Water Fluoridation

Principles and Practices

AWWA MANUAL M4

Fourth Edition

FOUNDED
1881
American Water Works Association

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 MANUAL OF WATER SUPPLY PRACTICES—M4, Fourth Edition
Water Fluoridation Principles and Practices
Copyright © 1979, 1984, 1988, 1995 American Water Works Association

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information or retrieval system,
except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for review purposes, without the written permission of
the publisher.

Project Manager: Kathleen Faller

Copyeditor: Phillip Murray

Printed in the United States of America

American Water Works Association

6666 West Quincy Ave.
Denver, CO 80235

ISBN 0-89867-794-7 Printed on recycled paper.

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 Contents

Foreword, v

Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Chemicals 1

History and Theory, 1
Chemicals, 7
Bibliography, 11

Chapter 2 Fluoridation System Planning 13

General System Configurations, 13
Chemical Selection Guidelines, 16
Preliminary Calculations, 16
Feed Rate and Dosage Calculations, 19
Example Feed Rate Problems, 21
Example Calculated Dosage Problems, 24
Simplification of Feed Rate and Dosage Calculations, 25
Preliminary Planning Examples, 26
Bibliography, 29

Chapter 3 Design, Equipment, and installation 31

Design, 31
Feeders, 35
Auxiliary Equipment, 43
Equipment Installation, 51
Bibliography, 52

Chapter 4 Operation and Maintenance 53

Control Scheme, 53
Troubleshooting, 57
Records, 59
Maintenance, 59
Safety, 61
Bibliography, 66

Additional Sources of Information, 67

Index, 69

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 Foreword

This manual assists decision makers planning fluoridation installations, engi-

neers designing them, and water utility personnel operating them. The manual pre-
sents guidelines and is not intended to take the place of expert advice. Anyone
planning or using fluoridation should carefully consider fluoride research, regula-
tions, and methods.
The first edition of AWWA Manual M4 was prepared from material supplied
and previously published by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).
This fourth edition updates the following major areas:
• health effects
• state and federal regulations
• fluoride chemical names
• editing and style revisions

* * *

This edition was prepared in part by Jack C. Dice, Denver (Colo.) Water
(retired). The revision was reviewed by Thomas G. Reeves, Centers for Disease Con-
trol and Prevention, Atlanta, Ga., and by the AWWA Standards, Fluorides Commit-
tee. This edition was reviewed and approved by the AWWA Water Quality Division
Board of Trustees, which at the time of approval included:
C.F. Voyles, Chair, Temple City, Calif.
P.L. McClothlin, Vice-Chair, City of Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs,
Colo.
J.S. Taylor, University of Central Florida, Winter Springs, Fla.
J.T. Harvey, Little Rock Municipal Water Works, Little Rock, Ark.
D.J. Reasoner, US Environmental Protection Agency, Drinking Water
Research Division, Cincinnati, Ohio
C.H. Tate, Montgomery Watson, Las Vegas, Nev.
R.C. Renner, Process Applications, Inc., Fort Collins, Colo.
D.J. Rexing, South Nevada Water Systems, Boulder City, Nev.
T.J. Sorg, US Environmental Protection Agency, Drinking Water Research
Division, Cincinnati, Ohio
J.E. Dyksen, Middlesex Water Company, Iselin, N.J.

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 AWWA MANUAL
4

Chapter 1
History, Theory,
and Chemicals

Fluoridation in this manual refers to the addition of fluoride to drinking water to

reduce tooth decay. Fluoridation has been practiced for over 50 years. This chapter
discusses the history of fluoridation and the theory of how it reduces tooth decay. The
chapter summarizes the results of health effects studies and addresses legal issues.
The common chemicals used in fluoridation are also discussed.

HISTORY AND THEORY

Fluoridation History
In 1908, Dr. Frederick McKay, a dentist in Colorado Springs, Colo., became concerned
because the teeth of many children in the community were mottled, or discolored.
Investigations showed that excessive amounts of fluoride in the local water supply
caused the mottling. In other towns using naturally fluoridated water, mottled teeth
appeared only when, as in Colorado Springs, the fluoride content of the water was
abnormally high. This mottling was later termed dental fluorosis. Fluorosis occurs
only when fluoride is consumed during childhood tooth formation.
In the 1920s, the teeth of thousands of children and the water supplies of the
communities in which they lived were evaluated. By 1931, the results showed
significant relationships between the fluoride concentration in the drinking water and
the incidence of cavities, technically called dental caries. Three distinct relationships
were discovered (Figure 1-1):
• When the fluoride level exceeds approximately 1.5 mg/L, any further increase
does not significantly decrease the incidence of decayed, missing, or filled
teeth, but higher levels do increase the occurrence and severity of mottling.
• At a fluoride level of approximately 1.0 mg/L, the optimal condition exists:
maximum reduction in caries with no aesthetically significant mottling.

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 .2 WATER FLUORIDATION

Figure 1 -1 Dental caries and dental fluorosis in relation to fluoride in public water supplies

• At fluoride levels below 1.0 mg/L, caries reduction diminishes; the drop in
benefits is much greater than the drop in fluoride levels. For example, when
the fluoride level drops 20 percent over a period of time (from 1.0 mg/L to 0.8
mg/L), there will be a 50 percent drop in benefits.
In the 1930s and 1940s, studies determined that fluoride added to drinking
water supplies would reduce dental caries. In 1950, the US Public Health Service
(USPHS) endorsed fluoridation. In 1962, the USPHS set fluoride levels in drinking
water at 0.7 mg/L (in warmer climates) to 1.2 mg/L (in colder climates). The range
was recommended because average water consumption varies with average daily air
temperature. The range is discussed in more detail in chapter 2 of this manual. The
USPHS also recommended that drinking water with natural fluoride levels twice the
recommended adjusted level not be used. The agency, however, had no power to force
water suppliers to remove excess fluoride.
Since 1974, the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), under the Safe
Drinking Water Act (SDWA), has regulated drinking water. In 1986, the USEPA set a
maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) and a maximum contaminant level (MCL)
for fluoride of 4 mg/L. An MCLG is a health-related goal and an MCL is a
technologically feasible goal. Although the MCL and the MCLG for a single
contaminant in drinking water may be different, in the case of fluoride both levels are
the same. The fluoride regulation applies to community water systems and requires
removal of excess fluoride. The MCLG and MCL are intended to protect against
adverse health effects, in particular crippling skeletal fluorosis. A secondary MCL was
set at 2 mg/L to protect against dental fluorosis. Secondary MCLs are federally
unenforceable, recommended levels intended to prevent aesthetic health effects. In
L990, the USEPA began the required three-year review of the MCLG and MCL.
The optimal fluoride level is usually established by the appropriate state
regulatory agency. USPHS and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
recommend concentrations and control ranges that can be used as guidelines if state
limits have not been established (see chapter 2).
Fluoridation has traditionally been justified based on the economics of a 40 to
55 percent reduction of tooth decay. Water fluoridation has been shown to be the least

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 HISTORY, THEORY, AND CHEMICALS 3

expensive method of dental caries reduction, the other methods being school water
fluoridation, topically applied pastes or gels, and fluoride tablets or drops. However,
fluoridation has not been without controversy. Some of the arguments against
fluoridation have been the lack of long-term health risk studies and the perception
that fluoridation is mass medication infringing on personal choice.
As of 1992 approximately 10,500 US community water supply systems serving
135 million people were using adjusted fluoridation. Approximately 70 percent of all
cities with populations of 100,000 or more have fluoridated water. Of the 50 largest
US cities, 42 use fluoridation (Table 1-1). As of 1990, eight states (Connecticut,
Georgia, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, Ohio, and South Dakota) and
Puerto Rico required fluoridation for cities with more than a specified population.
Approximately 50 percent of the Canadian population has fluoridated water.
The American Water Works Association (AWWA) policy on fluoridation was
adopted by the organization's board of directors on Jan. 25, 1976, and reaffirmed on
Jan. 31, 1982. The official text follows:
In view of the endorsement and resolutions of the American Dental
Association, the Canadian Dental Association, the American Medical Association,
the Canadian Medical Association, and the Health League of Canada, the American
Water Works Association supports the practice of fluoridation of public water
supplies in conformance with the standards set by the appropriate regulatory
agencies.

Bone and Tooth Incorporation of Fluoride

The mineral and hard tissue structures of bones, teeth, and other parts of the
skeleton contain fluoride. Soft body tissues do not retain fluoride, except as found in
calcified deposits. Fluoride enters the teeth either topically or systemically. The
topical effect occurs when a portion of the fluoride in drinking water is retained by
fluids in the mouth. The fluoride is then incorporated at the surface of the tooth. The
systemic effect occurs when fluoride diffuses through the walls of the stomach and
intestines. The fluoride is distributed throughout the body in the blood. The fluoride
is then available to all the skeletal structures, including the teeth. Fluoride not
deposited in bones and teeth is excreted through the kidneys.
Fluoride incorporation by the teeth is most rapid during the time of a child's
formation and growth, roughly from the fourth month of pregnancy to the tenth year.
The eighth year generally marks the end of the maximum rate of incorporation of
fluoride in the teeth. Teeth differ from other parts of the skeleton in that once they
are formed, with the exception of the inner part of the tooth and the root, there is very
little cellular activity.

Tooth Decay
A tooth is composed of enamel, dentin, pulp, and cementum (Figure 1-2). Tooth decay
occurs when the tooth structure is destroyed by acids. These acids are produced by
the action of bacteria and enzymes on sugars and carbohydrates in the mouth. This
action takes place beneath the plaque, which is an invisible film composed of gummy
masses of microorganisms that adhere to the teeth. Oral bacteria alone can convert
some of the simple sugars into acids. Bacteria and enzymes acting together convert
carbohydrates and more complex sugars into acids. Cavities, or caries, form when the
acids dissolve tooth enamel.
Nearly everyone suffers from dental caries, making tooth decay the most
prevalent chronic human disease. More than 98 out of every 100 Americans
experience some tooth decay by the time they reach adulthood. Tooth decay begins in

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 4 WATER FLUORIDATION

Table 1-1 Fluoridation status of the 50 largest US cities (1992 census)

Population, Fluoridation
City Rank thousands of people Starting Year
New York, N.Y. 1 7,323 1965
Los Angeles, Calif. 2 3,485
Chicago, 111. 3 2,784 1956
Houston, Texas 4 1,631 1982
Philadelphia, Pa. 5 1,586 1954
San Diego, Calif. 6 1,111
Detroit, Mich. 7 1,028 1967
Dallas, Texas 8 1,007 1966
Phoenix, Ariz. 9 983 1990
San Antonio, Texas 10 936
San Jose, Calif. 11 782
Indianapolis, Ind. 12 742 1951
Baltimore, Md. 18 736 1952
San Francisco, Calif. 14 724 1952
Jacksonville, Fla. 15 673 Natural
Columbus, Ohio 16 633 1973
Milwaukee, Wis. 17 628 1953
Memphis, Tenn. 18 610 1970
Washington, D.C. 19 607 1952
Boston, Mass. 90 574 1978
Seattle, Wash. 21 516 1969
El Paso, Texas 22 515 Natural
Nashville-Davidson, Tenn. 23 511 1953
Cleveland, Ohio 24 506 1956
New Orleans, La. 25 497 1974
Denver, Colo. 26 468 1954
Austin, Texas 87 466 1973
Fort Worth, Texas 38 448 1965
Oklahoma City, Okla. 80 445 1964
Portland, Ore. 30 437
Kansas City, Mo. 31 435 1983
Long Beach, Calif. 32 429 1971
Tucson, Ariz. 33 405
St. Louis, Mo. 34 397 1955
Charlotte, N.C. 35 396 1949
Atlanta, Ga. 36 394 1969
Virginia Beach, Va. 37 393 1952
Albuquerque, N.M. 38 385 1974
Oakland, Calif. 39 372 1976
Pittsburgh, Pa. 40 370 1952
Sacramento, Calif. 41 369
Minneapolis, Minn. 43 368 1957
Tulsa, Okla. 48 367 1953
Honolulu, Hawaii 44 365
Cincinnati, Ohio 48 364 1979
Miami, Fla. 48 359 1952
Fresno, Calif. 47 354 1954
Omaha, Neb. 48 336 1969
Toledo, Ohio 49 333 1955
Buffalo, N.Y. 50 328 1955
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
NOTE: Cities with no entry under "Fluoridation Starting Year" did not use fluoridation.

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 HISTORY, THEORY, AND CHEMICALS 5

Figure 1 -2 The human tooth

early childhood, reaches a peak in adolescence, and diminishes during adulthood. The
highest tooth decay activity is found in school-aged children. By age 17, the average
US resident will have 6.3 decayed, missing, or filled teeth.
Fluoride reduces tooth decay in several ways. Fluoride strengthens the enamel
against decay when the enamel layer incorporates fluoride during childhood tooth
formation. Another way in which fluoride reduces decay is through the constant
demineralization and remineralization, which takes place on the surface of the teeth.
Acids that form in the mouth cause demineralization through the exchange of ions.
Fluoride inhibits the formation of acids, which allows remineralization to occur.
Another mechanism that occurs during remineralization is the incorporation of
fluoride ions into the enamel, which strengthens it.

Health Effects
High concentrations of fluoride in drinking water have been found to cause adverse
health effects.
Skeletal fluorosis. Skeletal fluorosis is an adverse health effect caused by an
accumulation of too much fluoride in bone. The stages of skeletal fluorosis range from
preclinical (no reported symptoms) to crippling. Symptoms include
• pain in bones and joints
• formation of bone spurs
• osteoporosis in the long bones (loss of bone mass and increase in porosity)
• osteosclerosis (increase in bone density and formation of unusual crystalline
structure)
• weakness of extremities
• fused vertebrae
Crippling skeletal fluorosis results from intakes of fluoride of 20 mg/d over periods of
20 years or more. A drinking water fluoride concentration of 10 mg/L, combined with
a 2-L/d water consumption rate, would correspond to this value.
Severe dental fluorosis. Severe dental fluorosis causes teeth to be stained,
pitted, and brittle. USEPA research indicates that at 4 mg/L, 7 percent of the
population experiences moderate dental fluorosis and 23 percent experience severe
dental fluorosis. Doses as low as 2 to 5 mg/L can cause the preclinical and earlier
stages. Figure 1-1 indicates the percent of people affected by varying levels of dental
fluorosis, from very mild to severe, and the incidence of caries experienced from 0 to

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 6 WATER FLUORIDATION

6 mg/L fluoride. As the line indicating the number of caries experienced shows, the
optimum benefits from fluoride occur around 1 mg/L fluoride. Recent studies have
shown a slight increase in dental fluorosis in communities with nonfluoridated water.
The cause may be fluoride in sources other than drinking water. These sources
include toothpastes, dietary supplements, mouth rinses, professional applications,
and foods and beverages processed with fluoridated water.
Other health effects. Other health effects have been studied, though less
extensively than fluorosis. The studied risks include
• kidney disease
• hypersensitivity (allergic reactions)
• enzyme and mutagenic (gene-altering) effects
• birth defects
• cancer
The evidence of fluoride's part in any of these health risks remains largely
inconclusive. The strongest recommendation comes from the National Kidney
Foundation, which advises that dialysis patients use fluoride-free water for their
treatments.
A National Toxicology Program study released in 1990 indicates equivocal
(uncertain) evidence of carcinogenicity in rats fed sodium fluoride. This evidence is
based on a small number of bone tumors. As a result of the equivocal evidence ruling,
the USPHS conducted a comprehensive review of the benefits and risks of
fiuoridation. Its 1991 report recommends the use of fluoride to reduce dental caries
and supports optimal fluoridation of drinking water.
A National Research Council panel, in a. report issued Aug. 17, 1993, found that
there was no credible evidence that fluoridation causes cancer, kidney disease, or
birth defects. The panel found some studies that suggested long-term exposure to
fluoride increases hip or vertebra fractures in people after age 80. However, the
evidence was uncertain. The National Institutes of Health is organizing a long-term
study to see whether these fractures are related to fluoridation.

Legal Issues
The legality of fluoridation has been tested in the courts several times. Beginning in
1952, injunctions were sought in some communities to prevent the initiation or
continuance of fluoridation. These cases were generally based on several of the
following types of arguments: violation of religious freedom, violation of pure food
acts, abuse of municipal authority, an unreasonable or unnecessary measure, wasteful
or illegal use of public funds, an unsafe measure or nuisance, availability of
alternatives, breach of contract, class legislation (i.e., only children benefit), and
deprivation of fundamental liberties.
In all cases fluoridation has prevailed. During 30 years of litigation, fluoridation
has withstood challenges under constitutional objections (related to Amendments 1,
10, and 15); it has been upheld in the highest courts in more than a dozen states; and
it has withstood legal challenges in more than 25 states. At least eight times the US
Supreme Court has denied review, generally on the grounds that no constitutional
question was involved.
Even though the basic issues involved in fluoridation litigation were resolved
more than a decade ago, cases based on the same issues occasionally appear. A few of
these suits have been successful in obtaining injunctions. Referendums to prohibit or
discontinue fluoridation have been successful; more fluoridation projects were

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 HISTORY, THEORY, AND CHEMICALS 7

defeated than were approved. Of the approximately 8,000 fluoridated water systems,
fewer than 8 percent were authorized through a referendum.

CHEMICALS
In theory, any compound that forms fluoride ions in water can be used for
fluoridation. However, several practical considerations are involved in the selection of
which compounds to use.
• The compound must be sufficiently soluble to permit its use in routine water
treatment plant practice.
• The cation (positively charged ion) to which the fluoride ion is attached must
not have any undesirable characteristics.
• The material should be relatively inexpensive and readily available in grades
of a size and purity that are suitable for the intended use.
The three most commonly used fluoride compounds are sodium fluoride,
fluorosilicic acid, and sodium fluorosilicate. Before 1992, fluorosilicic acid was known
as hydrofluosilicic acid, and sodium fluorosilicate was called sodium silicofluoride.
The AWWA standards that address fluoride compounds are
• AWWA Standard B701, Sodium Fluoride
• AWWA Standard B702, Sodium Fluorosilicate
• AWWA Standard B703, Fluorosilicic Acid
The chemical, physical, and other characteristics of these three compounds are
summarized in Table 1-2. Other compounds have also occasionally been used for
fluoridation, as discussed later in this section.

Sodium Fluoride
The first fluoride compound used in adjusted fluoridation was sodium fluoride. It was
selected not only on the basis of the criteria just specified, but also because its toxicity
and physiological effects had been studied thoroughly. Once fluoridation became an
established practice, other compounds came into use, but sodium fluoride, because of
its unique physical characteristics and other advantages in some situations, is still
one of the most widely used chemicals for fluoridation.
Sodium fluoride is a white, odorless material available either as a powder or as
crystals of various sizes. Its formula weight is 42.00. Its solubility is practically
constant at 4 g/100 mL of water at temperatures generally encountered in water
treatment. When added to water, sodium fluoride dissociates into sodium and fluoride
ions:
(1-1)
Solution pH varies with the type and amount of impurities, but solutions
prepared from the usual grades of sodium fluoride exhibit a pH near neutral
(approximately 7.6). Sodium fluoride is available in purities ranging from 90 to more
than 98 percent. Impurities consist of water, free acid or alkali, sodium fluorosilicate,
sulfites, and iron, plus traces of other substances.
Powdered sodium fluoride is produced in different densities; the light grade
weighs less than 65 lb/ft3 (1,000 kg/m3), and the heavy grade weighs about 90 lb/ft3
(1,400 kg/m3). Atypical sieve analysis of powdered sodium fluoride passes 99 percent
through a 200-mesh sieve and 97 percent through a 325-mesh sieve.

