construction; mization measures, and support for inter-local coopera-
c. increased social equity in the distribution of social tion are tools to create sustainable solid waste manage-
benefits; ment systems.
d. reductions in environmental pollution levels; and ■ Urban land management. Land management is critical
e. improved management systems, including good gov- to successful business, social, and residential development
ernance, decentralization, private sector involvement, fund- in the city or megacity and where relevant, to the wider
ing mechanisms, and community participation. extended metropolitan region. Related to the shelter sec-
tor and housing for the poor, effective policies require a
The following are the proposed core sectors for urban sound understanding of urban land markets, developing
operations and where new opportunities are expected to the legal and institutional structures, land use planning,
emerge. Over the next two- to three-year time frame, the mix of zoning tenure, cadastral surveys, and titling. Capacity build-
work between and within these sectors will require some level ing actions are needed to accelerate the delivery of ser-
of refocusing and refinement to respond to the crosscutting viced land, using a variety of mechanisms. Geographical
concerns of poverty reduction, governance, gender equity, and information systems (GIS), with in-depth relational data-
private sector participation. bases, are powerful decision-making tools for urban plan-
■ Water supply and sanitation. Water and sanitation projects ners and policymakers, and can be utilized for poverty
aim to provide universal access to adequate, reliable and mapping.

454 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

■ Urban transport. There is scope for ADB to provide effi- mote the sharing of best practices and innovation in urban
ciency improvements through traffic management, munici- environmental management; and
pal-level public transit systems, and municipal road projects. ■ developing a new urban management agenda that promotes
Urban air quality issues can be addressed through improved public awareness, targets the poor, and helps clients phase-
fuel quality, reduced vehicular emissions, and improved in programs on the basis of available resources. Sound
traffic flow. ADB can also assist in establishing clear roles urban development must be viewed as a process, not a
for the public and private sectors and in generating com- result.
petitive market, including competition between modes.
■ Urban environmental management. This is a growth area E. Implementing the Strategy
to be addressed through the introduction of market-based
instruments, improved coordination across boundaries and In summary the recommended strategy is a combination of
jurisdictions, and by promoting holistic, multipronged ap- several options considered by ADB and its developing member
proaches to be applied by strong institutions in a well- countries and comprises
grounded legal and regulatory environment. In many in- ■ developing comprehensive urban sector policy frameworks;
stances, the poor have the greatest exposure to environ- ■ formulating improved integrated urban development
mental pollution, and benefit the most through interven- projects;
tions in this sector. ADB is building good experience in ■ expanding subsector programs in priority new areas such
wastewater management, environmental cleanup of river as poverty reduction, land management, and housing fi-
basins, and comprehensive approaches that bring both nance;
environmental and human development benefits. ■ providing policy-based loans;
■ Municipal finance. ADB needs to work more in this im- ■ supporting private sector investments;
portant area to improve fiscal autonomy, including com- ■ promoting cooperation with NGOs and community-based
puterization of accounting, billing and collection proce- organizations (CBOs); and
dures, contracting out some services, and developing man- ■ catalyzing information dissemination.
agement information systems. In addition, ADB should as-
sist in improved funding for municipal infrastructure The strategy also identifies the implications for ADB opera-
through financial intermediaries, strengthen capital invest- tions including lending and technical assistance, staff resources
ment planning and budgeting processes, improve local re- and research priorities, including collaboration with other agen-
source mobilization (cost recovery, revenue mobilization, cies in the region (external support agencies, academic institu-
and financial management), develop credit ratings and tions and NGOs/CBOs).
municipal bond markets, and introduce credit enhance-
ment mechanisms.
■ Tourism infrastructure. Development of tourism plans,
programs, and related infrastructure in close cooperation
with the private sector, are important for increasing in-
comes and employment opportunities for the poor.

D. Achieving the Strategy

We will ensure a future of sustainable, equitable Asian cities by

■ adopting pro-poor strategies, which will ensure that the
fruits of development and quality of life are extended to
all;
■ thinking of cities as complex, living organisms that must be
addressed in a holistic manner, with comprehensive solu-
tions that deliver interrelated programs;
■ providing support for decentralization, the empowerment
of local governments that brings the decision-making and
the provision of services closer to the people served, in a
more accountable, participatory fashion;
■ involving civil society in a more broad, transparent way,
through partnerships with universities, NGOs, beneficiary
communities, and other stakeholders;
■ promoting private sector participation to narrow the fi-
nancing gap to be met and bring increased competition
and efficiency to the delivery of urban services;
■ embracing the digital revolution, and information and com-
munications technology that is transforming the way cities
are managed;
■ pursuing enhanced networking and cooperation to pro-

