Thermodynamics ProGate

rituparnsomvanshi
May 2019

1 Question. 1
Some definitions:
Mass of water vapour
Specific humidity =
Mass of dry air+water vapour
The ratio of the mass of water vapor in air to the total mass of the mixture of
air and water vapor. Also, in a system of moist air, it is the (dimensionless)
ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the system
The ratio of the mass of a variable atmospheric constituent to the mass of
dry air.
If not otherwise indicated, the term normally refers to water vapor. For
many purposes, the mixing ratio may be approximated by the specific humidity.
Either r or w is commonly used to symbolize water vapor mixing ratio, with r
used for thermodynamic terms in this glossary. In terms of the pressure p and
vapor pressure e, the mixing ratio r is:
0.622p
Mixing Ratio =
p−e
Mass of water vapour in a give volume
Relative humidity =
Mass of saturated water vapour in the same volume and temperature
Actual amount of water vapour
Relative humidity =
Total possible amount of water vapour that volume and temperature can take
Relative humidity describes the amount of water vapor in the area as opposed to
how much water vapor could be in the area. This type of humidity is basically
a ratio of the absolute humidity and the potential amount of water saturation
that the air could possibly hold.

1
 Consider a given closed volume of air and water vapour mixture. Since, we
have to maintain constant pressure, volume will expand on heating.
• Specific Humidity: Does not change since the amount of air and water
vapour do not change

• Relative Humidity: Decreases

– Denominator: Increases, since volume and temperature are increas-
ing, hence, that volume can hold more amount of water vapour
– Numerator: Remains the same since the system is taken to be
closed

Result: Option (B)

2 Question. 2
An isothermal process is one where the tem-
perature remains constant throughout the
process. From the ideal gas equation P V =
nRT , if we have temperature constant, the
entire right hand side becomes constant.
From the first law, of thermodynamics,
we have,

Q = (u2 −u1 )+W = cv (T2 −T1 )+W = 0+W

RB
Hence, work done, W = A
pdv.

Since P V = constant, we have, p = vc ,

and finally, Figure 1: Isothermal process
Z v2  
dv v2 v2
W = C = C [loge v]v1 = Cln
v1 v v1
The constant in the above expression can be obtained from the gas equation,
P V = nRT , and hence we see that, C = nRT . Thus, all possible combinations
can be written as (n = 1 for one mole ideal gas),
     
v2 v2 p1
W = Cln = nRT ln = nRTln
v1 v1 p2

Correct option: (A)

2
3 Question. 3 (Easy)
Path Functions: Functions that depend on the path taken to reach from one
point to other. Their opposite are STATE FUNCTIONS, where only the initial
and final states matter.
Examples: Path Functions: Heat, Work. State Functions: Pressure,
Temperature, Volume
Z T2
StateF unction : dH = H(T 2) − H(T 1)
T1
Z V2 Z V2
P athF unction : pdV 6= pdV
V1 path:C V1 path:D

Property of a system:
These are the characteristics of a system that define its ’state’. They can be
defined in terms of variables/parameters like temperature, pressure, volume,
concentration, or pretty much anything that can be used to describe the system.
They are of two types:
• Intensive: properties that do not depend on mass (Eg: Temperature)
• Extensive: properties that depend on mass (Eg: Volume)
First Law of Thermodynamics:
When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle, then the net heat supplied
to the system from the surroundings is equal to the net work done by the system
on its surroundings. I I
dQ = dW
The first law can be restated as, ’Total energy is always conserved and heat
and work are inter-convertible but cannot be destroyed’
Or,
’No machine can produce energy without corresponding expenditure of en-
ergy; ie. Perpetual motion machine of the first kind is impossible
Out of the given options, let us have a look at each of the options one by
one:
(A) Heat is indeed a path function, and it depends on the area of the graph
on the P-V diagram, rather than a point.
(B) Energy is a property of a system since it can be used to specify various
kinds of values like kinetic energy, potential energy, internal energy and
so on.
(C) Energy of an isolated system is not conserved. An isolated system
cannot exchange energy, otherwise it would not be isolated at all.
(D) A perpetual energy machine of the first kind is not possible. Perpetual
motion of any kind is not possible.
Correct option: (C)

3
4 Question. 4 (Easy)
Thermal Efficiency: The ratio of work output to power/heat input is known
as efficiency. We must understand that for calculating efficiency/COP, we use
one and only one formula: output
input .
Coefficient of Performance: For heat pumps, and refrigerators, work is
not an output of the system, rather, it is an input; whereas the output is
obtained in terms of heat transfer in to some reservoir/sink. Hence, the regular
definition of efficiency needs to be changed somewhat.
For a refrigerator, the output of the system is the energy released to the hot
sink at temperature = T2
For a refrigerator, the input of the system is the energy that is fed from
external source, or work supplied (in terms of temperatures) = T1 − T2
Finally,
output T2
COP = =
input T1 − T2
Now, we know that, Q = mcP ∆T , hence the fraction above becomes
output T2 Q2 /mcP Q2 QL
COP = = = = =
input T1 − T2 Q1 /mcP − Q2 /mcP Q1 − Q2 QH − QL

Correct option: (A)