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 8 WATER FLUORIDATION

Table 1-2 Characteristics of fluoride compounds

Sodium Fluoride Sodium Fluorosilicate

I Fluorosilicic Acid
Item (NaF) (Na2SiF6) (H2SiF6)
Form Powder or crystal Powder or Liquid
very fine crystal

Molecular weight 42.00 188.05 144.08

Available fluoride ion — percent 45.25 60.7 79.2

(100 percent pure material)
Pounds required per million gallons 18.8 14.0 46
(grams required per cubic metre) (2.225) (1.678) (5.512)
for 1.0 mg/L F- at indicated purity (98 percent) (98.5 percent) (23 percent)

pH of saturated solution 7.6 3.5 1.2

(23 percent solution)

Sodium ion contributed 1.17 0.40 0.00

at 1.0 mg/L F-

F ion storage space — 22-34 23-30 54-73

ft3/100 lb (m3/kg) (0.0137-0.0212) (0.0143-0.0187) (0.0337-0.0455)

Solubility— at 25 °C, g/100 mL water 4.05 0.762 Infinite

Weight—3 lb/ft3 65-90 55-72 .0.5 lb/gal (30 percent)

(kg/m ) (1,000-1,400) (880-1,150) (1.26 kg/L)
Typical commercial purity — percent 97-99 98-99 20-30
Shipping containers 50-lb bags 50-lb bags 13-gal carboys
100-lb bags 100-lb bags 55-gal drums
125- to 400-lb 124- to 140-lb tanks cars, bulk
fiber drums, bulk fiber drums, bulk

Crystalline sodium fluoride is produced in various size ranges, usually

designated as coarse, fine, and extra fine; however, some manufacturers can furnish
lots in specific mesh sizes. The crystalline type is preferred for utilities using manual
handling since it results in a minimum of dust. Sodium fluoride is commercially
available in both 50- and 100-lb (23- and 45-kg) bags.
Sodium fluoride must be made into a solution, before being added to water
supplies. The chemical can be dissolved in a mixing tank, a saturator, or a dissolving
chamber. Equipment requirements are discussed in detail in chapter 3.

Fluorosilicic Acid
Fluorosilicic acid is a 20 to 35 percent aqueous solution of H2SiF6; it has a formula
weight of 144.08. When pure it is a colorless, transparent, fuming, corrosive liquid
having a pungent odor and an irritating action on the skin. On vaporizing, the acid
decomposes to form hydrofluoric acid (HF) and silicon tetrafluoride (SiF4). Under
conditions where an equilibrium between the fiuorosilicic acid and its decomposition
products exists, such as at the surface of strong solutions, etching of glass can occur.

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 HISTORY, THEORY, AND CHEMICALS 9

Fluorosilicic acid dissociates virtually 100 percent in solution, releasing

hydrofluoric acid and silicon tetrafluoride:

(1-2)
Hydrofluoric acid strongly dissociates, lowering the pH of the solution:

(1-3)
Silicon tetrafluoride is a gas that will easily volatilize out of solution if present in high
concentrations. It also reacts quickly with water to form silicic acid (H2SiO3) or silica
(SiO2):

(1-4)
or

(1-5)

All solutions of fluorosilicic acid exhibit a low pH (approximately 1.2). Even

at a concentration low enough to produce 1 mg/L of fluoride ion, the pH of poorly
buffered waters can be lowered. For example, in water containing 30 mg/L of total
dissolved solids with a pH of 6.5, after H3SiF6 is added to produce 1 mg/L F-, the
pH drops to 6.2.
Fluorosilicic acid is manufactured by two different processes, which results in
products having different characteristics. Most fluorosilicic acid is produced as a
by-product of phosphate fertilizer manufacture; this type is relatively impure and
seldom exceeds 30 percent strength. A smaller amount of fluorosilicic acid is produced
from hydrofluoric acid and silica; this type is a purer product at a slightly higher
strength. Acid prepared from phosphate rock (as part of fertilizer manufacture)
contains colloidal silica in varying amounts. Although this is of little consequence
when the acid is used as received, dilution results in the formation of a visible
precipitate of the silica. Some suppliers of by-product fluorosilicic acid sell a fortified
form that has a small amount of hydrofluoric acid added to prevent the formation of
precipitate. Acid prepared from hydrofluoric acid and silica does not normally form a
precipitate when it is diluted.
Because fluorosilicic acid contains a high proportion of water, shipping large
quantities can be expensive. Large users can purchase the acid directly from the
manufacturer in bulk lots (tank cars or tank trucks), but small users must obtain the
acid from distributors, who usually package it in drums or polyethylene carboys.
Rather than attempt to adjust the acid strength to some uniform figure, producers
sell the acid as it is produced and adjust the price to compensate for acid strength
greater or less than the quoted figure. Suppliers usually furnish assay reports of the
acid strength of each lot.
Attempts to dilute the acid are subject to errors in measuring both the acid and
the diluting water. The acid should be used undiluted as it comes from the shipping
containers. If the acid is too concentrated for the solution feeder to handle, then
weaker solutions of other, less expensive compounds should be used, such as
saturated solutions of sodium fluoride.

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 10 WATER FLUORIDATION

Sodium Fluorosilicate
Fluorosilicic acid can readily be converted into various salts, one of which, sodium
fluorosilicate, is widely used in fluoridation. Sodium fluorosilicate is one of the least
expensive compounds currently in use. The conversion of fluorosilicic acid, essentially
a low-cost by-product containing too much water to permit economical shipping, to a
dry material containing a high percentage of available fluoride results in a compound
having most of the advantages of the acid with few of its disadvantages.
Sodium fluorosilicate is a white, odorless, crystalline powder. Its molecular
weight is 188.06. Its solubility varies from 0.44 g/100 mL of water at 32°F (0°C) to
2.45 g/100 mL of water at 212°F (100OC). When sodium fluorosilicate is dissolved in
water, virtually 100 percent dissociation occurs rapidly:

(1-6)

Silicofluoride ions, SiF6, may react in two ways. The most common reaction is
hydrolysis of SiF6-, releasing fluoride ions and silica. Silica, the main ingredient in
glass, is very soluble in water.

(1-7)

Alternatively, SiF6- dissociates very slowly, releasing fluoride ions and silicon
tetrafluoride:

(1-8)

Silicon tetrafluoride reacts as described in Eq 1-4 and Eq 1-5. The pH values of the
solutions are on the acid side, with saturated solutions usually exhibiting a pH
between 3.0 and 4.0. Sodium fluorosilicate is available in purities of 98 percent or
greater, with the principal impurities being water, chlorides, and silica.
Sodium fluorosilicate is sold in two commercial forms: regular and fluffy. The
regular form has a density of about 85 lb/ft3 (1,400 kg/m3), the fluffy form about
65 lb/ft3 (1,000 kg/m3). Atypical sieve analysis of the regular grade allows more than
99 percent through a 200-mesh sieve and more than 10 percent through a 325-mesh
sieve. Depending on feeding characteristics, other size specifications can be selected.
Experience shows that a low moisture content plus a relatively narrow size
distribution results in a material that is handled better by dry feeders.
Considerable quantities of sodium fluorosilicate are imported. Sodium fluorosili-
cate is normally packed in bags and drums similar to those used for sodium fluoride.
As with sodium fluoride, sodium fluorosilicate must be made into a solution in a
dissolving chamber before being fed into the water supply.

Other Fluoride Compounds

Ammonium silicofluoride, magnesium silicofluoride, potassium fluoride, calcium
fluoride (fluorspar), and hydrofluoric acid have also been used for fluoridation. Each
has particular properties that make the material desirable in a specific application,
but none of them has widespread application in the United States. Fluorspar is used
frequently in South America, particularly in Brazil.
Ammonium silicofluoride has the advantage of supplying all or part of the
ammonium ion necessary for the production of chloramines, when this form of
disinfectant is used.

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 HISTORY, THEORY, AND CHEMICALS 11

Magnesium silicofluoride and potassium fluoride have the advantage of

extremely high solubility, which is of particular importance in applications such as
school fluoridation, where infrequent refills of the solution container are desired. In
addition, potassium fluoride is quite compatible with potassium hypochlorite; a
mixture of the two can be used for simultaneous fluoridation and chlorination.
Calcium fluoride (fluorspar) is the least expensive of the compounds used for
fluoridation and also the least soluble. It has been successfully fed by first dissolving it in
alum solution and then using the resultant solution to supply both the alum needed for
coagulation and the fluoride ion. However, this method of operation is wasteful because
of fluoride loss during alum coagulation and filtration (see chapter 4).
Hydrofluoric acid, although low in cost, presents too much of a safety and
corrosion hazard to be acceptable for general water fluoridation. It has, however, been
used in a specially designed installation.
Other fluoride compounds have been suggested for use in water fluoridation,
among them ammonium bifluoride and sodium bifluoride. These materials have the
advantages of high solubility and low cost, but their potential corrosiveness has made
them generally unacceptable.
The manufacturers or suppliers of the various fluoride compounds can provide
technical data and specification sheets that will assist the prospective purchaser in
selecting the appropriate grade of chemical for the type of feeder used.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Reeves, T.G. 1987. Avoiding a Fluoride
. 1993. Fluoridation Fact Sheet: Status Chemicals Shortage. Opflow, 13(7):3.
of Water Fluoridation in the United Report of the Ad Hoc Subcommittee on
States as of 12/31/92. Atlanta, Ga.: Fluoride of the Committee to Coordi-
Centers for Disease Control and Pre- nate Environmental Health and Re-
vention. lated Programs. Feb. 1991. Review of
Hileman, B. 1988. Fluoridation of Water. Fluoride Benefits and Risks, Depart-
Chemical and Engineering News, Aug. ment of Health and Human Services,
1, 1991: 26-42. USPHS.
Pontius, F.W. 1991. Fluoride Regulation Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Engi-
and Water Fluoridation. Jour. AWWA, neers and Technicians. 1986. Atlanta,
83(11):20. Ga.: US Department of Health and
. 1993. NRC Determines Current Human Services, Public Health Serv-
Fluoride MCL Appropriate. Opflow, ice, Centers for Disease Control and
19(11):3-6. Prevention.
Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Water
National Research Council. 1993. Health
Effects of Ingested Fluoride. Wash- Plant Operators. 1993. Atlanta, Ga.:
ington, D.C.: National Academy US Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Cen-
Press.
ters for Disease Control and Preven-
National Toxicology Program Technical Re- tion.
port on the Toxicology and Carcino-
genesis Studies of Sodium Fluoride in
344 /N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Drink-
ing Water Studies). 1990. Department
of Health and Human Services, N/H
Report 90-2848.

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 AWWA MANUAL
4

Chapter 2
Fluoridation System
Planning

This chapter introduces general types of fluoridation systems. It also presents

guidelines for planning fluoridation systems. Included are chemical selection
guidelines, feed rate and dosage calculations, example feed rate problems, and
examples of preliminary planning.
Fluoridation systems are usually planned in coordination with the state or
provincial agencies responsible for drinking water regulations. The regulations may
address fluoride levels, recommended systems, monitoring requirements, and record
keeping. The agencies may have final approval of systems. Among the considerations
in choosing the right fluoridation system for a particular situation are
• optimal fluoride level
• population served or water usage
• water system characteristics (such as source of supply, treatment, storage,
distribution, personnel)
• chemical availability
• cost
Although no type of fluoridation system is solely applicable to a specific
situation, some general limitations are imposed by the size and type of water facility.
For example, the manager of a large metropolitan water plant usually should not
consider a fluoridation system involving the manual preparation of batches of
solution, and the manager of a small facility consisting of several unattended wells
should not consider a large dry feed system.

GENERAL SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS

This section introduces the general configurations of fluoridation systems. Specific
information on fluoridation equipment is found in chapter 3.

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 14 WATER FLUORIDATION

The simplest fluoridation system (Figure 2-1) is one based on the use of
fluorosilicic acid. The acid is supplied in carboys or drums, mounted on a platform
scale. A solution feed pump, mounted on a shelf above the carboy, injects the acid into
a main in proportion to the water flow. The feed pump should not be mounted more
than 4 ft (1.2 m) above the top of the carboy. An antisiphon valve is usually part of the
feeder, and auxiliary equipment such as a loss-of-weight recorder can be added.
A sodium fluoride saturator system is almost as simple. This system requires
slightly more space and piping than a straight acid feed system (Figure 2-2). Many of
the same comments made regarding acid feed systems apply to the saturator systems.
The metering pump should be located not more than 4 ft (1.2 m) above the low
saturated water line in the saturator. The suction line should be as short as possible.
The metering pump should be equipped with an antisiphon valve. There should also
be an antisiphon valve at the fluoride injection point if the fluoride solution is injected
into a water main. Once the solution has been adjusted, the only operator attention
required is the occasional replenishing of chemical (without weighing) and the
cleaning of the saturator.
The fluoride saturator does not need to be sealed as tightly as the acid carboy.
Saturator systems should have a water meter and, if necessary, a water softener. The
feedwater line should contain a Y-strainer and sufficient unions to allow easy removal
of piping. When mounting a metering pump on a shelf or platform above the
saturator, it is advisable to off-set it sufficiently to permit access to the container for
filling and cleaning. Mounting the metering pump on the lid of the saturator is not
recommended.
A saturator should never be pushed to its design capacity limit for any length of
time. When a saturator's capacity is approached, another method of fluoridation
should be considered, such as the use of fluorosilicic acid.
Dry feeding of sodium fluorosilicate or sodium fluoride is limited to water plants
large enough to accommodate a volumetric or gravimetric feeder. Volumetric dry
feeders (Figure 2-3) are capable of feeding at very low rates, and some of the smallest
disk types, such as those used for pilot-plant installations, are able to handle water
rates as low as 25 gpm (95 L/min). If an open channel for feeding by gravity from the
dissolving tank is not available, an eductor or centrifugal feed pump can be used for

Figure 2-1 Acid feed installation

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 FLUORIDATION SYSTEM PLANNING 15

Figure 2-2 Solution fluoride saturator

Figure 2-3 Dry feed installation with volumetric feeder

injecting fluoride solution into a main. The roll-type and screw-typo volumetric dry
feeders are capable of handling flow rates from less than 100 gpm to several million
gallons per day (400 L/min to several megalitres per day). Gravimetric dry feeders
can treat flows from about 2 mgd (7.6 ML/d) up to the greatest water usages
encountered (Figure 2-4).
The fluoridation system with the lowest equipment cost feeds a fluoride solution
into a water flow in a pipeline. The only requirements are to prepare a fluoride
solution of known concentration and to pump it into the water so that the necessary
fluoride concentration in the water is achieved. Of the most commonly used fluoride
compounds, sodium fluoride and fluorosilicic acid are of sufficient solubility to make

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 16 WATER FLUORIDATION

Figure 2-4 Dry feed installation with gravimetric feeder

up solutions of fixed strength that can then be fed with a metering pump. Fluorosilicic
acid, normally purchased as a solution, can be fed either directly from the shipping
container or from an intermediate storage tank (day tank).
For small water plants, some type of solution feed is usually selected. There is
almost no lower limit to the ranges of the smallest metering pumps. In addition, if the
feed rate for solution feed is impractically low, a more dilute solution can be fed.
Conversely, there is almost no upper limit to the capacity of gravimetric dry feeders
or pumps. Large water plants can select either dry feed using sodium fluorosilicate or
direct feed using fluorosilicic acid. All other water plants have a choice, modified by
individual circumstances. Assistance can be obtained from state health department
engineers, manufacturers' representatives, and consultants.

CHEMICAL SELECTION GUIDELINES

For small water plants, the amount of chemical used is small enough that the cost per
pound is not a major factor. Therefore, sodium fluoride or fluorosilicic acid, even though
relatively expensive in small lots, can be used. The decision to use fluorosilicic acid, a
manually prepared sodium fluoride solution, or a saturator depends on the quantities to
be fed, the skill of the operator, and the availability and desirability of acid.
Table 2-1 is a checklist, based mainly on water pumping rates, that can be used
as a rough guide in differentiating between the various types of fluoridation
installations. The population divisions in this table are general guidelines and will
overlap.

PRELIMINARY CALCULATIONS
The first step in planning is to determine the optimal fluoride level and dosage. Then,
based on the system pumping rates and chemical purity and available fluoride ions,
the quantity of chemicals needed daily can be determined. The quantity in large part
determines the chemical that should be used, which in turn determines the types of

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 Table 2-1 Fluoridation planning checklist
Dry Feed
Manual Automatic
Sodium Fluoride Fluorosilicic Acid
Operating Sodium Fluoride 23-30 percent Sodium Fluorosilicate Sodium Fluoride
Solution Preparation Solution Preparation
Parameters
Less than 2,000 gpm More than 500 gpm More than 100 gpm More than 2 mgd
Water flow rate Less than 500 gpm (380 L/min) (7.67 ML/d)
(7,600 L/min) (1,900 L/min)
(1,900 L/min)
More than 10,000 More than 10,000 More than 50,000
Less than 10,000
Population served Less than 5,000
by system or
each well of
multiple-well
system
Solution feeder, day Volumetric dry feeder, Gravimetric dry feeder,
Solution feeder, mixing Solution feeder, scales, hopper, dissolving hopper, dissolving
Equipment saturator, water nMAer tank, scales, transfer
required tank, scales, mixer chamber chamber
pump
Depends on solution Depends on feeder Usually within 3 percent Usually within 1 permit
Feed accuracy Depends on feeder
preparation and feeder
Crystalline NaF, dust- Downflow — coarse Powder in bags, drums, or bulk; generally available
Chemical crystalline NaF in Bulk acid in tank cars
specifications free, in bags or drums; or trucks; available
and availability generally available bags or drums, may
be scarce on contract
Upflow — fine
crystalline NaF

Weighing, mixing, Dumping whole bags Bag loaders or bulk-handling equipment required
Handling only All handling by pump
requirements measuring
Injection into filter Injection into filter
Feeding point Injection into filter Gravity feed from dissolving chamber into open flume
effluent line or main effluent line or main or clearwell, pressure feed into filter effluent line or
effluent line or main
main
Solution water may Solution water may Dry storage area, dust collectors, dissolving chamber,
Other require softening Acid-proof storage
requirements require softening mixers, hopper agitators, eductors, etc.
tank, piping, etc.
Dust, spillage, solution Dust, spillage Dust, spillage, arching, and flooding in feeder and
Hazards Corrosion, fumes,
preparation error hopper
leakage

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 18 WATER FLUORIDATION

Table 2-2 Optimal fluoride levels

Recommended
Annual Average of Maximum Fluoride
Daily Air Temperatures,* Concentrations, Recommended Control Range,
°F °C mg/L mg/L
(0.1 Below) (0.4 Above)
50.0-53.7 10.0-12.0 1.2 1.1 1.6
53.8-58.3 12.1-14.6 1.1 1.0 1.5
58.4-63.8 14.7-17.6 1.0 0.9 1.4
63.9-70.6 17.7-21.4 0.9 0.8 1.3
70.7-79.2 21.5-26.2 0.8 0.7 1.2
79.3-90.5 26.3-32.5 0.7 0.6 1.1
*Based on temperature data for a minimum of five years.
Division of Oral Health. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Public Health Service, Atlanta, Ga.

