Lecture 9
Heat Exchangers
Fall (2012)
Dr. Maher Abou Al-Sood
Chapter 4
Heat Exchangers Fouling
Layout of the Lecture
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Effects of Fouling
4.2.1 Basic Equations
4.2.2 Effect of Fouling on Heat Transfer
4.2.3 Effect of Fouling on Pressure Drop
4.3 Aspects of Fouling
4.3.1 Categories of Fouling
4.3.2 Fundamental processes of Fouling
4.3.3 Prediction of Fouling
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
In general, the collection and growth of unwanted material on
surfaces results in inferior performance.
In the present context the term fouling is used specially to refer
undesirable deposit on the heat exchanger surface.
During operation, the heat transfer surface fouls resulting in
increased thermal resistance and often an increase in pressure drop
and pumping power and hence degrading the performance of heat
exchanger.
The heat exchanger may deteriorate to the extent that it must be
withdrawn from service for replacement or cleaning.
Fouling may significantly influence the overall design of a heat
exchanger and may determine the amount of material employed
for construction.
Special operational arrangements may be required to facilitate
satisfactory performance between cleaning schedules.
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4.2 EFFECTS OF FOULING
Lower heat exchanger
and increased pressure drop
decrease the effectiveness of a heat exchanger.
4.2.1 Basic Equations
Q UATm
1
Uc
Ao 1 Ao ln d o d i 1
Ai hi 2 l k w ho
L um
2
p 4 f
d 2
4
4.2 EFFECTS OF FOULING (Cont’d)
4.2.2 Effect of Fouling on Heat Transfer
1
Uf
Ao 1 Ao A ln d o di 1
R fi o R fo
Ai hi Ai 2kkw ho
t
Rf for a plane wall
kf
d c ln d c d f
Rf for a cylinderical wall
2k f
1 1
R ft
U f Uc
Ao Af
R ft R fi R fo 1 U c R ft
Ai Ac
5
4.2 EFFECTS OF FOULING (Cont’d)
4.2.2 Effect of Fouling on Heat Transfer
6
4.2 EFFECTS OF FOULING (Cont’d)
4.2.2 Effect of Fouling on Pressure Drop
Fouling results in a change in the flow geometry that affects the flow
field and the pressure drop and hence the pumping power.
The fouling layer decreases the inside diameter and roughness the
tube wall resulting in the pressure drop.
L um
2
p 4 f m um Ac
d 2
2
Pressure drops inside a tube under fouled p f f f d c umf
f c d f umc
and clean conditions can be related as
pc
Assuming that the mass flow rate under clean and fouled conditions are
the same, previous equation can be written as
2
umf Ac dc p f f f dc
5
umc A d pc f c d f
f f 7
4.2 EFFECTS OF FOULING (Cont’d)
4.2.2 Effect of Fouling on Pressure Drop (Cont’d)
The inside diameter under fouled conditions df can be obtained by
rearranging
d c ln d c d f
Rf
2k f
2k f R f
d f d c exp
dc
2k f R f
t f o.5d c d f 0.5d c 1 exp
dc
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4.2 EFFECTS OF FOULING (Cont’d)
4.2.2 Cost of Fouling
The total fouling-related cost can be broken down into four main areas:
1. Capital expenditure
2. Extra fuel costs
3. Production losses
4. Energy losses
Capital expenditure, which includes excess surface area (10-50%, with
an average around 35%), costs for stronger foundations, provisions for
extra space, increased transport and installation costs.
Extra fuel costs, which arise if fouling leads to extra fuel burning in
furnaces or boilers or if more secondary energy such as electricity or
process steam is needed to overcome the effects of fouling.
Production losses during planned and unplanned plant shutdowns
due to fouling.
Energy losses due to increases thermal resistance in case of fouling
surfaces 9
4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.1 Categories of Fouling
Fouling can be classified by a number of different ways. These may be
including:
Type of heat transfer service, i.e. boiling or condensation
Type of fluid stream, i.e. liquid or gas
Kind of application, i.e. refrigeration or power generation
In order to develop a scientific understanding in, it is better to classify
fouling according to principle process that results in. Such classification
is
Particulate
Crystallization
Corrosion
Biofouling
Chemical reaction
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4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.1 Categories of Fouling (Cont’d)
4.3.1.1 Particulate Fouling
It is the accumulation of solid particles suspended in the process
stream onto the heat transfer surface.
Heavy particles settle on a horizontal surface because of gravity. fine
particulate tends to settle onto a heat transfer surface by different
mechanisms.
4.3.1.2 Crystallization Fouling
Crystallization arises primarily from the presence of dissolved
inorganic salts in the process stream which exhibit supersaturation
during heating or cooling.
Cooling-water systems are often prone to crystal deposition because of
the presence of salts such as calcium, magnesium carbonates,
silicates, and phosphates.
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4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.1 Categories of Fouling (Cont’d)
4.3.1.3 Corrosion Fouling
A heat transfer surface exposed to a corrosive fluid may react
producing corrosion products.
Corrosion products may also be swept away from the surface where
they are produced and transported to other parts of the system.
