Competency Training and Certification Program in Electric Power System Engineering
Distribution System Control and Automation
Introduction to Control Systems
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Lecture Outline
1. Control Systems
a. Definition
b. Open Loop vs Closed Loop Control
c. Some types of Control Systems and Controllers
2. Transducers
a. Sensors - Examples and Applications
b. Actuators – Examples and Applications
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Control Systems
Definition:
A control system is a mechanical,
optical, electrical or electronic system
that is used to maintain a desired output.
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Control Systems
Open Loop Control System
Reference Actuating Control Output
Controller Plant
Signal Signal
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Control Systems
Closed Loop Control System
Reference Error Actuating Control Output
∑ Controller Plant
Signal + Signal Signal
_
Feedback Signal
Feedback
Element
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Control Systems
Some classification of control systems
Regulators
Servomechanisms or Servos
Some controllers types
Bang-bang or ON-OFF Controllers
Proportional, Integral, and Derivative Controllers
• P, I, or D Controllers
• PI, PD, PID Controllers
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Transducers
Definition:
Converts energy in one form to energy in another.
Converts some non-electrical physical quantity to an
electrical signal (vice-versa).
Includes motors and generators, sensors, and
actuators.
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Transducers
Basic Functions:
To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and/or
frequency of some measurand.
To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately
processed and applied to a readout device, gives
accurate quantitative data about the measurand.
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Transducer Diagram
Measurand Output
Transducer
(Physical Quantity) (Electrical Quantity)
Excitation
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Classification of Transducers
According to Principle of Operation
1. Passive Transducers – requires external power to
operate
- examples: variable resistance, variable inductance, and
variable capacitance transducers.
2. Active Transducers – self-generating; no need for
external excitation (self-excited).
- examples: thermocouples, piezoelectric transducers
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Classification of Transducers
According to Use/Application
1. Position, Displacement, or Proximity Transducers
2. Pressure, Force Transducers
3. Sound, Ultrasonic Transducers
4. Temperature Transducers
5. Seismic/Vibration, and Acceleration Transducers
6. Biomedical Transducers
7. Photoelectric/Light Transducers
8. Electromagnetic Transducers
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Transducer Examples
Resistive Position
Transducers
Linear
Rotary/Angular
Let fractional displacement r,
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Transducer Examples
Resistive Strain Gauge
When external forces are
applied to a stationary
object, stress and strain
result.
Metallic conductors
subjected to mechanical
strain exhibit a change in
resistance (re: R = ρL/A).
Gauge Factor (GF) is
defined as the fractional
change in resistance per
unit of strain.
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Transducer Examples
Wheatstone Bridge
Circuit for the
Resistive Strain
Gauge
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Transducer Examples
Capacitive Position
Transducer
C = Kε A / d
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Transducer Examples
Capacitive Position
Transducer
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Transducer Examples
Inductive Transducer as a Linear Variable Differential
Transformer
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Transducer Examples
Inductive Transducer as a Linear Variable Differential
Transformer
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Transducer Examples
Inductive Transducer as Flowmeter
A non-magnetic pipe lined with an insulating material.
A pair of magnetic coils
A pair of electrodes penetrates the pipe and its lining.
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Transducer Examples
Inductive Transducer as Flowmeter
- If a conductive fluid flows through a pipe of diameter (D)
through a magnetic field density (B) generated by the coils,
the amount of voltage (E) developed across the electrodes--
as predicted by Faraday's law--will be proportional to the
velocity (V) of the liquid.
- Because the magnetic field density and the pipe diameter
are fixed values, they can be combined into a calibration
factor (K) and the equation reduces to:
E = BDv = Kv
Where E is the induced emf across the electrodes
B is the magnetic field density
D is the diameter of the pipe
v is the velocity of the fluid
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Transducer Examples
Piezoelectric
Transducer
converts electrical energy into Pressure Port
vibrational mechanical energy,
often sound or ultrasound; and
vice-versa. Force-summing
Its main component is a crystal
that develops electrical charges
on the surface proportional to its Crystal Vout
deformation.
rigid Base
Examples of crystals are Barium Elements of a piezoelectric Transducer
Titanate, Rochelle Salt and Quarts
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Transducer Examples
Resistance Temperature RTD
Detectors (RTDs)
or resistance thermometer
Schematic Symbol
resistance of metals increases
of an RTD
with temperature
R = Ro (1 + α•∆T)
• R – resistance at temperature T
• Ro – resistance at reference (ambient)
temperature usually 20oC
• α - temperature coefficient of resistance
• ∆ - difference bet. operating and reference temp
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Transducer Examples
Thermistor
a thermally sensitive T
element composed of
Schematic Symbol
sintered semiconductor
material of a Thermistor
exhibits a large change in
resistance with a small
change in temperature.
Two broad types, NTC-
Negative Temperature
Coefficient, used mostly in
temperature sensing and
PTC-Positive Temperature
Coefficient, used mostly in
electric current control.
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Transducer Examples
Thermocouples
A temperature difference between
the joined ends and the open end
of the wires produces a voltage Eab
(seebeck voltage) between the
wires.