Figure 2-5 Optimal fluoride levels

feeders that can be selected. Example calculations will be given after the factors have
been explained.

Optimal Fluoride Level

One normally determines the optimal fluoride level for a particular water system by
contacting officials in the state or provincial regulatory agency for water supplies. If
there are no state or provincial regulations, Table 2-2 and Figure 2-5 may be used.
The table and figure present the optimal fluoride concentrations and control ranges
recommended by the US Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention.

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 FLUORIDATION SYSTEM PLANNING 19

Dosage
The dosage is the amount of fluoride chemical needed to obtain the optimal fluoride level
in the drinking water. The dosage, expressed as milligrams per litre (mg/L) or parts per
million (ppm), is obtained by subtracting the naturally occurring fluoride level from the
desired fluoride level. For example, if the desired fluoride level is 1.2 mg/L and the
natural fluoride level is 0.2 mg/L, the dosage is 1.0 mg/L (1.2 - 0.2 = 1.0). The analytical
procedures to measure fluoride levels in source water and finished water are described in
chapter 4.

Maximum Pumping Rate (Capacity)

The maximum pumping rate, also called plant capacity, refers to the maximum flow
of water that can be produced. The capacity may be measured in gallons per minute
(gpm) or millions of gallons per day (mgd). The fluoride feed rate depends on the flow
of water through the system. The maximum design feed rate will be based on the
maximum pumping capacity, even if the plant does not currently reach that
maximum rate. Of course, the amount of chemical needed for an average day is not
based on the maximum pumping rate, but rather the average daily production of
water.
The average daily production of water is a quantity, such as 2 mil gal, rather
than a rate, such as 500 gpm. A plant may have a capacity of 2 mgd, but if it operates
at that rate for an average of only 12 hours a day, then the average daily production
is 1 mil gal. Of course, every plant has daily and seasonal variations, and the actual
feed rate will be time dependent, varying with the flow of water through the system.

Chemical Purity and Available Fluoride Ion Concentration

Only a portion of the bulk quantity of chemical contributes to the optimal fluoride
level. Chemicals as delivered are not 100 percent pure, and the fluoride ions may be
bound to other elements. Table 2-3 lists examples of purity and available fluoride ion
(AFI). The percent available fluoride is the purity multiplied by the AFI.

FEED RATE AND DOSAGE CALCULATIONS

Calculation of the chemical feed rate is necessary for proper adjustment of the
fluoride feeder. In order to calculate the chemical feed rate, the following must be
known:
• desired fluoride dosage
• plant rate or pumping rate
• commercial purity and fluoride concentration of the fluoride chemical being
fed (available fluoride ion)

Table 2-3 Typical values of purity and available fluoride ion (AFI)

Chemical Purity, % AFI Available F, %

Sodium fluoride 98 0.452 44
Sodium fluorosilicate 98.5 0.607 60
Fluorosilicic acid 23 0.792 18

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 20 WATER FLUORIDATION

With these data, the chemical feed rate (in pounds per day) can be calculated for the
various methods of feeding fluorides by the following equation:

(2-1)

Where:
D = dosage, in mg/L
PR = plant rate, in mgd
API = available fluoride ion, decimal fraction
P = chemical purity, decimal fraction
For the chemical feed rate in pounds per minute, the following equation may be used:

(2-2)

Where:
PR = plant rate, in gpm
Some feed rates from equipment design data sheets are given in grams per
minute. In addition, the feed rate may have to be calculated in cubic feet per hour.
The results from Eq 2-1 and Eq 2-2 can be converted to match these units.
Many states require that records be kept of the amount of chemical used and
that the theoretical concentration of the chemical in the water be determined
mathematically. This number, the calculated dosage, is a safety precaution that helps
ensure that an overfeed or accident does not occur. It also aids in solving
troubleshooting problems. If the calculated dosage is significantly higher or lower
than the measured concentration, steps should be taken to determine the reason for
the discrepancy.
The following equation can be used to determine the calculated dosage (in
milligrams per litre):

(2-3)

The numerator of the equation represents pounds of fluoride ion added to the water,
and the denominator represents millions of pounds of water treated.
A saturator-type feeder is unique because the strength of the solution formed is
always 18,000 mg/L. This is due to the fact that sodium fluoride solubility is
practically constant at 4.0 g/100 mL of water at the temperatures generally
encountered in water treatment. Each litre of solution contains 18,000 mg of fluoride
ion (40,000 mg/L times the percent available fluoride [45 percent] equals 18,000
mg/L). The constant strength simplifies calculations by eliminating the need for
weighing the chemicals. The volume of solution added to the water is all that is
needed; for a calculated dosage in milligrams per litre, this volume value is provided
by a meter on the water inlet of the saturator. Thus, the feed rate is simply

(2-4)

The feed rate will have the same units as the capacity. If the capacity is in gallons per
minute, the feed rate will also be in gallons per minute.

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 FLUORIDATION SYSTEM PLANNING 21

The formula for the calculated dosage (in milligrams per litre) for the saturator
is as follows:

(2-5)

EXAMPLE FEED RATE PROBLEMS

Sodium Fluorosilicate
Example 1. The optimal fluoride level has been determined to be 1.2 mg/L, and
the natural fluoride level is 0.2 mg/L. The chemical supplier has indicated that the
commercial purity of the sodium fluorosilicate supplied is 98 percent and that a cubic
foot of the supplied material weighs 65 lb. If the plant rate is 2,000 gpm, determine
the chemical feed rate in pounds per minute and cubic feet per hour.
Given:
Optimal fluoride level = 1.2 mg/L
Natural fluoride level = 0.2 mg/L
Chemical purity = 98 percent
Pumping rate = 2,000 gpm
Chemical weight = 65 lb/ft3
Solution:
(a) Determine fluoride dosage:
dosage (mg/L) = optimal fluoride level (mg/L) - natural fluoride level (mg/L)
= 1.2-0.2
= 1.0 mg/L
(b) Determine available F-:
From Table 1-2, pure sodium fluorosilicate has 60.7 percent available
fluoride ion.
(c) Calculate feed rate using Eq 2-2:

Example 2. The annual average of maximum daily air temperatures has been
determined to be 65°F. Sodium fluorosilicate with a commercial purity of 95 percent
and unit weight of 66 lb/ft3 is to be fed. If the plant pumping rate is 695 gpm,
determine the chemical feed rate in grams per minute. The natural fluoride present
in the water is insignificant.

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 22 WATER FLUORIDATION

Given:
Average annual maximum
daily air temperature = 65°F
Chemical purity = 95 percent
Chemical weight = 66 lb/ft3
Pumping rate = 695 gpm
Natural fluoride level = 0 mg/L
Solution:
(a) Determine optimal fluoride level:
From Table 2-2, the optimal fluoride level is 0.9 mg/L.
(b) Determine fluoride dosage:
dosage (mg/L) = optimal fluoride level (mg/L) - natural fluoride level (mg/L)
= 0.9-0
= 0.9 mg/L
(c) Determine available F-:
From Table 1-2, pure sodium fluorosilicate has 60.7 percent available fluoride
ion.
(d) Calculate feed rate using Eq 2-2:

= 0.0090 lb/min
(e) Convert to grams per minute:
chemical feed rate (g/min) = 0.009 lb/min x 454 g/lb

= 4.1 g/min

Fluorosilicic Acid
Example 1. The optimal fluoride level has been determined to be 1.0 mg/L. The
purity of commercial fluorosilicic acid to be fed is 23 percent (10 lb/gal). The pumping
rate is 4,000 gpm, and the natural fluoride present is insignificant. Determine the
feed rate in pounds per day, gallons per minute, and millilitres per minute.
Given:
Optimal fluoride level = 1.0 mg/L
Natural fluoride level = 0 mg/L
Chemical purity = 23 percent
Pumping rate = 4,000 gpm
Solution:
(a) Determine fluoride dosage:
dosage (mg/L) = optimal fluoride level (mg/L) - natural fluoride level (mg/L)
= 1.0-0
= 1.0 mg/L

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 FLUORIDATION SYSTEM PLANNING 23

(b) Determine available F-:

From Table 1-2, pure fluorosilicic acid has 79.2 percent available fluoride ion.
(c) Convert plant rate tp million gallons per day:

= 5.76 mgd
(d) Calculate feed rate using Eq 2-1:

= 263 lb/d
(e) Convert feed rate to gallons per minute:

= 0.018 gpm
(f) Convert feed rate to millilitres per minute:
chemical feed rate (mL/min) = 0.018 gpm x 3,785 mL/gal

= 68 mL/min

Sodium Fluoride
Example 1. The fluoride dosage has been determined to be 1.1 mg/L. Sodium
fluoride (commercial purity of 95 percent) is to be fed using a dry chemical feeder. The
plant rate is 2 mgd. Determine the chemical feed rate.
Given:
Fluoride dosage = 1.1 mg/L
Pumping rate = 2 mgd
Commercial purity = 95 percent
Solution:
(a) Determine available F-:
From Table 1-2, pure sodium fluoride has 45.25 percent available fluoride ion.
(b) Calculate feed rate using Eq 2-1:

= 42.7 lb/d
Example 2. The fluoride dosage has been determined to be 0.9 mg/L. A sodium
fluoride saturator is to be used to treat a plant rate of 180 gpm. Determine the feed
rate in gallons per minute and millilitres per minute.

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 24 WATER FLUORIDATION

Given:
Fluoride dosage = 0.9 mg/L
Plant rate = 180 gpm
Solution:
(a) Calculate feed rate in gallons per minute using Eq 2-4:

= 0.0090 gpm
(b) Convert feed rate to millilitres per minute:
chemical feed rate (mL/min) = 0.009 gpm x 3,785 mL/gal

= 34 mL/min

EXAMPLE CALCULATED DOSAGE PROBLEMS

Sodium Fluorosilicate
Example 1. A plant uses 65 lb of sodium fluorosilicate in treating 5,540,000 gal
of water (assume 98.5 percent chemical purity).
The solution for determining the calculated dosage (using Eq 2-3):

= 0.84 mg/L
Example 2. Calculate the dosage for a plant that uses 26 lb sodium fluorosilicate
in treating 1,756,000 gal of water (assume 98.5 percent chemical purity).
Solution (using Eq 2-3):

= 1.06 mg/L

Fluorosilicic Acid
Example 1. What is the calculated dosage for a plant using 43 lb of 23 percent
fluorosilicic acid to treat 1,226,000 gal of water?
Solution (using. Eq 2-3):

= 0.77 mg/L

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 FLUORIDATION SYSTEM PLANNING 25

Example 2. Determine the dosage for a plant that uses 898 lb of 23 percent
fluorosilicic acid in treating 17,058,000 gal of water.
Solution (using Eq 2-3):

= 1.15 mg/L

Sodium Fluoride
Example 1. What is the calculated dosage for a plant using 10 gal from its
saturator to treat 200,000 gal of water.
Solution (using Eq 2-5):

= 0.90 mg/L
Example 2. Determine the calculated dosage for a plant using 19 gal of solution
from its saturator to treat 360,000 gal of water.
Solution (using Eq 2-5):

= 0.95 mg/L

SIMPLIFICATION OF FEED RATE AND

DOSAGE CALCULATIONS
Calculations can be simplified by using charts or tables, such as Table 2-4. The
figures in the column at the extreme right of Table 2-4 can be used for calculating the
amount of fluoride compound to add for quantities of water other than 1 mil gal. For
example, the amount of 97 percent sodium fluoride needed for 10,000 gal would be
10,000/1,000,000, or 0.01, times the amount indicated. For 2 mil gal, the amount of
fluoride compound needed would be twice as much, and so forth.
Similarly, if a concentration of F- other than 1.0 mg/L is to be added (because of the
presence of natural fluoride or an optimal concentration other than 1.0 mg/L),
multiplying the figures in the right-hand column by the appropriate factor will give the
number of pounds to use. For example, if 0.3 mg/L F- occurs naturally and the optimal
level is 0.8 mg/L, only 0.5 mg/L would have to be added, or 0.5 as much as indicated.
Other devices often used to simplify calculations are nomographs and alignment
charts (Figures 2-6 and 2-7). Nomographs have been published both for specific
compounds and for several different materials, as in the illustrations. They may or
may not take into account the purity of the chemical.
Tables and nomographs are generally not very accurate, but they are useful for
estimating chemical requirements or, if one uses them to work backward, for
estimating the theoretical fluoride concentration achieved.

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 26 WATER FLUORIDATION

Table 2-4 Fluoride calculation factors

Compound Required
per mil gal of H2O
Available F-, Commercial Purity, for 1 mg/L,
Compound lb F/lb compound % lb
Sodium fluoride 0.4525 95 19.4
96 19.2
97 19.0
98 18.8
99 18.6

Sodium fluorosilicate 0.607 95 14.5

96 14.5
97 14.1
98 14.0
98.5 13.9
99 13.8
Fluorosilicic acid 0.792 20 52.5
21 50.0
22 47.8
23 45.7
24 43.8
25 42.0
26 40.5
27 38.9
28 37.4
29 36.3
30 35.2

PRELIMINARY PLANNING EXAMPLES

To illustrate the preliminary planning of a fluoridation installation, three examples
are given.
Example 1. A small water supply consists of an unattended well pumping into
an elevated storage tank. The pump is controlled by an altitude switch on the
elevated tank. The water is not treated, and the only building is a small shed at the
well site. The water pumping rate is approximately 250 gpm (950 L/min).
Plan: Provided the shed is large enough and well constructed, a saturator and
solution feeder can be placed inside. The solution feeder can be tied
electrically to the operation of the well pump so that feeding cycles will
coincide with the on-off operation of the well pump. The fluoride can be
injected directly into the pump discharge line. If the shed is large enough,
weathertight, and able to be locked, a few bags of sodium fluoride can also
be stored inside off the floor. A water meter must be installed in the main
if there is not one already there.
Example 2. A water treatment plant is currently feeding chlorine, alum, soda
ash, and carbon to a surface supply. Postfiltration chemicals are added in an open
channel. The service pumping rate is 3,000 gpm (11,000 L/min), and water is pumped
directly from the clearwell to the mains.
Plan: If bulk fluorosilicic acid is available nearby, the economics of using acid
appear favorable. The acid storage tank can be placed outdoors, with a day
tank and feed pump located at the site of postfiltration chemical feed. In

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 FLUORIDATION SYSTEM PLANNING 27

Instructions
1. Subtract the natural level from the desired level to get the fluoride treatment figure (mg/L fluoride ion added).
2. Draw a line from the flow figure straight through the fluoride treatment figure to the fluoride ion line. The intersection will show
the required pounds of fluoride ion per day.
3. This weight of fluoride ion may be obtained from any of the chemicals listed. Starting at the required pounds of
fluoride ion per day, draw a horizontal line to the right and read the weight of dry chemical or volume of liquid chemical required.
4. Thus, in the example; a flow of 600 gpm requiring 0.9 mg/L fluoride ion added requires 6.45 lb of fluoride ion per day.
This can be obtained from 14.8 lb/d of sodium fluoride, 11.0 lb/d of sodium fluorosilicate, 2.55 gpd of 30 percent fluorosilicic acid,
or 44.2 gpd of saturated sodium fluoride solution.

Figure 2-6 Fluoriciation nomograph

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 FLUORIDATION SYSTEM PLANNING 29

addition, an alternate system for feeding sodium fluorosilicate should be

provided. This system would consist of a gravimetric dry feeder with the
dissolving chamber discharge falling into the postfiltration feed channel.
Chemical storage would be on the floor above the feeder where there is a
separate area provided for fluoride chemicals. An extension hopper
installed from the feeder to the storage floor would facilitate loading.
Either feed system can be controlled by electric signals from a rate-of-flow
transmitter on the main.
Example 3. A city's water supply consists of eight wells, all of which pump
directly into the mains. There is an elevated storage tank, but it rides on the water
system, and there is no point in the system where all the water can be treated.
Pumping rates vary from 200 to 500 gpm (750 to 1,900 L/min), with the operation of
each well pump controlled by pressure switches on the main.
Plan: Because there is no central point where all the water can be fluoridated
with a single feed system, each well pump will have to be considered an
individual water supply. The most economical approach would be to use a
solution feeder and fluorosilicic acid at each pump location. The acid would
be purchased in carboys, and platform scales would be provided at each
location. Operation of feeders would be controlled by well pump operation.
Meters should also be installed at each location.

BIBLIOGRAPHY_______________________________________________
Belleck, E. 1972. Fluoridation Engineering Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Water
Manual. Washington, D.C.: US Envi- Plant Operators. 1993. Atlanta, Ga.:
ronmental Protection Agency. US Department of Health and Human
Services, Public Health Service, Cen-
ters for Disease Control and Preven-
tion.

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 28 WATER FLUORIDATION

Instructions
1. Decide the amount of fluoride ion required to increase fluoride content by the desired amount.
Step 1. Align this point on line B, representing dosage, with point on line A. Read, on line C, the amount of
fluoride ion required inlb/d.
Step 2. Align straightedge at right angles to line C at this determined point. Where the straightedge crosses
lines D, E, F, and G, read the amount of particular chemical to be fed.
2. For any value in excess of maximum on line A or C, introduce proper factor of 10 or multiple thereof.
3. Greatest accuracy occurs when angle of straightedge approaches 90° with line B. Use factor of 10 to obtain
this objective.

Figure 2-7 Fluoridation alignment chart

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 AWWA M A N U A L
4

Chapter 3

Design, Equipment,
and Installation

The previous chapter introduced the general types of fluoridation equipment and gave
guidelines on planning a fluoridation system. This chapter presents more specific
information on system design, equipment, and installation.

DESIGN
The following are important considerations in the design of a fluoridation system:
• feeder location
• fluoride injection point
• chemical storage
• cross-connections
• automatic proportioning
This section discusses each of these concerns.

Location of Feeder
Before the type of feeder can be selected, sufficient and appropriate space must be
located. At an existing water plant where other water treatment chemicals are being
fed, enough space may be available for an additional feeder. If the system has no
treatment plant, as is often the case with small water systems using a well supply,
then a well house or some type of shelter near an elevated storage tank can be used.
The feeder must be placed in a dry, sheltered area near the point of fluoride
injection and preferably in a place with storage space for chemicals. Electric power
must be available. In many cases, a water line for solution preparation will be needed.
The location must be accessible for chemical replenishment and maintenance. After
these basic requirements are met, the prime considerations become the isolation of
stored chemicals from other materials, adequate ventilation, and general convenience.