Appendixes 455
Appendix 6. City Hologram Ranking Scale 8. City Product (PPP Adjusted) Per Capita ($)
1 = > 20,000
2 = 5,000–19,999
National Context Indicators 3 = 2,000–4,999
4 = < 2,000
A. Urbanization Level, 1998 (percent of national population 9. Gross Domestic Product Per Capita 1997 (Same as
living in urban places) Indicator 8)
B. National Population, 1999
C. Human Development Index Ranking, 1998 Sector D. Economic Characteristics Employment/
D. GNP Per Capita, 1999 Competition
10. Informal Population as Percent of Total City
City Context Indicators Population (%)
1= <9
A. City Development Index 2 = 10–19
B. City Population Density (persons per hectare) 3 = 20–30
4 = > 30
City Indicators 11. Secondary Employment Percent of Employed
Population (%)
Sector A. Demographic Indicators A 1 = < 15
1. City Size (in million) 2 = 16–22
1=<1 3 = 23–30
2 = 1–2.4 4 = > 30
3 = 2.5–5.0 12. Services Employment (total of consumer, producer,
4=>5 social) (%)
2. Annual Rate of Population Increase (%) 1 = > 60
1=<1 2 = 40–59
2 = 1–2.9 3 = 20–39
3 = 3–4.0 4 = < 20
4=>4 13. Cost of Business Stay Overnight ($)
3. Annual Household Formation Rate (%) 1 = >140
1=<1 2 = 111–139
2 = 1–2.9 3 = 80–110
3 = 3–4.0 4 = < 80
4=>4 14. No. of International Flights per Month
1 = > 1,000
Sector B. Demographic Indicators B 2 = 500–999
4. Life Expectancy at Birth (years) 3 = 100–499
1 = > 70 4 = < 100
2 = 65–69 15. Cost of Commercial Land ($ per m2)
3 = 60–64 1 = > 2,000
4 = < 60 2 = 1,000–1,999
5. Proportion of Total Population 0-14 years of Age (%) 3 = 500–999
1 = < 20 4 = < 500
2 = 21–27
3 = 28–35 Sector E. Poverty
4 = > 35 16. Percent of Households Below Poverty Line (%)
6. Child Mortality: (the probability that a child will die 1 = < 20
before five years as a percentage) 2 = 21–29
1=<3 3 = 30–40
2 = 3.1–5.9 4 = > 40
3 = 6.0–9.0 17. Percent of Households Below Poverty Line $1 a day
4=>9 (same as Indicator 16)
18. Percent of Total Work Force Unemployed (%)
Sector C. Economic Characteristics and Productivity A 1=<5
7. City Product Per Capita 1998 ($) 2 = 5.0–9.9
1 = 4,000–26,000 3 = 10–15.0
2 = 2,000–3,999 4 = > 15
3 = 1,000–1,999
4 = < 1,000

456 Urban Indicators for Managing Cities

 19. Percent of Household Expenditure on Food (%) 29. Local Government Wages as a Percentage of Recur
1 = < 30 ring Budget
2 = 30–39 1 = < 25
3 = 40–50 2 = 25–49
4 = > 50 3 = 50–74
4 = > 75
Sector F. Social Infrastructure 30. Source of Local Government Revenue: Proportion
20. School children per Classroom, Primary from Taxes
1 = < 30 1 = 75–100
2 = 30–39 2 = 50–74
3 = 40–50 3 = 25–49
4 = > 50 4 = 0–24
21. Persons (City Population) per Hospital Bed 31. Source of Local Government Revenue: Proportion
1 = < 200 from Transfers
2 = 200–399 1 = 0–24
3 = 400–600 2 = 25–49
4 = > 600 3 = 50–74
22. Percent Housing In Compliance with Local Govern 4 = 75–100
ment Regulations (%)
1 = 75–100
2 = 50–74
3 = 25–49
4 = 0–24
23. Floor Area per Person (m2)
1 = > 30
2 = 20–29
3 = 10–19
4=9

Sector G. Sustainability, Physical Infrastructure, and

Governance

24. Water Household Connections (%)

1 = > 86
2 = 73–85
3 = 60–72
4 = < 60
25. Electricity Household Connections (%)
1 = > 75
2 = 50–74
3 = 25–49
4 = < 25
26. Sewerage Household Connections (%)
1 = > 75
2 = 50–74
3 = 25–49
4 = < 25
27. Automobiles per ’000 Population
1 = > 225
2 = 150–224
3 = 75–149
4 = < 75
28. Local Government Employees per ’000 Population
1 = < 20
2 = 20–29
3 = 30–40
4 = > 40

Appendixes 457
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