4.3.1.4 Biofouling
Deposition and/or growth of material of a biological origin on a heat
transfer surface results in biofouling.
Such material may include micro organisms (e.g. bacteria, algae, and
molds) and their products result in microbial fouling.
In other instances organisms such as seaweed, water weeds, and
barnacles form deposits known as a macrobial fouling.
Both types of biofouling may occur simultaneously.
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Condensers using seawater are prone to biofouling
4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.1 Categories of Fouling (Cont’d)
4.3.1.5 Chemical Reaction Fouling
Deposition Fouling deposits are found as a result of chemical
reaction(s) within process stream.
Unlike corrosion fouling, the heat transfer surface does not participate
in the reaction although it may act as a catalyst.
Polymerization, cracking, and coking of hydrocarbons are prime
examples.
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4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.2 Fundamental Processes of Fouling
Fouling is an extremely a complex phenomenon due to the large number of
variables that affect fouling.
For simplicity, the fouling mechanisms are initiation, transport,
attachment, removal, and aging.
4.3.2.1 Initiation
During initiation the surface is conditioned for the fouling that will take
place later. It called the delay induction/incubation period
Surface temperature, material, finish, roughness, and coatings strongly
influence the initial delay period.
For example, in chemical reaction fouling, the delay period decreases
with increasing temperature because of the acceleration of induction
reactions.
Surface roughness tends to decrease the delay period. 14
4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.2 Fundamental Processes of Fouling (Cont’d)
4.3.2.2 Transport
During this phase, fouling substances from the bulk fluid transported
to the heat transfer surface.
Transport is accomplished by a number of phenomena including
diffusion, sedimentation, and thermophoresis.
The difference between fouling species concentration in the bulk fluid
and the fluid adjacent to the heat transfer surface results in transport
by diffusion.
Sedimentation is defined as transportation of the particulate matter in
a fluid to the inclined or horizontal surface by gravity. It is important in
applications where particulates are heavy and fluid velocities are low.
Thermophoresis is the movement of small particles in a fluid stream
when a temperature gradient is present.
Thermophoresis is important for particles below 5 m in diameter15and
becomes dominant at about 0.1 m.
4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.2 Fundamental Processes of Fouling (Cont’d)
4.3.2.3 Attachment
Part of the fouling material transported attaches to the surface.
Probabilistic techniques are often used to determine the degree of
adherence.
Forces acting on the particles as they approach the surface are
important in determining attachment.
Additionally, properties of the material such as density, size, and
surface conditions are important.
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4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.2 Fundamental Processes of Fouling (Cont’d)
4.3.2.4 Removal
Some material is removed from the surface immediately after
deposition and some is removed later.
In general, shear forces at the interface between the fluid and the
deposited fouling layer are considered responsible for removal.
Dissolution, erosion, and spalling have been proposed as mechanism
of removal.
In dissolution, the material exists in ionic form.
Erosion, whereby the material exists in particulate form, is affected by
fluid velocity, particle size, surface roughness, and bonding of the
material.
Spalling is affected by thermal stress set up in the deposit by the heat
transfer process. 17
4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.2 Fundamental Processes of Fouling (Cont’d)
4.3.2.5 Aging
Once deposits are laid on the surface, aging begins.
The mechanical properties of the deposit can change during this phase
because of changes in the crystal or chemical structure for example.
Slow poisoning of microorganisms due to corrosion at the surface may
weaken the biofouling layer.
A chemical reaction taking place at the deposit surface may alter the
chemical composition of the deposit and thereby change its
mechanical strength.
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4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.3 Prediction of Fouling
The overall result of the processes listed previously is the net
deposition of material on the heat transfer surface.
Clearly the deposit thickness is time dependent.
For heat exchanger design a constant fouling resistance, interpreted as
the value reached in a time period after which the heat exchanger will
be cleaned, is used.
Predicting how fouling progresses over time determines the cleaning
cycle.
Predictive models are based on the idea that the variation of fouling
with time can be expressed as the difference between the deposition
rate and removal rate.
Most fouling behaviour can be represented by fouling-factor-time
curve as shown in next slide.
The shape of these curves relates to the phenomena occurring during
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the fouling process.
4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.3 Prediction of Fouling (Cont’d)
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4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.3 Prediction of Fouling (Cont’d)
If the deposition rate is constant and the removal rate is negligible,
the fouling-time curve will be straight line as shown by curve A .
This type of linear fouling is generally represented by tough, hard,
adherent deposits.
A widely observed form of fouling is the asymptotic fouling
represented by curve C. It results if the deposition rate is constant and
the removal rate is proportional to the fouling layer thickness.
Such a situation will generally occur if the deposits are soft since they
flake easily. is typical of commercial cooling water tower. 21
4.3 ASPECT OF FOULING
4.3.3 Prediction of Fouling (Cont’d)
Falling-rate factor, shown by curve B, lies between the linear and the
asymptotic curves.
Such behaviour may result if the deposition rate is inversely
proportional to the fouling thickness.
A periodic change in operating conditions results in the sawtooth
configuration shown in curve D.
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