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 32 WATER FLUORIDATION

Fluoride Injection Point

Most important, the fluoride injection point must be a point through which all the
water to be treated passes. In a water treatment plant this may be a channel where
other water treatment chemicals are added, a main coming from the filters, or the
clearwell. In a well-pump system, this may be the discharge line of the pump if there
is only one. If there is more than one pump, the point may be the line leading to the
distribution system or storage facility. When facilities are combined, such as at a
treatment plant for surface water plus supplemental wells, the point must be where
all water from all sources passes. If there is no such common point, separate
fluoride-feeding installations will have to be made for each water facility.
Another consideration in selecting a fluoride injection point is the loss of fluoride
in filters. Whenever possible, fluoride should be added after filtration to avoid the
substantial losses that can occur, particularly when heavy alum doses are used or
when magnesium is present and the lime-soda ash softening process is being used.
(At an alum dosage rate of 100 mg/L, fluoride loss will be about 30 percent. Loss of
fluoride in the softening process is directly proportional to the concentration of
magnesium or lime in the water.) In most cases, such losses can be avoided simply by
changing the fluoride addition point to a pipeline leading from the filters or to the
clearwell. In rare cases, such as where the clearwell is inaccessible or so far away
from the plant that transporting chemicals would be uneconomical, adding fluoride
before filtering may be more practical.
When other chemicals are being fed, chemical compatibility must be considered.
If any other chemicals contain calcium, the fluoride injection point should be as far
away as possible from the addition point of those chemicals to minimize loss of
fluoride by precipitation. For example, if lime for pH control is being added to the
main leading from the filters, fluoride can be added to the same main at another
point, or it can be added to one side of the clearwell. If the lime is being added to the
clearwell, the fluoride should be added to the opposite side. Another factor in selecting
the injection point is the necessity of having the feeder as close to the injection point
as possible.
The discharge line from the feeder should be as short and straight as possible,
although circumstances sometimes require a long discharge line. When this is the
case, sharp curves or loops in the line must be avoided because they provide sites for
precipitation buildup and subsequent blockage. If the solution is being injected into
the pipeline, the injection fitting should preferably be installed near the bottom or
underside of the pipe as shown in Figure 3-1. Injecting solution into the top of a pipe
can cause air to collect and then work its way into the injection check valve or the
discharge line and cause air binding. Locating the injection fitting in the lower
portion of the pipe also prevents the fluoride chemical (particularly fluorosilicic acid)
from draining out of the injection tube (and possibly the discharge line) and settling
to the bottom of the pipe, causing corrosion.
The injection point should be at a higher elevation or a higher pressure than the
elevation of the liquid level in the feed drum to reduce the possibility of siphonage
and overfeeding. A check valve at the injection point and an antisiphon valve either at
the feeder or at the injection point should be provided.

Chemical Storage Considerations

A number of criteria govern the selection of a storage site for fluoridation chemicals.
Dry chemicals must be kept dry, they must be convenient to the hopper in which they
will be loaded, and they should preferably be isolated from other water treatment

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 DESIGN, EQUIPMENT, AND INSTALLATION 33

Figure 3-1 Fluoride injection point

chemicals to avoid accidental intermixing. In addition, the storage area must be clean
and well ventilated, and it should be equipped with running water and a floor drain
for ease in cleaning up spills. Fluorosilicic acid presents particular problems in
storage because the vapors are corrosive and will etch glass. Containers must be kept
either tightly closed or vented to the outdoors. Large quantities of acid can be stored
in underground or enclosed tanks equipped with outside vents.
Dry fluoride compounds (sodium fluoride and sodium fluorosilicate) have a
tendency to compact or cake when exposed to moisture or when bags are stacked too
high. Since similar conditions can result from long periods of storage, an oversupply
of chemicals should be avoided. Dry fluorides should be stored on pallets, in stacks
preferably not more than six bags high.

Cross-Connection Considerations
Water inlets to solution tanks and dissolving chambers often constitute a
cross-connection when the inlet is below the level of solution. Whenever possible, the
inlet line should have an air gap as a safety precaution. In cases where pressure is too
high to make an air gap practical, a vacuum breaker should be installed at an
elevated location between all other restrictive devices (such as valves) and the point
of entry into the solution container. Possible cross-connections should be checked not
only when the fluoridation installation is being designed, but also when later
modifications are made. AWWA Manual M14, Recommended Practice for Backflow
Prevention and Cross-Connection Control, illustrates cross-connection prevention
devices.

Automatic Proportioning (Pacing)

When the flow of water being treated is at a fixed rate, the fluoride feed rate can be
maintained at the same rate after it has been adjusted to the proper ratio unless
there is a change in pump delivery, feeder delivery, or chemical purity. When the flow
is variable, such as when pump delivery varies with demand, a variable fluoride feed
rate is necessary. Where two or three pumps are used, each with a fixed delivery rate,

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 34 WATER FLUORIDATION

separate fluoride feeders may be used. Each feeder should be tied electrically to the
individual pump operation, and each should be adjusted to feed fluoride in the correct
ratio to the water delivered by that pump. In cases where the changes in water flow
are predictable and infrequent, the feeder may be adjusted manually to a
predetermined setting that corresponds to the new water flow rate. When such
techniques are impossible, impractical, or inconvenient, some means for automat-
ically adjusting the fluoride feed rate to the water flow must be provided. This
automatic adjustment is called pacing.
For small water plants, particularly those using a solution feed system, a
water-meter contactor can be used to pace the feeder. A water-meter contactor is a
switch geared to the water-meter movement so that it will make contact at specified
intervals of flow volume. The impulse from the water-meter contactor, when received
by the feeder motor, will energize the feeder in proportion to the meter's response to
flow. In cases where the impulse is too brief to activate the feeder motor, an interval
timer connected between the contactor and motor can be set for appropriate time
durations (as discussed later in this chapter). To avoid wide fluctuations in fluoride
concentrations, the set points should be as close together as possible while at the
same time preventing constant cycling off and on. If a timer is used, the durations of
timed feeder operation should be as long as possible, just short of possible overlap at
the maximum flow rate. Some small solution feeders, usually solenoid operated, are
particularly well adapted to meter contactor operation.
Large water plants that are already equipped with flowmeters and recorders can
use the signal from these devices to adjust feeder delivery electrically, pneumatically,
or hydraulically. If this type of pacing is contemplated, feeders that have adjusted
mechanisms compatible with the type of flowmeter signal available must be specified
when ordering equipment.

Alternatives
If the plant does not have flowmeters that are readily adaptable to pacing the fluoride
feeders, or if it has no flowmeters at all, various types of meters can be installed
specifically for that purpose. For example, an orifice plate assembly with a
differential-pressure-cell transmitter will furnish an electric signal that can be used
to control feeders.
Another device that provides an electric signal is a magnetic flowmeter. A signal
converter will adapt the signal from such a meter to a form that can be used for
adjusting some types of feeders. Other types of flowmeters require the use of
recorder-controllers that modify a pneumatic or hydraulic pressure flow; the pressure
modification will adjust the delivery rate of dry or solution feeders equipped for that
purpose. For solution feeders, the adjustment is made to the stroke length; for dry
feeders, the adjustment can be made through either a variable-speed drive or a
poise-positioner. The pneumatic or hydraulic signals adjust variable-speed drives
mechanically, whereas electric signals accomplish the same purpose through a
silicon-controlled rectifier.
Another type of paced feed can be established through the use of a solution
feeder operated hydraulically by a special water meter that diverts water under
pressure to the feeder's driving piston in proportion to the rate of water flow in the
main. Although this type of paced feed does not require the use of remote flowmeter
signals, it is rarely used in water fluoridation.

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 DESIGN, EQUIPMENT, AND INSTALLATION 35

FEEDERS
A chemical feeder measures quantities of a chemical, such as fluoride, and then adds
them to the water at a preset rate. Feeders are either solution (liquid) feeders or dry
feeders, depending on whether the chemical is a liquid or solid. Dry feeders are either
volumetric (the chemical is measured by volume) or gravimetric (measured by weight)
as illustrated in Figures 2-3 and 2-4. Dry chemical is dissolved into solution before
being added to water supplies.
The three most common types of chemical feed systems for fluoridation are
• chemical solution feeder (acid feeder) with a liquid fluoride compound
(fluorosilicic acid) or with a prepared solution of a dry fluoride compound
• sodium fluoride saturator
• dry chemical feeder with a dry fluoride compound (sodium fluorosilicate or
sodium fluoride)
The saturator is a unique method for feeding fluoride and can be considered a special
application of the chemical solution feeder method. The other two methods are
commonly used to feed other water treatment chemicals. In general, large systems
use a dry chemical feeder, and smaller systems use either a solution feeder or a
saturator.

Solution Feeders
A solution feeder is usually a small pump. Almost every type of pump that is used for
feeding other water treatment chemicals can be adapted for feeding fluoride solutions.
Minor modifications in construction may be required.
A solution feeder must deliver fluoride with accuracy and uniformity because the
optimal fluoride level is prescribed between very narrow limits (see the section titled
"Optimal Fluoride Level" in chapter 2). To maintain this precise level, fluoride must
be added in precise proportion to the quantity of water being treated. A positive-dis-
placement pump or feeder, which delivers a specific volume of liquid for each stroke of
a piston or rotation of an impeller, meets this requirement. Figure 3-2 illustrates
types of positive-displacement solution feeders that provide the accuracy essential for
fluoride applications. No feeder delivers the exact volume displaced by the driving
member of the pump. However, if fluoride solutions of a fixed strength are fed against
a fixed pressure, the positive-displacement feeder has shown sufficient reliability for
this purpose. The following paragraphs discuss specific solution feeders.
Piston and diaphragm feeders. For delivery against pressure, the two
general types of solution feeders are the piston feeder and the diaphragm feeder. In
the piston feeder, a reciprocating piston alternately forces solution out of a chamber
and then, on the return stroke, refills the chamber by pulling the solution from a
reservoir. In the diaphragm feeder, a flexible diaphragm, driven either directly or
indirectly by a mechanical linkage, performs a similar function. If the mechanical
drive for the feeder is an electric motor, then a gearbox or a system of belts and
pulleys determines the number of strokes in a given time interval. Pneumatic or
hydraulic drives are also available; these permit the use of a meter contactor to
provide stroking in direct proportion to water flow instead of at a fixed rate.
The electronic pump is a special type of diaphragm pump. Most diaphragm
pumps used for fluoridation have a flexible diaphragm driven by a mechanical
linkage. An electronic pump has a solenoid that is periodically energized to move the
flexible diaphragm. It has solid-state electronics, circuit breakers, and an antisiphon
valve. It can have eight manual or automatic controls and variable stroke and speed.

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 36 WATER FLUORIDATION

Figure 3-2 Positive-displacement solution feeders

The minimum output capacity is 0.15 gpd (0.57 L/d). The electronic pump is relatively
new but is rapidly gaining acceptance. It appears to be ideal for small fluoridated
systems or school fluoridation systems.
Peristaltic feeder. A peristaltic feeder is a positive-displacement pump that
moves liquid (fluoride solution) through plastic tubing with alternating waves of
constriction and dilation. A rotary gear rolls over the tubing, creating a suction on the
solution side of the feeder. The suction draws the fluoride solution in one end of the
tube and forces it out the other end.
The peristaltic feeder is self-priming and will not be damaged if the solution
freezes. The range of feed is from 2 gpd up to 85 gpd (7.6 L/d up to 321.7 L/d). The
tubing will generally last from one to two years, depending on use. Proper installation
of the correct type of tubing is very important. Peristaltic feeders are generally used
in small fluoridated systems. Although common in some parts of the country (and
overseas), they are not widely used in the United States at the present time. They
have several advantages over the diaphragm pump because the check valves,
diaphragm, and backsiphonage devices are all eliminated. The most frequent problem
with the peristaltic pump is low durability of the tubing.

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 DESIGN, EQUIPMENT, AND INSTALLATION 37

Gravity feeders. For gravity feed, several types of solution feeders operate on
the paddle-wheel principle. A rotating wheel equipped with small buckets dips
solution from a constant head tank and discharges the solution into the water to be
treated. The rate of feed can be varied by changing the number or size of the buckets,
by changing the rate of rotation of the wheel, or by varying the proportion of the
bucket contents that are emptied.
Rotary pumps. Several types of rotary pumps can also be considered
positive-displacement feeders. These include gear, swinging vane, sliding vane,
oscillating screw, eccentric, and cam types, as well as various modifications of these.
Ordinarily, solution-feeding devices such as centrifugal pumps, pot feeders, or a head
tank and orifice are not used for fluoridation because of their relative inaccuracy.
Selection criteria. The criteria used in selecting a feeder are
• capacity
• corrosion resistance
• pressure capability
• accuracy
• durability
Generally feeders perform most accurately near the midrange of both stroke
length and stroke frequency and should be selected accordingly. At the extremely low
feed rates required by small installations, the diaphragm feeders are preferable to the
piston types. Most feeders come equipped with plastic heads and resilient check
valves, both of which are satisfactory for fluoride solutions unless the pressure is
greater than 100 psi (690 kPa). For higher pressures, corrosion-resistant alloys, such
as 316 stainless steel or Carpenter 20 alloy, are required for feeder-head construction.
Since most solution feeders are adjustable both for stroke length, which
determines the volume of liquid delivered per stroke, and stroke frequency, usually
expressed in strokes per minute (spm), both factors should be considered when the
feeder size is being selected for a particular application.

Saturate rs
Because sodium fluoride has a maximum solubility of approximately 4 percent
(18,000 mg/L as F-) regardless of substantial variations in water temperature, devices
that automatically prepare saturated solutions can be used. These devices eliminate
the need for weighing sodium fluoride, measuring the volume of solution water, and
stirring to dissolve the chemical.
If water is allowed to trickle through a bed containing excess sodium fluoride,
the solution will become saturated. The two general types of saturators are upflow
and downflow. The upflow saturator is the most common type; it is preferred because
it requires less maintenance than the downflow saturator.
Upflow saturator. In an upflow saturator, undissolved sodium fluoride forms a
bed through which water is forced upward under pressure (Figure 3-3). A spider-type
water distributor located at the bottom of the tank contains hundreds of very small
slits. Water, forced under pressure through these slits, flows upward through the
sodium fluoride bed at a controlled rate to ensure the optimal 4 percent solution. As
the water flows up through the bed of sodium fluoride, the solid material's specific
gravity keeps the material from rising into the area of the clear solution above. The
feeder pump intake line floats on top of the solution to prevent withdrawal of
undissolved sodium fluoride. Since piping of water to the bottom of the saturator
constitutes a cross-connection, a mechanical siphon breaker must be incorporated into
the water line.

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 38 WATER FLUORIDATION

Figure 3-3 Upflow saturator

Because of the thicker bed of sodium fluoride attainable in an upflow saturator,

higher withdrawal rates are possible. With 300 lb (140 kg) of sodium fluoride in the
saturator tank, more than 15 gph (57 L/h) of saturated solution can be fed—a rate
sufficient to treat about 5,000 gpm (19,000 L/min) of water to a fluoride level of
1.0 mg/L. If the water supplied to the saturator is hard (more than 75 mg/L
hardness), a household-type water softener installed in the supply line will minimize
the amount of insoluble material accumulating in the saturator and increase the
interval between cleanings.
To illustrate better how an upflow saturator works, the following procedure
outlines the general steps necessary to prepare one for use:
1. With the distributor tubes in place and the floating suction device removed,
add 200-300 lb (90-140 kg) of sodium fluoride directly to the tank. Any type
of sodium fluoride can be used, from coarse to fine crystal. Powdered sodium
fluoride is less desirable than the crystal form.
2. Connect the solenoid water valve to an electric outlet and turn on the water
supply. The water level should be slightly below the overflow; if it is not, the
liquid level switch should be adjusted.
3. Replace the intake float and connect it to the feeder intake line. The
saturator is now ready to use.
4. The level of undissolved sodium fluoride should be visible through the
translucent wall of the saturator tank. Whenever the level is low (one-half to
one-third dissolved), add another 100 lb (45 kg) of fluoride.
The water distributor slits are essentially self-cleaning, and the accumulation of
insolubles and precipitates does not constitute as serious a problem as it does in a
downflow saturator. Periodic cleaning, however, is still required. Frequency of
cleaning is dictated by the frequency of use and the rate of debris accumulation.

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 DESIGN, EQUIPMENT, AND INSTALLATION 39

Figure 3-4 Downflow saturator

Downflow saturator. In ddwnflow saturators, the solid sodium fluoride is held

in a plastic drum or barrel and isolated from the prepared solution by a plastic cone
or a pipe manifold (Figure 3-4). A nitration barrier of layers of sand and gravel
prevents particles of undissolved sodium fluoride from entering the solution under the
cone or within the pipe manifold. The feeder pump draws the solution from within the
cone or manifold at the bottom of the plastic drum.
When a downflow saturator is in operation, water flows into the top of the
saturator tank, with the level regulated by a float-operated controller. An air gap
prevents a cross-connection. The water then trickles down through the bed of sodium
fluoride. The solution is clarified in the sand-and-gravel filter bed and ends up as a
clear, saturated solution at the bottom of the tank. A pump takes up the solution and
adds it to the water supply.
Dry Feeders
A dry feeder meters chemical at a predetermined rate. Generally, volumetric dry
feeders are simpler to operate, are less expensive, deliver smaller quantities, and are
slightly less accurate. Gravimetric dry feeders are capable of delivering extremely
large quantities in a given time period, are extremely accurate, are more expensive,
and are readily adapted to recording and automatic control. Attaching a weighing-
and-controlling mechanism to a volumetric feeder enables it to be converted to a
gravimetric feeder.
The choice between a volumetric or gravimetric feeder is governed largely by
size and economics. In general, the accuracy of volumetric feeders is sufficient for
feeding fluorides, thereby eliminating the need for the more expensive gravimetric
feeders in many installations. The selection of one of the types of volumetric feeders
involves several factors such as size, cost, accuracy, and personal preference.