J1 is called the hot juction while J2
is the cold or reference junction.
Eab = c(T1 – T2) + k(T12 – T22)
• C and k are constants of the
thermocouple materials.
Iron-Constantan (Fe-CN) Thermocouple
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Transducer Examples
Thermocouples
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Transducer Examples
Photoelectric Transducers
a. Photoconductive Cells (Photocells)
b. Photovoltaic Cells (Solar Cells)
c. Semiconductor Photodiodes
d. Phototransistors
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Transducer Examples
Photocells
Uses the photoconductive
effect. The electrical resistance
Schematic Symbol of a
of the material varies with light Photocell
striking it.
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Transducer Examples
Solar Cells
- Photovoltaic effect or
PV effect.
Click here after video
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Transducer Examples
• Photodiodes
• Utilizes the reverse λ
characteristic of a PN
junction.
• Under reverse bias, the
PN junction acts as a
light controlled current
source.
• Output current is
proportional to incident
illumination and is
relatively independent of
applied voltage
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Transducer Examples
• Phototransistors
• Collector current
increases with
illumination
e
Phototransistor Circuit Symbol
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Selecting Transducers
1. Operating Range – should maintain range requirements and good
resolution (full scale range)/
2. Sensitivity – sensitive enough to allow sufficient output.
3. Minimum Sensitivity – minimally sensitive to expected stimuli other
than the measurand.
4. Accuracy and Precision.
5. Frequency Response and resonant frequency – is the transducer flat
over the operating range? Will the resonant frequency be excited?
6. Response Time – how fast does it respond to stimuli?
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Selecting Transducers
7. Environmental Compatibility – corrosive environments, heat,
pressure, shock, and mounting restrictions.
8. Usage and Ruggedness – consider ruggedness of both
mechanical and electrical intensities of the transducer versus its
size and weight. Consider who will be using the transducer.
9. Electrical Considerations – SNR, voltage and current levels,
frequency limitations, length and type of cable.
10. Hysteresis – is the output the same whether the value is
approached from an increasing or decreasing input stimuli?
11. Cost vs. benefits.
12. Design and implementation issues.
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General Applications of Transducers
• As sensing elements (sensors) in feedback control
systems, and industrial automated processes.
• temperature and pressure sensors, position and
displacement sensors, level detectors, etc...
• As actuators in control systems
• motors, pneumatic valves, electromechanical relays, and
switches
• As navigational aids of mobile robots
• proximity sensors, ultrasonic sensors, light sensors,
obstacle detection
• As sensing elements in security and alarm systems
• Smoke detectors, motion sensors, thermal sensors, etc...
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Specific Transducer
Applications
LVDT
Profile Gage
Fluid Level Gage
Phototransistor
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Actuators
Actuator
- is the mechanism by which an agent acts upon an
environment.
- A division of Transducers that converts an electrical
output signal into physical action (e.g. motion or
change in position).
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Actuators - Motors
Motors
Induction Motors – usually for variable speed industrial
applications
DC Motors – versatile actuator for many applications,
for fixed speed, variable speed, variable torque, and
position control applications
Stepper Motors –for position control
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Actuators
Switches
Manual switches and pushbuttons
Magnetic switches
Electrical/electronic switches
Contactor relays
Motors
Pneumatic and hydraulic pistons
Pneumatic , Hydraulic and Solenoid Valves
Heating Elements
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Actuators - Solenoid valves
Solenoid valves are electrically operated
devices that control the flow of liquids.
Solenoid valves are electromechanical devices
that use a wire coil and a movable plunger,
called a solenoid, to control a particular valve.
The solenoid controls the valve during either
the open or closed positions.
Solenoid valves have two main parts: the
solenoid and the valve.
After the coil receives a current, the actuating
magnetic field is created. The magnetic field
acts upon the plunger, resulting in the
actuation of the valve, either opening or
closing it.
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Actuators - Solenoid valves
There are two general types of solenoid valves: direct-
acting and pilot-operated.
Direct-acting solenoid valves have a plunger that is in
direct contact with the primary opening in the body. This
plunger is used to open and close the orifice.
The pilot-operated solenoid valve works with a diaphragm
rather than a plunger. This valve uses differential
pressure to control the flow of fluids. The air-venting
valve is opened to allow the pressure to equalize and
permit the fluids to flow through.
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Actuators - Pneumatic
A pneumatic actuator converts energy (in the form of
compressed air, typically) into motion. The motion can be
rotary or linear, depending on the type of actuator. Some
types of pneumatic actuators include:
Tie Rod Cylinders
Compact Air Cylinders
Rotary Actuators
Grippers
Escapement mechanisms
Rodless Actuators with Magnetic linkage
Rodless Actuators with Mechanical linkage
Specialty actuators that combine rotary and linear motion--frequently
used for clamping operations
Vacuum Generators
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Double Acting Pneumatic
or Hydraulic Cylinders
When hydraulic or pneumatic systems must produce linear
motion, cylinders become their most important component by
converting fluid pressure and flow to force and velocity
respectively.
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Sensors/Actuators – Limit Switches
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Sensors/Actuators – Limit Switches
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Sensors/Actuators – Limit Switches
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