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 40 WATER FLUORIDATION

Volumetric dry feeders are available in several types that differ in terms of the
method of measuring and delivering the dry chemical. Figures 3-5 and 3-6 show two
types of volumetric dry feeders. Various types include the following:
• rotating roller
• rotating disc
• rotation and/or reciprocating screw
• star wheel
• moving belt
• vibratory pan
• oscillating hopper
• combinations of these types
The two general types of gravimetric dry feeders are those based on loss in
weight of the feeder hopper and those based on the weight of material on a section of
moving belt (Figures 3-7 and 3-8). Many gravimetric dry feeders also incorporate
some of the features of volumetric feeders, such as a rotary feed mechanism between
the hopper and the weighing section or a mechanical vibrator for moving chemicals
out of the hopper. Because it is the weight of material per unit of time that is
measured and regulated, such variables as material density or consistency have no
effect on feed rate. This accounts for the extreme accuracy of these feeders. The
stream or ribbon of dry material discharged from a dry feeder falls into a dissolving
chamber where the dry chemical is mixed with water. The solution either drains into
an open flume or clearwell or is pumped or injected into a pressure main.
Material quality. Dry. feeders are designed to handle powdered materials, but
not all such materials are handled with equal ease. Material that is too fine can flow
like a liquid through the measuring mechanism and cause flooding. Some materials
can form an arch in the hopper and, when the arch collapses, emit a cloud of dust that
can flood the feeder. Other powders, either hygroscopic (water attracters) by nature or
produced with a significant moisture content, tend to form lumps that can reduce the
feed rate or prevent the powder from being fed at all. For most consistent feeding, a
narrow size distribution and a low moisture content are best.
The AWWA standards for sodium silicofluoride (sodium fluorosilicate) and
sodium fluoride limit the moisture content of these materials. Also, the materials
should be suitable for feeding with a conventional dry feed machine used in water
treatment.' In many cases, individual water plants have devised chemical size
specifications that can be handled adequately by the feeders on hand. Chemicals that
meet AWWA standards usually produce minimal feeding problems.
Feeder size. As with solution feeders, manufacturers' bulletins and direct
technical assistance should be used in the selection of appropriate equipment for a
particular application. The criterion used in selecting the size of a dry feeder is
similar to that used in selecting a solution feeder—they both operate most reliably
when the delivery rate is near midrange. All too often, dry feeders are used on water
supplies that are so small that the feeder is operating at dead minimum or even
below this rate. The feeders are often operated below the minimum rate through the
use of a cycle timer. Accurate and uniform fluoride feed rates cannot be expected
under these conditions.
Calibrating dry feeders. Determining the accuracy and reliability of a dry
feeder requires a small scale and a stopwatch (or a watch with a sweep second hand).
Insert a shallow pan or sheet of cardboard between the measuring mechanism and
the dissolving chamber of the feeder while the feeder is operating, making sure that

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 DESIGN, EQUIPMENT, AND INSTALLATION 41

Figure 3-5 Screw-type volumetric dry feeder

Figure 3-6 Roll-type volumetric dry feeder

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 42 WATER FLUORIDATION

Figure 3-7 Belt-type gravimetric feeder

Figure 3-8 Gravimetric feeder— loss-in-weight type

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 DESIGN, EQUIPMENT, AND INSTALLATION 43

all the chemical that feeds through will be collected. Collect the chemical that is fed
in several short periods (e.g., five periods of 5 min each). Weigh each of the amounts
collected and the total. Provided the weighings and timings are accurate, the
individual samples will indicate the uniformity of feed, and the total will indicate the
accuracy of the feed rate.
Example. Weights of sodium fluorosilicate, in grams, collected in 5-min periods:
35, 35, 34, 36, and 35.
total = 175
average = 35 g/5 min
uniformity = 35 g ± 1 g in 5 min (approximately 3 percent variation)

The uniformity of feed in this case would be acceptable. If fluoride levels are to
be maintained within 10 percent, the feeder delivery rate should be maintained at the
highest accuracy possible. Repeating a test with longer sampling periods should show
a smaller percentage of variations if the feeder is in proper working condition.

AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
Auxiliary equipment is usually necessary for the proper operation of a fluoride
chemical feed system. The type and complexity of the equipment required depend on
the size and complexity of the fluoridation system. For the simplest system, one using
only a carboy of acid and a pump, the requirements for auxiliary equipment are
minimal. A platform scale and the feeder are all the equipment needed. An auxiliary
piece of equipment might be a vacuum breaker to prevent pulling unmetered
quantities of fluoride solution into the system in the event of a low-pressure situation.
For more complex systems, additional auxiliary equipment may include an alarm
system for detecting and reporting low solution levels, a softener for removing
hardness from the solution water, and a small meter for measuring the amount of
water used in the solution preparation.
The following paragraphs briefly describe common auxiliary equipment.

Meters
A water meter is required for accurate fluoride feeding. If a supply is unmetered,
calculation of the fluoride feed rate as well as the selection of an appropriate feeder
will be guesswork. The type of meter used for water flow depends largely on the flow
rate. Disk or piston meters are used for low flow rates, and compound, propeller, or
magnetic meters are used for higher flow rates. Unfortunately, meters are usually
sold by pipe size, not flow rate, and all too often the water meter being used is
seriously oversized for the rate of flow going through it. Since most meters are least
accurate at the low end of their measurement range, the result of this oversizing is
that water flow is not accurately measured. A meter no larger than that necessary to
handle the maximum flow rates expected should be used, even if the pipe and meter
sizes do not match. In some cases this may involve the use of pipe reducers to adapt
the water main to the meter. This practice is acceptable so long as pressure loss is not
excessive.
Another application for water meters is on the supply lines for solution makeup
water. When a sodium fluoride saturator is being used, a water meter is a necessity;
without one, calculating the fluoride feed rate is impossible. Since water usage in a

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 44 WATER FLUORIDATION

saturator installation is minimal, the meter must be the smallest type available
(usually l/2 in. [13 mm]).

Scales
In any fluoridation installation, except one based on a sodium fluoride saturator,
scales are necessary for weighing the quantity of dry material to be used in preparing
the solution, the quantity of solution fed, or the quantity of fluoride compound or
fluorosilicic acid delivered by the appropriate feeder.
The type of scale can vary from a small household type that weighs the 1-2 lb
(0.5-0.9 kg) of sodium fluoride used in solution preparation to the complex built-in
mechanism of a gravimetric dry feeder. The most generally applicable type is the
platform scale, on which a solution tank, a carboy of acid, or an entire volumetric dry
feeder can be placed. Although the scales can be specifically designed for the
application, such as those supplied by manufacturers of volumetric dry feeders, in
many cases an ordinary hardware-store scale will be satisfactory. Some minor
modifications, such as removing the wheels or rotating the beam, may be necessary;
but as long as the scales have sufficient capacity and sensitivity, there is no reason
they cannot be used. The scale must be capable of weighing to the nearest pound
either the full tank or the full volumetric feeder and hopper. Sensitivity to the nearest
ounce should be sufficient for small scales used for measuring sodium fluoride in the
manual preparation of solutions.
No particular problems should be encountered when equipment is being
mounted on platform scales unless the equipment is already connected to a water line
or the discharge line from the dissolving chamber of a volumetric dry feeder is fixed
in place. In these situations the dissolving chamber (solution pot) will also need to be
mounted on the scale platform, and all connections to it must be flexible enough to
permit the scale to operate.

Softeners
Although sodium fluoride is quite soluble, the fluorides of calcium and magnesium are
not. Fluoride ions in solution will combine with calcium and magnesium ions in the
makeup water and form a precipitate that can clog the feeder, the injection port, the
feeder suction line, or the saturator bed. Water used for sodium fluoride dissolution
should be softened whenever the hardness exceeds 75 mg/L; hardness values greater
than this will result in an excessive amount of work in clearing stoppages or removing
scale. The entire water supply does not need to be softened, only the water used for
solution preparation.
The volume of water to be softened is usually quite small, and a household type
of zeolite water softener is usually adequate. This type of softener operates on the ion
exchange principle and can be installed directly in the pipeline used for solution
makeup. When the softening capacity is exhausted, the zeolite (or synthetic resin) can
be regenerated with brine made from common salt.
As an alternative to softening, polyphosphates can be used for keeping calcium
and magnesium in solution. The amount required is usually 7-15 mg/L. The
polyphosphate can be added directly into the solution tank. If an eductor is used, both
the eductor water and the dissolving water should be treated, and some type of feeder
will be required to add polyphosphate to the eductor water.

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 DESIGN, EQUIPMENT, AND INSTALLATION 45

Mixers
Fluoride solutions must be homogeneous, no matter which method is used to prepare
them. Slurries should not be tolerated in the feeding of fluorides because undissolved
fluoride compound can dissolve and cause a higher than optimal concentration.
Undissolved material can also clog feeders and other devices that have small
openings. Considerable waste can result because of the accumulation of undissolved
materials.
Manually prepared solutions must be mixed thoroughly. Liquids of differing
specific gravities tend to stratify, and such stratification could result in feeding a
solution that is either too concentrated or nothing more than plain water. Although
sodium fluoride is quite soluble, the preparation of even the most dilute solutions
requires sufficient agitation to avoid having undissolved material settle in the bottom
of the dissolving tank. Even as the bottom material gradually dissolves, the strong
solution formed at the bottom of the tank will tend to remain in its own stratum.
Although manual mixing with a paddle is usually sufficient for the preparation
of a dilute solution, a mechanical mixer is preferred. Mixers are available in various
sizes, with shafts and propellers made of various materials. A fractional horsepower
mixer with a stainless-steel shaft and propeller is satisfactory for sodium fluoride
solutions.
The dissolution of sodium fluorosilicate in the solution tank of a dry feeder can
be accomplished by a jet mixer, but a mechanical mixer is still preferred. Because of
the low solubility of sodium fluorosilicate (particularly in cold water) and the limited
retention time available for dissolution, violent agitation must be provided to prevent
the discharge of a slurry. Preferred materials for construction of a mechanical mixer
are 316 stainless steel or plastic-coated steel.

Dissolving Tanks
The dry material discharged from a volumetric or gravimetric feeder is continuously
dissolved in a chamber beneath the feeder. From there the clear solution drains or is
pumped into the water to be treated. This chamber, referred to as the solution pot,
dissolver tank, solution tank, or dissolving chamber, may be a part of the feeder or a
separate device. Fluorides should not be fed directly into flumes or basins without a
dissolving tank being used. Use of a dissolving tank prevents the build-up of
undissolved dry chemical and makes it possible to maintain accurate feed rates.
Dissolving tanks are available in sizes ranging from 5 gal (19 L) on up; the size
is usually determined by the size of the feeder under which the tank is mounted. If
there is a choice, the largest size available should be used for fluoride compounds.
Chemicals mix with water through a system of baffles. Agitation can be provided by a
paddle driven by jets of water or by a mechanical mixer. As mentioned earlier,
experience has shown that the jet mixer is not nearly as dependable as the
mechanical mixer, even under ideal conditions.
The failure to produce a clear, homogeneous solution discharge from the
dissolving tank of a dry feeder indicates one of the following:
• The dissolving chamber is too small.
• The detention time is too short.
• Too little solution water is being provided.
• Agitation is insufficient.
• The dry chemical is short-circuiting the tank's designed route and is not being
adequately mixed with the water.

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 46 WATER FLUORIDATION

Table 3-1 Detention time of sodium fluorosilicate in dissolving tanks

Dissolving Tank Size,

gal
Minimum Water 5 10 25 50 100
Flow Rate Required
Feed Rate, for Solution, Detention Time,
lb/h gpm min
1 1 5 10 25 50 100
2 2 5 12.5 25 50
3 3 8.3 16.7 33.3
4 4 6.2 12.5 25
§ 5 5 10 20
6 $ 8.3 16.7
7 7 7.1 14.3
8 8 6.2 12.5
9 9 5.5 11.1
10 10 5 10
20 20 5
NOTES: 1. To use the table, read across from the feed rate that comes closest to your specific application. The figure in
the next column will be the minimum water flow rate required for dissolving the chemical. The next figure,
or figures, will be the detention time for each given size of dissolving tank. Where no figure is given, the
detention time for the particular tank size would be less than 5 min and would therefore be inadequate.
Remember, if the water flow rate is increased to more than the specified minimum, the detention time is
decreased proportionately, and a larger tank may be required.
2. Metric conversions: lb/h x 0.4536 = kg/h, gpm x 0.06309 = L/s, gal x 3.785 = L.

Experiments show that the fluoride compound should remain in the dissolving
tank a minimum of 5 min. This provides a concentration of one-fourth the maximum
solubility if the water temperature is greater than 60°F (16°C) and the chemical is a
fine powder. If the chemical is in crystal form or the water temperature is less than
60°F (16°C), the dissolving time should be doubled; if both, the time should be tripled
to 15 min. Table 3-1 shows relationships between detention time, dissolving chamber
capacity, and water flow rate for sodium fluorosilicate dry feed rates.
Short-circuiting occurs when the time of travel through a tank is less than the
designed time. This reduced detention time is essentially a function of the dissolving
tank design and is more likely to occur in smaller tanks. If short-circuiting does occur,
baffles should be added to the tank so that the path of the chemical to the outlet of
the chamber is sufficiently winding to provide the necessary detention time for the
solution.
A water inlet to the dissolving tank which is below the outlet may create a
cross-connection that requires adequate safety measures. If the dissolving tank is not
already equipped with a correctly placed vacuum breaker, one should be installed on
the water inlet as near as possible to the point of entry. If the water line has a
solenoid or manually operated valve, a vacuum breaker must be installed between the
valve and the tank for adequate cross-connection protection.
Flowmeters
A flowmeter, in contrast to an ordinary water meter, measures rate of flow rather
than volume of flow. In large pipelines, flowmeters operate on various differential-
pressure principles. Flowmeters for small flows are usually based on the lifting of a
spherical or cylindrical float by the hydraulic action of a fluid flowing through a
vertical tube.

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 DESIGN, EQUIPMENT, AND INSTALLATION 47

In a water plant where the water output is variable, such as in cases where more
than one pump is used, a flowmeter on the main line serves two purposes. First, the
flowmeter indicates the flow rates for which the fluoride feeder or feeders must
operate. Second, if so designed, flowmeters provide an electrical, pneumatic, or
hydraulic signal that adjusts the feeder output to correspond to changes in water flow
rate. Two different types of pacing meters are illustrated in Figures 3-9 and 3-10. The
electronic metering pump shown in Figure 3-9, usually available with programmable
signal, is found under relatively constant flow conditions. The pacing meter shown
linked to a variable speed motor control in Figure 3-10 is useful under variable flow
conditions.
The type of flowmeter used in small pipelines, often known as a rotameter, can
be located in the water supply line leading to the dissolving chamber of a dry feeder.
Since detention time is a function of water flow rate, the flow must be regulated and
maintained at the prescribed value. In general, a flowmeter must be selected on the
basis of pipe size and, in particular, the range of flows expected. For greatest accuracy,
the range of the flowmeter should coincide with the range of flows that will be
encountered in each particular installation.

Day Tanks
A day tank holds a day's supply of a water treatment chemical. It is a convenient, and
often necessary, means for isolating the supply of fluoride solution that will be fed
during one day or shift at a water plant. The day tank is a necessity when fluorosilicic
acid is being fed, particularly if the acid is received and stored in a large tank. In

Source: Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Engineers and Technicians

Figure 3-9 Pacing meter —electronic metering pump

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 48 WATER FLUORIDATION

Source: Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Engineers and Technicians

Figure 3-10 Pacing meter — variable-speed motor control

order to provide a record of the weight of acid fed, a small quantity of the acid is
pumped or siphoned into the day tank (mounted on a platform scale) and is then fed
into the water system from there. A similar arrangement can be used for sodium
fluoride solutions.
The day tank (or carboy) containing the acid must be vented to the outside
atmosphere, and all connections must be sealed to prevent corrosion of the equipment
in the room, "clouding" of any windows, and damage to any electrical panels.
Construction materials for day tanks are determined by the chemical being used;
however, plastics such as polyethylene are generally applicable. The tank can be
provided with graduations or a type of gauge so that approximate volume
measurements can be used. Commercial mixing tanks available with the day tank
mounted on the cover provide a convenient means for preparing fluorosilicic acid
dilutions. However, this arrangement does not permit weighing the acid, and so the
operator must rely on volume measurements.

Bag Loaders
When the hopper of a dry feeder is located directly above the feeder—that is, when
the operator has to lift the chemical to a considerable height in order to fill the
hopper—a bag loader is more a necessity than a convenience. A bag loader is
essentially a hopper extension large enough to hold a single 100-lb (45-kg) bag of
chemical. The front of the loader is hinged so that it will swing downward to a more
accessible height. The operator places a bag in the hinged section, opens the bag, and

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 DESIGN, EQUIPMENT, AND INSTALLATION 49

then swings the section back into position. This device not only lessens the labor
required to empty a bag but also eliminates part of the dust created from emptying
bags.

Dust Collectors and Wet Scrubbers

The handling of powdered, dry chemicals can raise dust. When the quantities of
fluoride compounds are small, ordinary care will minimize the dust problem. Good
housekeeping plus an exhaust fan will keep the storage and loading area relatively
dust-free. However, when larger quantities (more than one bag at a time) are
handled, dust prevention and collection facilities should be provided. A dust canopy
completely enclosing the hopper-filling area and provided with an exhaust fan will
prevent the spread of dust throughout the loading area. To prevent the escape of dust
into the atmosphere and the area surrounding the water plant, dust filters can be
incorporated into the exhaust system. Dust collectors and exhaust fans are sometimes
incorporated into the hoppers of large dry feeders.
Wet scrubbers are a means of removing dust from exhausted air. The air flows
through a chamber continuously sprayed with water. The air is "scrubbed" clean, and
the dust particles are dissolved or carried down the drain by water.

Alarms
To prevent underfeeding or loss of feed, alarm systems can be included in either
solution feed or dry feed systems. The alarm alerts the operator when the level of
solution in the day tank is low or when it is time to add another bag of dry chemical
to the hopper. An alarm can also notify the operator that the water supply to a
saturator or a dissolving tank has either stopped or diminished. The alarms are
attached to level switches, flow switches, or pressure switches.

Backflow Prevention Devices

Any time potable water is connected to a chemical solution tank, the possibility of a
cross-connection exists. This can occur in the supply line to a saturator or dissolving
tank or in the discharge from either of these or any solution feeder.
The simplest method for preventing potential siphonage is to provide an air gap
in the line. When pressure is high enough to make an air gap impractical, a
reduced-pressure backflow valve or a double-check valve should be used. For the
highest level of safety, the device should be installed as close to the chemical solution .
tank as possible. The use of mechanical vacuum breakers is not recommended
because of the potential siphonage hazards that can exist during an instantaneous
pressure loss. Refer to AWWA Manual M14, Recommended Practice for Backflow
Prevention and Cross-Connection Control (1990), for additional guidance.

Hoppers
Most dry feeders are equipped with a hopper, but for large installations, additional
hopper capacity may be necessary. This often requires extension of the existing
hopper to the floor above, which not only increases the hopper capacity but makes it
easier to fill the hopper. If at all feasible, the chemical storage should be on the floor
above the feeder. If the extension hopper reaches to approximately 12 in. (300 mm)
above the floor of the storage room, the edge of the hopper can serve as a fulcrum
point for upending drums or barrels.
In small plants the chemical hopper should be large enough to hold slightly more
than one entire shipping container of a chemical. This will allow the contents of

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 50 WATER FLUORIDATION

another bag or drum to be added before the hopper becomes completely empty. If an
entire container is loaded in this manner, there will be less handling of the chemical,
less dust, a savings of time, and less chance of spillage and loss of the chemical. Not
allowing the hopper to become completely empty means that there will be less chance
of arching and flooding and less chance for an interruption in feed.
Hoppers, whether equipped with a feeder made by a factory or one constructed
at the plant, may require vibrators to ensure uniform feed. A rotary valve can be
installed between the hopper and the feeder to prevent flooding, and a gate can be
installed in the extension hopper to limit the amount of material going to the feeder
hopper at any given time.

Weight Recorders
Whenever a platform scale is used to measure the amount of dry chemical or solution
fed during a given period, a recorder can be attached to obtain a record of the weight
of the chemical fed. Many volumetric dry feeders have recorders available as an
accessory with the scales, so that the loss-of-weight feature makes the feeder
somewhat equivalent to a gravimetric dry feeder.

Controllers
The feed rate of a dry feeder or metering pump can be adjusted automatically to be
proportional to the water flow, a feature that is almost indispensable when the water
flow rate is extremely variable. When there is only one service pump operating at a
fixed rate, the feeders can be tied electrically to the pump operation, and the fluoride
feed will remain in the predetermined proportion. When two pumps are used, two
separate feeders can be used, or one feeder can be adjusted manually each time the
second pump cuts on or off. For more than two pumps or where there is not a fixed
delivery rate, manual adjustment becomes impractical.
Controllers are based on the use of some type of primary flow-measuring device,
such as an orifice plate, venturi meter, or magnetic meter. The controller adapts the
indication of flow rate to an electrical, pneumatic, or hydraulic impulse that in turn
activates an adjusting mechanism on the feeder.

Eductors
An eductor uses water pressure and flow for transporting other fluids. In fluoridation,
an eductor carries the solution from the dissolving chamber of a dry feeder and injects
it into a pressure main. Water at a pressure substantially higher than that of the
fluoride injection point is required to operate an eductor. Although the solution from
the dissolving chamber is diluted by the action of the eductor, there will be no effect
on the fluoride concentration in the treated water because the water to operate the
eductor is taken from the flow that is being treated. To prevent the introduction of air
into the main, the eductor should draw fluoride solution from a solution well that is
supplied continuously with water through a float-controlled valve.
Pumps
Pumps are useful in situations similar to those where an eductor is used, and they
are also used for transferring fluorosilicic acid from storage to the day tank and for
transferring other fluoride solutions. Centrifugal pumps are most commonly used
because they can run continuously and can be throttled without damage.
The choice of construction materials for pumps is as critical as for solution
feeders. Pump heads and impellers, as well as pipelines, must be resistant to the

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 DESIGN, EQUIPMENT, AND INSTALLATION 51

material being handled to ensure that leaks and pump failures do not occur. Pumping
of slurries must be avoided because slurries tend to be abrasive and can damage
pump heads, impellers, and packing.

Timers
An interval timer is basically a clock mechanism, usually electric, that closes or opens
an electric switch upon receiving a signal, holds the switch in position for the preset
time interval, and then reverses the switch position. Timers are frequently used in
conjunction with water-meter contactors to operate solution feeders. When the
contact is made in the water meter, the timer is energized, and the feeder runs for the
time selected. The momentary contact made by the meter contactor is sufficient to
produce a stroke of a solenoid-operated feeder, but it is too short to operate an
electric-motor-operated feeder. The timer serves to extend the impulse received from
the contactor.
CAUTION: Using a proportional timer at low percentages, and particularly for
long interval settings, can result in cyclic fluoride levels. Insufficient detention time
in clearwells or pipelines before water reaches the consumers will cause fluoride
readings that are alternately too high and too low. Other than using a smaller feeder,
the remedy is to make the proportioned time interval as short as possible.

Hopper Agitators
To promote the smooth and even flow of dry material in a hopper, some type of
agitation is helpful. The hopper agitator may be a device that imparts vibration
magnetically or mechanically to the outside of the hopper, or it may be a rotating
device inside the hopper. Many dry feeders incorporate a hopper agitator into their
construction. The rotating type of agitator is preferred because vibrators sometimes
cause caking or packing problems.

EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION
The descriptions that follow illustrate the general arrangement of equipment in
typical fluoridation installations. Factors to consider in design include proximity to
the fluoride application point, proximity to chemical storage, availability of solution
water, and accessibility for operation and maintenance.

Solution Feeder Installations

If possible, the solution feeder should be placed above the solution tank to lessen the
chances for siphonage from the solution tank into the water line. The suction line
should be as short and straight as possible and should include a foot valve and
strainer. If the suction line tends to curl or float in the solution, it may be weighed
down. Weights usually furnished with solution feeders are made of porcelain, but any
heavy material sufficiently resistant to the solution can be used.
Most solution feeders come equipped with an antisiphon discharge valve or have
one available as an accessory. This valve may be mounted directly on the feeder head
or at the injection point. In addition, particularly if solution is to be fed into an open
channel or a low-pressure pipeline, a loaded discharge valve should be used—a
spring-loaded check or diaphragm valve that will not open until the feeder discharge
pressure exceeds a fixed value. A common setting is approximately 15 psi (100 kPa).
When a solution feeder is being mounted on a shelf or platform above the
solution container, it should be offset sufficiently to allow access to the container (or
saturator) for filling and cleaning.
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 52 WATER FLUORIDATION

Dry Feeder Installations

A dry feeder should be placed so that the solution from the dissolving chamber can
fall directly into the chemical feed channel if possible. If other considerations dictate
that the feeder be placed some distance from the application point, the drain line
should be as direct as possible, with adequate slope and sufficient size to avoid the
buildup of precipitates and subsequent stoppage.
Obviously, the dry feeder installation must be on a firm, level foundation if the
scales are to perform satisfactorily. If a small hopper is attached to the feeder, the
hopper must be readily accessible for filling. If an extension hopper is used, it should
extend vertically upward to the filling area without angles that could trap material.
The water supply line to a volumetric feeder must contain a section of flexible hose
between the dissolving chamber and the water pipe to permit free movement of the
feeder and scale platform.
The water supply line to a dry feeder must be equipped with an air gap,
mechanical vacuum breaker, or some other type of antisiphon device. The air gap is
the simplest and most positive protection against the dangers of cross-connection. If
water pressure is too high to permit the use of an air gap, one of the other devices
may be used, but in any case the antisiphon device must be placed between the point
of entry to the feeder dissolving chamber and any restrictive device in the pipeline,
and it must be installed in an elevated location.

Valves and Meters

Shutoff valves are sometimes installed where solution is fed under pressure. Their
use permits repairs to the feeder or discharge line, but they can also present a
possible hazard. Attempting to feed solution when the valve is closed can rupture
diaphragms or discharge lines or severely damage the feeders. If a shutoff valve is
located at the injection point, it must be in the fully open position.
If a sodium fluoride saturator is used, a water meter must be placed in the water
supply line. A shutoff valve in this line is a necessity for dismantling and cleaning the
saturator. The valve must be placed between the water meter and the saturator inlet
so that the meter chamber will remain filled with water and will register properly.
No water supply can be properly fluoridated unless the water flow rate in the
main is known, and fluoride levels cannot be calculated unless a record of total flow
is available. A master meter on the main is therefore a prerequisite for fluoridation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Recommended Practice for Backflow Preven- Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Engi-
tion and Cross-Connection Control, neers and Technicians. 1986. Atlanta,
Manual M14. 1990. Denver, Colo.: Ga.: US Department of Health and
American Water Works Association. Human Services, Public Health Serv-
ice, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention.

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 AWWA MANUAL
4

Chapter 4

Operation and
Maintenance

For the benefits of fluoridation to be realized, the fluoride concentration must be

maintained at or near the optimal level. Experience has shown that the basic reason
for low or erratic fluoride levels is poor operation and maintenance.

CONTROL SCHEME
Adjusting the fluoride level in a water supply to an optimal level is accomplished by
adding the proper concentration of a fluoride chemical at a constant rate. Figure 4-1
summarizes the process monitoring and control scheme for fluoridation. The proper
concentration of fluoride chemical to be added is calculated based on the difference
between the fluoride level required and the naturally occurring fluoride level present
in the water supply. Once the concentration to be added is known, the chemical
feeders can be adjusted to deliver the proper dosage. Routine sampling, analysis, and
adjustment of the fluoride dosage will ensure that the optimal fluoride level is
consistently maintained.
Sampling, analytical procedures, determination of the optimal fluoride level,
calculation of the fluoride dose, and troubleshooting are discussed in this section.
Refer to the appropriate manufacturers' instructions for the steps necessary to adjust
fluoride chemical feeders and solution pumps.

Chemical Impurities
Trace amounts of impurities, especially arsenic, lead, and zinc, may be introduced
into fluoride chemicals during production. Normally, the low levels of these impurities
do not necessitate the establishment of maximum impurity limits. As with all direct
additives for water treatment, purchasers of chemicals must ensure that impurities
are not present at levels that would deteriorate the quality of the water being treated.
AWWA standards address impurity limits and tests for determining levels. All
chemicals used for fluoridation should meet the requirements of these standards.

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 54 WATER FLUORIDATION

Figure 4-1 Simplified process control scheme

Chemical Availability
Fluoride chemicals are plentiful, but having the right one in the right place at the
right time may not always be the case. The availability of the compounds derived
from phosphate fertilizer production—fluorosilicic acid and sodium fluorosilicate—is
related to fertilizer sales. A decline in such sales means a corresponding decline in
recovery of fluoride compounds. During the summer of 1982 a moderately severe
decline in phosphate fertilizer production resulted in several municipalities depleting
their supplies of fluorosilicic acid. The best way to reduce the possibility of running
out of these fluoride chemicals is to purchase them on a long-term (two to three years)
contract basis. Most suppliers will deliver preferentially to contract customers.
Sodium fluoride is derived from fluorspar and is not associated with fertilizer
production.
The availability of fluoride chemicals through a local supplier should be
determined before the chemical is selected for use. Usually, stocks of chemicals on
hand at local distributors' warehouses are sufficient for small water plants even
during a temporary shortage. Users of large quantities of fluorosilicic acid, however,
should be assured of an ample supply before committing to an installation designed
around the use of the acid.
If possible, a reserve supply of fluoride chemical should be maintained at the
treatment facility. The amount of reserve will depend on system size, type of chemical,
storage space availability, and available funding. The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) recommends that a minimum of three months' supply be kept on
hand (Reeves 1987). If a shortage is anticipated, seek assistance from the state health

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 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 55

agency or the Division of Oral Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
Atlanta, Ga.

Sampling
Although state health agencies may require only occasional tests, a minimum
sampling of once per day is recommended. Samples should be taken at locations in
the water distribution system where the water will be representative of the whole
system, and sampling points should be rotated throughout the distribution system.
When fluoridation is first started, sampling should be done more often and
should include several points in the distribution system. Distribution system analyses
on startup will show how long it takes for fluoridated water to reach the ends of the
mains and whether untreated water is entering the system. The fluoride ion, being a
stable and persistent substance, is an excellent indicator of flow patterns.
Analytical Procedures
The ability to detect and accurately measure trace amounts of the fluoride ion in
water is essential in obtaining the benefits of fluoride. Not only must the fluoride
concentration of the untreated water be determined, but the fluoride concentration of
the treated water must also be determined to make sure that the correct amount of
chemical is being added.
Because the quantity of fluoride being measured is quite small (usually about
1 mg/L F-), the analytical method used must be sensitive, and the accuracy of
measurement must be well within the limits established for the maximum
permissible variation from the optimal concentration. If a concentration of 0.9-1.1
(1.0 ± 0.1) mg/L is considered optimal for a certain area, the analysis must be
accurate to 0.1 mg/L or less to ensure that the actual concentration falls within these
limits.
The generally accepted analytical methods for determining fluoride concentration
are outlined in detail in the latest edition of Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater (or Standard Methods'). Additional methods are available, most of
which are based on colorimetric principles. Several methods have been approved by the
US Environmental Protection Agency for regulatory purposes, including the electrode
method and the colorimetric SPADNS method with distillation.
Electrode method. The electrode method is based on the use of a specific ion
electrode, resembling the electrodes used for pH determinations. In the case of the
fluoride electrode, the key element is a single crystal through which only fluoride ions
can move. When the electrode is immersed in a solution containing fluoride ions, an
electric potential is set up between the solution and a standard fluoride solution
within the electrode. This potential, expressed in millivolts, can be either positive or
negative depending on whether the fluoride concentration of the sample is lower or
higher than that of the standard solution. Since only fluoride ions can move through
the crystal, the electrode is essentially specific for fluoride. A buffer is added to the
sample to eliminate potential interferences and to ensure uniform electrode response
despite variations in total ionic concentrations in the sample.
The electrode method is the most accurate way to determine the fluoride content
of a water supply system. Unfortunately, many water plant operators are unsure of
how the electrode equipment works. If the electrode method is to be used, time must
be spent to ensure that the operator not only understands how it is operated, but also
has confidence in the results.
SPADNS method. The SPADNS method is based on the zirconium—SPADNS
dye reaction that produces a red lake (a deep color). Any fluoride present has the
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 56 WATER FLUORIDATION

Table 4-1 Interfering substances

Substance SPADNS Electrode

Alkalinity 5,000 (-) 7,000 (+)
Aluminum 0.1 (-)* 2.0 (-)
Chloride 7,000 (+) 20,000 (-)
Iron 10 (-) 200 (-)
Hexametaphosphate 1.0 (+) 50,000
Phosphate 16 (+) 50,000
Sulfate 200 (+) 50,000 (-)
Chlorine Must be completely removed with arsenite 5,000
Color and turbidity Must be removed or compensated for
NOTES: 1. Concentration of substance, in milligrams per litre, required to cause error of plus or minus 0.1 mg at 1.0
mg/L fluoride.
2. (+) causes a higher fluoride reading than actually exists, (-) causes a lower fluoride reading than actually ex-
ists.
*Figure is for immediate reading (the figure will change with time).

effect of decreasing the intensity of color. However, the colors produced by different
concentrations of fluoride are all shades of red, making it almost impossible to detect
these differences with the naked eye, and making the use of a photometer necessary.
In general, the determination consists of adding a measured volume of reagent
to a measured volume of sample, placing a portion of the mixture in a cell or cuvette,
placing the cell in a photometer, and taking the absorbance reading. The absorbance
reading is then converted to fluoride concentration by consulting a calibration curve
for the absorbance of known standard solutions against their concentrations. The
SPADNS method involves an instantaneous reaction, permitting analysis within
seconds of the reagent addition.
Interferences. Both the electrode method and the SPADNS method can be
subject to error caused by other substances in the water. Common interferences are
given in Table 4-1. For most drinking waters the levels of the constituents listed in
Table 4-1 will be low enough so that the electrode method will be generally free of
interferences. Constituents that may cause interferences with the SPADNS method
are more common in drinking waters but may be eliminated by distillation of the
sample before analysis. The electrode method is the preferred method of analysis,
although the SPADNS colorimeter can be used if there are no serious interferences.
Ion chromatography. Ion chromatography is a relatively new analytical
method combining ion exchange and chromatography. Fluoride concentrations
between 0.1 mg/L and 3.0 mg/L can be analyzed from a filtered, unacidified sample
with good precision. Negative interferences are a problem in the analysis but can be
eliminated with a simple procedure. See Standard Methods for a complete
description.
Test kits. Test kits based on the procedures in Standard Methods are available
commercially and include portable colorimeters and portable ion meters. The portable
colorimeters, used with the SPADNS method, are small photometers that are
precalibrated so that the fluoride concentration in a reagent-treated sample can be
read directly from a scale or chart without the need for preparing standards or a
standard curve. Similarly, the portable electrode meter substitutes a precalibrated
scale for the millivolt readings of the electrode method.
Continuous monitors. A continuous monitor is a device that automatically
monitors the fluoride ion concentration and provides a continuous record of the
fluoride level. The advantage of a continuous record over a spot check, such as a daily
fluoride analysis, is that the continuous record will show the fluoride concentration at

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 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 57

any given time rather than only at the time the daily sample is taken. This type of
record could prove helpful in answering complaints regarding under- or overfeeding,
as well as in detecting variations in fluoride concentration for unexplained reasons. If
the monitor is equipped with an alarm system, it can alert the operator to feeder
malfunctions or other problems affecting fluoride level,

TROUBLESHOOTING__
The problems commonly encountered in the operation of a fluoridation system are
related to low, high, or variable fluoride readings. Although slight over- or
underfeeding of fluoride for short periods (for example, a variation of 0.2-0.3 mg/L for
two or three days) is actually of no serious consequence, such variations should be
investigated since they may be indications of potential problems of a more serious
nature.

Low Fluoride Readings

When the fluoride concentration determined by analysis is consistently lower than
that determined by calculation, a number of problems may be indicated. If the
calculations are correct and are based on accurate weight and flow figures, the
problem may be interference in the laboratory test procedure. If alum is used for
flocculation, traces of aluminum in the finished water can interfere with colorimetric
analysis by influencing the readings negatively. A high iron content can also cause low
readings if the SPADNS method is used. In rare cases, chloride and alkalinity can
also interfere, but their concentrations have to be extremely high. Distilling the
sample to remove interfering substances before analysis or switching to the electrode
analytical method can confirm or rule out this potential error.
A common cause of low readings is underdosing due to inadequate chemical
depth in a saturator or incomplete mixing in a dissolving tank. Deposits of
undissolved chemical in the dissolving tank of a dry feeder indicate incomplete
mixing. This can be due to inadequate baffling or an inadequate flow rate of the
makeup water. As the fluoride is dissolved a high reading may eventually result.
Low chemical purity is another possible cause of low fluoride readings.
Fluorosilicic acid has the most variable purity and can be anywhere from 20 to 30
percent pure. The manufacturer usually specifies the purity of a given batch, but if
there is some doubt, the acid should be analyzed according to directions given in
AWWA B703, Standard for Fluorosilicic Acid. Sodium fluoride and sodium fluorosili-
cate usually exhibit less variation in purity, but occasionally a relatively impure lot is
produced. AWWA B701, Standard for Sodium Fluoride, and AWWA B702, Standard for
Sodium Fluorosilicate, give procedures for determining the purity of these materials.
If the fluoride level is low in a sample from the distribution system, check for
unfluoridated water entering at some point in the distribution system and diluting
the water fluoridated at the plant.

High Fluoride Readings

If laboratory testing indicates a fluoride concentration consistently higher than that
determined by calculation, different problems may be indicated.
Polyphosphates can cause analytical error in the positive direction when the
SPADNS method is being used. An operator can check for this type of error by using
the electrode method or comparing results with the local or state health department.
Failure to eliminate chlorine from the water sample can also lead to high results in
colorimetric analysis.

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 58 WATER FLUORIDATION

Failure to take into account the natural fluoride content of the source water can
result in the addition of more fluoride than is needed; surface supplies, which can
show considerable variability, should be analyzed daily so that the correct dosage can
be calculated. If the water supply comes from wells, the variability is much less, but
in the case of a higher-than-calculated fluoride concentration, the possibility of a
contribution from a high-fluoride well should be investigated.

Varying Fluoride Readings

• The most difficult type of problem to solve is that of variable fluoride concentration
when calculations show that the fluoride feed rate is of the required proportion. One
possibility that can be easily checked is the fluoride feeder. Verification of the delivery
rate with weight measurements at short intervals will reveal whether the feeder
delivery rate is constant.
Almost all of the factors that can produce consistently low or high fluoride
analyses can also produce variable errors if the analytical interference, chemical
purity, source water fluoride, or completeness of chemical solution is variable. In the
last case, undissolved sodium fluorosilicate can eventually go into solution after a
quantity of undissolved material accumulates at some point, and a solution feeder can
begin drawing from a concentrated stratum after feeding from a dilute stratum in an
improperly mixed solution tank.
One of the causes of a varying fluoride content in a treated water system is the
intermittent intrusion of unfluoridated water into the system. This situation usually
occurs when fluoridation measures are first instituted and no attempt has been made
to fluoridate the reservoir separately. When no water is being pumped or the pumping
rate is less than the demand, water flows into the system from the reservoir. Because
this water has not yet been fluoridated, low fluoride readings will result, particularly
at the sampling points nearest the reservoir. Eventually, with flow pattern reversals
as the pumps operate intermittently, the reservoir contents will become displaced by
fluoridated water. However, there have been cases involving large reservoirs, located
at the end of a water system, where it has taken years before there was a complete
turnover of the reservoir contents. The obvious solution to this type of problem is to
fluoridate the reservoir separately at the time fluoridation of the system begins, if
possible.
A similar situation occurs when an elevated tank or other storage facility merely
rides on the system and its contents rarely enter the system or at best only a slight
intermixing occurs. Sampling points near the tank will have varying fluoride
concentrations—normal during pumping and low when water is being drawn from the
tank. In such cases, allow the tank contents to drain into the system before
fluoridation begins, and then do not refill the tank until the entire system is up to the
optimal fluoride level.
Cyclic fluoride levels can result when the feeder is operated intermittently, such
as when capacity is reduced by the use of a cycle timer and when there is insufficient
storage capacity between the feeder and the consumers. Detention time in mains or a
storage facility between the feed point and the first consumer are important factors in
providing homogeneous fluoridated water.

Other Problems
Undoubtedly many other possible causes exist for fluoride levels that are less than
optimal, but fluoride certainly does not disappear in the pipelines, nor will fluoride
concentrate at points or become leached out of incrustations in the mains. Unlike
chlorine, fluoride does not have the ability to dissipate. Even though trace amounts

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 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 59

are incorporated into tubercles in pipelines, the extreme insolubility of these

formations prevents subsequent dissolution. When there is an unexplained difference
between the calculated and observed fluoride concentrations, the calculations are
usually at fault. If calculations prove to be accurate and none of the previous
possibilities apply or can be eliminated, common sense and a knowledge of the
individual system should enable the operator to locate and correct the cause of the
trouble.

RECORDS
Comprehensive record keeping is necessary for the efficient operation and mainte-
nance of the water supply system. Since the sizes and designs of water supply
systems vary, record-keeping methods should be tailored to each system. Without
permanent records describing the system, a community becomes dependent on the
memories of long-time employees. Valuable information can be lost with the
retirement of each employee. A well-kept system of records demonstrates that the
operator is attempting to maintain system reliability.
Most states require that certain records be kept. Generally, this includes the
daily determination of fluoride concentration, daily weights (or volumes) of chemicals
fed, and the volume of water treated. Some states also require the daily calculated
chemical dosage. Additional information, such as when the equipment was checked,
repaired, and lubricated and when chemicals were added, should also be maintained.
The state health department should be contacted to ascertain specific record-keeping
requirements.

MAINTENANCE
To ensure uninterrupted and consistent fluoride feed, proper maintenance of
equipment is required. This includes maintaining not only the fluoride feeder, but
also all the appurtenances, feed lines, and laboratory testing equipment.

Fluoride Feeder
Some specific maintenance concerns that apply to fluoride feeders are cleaning and
lubrication, spare parts, and inspection and recalibration.
Cleaning and lubrication. Like any other mechanical device, fluoride feeders
must be kept clean and lubricated if they are to perform their function efficiently. A
regular maintenance program will also minimize costly breakdowns and ensure long
life for the equipment. Electric motors have a prescribed schedule for lubrication—the
right type, amount, and frequency of lubrication are important. Gearboxes must be
kept filled to the prescribed level with the proper lubricant, and all moving parts and
unpainted metal surfaces should be kept clean and rust-free. If there are grease
fittings, the proper grade, quantity, and frequency of lubrication should be observed.
Spare parts. Fluoride feeders and related equipment should be accompanied
by an instruction book and parts list when purchased. The instruction book will
contain information on maintenance and repairs, and the parts list will enable the
operator to select replacement parts when needed. If this information is lost, call or
write the manufacturer or the manufacturer's representative for replacement. A list of
spare parts should be kept on hand; having parts available can minimize the length
of shutdowns due to equipment failure. In large water plants, an entire spare feeder
should be available.

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 60 WATER FLUORIDATION

Inspection and recalibration. Fluoride feeders will feed as intended only if

the measuring mechanism is kept clean and operative. The diaphragms or pistons of
solution feeders; the rolls, belts, disks, or screws of dry feeders; and associated
mechanisms of both types should be inspected regularly for signs of wear or damage.
Repairs or replacements should be made before the machine breaks down. Even with
all parts in the best mechanical condition, fluoride delivery can be affected by leaks,
spillage, buildup of precipitates from solutions, or accumulation of dry chemicals on or
around measuring mechanisms. Occasional recalibration of the feeder can reveal
evidence of potential malfunction.
Leaks. Leaks in and around the discharge line of a solution feeder can affect the
quantity of solution delivered and result in low fluoride levels. Leaks are an
annoyance and are always somewhat corrosive, ranging from the salt effect of sodium
fluoride solutions to the acid corrosion of fluorosilicic acid. Even the smallest leak can
result in damage to the feeder, appurtenances, or surroundings if left unattended.
Leaks of strong solutions result in the formation of crystalline deposits, which, if
allowed to build up, make subsequent cleaning difficult. A leak in the .suction line of a
solution feeder, though not immediately apparent, will adversely affect delivery and
can eventually lead to air binding and cessation of feed. Air binding can also be
caused if fluoride solution is injected at the top of a main where air can collect.
Leaks in a dry feeder installation cause a dust problem, and if the feeding
mechanism (for example, around the rollers of a volumetric feeder) leaks the feed rate
will be in error. In addition to an economic loss, the dust is a hazard to equipment and
personnel.
Leaks in equipment not related to fluoride feed can also present problems. For
example, a water leak can result in dampness and subsequent caking of dry
chemicals. A leak in a chlorine gas system can result in damage to feeders and
associated equipment. Leaks in other dry feed equipment can result in dust
contamination of the fluoridation installation.
Precipitates. When strong solutions are used, the possibility of precipitation
buildup is always present. In a solution feed system, precipitates in the feeder
pumping chamber or on the check valves can affect delivery rate or stop the feeder
entirely. Deposits in suction or feed lines can build up until flow stops. A coating of
insoluble matter on a saturator bed can prevent water from percolating through. If
the deposits are the result of water hardness, then softening the makeup water will
eliminate the problem. If softening is impractical, frequent inspection and removal of
the deposits is a necessity. Even when the water is soft, impurities in the chemical
used and other mineral constituents in the water can build up to the point where
small openings are clogged and feed is impaired or stopped. Dissolving chambers or
dry feed installations are a vulnerable point for precipitation buildup. Frequent
inspection and cleaning are the best solutions to this problem.
Tanks in which fluoride solutions are prepared invariably show precipitates of
the insoluble impurities from the chemical used or of insoluble compounds formed by
the reaction of the chemical with mineral constituents of the water. If a separate tank
is used for fluoride solution preparation and the clear supernatant layer is then
transferred to a day tank, then problems will be minimized but not necessarily
completely eliminated.
A regular schedule for cleaning a saturator should be established. The time
interval between cleanings will depend on the amount of use and the accumulation of
impurities in the saturator.

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 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 61

Storage Areas
Storage areas, although not necessarily a major factor in maintaining accurate feed of
fluoride, need to be kept clean and orderly. Bags of dry chemicals should be piled
neatly on pallets. Whenever possible, whole bags should be emptied into hoppers.
Partially emptied bags present a spillage hazard and are a nuisance to store. Empty
bags should be rinsed out and disposed of promptly. Metal drums should be kept off
the floor and tightly closed. The storage area for fluoride chemicals should be isolated
from areas used to store other chemicals to avoid mixups. All other types of materials,
such as lubricating oil and cleaning equipment, should be kept out of the area. Both
the stored chemicals and the general area should be kept free of dust, not only from
the chemicals used in fluoridation but also from other chemicals stored or used
nearby.

Laboratory
The laboratory or fluoride testing area requires special precautions in cleanliness.
Fluoride dust on glassware can result in extreme analytical errors. Dirty pipettes or
other measuring glassware can produce errors in volume measurements and hinder
proper drainage, resulting in carry-over of solutions from one sample to the next. In
colorimetric analyses, dirty glassware prevents accurate color determination whether
the method is visual or photometric. Permanent standards for colorimetric test kits
should be kept covered when not in use because they are difficult to clean and may
fade when exposed to light. Reagent bottles, buffers, and standard solutions should
all be kept tightly closed when not in use. Evaporation ruins the reagents, and the
acid fumes can damage nearby objects. Analytical instruments should always be
covered when not in use, because fumes and dust can corrode electrical connections,
cloud mirrors, and result in expensive repairs or replacement.
The use of phosphate-based detergents for cleaning glassware presents a hazard
because of the potential interference of phosphates in colorimetric analysis. Since tap
water contains fluoride, it is imperative that all glassware be thoroughly rinsed with
distilled water. The quality of distilled water should be verified by conductivity
measurements. When equipment for this procedure is lacking, help can often be
obtained from state health departments. State health officials can sometimes check a
water plant's distilled water or furnish a sample of quality distilled water for
comparison. Comparing fluoride analyses of a plant's distilled water with that
furnished by the state can reveal possible contamination. Many state health
department laboratories will also furnish a standard fluoride solution for purposes of
checking accuracy.

SAFETY
Although potable water fluoride levels at the recommended concentration of 1.0 mg/L
have been very safe, the fluoride levels to which the water plant operator can be
exposed are potentially much higher. If safety precautions are not taken, the operator
may be overexposed to fluoride chemicals, especially in the form of dust.
The information contained in this section is drawn from sources believed to be
reliable. The safety suggestions are based on the injury prevention experience of
professional safety engineers, water utility superintendents, and others. Not every
acceptable safety procedure is necessarily discussed here, nor are abnormal or
unusual circumstances. These safety suggestions should be cross-referenced with
approved local, state, or national regulations. For more detailed information refer to
AWWA Manual MB, Safety Practices for Water Utilities.
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 62 WATER FLUORIDATION

Chemical Handling
The best safety measure for prevention of overexposure is the proper handling of
fluoride chemicals. Proper handling implies adequate knowledge of the material, the
use of correct procedures, and the use of proper safety Equipment.
When bags of fluoride are handled carelessly or when bags are emptied too
quickly, airborne fluoride dust levels can become dangerously high. Bags should not
be tossed or thrown. When the bags are being opened, an even slit should be cut
across the top to avoid tearing the sides. The contents of the bag should be poured
gently into the feed hopper. The empty bag should not be bellowed. Good ventilation
is a necessity in work areas, even when there is no visible dust production.
The disposal of empty fluoride containers is usually a problem. The temptation
to reuse fiber drums is difficult to overcome because the drums are convenient and
sturdy. Paper bags are dusty and could cause a hazard if burned, and empty acid
drums could still contain enough acid to cause contamination. The best approach is to
rinse all empty containers with plenty of water—paper bags are strong enough to
withstand several rinses. After all traces of fluoride are removed, the bags should be
disposed of properly. Supposedly well-rinsed drums should never be used where traces
of fluoride could present a hazard. The solid waste division of the state environmental
protection program should be consulted for the correct procedures regarding bag and
drum disposal. If possible, the storage area should be kept locked and not used for
any other purpose. An eyewash station should be easily accessible. In particular,
workers should be warned against eating in a fluoride storage area.
Fluorosilicic acid requires special precautions. The 22 percent acid has a freezing
point of approximately 4°F (-16°C). Fluorosilicic acid containers should not be stored
in the hot sun where they can build up hydrostatic pressure or in open areas where
they are subject to winter freezing. The fumes from the acid are highly corrosive and
will etch glass. Store fluorosilicic acid in well-ventilated areas, away from switches,
contacts, and control panels. Although the acid is available in all-polyethylene drums,
some suppliers continue to ship in lined steel drums that may suffer leakage
problems. Wash down all spills immediately.
Always wear protective safety gear when handling fluoride chemicals. In
particular, full-face shield, splash-proof goggles, rubber gloves and boots, and
acid-proof aprons should be worn when fluorosilicic acid is being handled.
The greatest chance for overexposure to dry fluoride chemicals comes from the
inhalation of dust generated when feeder hoppers are being filled. During the filling
operation, the operator should wear an effective respirator approved by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), splash-proof safety goggles, an
apron, and rubber gloves. The respirator should have a rubber face-to-mask seal
with replaceable cartridges. Cartridges are available for either dust or acid vapor.
The maximum allowable concentration of fluoride dust in the area should be
7.1-10.6 mg/ft3 (0.2-0.3 mg/m3) of fluoride dust in air.

Toxic Exposure
This section describes the difference between chronic and acute toxic exposure.
Chronic toxic exposure. Chronic toxic exposure occurs when exposure to
large doses of fluoride takes place over a number of years. This type of exposure could
occur as a result of repeated dust inhalation when feeder hoppers are being filled.
The body's assimilation capacity for fluoride is limited. The body begins
retaining fluoride at an exposure rate of about 1.5 mg/d. It is estimated that low
poisoning may start at 0.2-0.35 mg/kg of body weight (for 175 lb [80 kg], that

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 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 63

corresponds to 15.9-27.8 mg). With chronic toxic exposure, there may be a general
lack of appetite, slight nausea, some shortness of breath, constipation, pain in the
region of the liver, and anemia. See chapter 1 for additional discussion on health
effects. .
Acute toxic exposure. Acute toxic exposure results from a single massive
dose. Acute fluoride poisoning may result from ingestion, inhalation, or bodily contact
with concentrated fluoride compounds. Knowledge is limited concerning acute
fluoride poisoning caused by ingestion or inhalation because it is very rare. Accidental
ingestion is quite unlikely, but could occur through contamination of food or drink
either by mistaking the compound for sugar or salt or through carelessness in
allowing areas where food is consumed to become contaminated by dust or spillage.
The symptoms of acute poisoning by inhalation of dust or vapor include sharp
biting pains in the nose followed by nasal discharge or nosebleed and possibly
coughing or respiratory distress. Acid spill or splash may cause a tingling or burning
sensation of the skin; if the eyes are involved, severe eye irritation may result.
Ingested toxic dosages generally cause vomiting, stomach cramps, and diarrhea.
If the poisoning involves ingestion of large amounts of fluorides, the vomitus may be
white, and the victim may experience weakness, disturbed color vision, thirst, and
difficulty in speaking. Ingestion of 4-5 g per 175 lb (80 kg) of body weight may be
fatal.
First aid for acute toxic exposure. Once fluoride poisoning is determined,
first aid treatment should be started while waiting for medical help. Emergency
treatment for an ingested fluoride overdose from fluorosilicic acid is described in
Table 4-2 and for dry fluoride chemicals in Table 4-3.

Table 4-2 Emergency treatment for ingested fluoride overdose of fluorosilicic acid H2SiF6

Milligrams of Fluoride Ion

Injested/Body Weight Treatment
Less than 5.0 mg F-/kg* 1. Give calcium (milk) orally to relieve gastrointestinal symptoms. Observe for
a few hours. (NOTE: Keep a can of evaporated milk accessible.)
2. It is not necessary to induce vomiting.

Over 5.0 mg F-/kg 1. Move the victim away from any contact with fluoride and keep victim warm.
2. Call poison control center.
3. If the poison control center advises and if the victim is conscious, induce
vomiting by rubbing the back of the throat with a spoon or your finger, or
use syrup of Ipecac. While the patient is vomiting, the head should be lower
than the body with face downward to prevent inhalation of the vomitus.
4. Give the victim a glass of milk or any source of soluble calcium (5 percent
calcium gluconate or calcium lactate solution).
5. Take the victim to the hospital as quickly as possible. Notify physicians
that there may be a late onset of pulmonary edema for up to
48 hours.
Source: Engineering and Administrative Recommendations for Water Fluoridation (1995).
NOTE: 5 mg of fluoride (F-) is equivalent to 27 mg of 23 percent fluorosilicic acid. Ingesting 5 mg F-/kg is equivalent to
a 154 lb (70 kg) person consuming 2 g of fluorosilicic acid.

*Average weight per age: 33 lb (15 kg)/l-2 years; 44 lb (20 kg)/4-5 years; 50 lb (23 kg)/6-8 years; 154 lb (70 kg)/21
years.

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 64 WATER FLUORIDATION

Table 4-3 Emergency treatment for ingested fluoride overdose of dry fluoride chemicals
NaF and Na 3 SiF 6

Milligrams of Fluoride lo n
Injested/Body Weight Treatment
Less than 5.0 mg F-/kg* 1. Give calcium (milk) orally to relieve gastrointestinal symptoms. Observe for
a few hours.
(NOTE: Keep a can of evaporated milk accessible.)
2. It is not necessary to induce vomiting.

5.0 mg F-/kg and over 1. Move the victim away from any contact with fluoride and keep warm.
2. Call poison control center.
3. If the victim is conscious, induce vomiting by rubbing the back of the throat
with a spoon or your finger, or use syrup of Ipecac. While the patient is
vomiting, the head should be lower than the body with face downward to
prevent inhalation of the vomitus.
4. Give the victim a glass of milk or any source of soluble calcium (5 percent
calcium gluconate or calcium lactate solution).
5. Take the victim to the hospital as quickly as possible.
Source: Engineering and Administrative Recommendations for Water Fluoridation (1995).
NOTE: 5 mg of fluoride (F-) is equivalent to 11 mg of sodium fluoride.or 8 mg of sodium fluorosilicate. Ingesting 5 mg
F-/kg is equivalent to a 154lb (70 kg) person consuming 0.8 g of sodium fluoride or 0.6 g of sodium fluorosilicate.

"Average weight per age: 33 lb (15 kg)/l-2 years; 44 lb (20 kg)/4-5 years; 50 lb (23 kg)/6-8 years; 154l b (70 kg)/21
years.

Fluoride Overfeed
When a community fluoridates its drinking water, the possibility for a fluoride
overfeed exists. Most overfeeds have no serious consequence, but all overfeeds should
be taken seriously and corrected immediately. If an overfeed remains unconnected,-
serious health consequences can occur. Fluroide overfeeds that have resulted in
illness or death are rare, but a few instances have occurred. Table 4-4 describes some
of the known instances.
The CDC recommends the actions listed in Table 4-5 for fluoride overfeed
instances. When a fluoride test result is near the end of the analyzer scale, the water
sample must be diluted and retested to measure high fluoride levels accurately.

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 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 65

Table 4-4 Summary of reported fluoride overfeed incidents in public water systems

Total Number of Fluoride

Population Illnesses/ Concentrations, Data
Location at Risk Deaths mg/L (Duration) Comments
Annapolis, 8 2 illnesses 35 Nov. 11, 1979 Following renal dialysis at clinic
Md. 1 death (unknown) where water F was 35 ppm, 8
patients became ill. Two became
very ill, one of whom refused
hospitalization for observation and
died 16 hours after the onset of
illness. Immediate cause of death
was hypertension and
arteriocardiovascular disease. Acute
F intoxication during hemodialysis
was contributing cause of death. A
valve to H2SiF6 acid at water plant
had been left open all night.
Crown Point, Unknown 35 to 40 60 to 208 May 23, 1983 Navajo Indian Reservation. Nausea,
N.M. illnesses (unknown) vomiting, dizziness, diarrhea, skin
rash, eye irritations. No
hospitalizations. Survey taken after
incident. Two theories how the
large "slug" of F acid entered water
line.
Harbor Springs, 1,700 4 illnesses 42.6 Nov. 22, 1977 Four persons became ill with nausea
Mich. maximum (unknown) and vomiting after drinking
municipal water. One person sought
medical care and was hospitalized
overnight. Mechanical control of F
metering pump malfunctioned.
Hooper Bay, 470 262 illnesses 2 to 150 May 1992 Multiple deficiencies attributed to
Alaska (estimated (unknown) outbreak. System failed to report
1 death) fluoride levels; high levels found
previously. Fluoride pump wired in
parallel, rather than in series, with
the well pump, allowing it to run
without water flow. Fluoride pump
malfunctioned, causing overfeed.
Operator lacked proper training.

Island Falls, 1,010 6 illnesses 250 May 2, 1979 Interviews and telephone survey
Maine maximum (unknown) identified six possible cases. Acute
gastrointestinal symptoms found.
No other reported illnesses and no
hospitalizations. Two gal of F acid
inadvertently injected into water
system while changing a flowmeter
in large water pipe.

New Haven, 150 homes 1 illness SO March 12, 1986 One case of illness was reported.
Conn. maximum (2 hours) Incident occurred during plant
operation switch between 2:00 a.m.
and 4:00 a.m: several water lines
were switched and a fluoride
injection point relocated.

Rice Lake, Wis. 150 4 to 5 illnesses Unknown Feb. 22, 1992 On survey 10 persons noted something
(2 days) unusual with the water, but only 4
to 5 persons became ill. No
hospitalizations were reported.
Mechanical failure of equipment
caused the problem.
Source: Pontius (1993).

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 66 WATER FLUORIDATION

Table 4-5 Recommended fluoride overfeed action

If Fluoride Content in Drinking

Water is: Then, Perform the Following Recommended Actions:
0.1 mg/L above control 1. Leave the fluoridation system on.
range to 2.0 mg/L . 2. Determine what has malfunctioned and repair it.

1. Leave the fluoridation system on.

2.1 mg/L to 4.0 mg/L 2. Determine what has malfunctioned and repair it.
3. Notify your supervisor and report the incident to the appropriate
county or state agencies.
1. Determine what has malfunctioned and immediately try to repair it.
2. If the problem is not found and corrected quickly, then turn off the
fluoridation system.
3. Notify your supervisor and report the incident to the appropriate
4.1 mg/L to 10.0 mg/L county or state agencies.
4. Take water samples at several points in the distribution system and
test the fluoride content. Retest if results are still high.
5. Determine what has malfunctioned and repair it. Then, with
supervisor's permission, restart the fluoridation system.
1. Turn off the fluoridation system immediately.
2. Notify your supervisor and report the incident immediately to the
appropriate county or state agencies and follow their instructions.
3. Take water samples at several points in the distribution system and
test the fluoride content. Retest if results are still high. Save part of
10.1 mg/L or higher each sample for the state lab to test.
4. Public notification may be required by the state to prevent
consumption of high levels of fluoridated water.
5. Determine what has malfunctioned and repair it. Then, with
supervisor's and the state's permission, restart the fluoridation
system.
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Manual M3, Safety Practices for Water Standard Methods for the Examination of
Utilities. 1983. Denver, Colo.: Ameri- Water and Wastewater. 1993, Wash-
can Water Works Association. ington, D.C.: American Water Works
Pontius, F.W. 1993. NEC Determines Cur- Association (latest edition).
rent Fluoride MCL Appropriate. Op- Reeves, T.G. 1987. Avoiding a Fluoride
flow, 19(11):3-5. Chemicals Shortage. Opflow, 13(7):3.
Standard for Fluorosilicic Acid. AWWA Engineering and Administrative Recommen-
Standard B703-94. Denver, Colo.: dations for Water Fluoridation. 1995.
American Water Works Association. Atlanta, Ga.: US Department of
Standard for Sodium Fluoride. AWWA Health and Human Services, Public
Standard B701-94. AWWA, Denver, Health Service. Centers for Disease
Colo.: American Water Works Associa- Control and Prevention.
tion.
Standard for Sodium Fluorosilicate. AWWA
Standard B702-94. Denver, Colo.:
American Water Works Association.

<<
 Additional Sources of Information
In addition to the references at the end of each chapter, the following may be helpful. Also, the 1993
National Research Council (NEC) report The Health Effects of Ingested Fluoride has an extensive list
of references. It is available from National Academy Press, Washington, B.C.

General Pontius, F.W. 1994. Regulation Summary for Fluo-

ride. SDWA Advisor. Denver, Colo.; American
Accepted Dental Therapeutics. 39th ed. 1982. Chi- Water Works Association.
cago, Ill.: American Dental Association.
. 1991. Fluoride Regulation and Water Fluori-
Current Information on Fluoridation. 1984. Austin, dation. Jour. AWWA, 83(11):20.
Texas: Texas State Department of Health,
Dental Bureau. Schrotenboer, G.H. 1981. Fluoride Benefits—After
36 Years. Jour. Amer. Dental Assn., 102:473.
Fluoridation Census 1985. 1992. Atlanta, Ga.: US
Department of Health and Human Services,
Public Health Service, Centers for Disease
Health Effects of Fluorides
Control and Prevention. Alhava, E.M., H. Olkkonen, P. Kavranen, and T.
Kani. 1980. Effect of Drinking Water Fluorida-
Water Quality and Treatment. 4th ed. 1990. New tion on the Fluoride Content, Strength, and
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Mineral Density of Human Bone. Acta. Or-
thop. Scand., 51:413.
Case Studies Cook-Mozaffari, P., and R. Doll. 1981. Fluoridation
Erickson, J.D. 1978. Mortality in Selected Cities of Water Supplies and Cancer Mortality, I: A
with Fluoridated and Nonfluoridated Water Search for an Effect in the U.K. on Risk of
Supply. New England Jour. Med., 298(5):1112.' Death from Cancer. Jour. Epidemiol. &
Konick, L. 1979. 1977 Dental Health Survey of New Comm. Health, 35:227.
Haven School Children After Ten Years of Cook-Mozaffari, P., and R. Doll. 1981. Fluoridation
Fluoridation. Connecticut Health Bull., 93:32. of Water Supplies and Cancer Mortality, II:
Mortality Trends After Fluoridation. Jour.
Design of Fluoride Installations Epidemiol. & Comm. Health, 35:233.
Water Treatment Plant Design. 2d ed. 1990. Ameri- Erickson, J.D. 1980. Down's Syndrome, Water
can Society of Civil Engineers and American Fluoridation, and Maternal Age. Teratol.,
Water Works Association. Available from 21:177.
AWWA, Denver, Colo. Erickson, J.D., G.P. Oakley Jr., J.W. Flynt Jr., and
S. Hay. 1976. Water Fluoridation and Con-
Health Benefits of Fluoridation genital Malformations: No Association. Jour.
Adult Fluoride Therapy. Bull. FL-119. 1982. At- Amer. Dental Assn., 93:981.
lanta, Ga.: US Department of Health and Hu- Hoover, R.N., F.W. McKay, and J.F. Fraumeni Jr.
man Services, Public Health Service, Centers 1976. Fluoridated Drinking Water and the Oc-
for Disease Control and Prevention. currence of Cancer. Jour. Natl. Cancer Inst.,
Buri, B.A. 1982. The Epidemiological Basis for 57:757.
Water Fluoridation in the Prevention-of Den- How Fluoride Affects Kidney Dialysis. 1979. ADA
tal Caries. Jour. Publ. Health Policy, News, December 10.
3/4(12):391. Summary of Studies and Evaluations Since 1976
Financial Benefits of Community Water Fluorida- Refuting Allegations of an Association Be-
tion. Bull. FL-116. 1980. Atlanta, Ga.: US De- tween Cancer and Water Fluoridation. Bull.
partment of Health and Human Services, FL-117. 1981. US Department of Health and
Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Human Services, Public Health Service, Cen-
Control and Prevention. ters for Disease Control and Prevention.
Fluoridated Water a Boon for Elderly. 1980. Natl.
Inst. Dental Res. News, April.

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 68 WATER FLUORIDATION

Legal Aspects of Fluoridation American Water Works Association

Information Services Department
Farrer, D.G. 1972. Fluoridation: Compulsory Medi- 6666 West Quincy Avenue
cation of Municipal Water Supplies? The Ur- Denver, CO 80235
ban Lawyer, 5:504. (303) 794-7711
Division of Oral Health
Other Sources Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Hastrcitor, R.J. 1983. Fluoridation Conflict: A His- 1600 Clifton Rd., MS-F10
tory and Conceptual Synthesis. Jour. Amer. Atlanta, GA 30333
Dental Assn., 106(4):486. (404) 639-8377
(404) 639-8617 (Fax)
Organizations National Institute of Dental Research
American Dental Association Bldg. 31, Room 2C35
211 E. Chicago Avenue 31 Center Drive MSC 2290
Chicago, IL 60611 Bethesda, MD 20892-2290
(312)440-2862 (301) 594-5486
(312) 440-7494 (Fax) (301) 480-8254 (Fax)

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 Index
Note: An f. following a page number refers to a figure; a t. refers to a table.
t

Acid feed system, 14, 14f capacity of, 46

AFI. See Available fluoride ion cross-connections at, 33
Air binding, 60 fluoride compounds in, 46, 46t
Alarm system, 43, 49 problems in, 45
Alignment charts, 25, 28f Division of Oral Health (CDC), 55
Alum, 11, 57 Dosage
American Dental Association, 3 calculating, 13, 19-21, 53, 58, 59
American Medical Association, 3 sample problems for, 24-25
Ammonium bifluoride, fluoridation with, 11 Drums
Ammonium silicofluoride, fluoridation with, 10 disposing of, 62
Analytical procedures, 55-56 leakage from, 62
Auxiliary equipment, 43-51 Dry feeders, 35, 39-40, 45, 52
Available fluoride ion (AFI), 19, 19t calibrating, 40—41
feed rate for, 50
Backflow prevention devices, 49 with gravimetric feeder, I6f
Bag loaders, 48—49 hopper agitators and, 51
leaks in, 60
Calcium, fluoride injection point and, 32 screw-type, 4lf
Calcium fluoride (fluorspar), 54 with volumetric feeder, 15f
fluoridation with, 10, 11 See also Feeders; Gravimetric dry feeders;
Canadian Dental Association, 3 Volumetric dry feeders
Canadian Medical Association, 3 Dust collectors, 49
Carboys. See Day tanks
Cavities. See Dental caries Eductors, 50
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Electrode method, 55, 56
fluoride and, 18, 54, 64 Exhaust fans, 49
MCLG/MCL and, 2 Eyewash stations, 62
Chemicals
availability of, 54-55 Feeders, 16, 26, 32, 35-40, 55
compatibility of, 32 adjusting, "19, 34, 59-60
interfering, 56t auxiliary equipment for, 43
postfiltration, 26 diaphragm, 35, 37
purity of, 19, 19t, 40, 53 electric-motor-operated, 51
selection guidelines for, 13, 16 location of, 31
storing, 29, 31, 32-33, 61, 62 malfunction of, 57
See also Fluoride chemicals moving belt, 40
Chloride, 57 . peristaltic, 36
Chlorination, 11 piston, 35
Chlorine, problems with, 58 positive-displacement, 35, 36f, 37
Chlorine gas system, leaks in, 60 rotating disc/roller, 40
Colorimetric test kits, 61 rotation/reciprocating screw, 40
Containers, disposing of, 62 solenoid-operated, 51
Control schemes, 50, 53-57 star wheel, 40
Cross-connections, 31, 37, 39, 49, 52 vibratory pan, 40
concerns about, 33, 46 See also Dry feeders
Feed lines, maintaining, 59
Day tanks (carboys), 16, 47-48 Feed rates
Dental caries, fluoride and, 1-3, 2f, 6 calculating, 13, 19-21, 25, 40, 43
Dental fluorosis, fluoride and, 1, 2f, 5-6 sample problems for, 21-24
Detention time, 46, 51, 58 Flowmeters, 34, 46-47, 50
Discharge line, fluoride injection point at, 32 Flow switches, alarms for, 49
Dissolving chambers (solution pot), 40, 44, 47, 52, 6C Fluoridation, 1-2
alarms for, 49 adjusted, 3, 7

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 70 WATER FLUORIDATION

in large cities, 4t Laboratories, cleaning, 61

legality of, 1, 3, 6-7 Leaks, concern for, 60, 62
planning checklist for, 17t Level switches, alarms for, 49
Fluoridation systems, 13-29 Loss-of-weight recorder, 14
design of, 13-14, 31-43, 51
Fluoride McKay, Frederick, 1
bone/tooth incorporation of, 3 Magnesium silicofluoride, fluoridation with, 10, 11
calculation factors for, 26t Maintenance, 59-61
health effects of, 5-6, 63 Maximum contaminant level (MCL), 2
high/low readings of, 57-58 Maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG), 2
measuring, 55 Measurements, accuracy of, 55, 58-59
natural, 2, 58 Meters, 43-44, 51
optimal levels of, 18, 18f, I8t magnetic, 50
Fluoride chemicals, 10-11 master, 52
availability of, 54 pacing, 47, 4 7 f , 48f
AWWA standards for, 7 venturi, 50
characteristics of, 8t See also Flowmeters
emergency treatment for, 63t, 64t Mixers, 45, 48
handling, 62 Monitoring, 13, 53, 54f, 56-57
impurities in, 53 Mottling, 1
overexposure to, 61, 63
overfeed of, 64, 65t, 66t National Institute for Occupational Safety and
reserve supply of, 54 Health (NIOSH), 62
Fluoride concentration, 13 National Institutes of Health, fluoridation
maintaining, 53, 56-57 study by, 6
optimal, 53, 58-59 National Kidney Foundation, fluoride-free water
variations in, 34, 53, 57, 58 and, 6
Fluoride ions, 7, 19, 56-57 National Research Council, fluoridation study by, 6
as flow pattern indicators, 55 National Toxicology Program, fluoridation
Fluorosilicic acid, 7, 10, 14, 15-16, 26, 29, 35, 48, study by, 6
50, 60 Nomographs, 25, 27f
availability of, 54
characteristics of, 8t Orifice plates, 50
dosage for, 24-25 Overdose, 63
emergency treatment for, 63t emergency treatment for, 63t, 64t
feeding, 22-23, 47 Overexposure, concerns about, 61, 62
fluoridation with, 8-9 Overfeeding, 57
overdose of, 63 concerns about, 32, 64
purity of, 57 incidents of, 65t
storing, 33, 62 recommended actions for, 66t
Fluorspar. See Calcium fluoride
Pacing, 33-34
Gravimetric dry feeders, 14, 15, 16, 16f, 29, 35, 37, pH control, fluoride and, 32
39, 40, 44, 45 Phosphate-based detergents, problems with, 61
belt-type, 42f Phosphate fertilizers, fluoride compounds from, 54
loss-in-weight-type, 42f Planning
weight recorders and, 50 checklist for, lit
preliminary, 13, 26, 29
Health League of Canada, 3 Platform scales, 43, 50
Hoppers, 29, 48, 49-50, 52, 62 Polyphosphates, 44, 57
dry feeders and, 51 Potassium fluoride, fluoridation with, 10, 11
oscillating, 40 Precipitates, concerns about, 60
Hydrofluoric acid, 8, 9 Pressure switches, alarms for, 49
fluoridation with, 10, 11 Proportioning, automatic, 31, 33-34
Pumping rates, 19, 26, 29
Injection points, 31, 32, 33f Pumps, 47, 50-51
Interferences, 56, 56t centrifugal, 50
Ion chromatography, 56 diaphragm, 35-36

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 INDEX 71

feeder, 14, 39 Standard for Hydrofluoscilicic (Fluorosilicic) Acid

gravimetric, 16 (AWWA), 57
peristaltic, 36 Standard for Sodium Fluoride (AWWA), 57
positive-displacement, 35, 36f, 37 Standard for Sodium Silicofluoride (Fluorosilicate)
rotary, 37 (AWWA), 57
Purity, problems with, 53, 57 Standard Methods for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater (AWWA), 55, 56
Recommended Practice for Backflow Prevention Storage areas, maintaining, 33, 61
and Cross-Connection Control (AWWA), 33, 49
Record keeping, 13, 59 Tanks, 26, 29
Respirators, 62 day, 16, 47-48
Rotameters, 47 precipitates in, 60
Testing equipment, 56, 59
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 2 Tooth, elements of, 3, 5f
Safety, concerns about, 61-66 Tooth decay, fluoride and, 1-3, 5
Safety Practices for Water Utilities (AWWA), 61 Toxic exposure, acute/chronic, 62-63
Sampling, 53, 55 Troubleshooting, 53, 57-59
Saturators, 14, 20, 23, 35, 37-39, 44
alarms for, 49 US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 55
cleaning, 60 MCLG/MCL and, 2
downflow, 39, 39f US Public Health Service (USPHS), fluoridation
solution fluoride, 15f and, 2, 6, 18
water meter for, 52 US Supreme Court, fluoridation and, 6
upflow, 37-38, 38f
Scales, 44, 52 Vacuum breakers, 33, 43, 46
SDWA. See Safe Drinking Water Act Valves
Silica, 9, 10 antisiphon, 14, 32, 35, 51, 52
Silicic acid, 9 check, 32, 49
Silicon tetrafluoride, 8, 9, 10 manually operated, 46
Skeletal fluorosis, 5 rotary, 50
Sodium bifluoride, fluoridation with, 11 solenoid, 38, 46
Sodium fluoride, 6, 15-16, 26, 35, 37, 38, 39, 45 Volumetric dry feeders, 14, 35, 39, 44, 45, 52, 60
AWWA standards for, 40 roll-type/screw-type, 15f, 4 1f
characteristics of, 8t weight recorders for, 50
dosage for, 25
feed rate for, 14, 23-24 Weight recorders, 50
fluoridation with, 7—8 Wet scrubbers, 49
purity of, 57
solubility of, 20 Zeolite, 44
storing, 33
Sodium fluorosilicate, 7, 16, 29, 35, 43, 58
availability of, 54
AWWA standards for, 40
characteristics of, 8t
detention time of, 46t
dissolution of, 45
dosage for, 24
feed rate for, 14, 21-22
fluoridation with, 10
purity of, 57
storing, 33
water flow rate for, 46
Sodium silicofluoride, 7
AWWA standards for, 40
Softeners, 32, 38, 43, 44
Solution feeders. See Feeders
Solution pot. See Dissolving chambers
SPADNS method, 55-56, 57

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