T1 − T2 T1 T2
η= COP = COP = (1)
T1 T1 − T2 T1 − T2

5 Question. 5 (Medium)
The Van der Waals equation is given as
an2
(v − nb)(P + ) = RT
v2
where the parameters, a and b, mean,
• b:
The ideal gas equation assumes that every molecule has the entire space
(in the container) available to itself. This is not the case, since the volume
occupied by the gas molecules, is no longer available. Hence, this volume
is subtracted from the total volume of the container. Hence v − nb.
• a/v2 :
as per units, this factor has units of density. An ideal gas is taken to be
made up of regular, hard spheres that do not have any kind of interaction
between them, but that is not the case for real gases. This factor accounts
for attraction between the molecules. The van der Waals assumption here
is that the pressure against the vessel walls is reduced because molecules
close to the walls are subject to attraction of other molecules (such as wall
molecules).

4
 Finally, it must be noted that this equation is cubic with respect to vol-
ume. This means that in general at a given temperature, each pressure value
corresponds
  to three specific volume values—v1 , v, v2 . v, which corresponds to
∂p
∂v > 0 exists between v1 , v2 . Hence, the critical point is when the temper-
T
ature increases and v1 , v2 approach each other, and all three points coincide,
giving a critical volume vc . At higher temperatures only one root of the van der
Waals equation remains real, the two other being imaginary. As far as at the
critical point, the following conditions are valid:
   2 
∂p ∂ p
= 0, =0
∂v T ∂v 2 T

In fact, all three conditions can be summarised as,

     
∂p ∂p ∂p
∂v < 0 ∂v =0 ∂v >0
T T T
Real situation Critical point Unstable, practically impossible
Two real, one imaginary root All three real roots One real, two imaginary roots

Derivation of critical parameters:

Consider the van der Waals equation for n = 1,
a
(v − b)(P + ) = RT
v2
This can be rearranged as,
   
RT a ab
V3− +b V2+ V − =0
P P P
Also, since at the critical point, all three roots become equal, we can write,

V = Vc
(V − VC )3 = 0
VC3 − 3VC V 2 + 3VC2 V − VC3 = 0

Comparing coefficients of the van der Waals equation and the equation right
above,
V3C - 3VC V
2 3V2C V - V3C
=0
V3 - RT a
- ab
2


P +b V P V P =0
Comparing the second last term,
 
2 a
3VC V = V =⇒ a = 3VC2 PC
PC
and now substitute this in the last one,

ab (3VC2 PC )b VC
VC3 = =⇒ VC3 = =⇒ b =
PC PC 3

5
 VC a 8a
a = 3VC2 PC b= 3 VC = 3b PC = 27b2 TC = 27Rb

which gives the compressibility factor as:

PC VC 3
Z= =
RTC 8

Correct option: (C)

6 Question. 6
CLAUSIUS-CLAPEYRON EQUATION

In a coexistence state, the rate

of change of pressure with respect
to temperature is derived from the
slope of the tangent of the coexistence
curve, and this is equal to ratio of
change in entropy (of phase transi-
tion) over change in specific volume,
given as,
dP L ∆s
= =
dT T ∆v ∆v
where L is the specific Latent heat,
and T is the temperature. For an
system where liquid transitions in to
vapour phase, at low temperatures,
the specific volume is equal to,
 
vc
∆v = vg − vc = vg 1 − ≈ vg
vg
where vg refers to vapour pressure in gaseous phase and vc refers to vapour
pressure in condensed phase. For low pressures, the ideal gas approximation
may be used, i.e. vg = RT
P . This gives,
Z P2 Z T2  
dP L PL dP L dT P2 L 1 1
= = 2 =⇒ = 2
=⇒ ln = − −
dT T ∆v T R P1 P T1 R T P1 R T2 T1
We shall now use this formula to solve for the information given in this question,

R 8.314 kJ/kmol.K P1 2.7kPa T1 281K

L 42700 kJ/kmol P2 13.5kPa T2 ?

6
 Substituting these values in the equation derived,
 
13.5 42700 1 1
ln =− − =⇒ T 2 = 308.133K = 35.13◦ C
2.7 8.314 T 2 281

7 Question. 7
The formula for entropy change is given as
dQ
dS =
T
where dQ is in infinitesimal amount of heat (a transfer of energy). Now, using
the first law of thermodynamics,

du = dQ − P dv
du = T ds − P dv
cV dT = T ds − P dv

Making ds, the subject of the equation, we have

dT P dv
ds = cv +
T T v
Z T2 Z T2
dT dv
∆s = cv +R
T1 T T1 v
T2 v2
∆s = cv ln + R ln
T1 v1
The above equation evaluates the Entropy change for an ideal gas with constant
specific heats.
Now, we are given from the question that, for constant pressure process,

T1 300K Molar Entropy S300 = 150kJ/kmol.K

T2 500K Molar Entropy S500 =??

The formula for change in entropy is,

T2 v2
∆s = cv ln + R ln
T1 v1
Also, we must realise that since we are dealing with a constant pressure pro-
P1 V1 P2 V2
cess, from the ideal gas equation, T1 = T2 , the formula for entropy can be


7
substituted for volume as follows,
T2 v2
S500 − S300 = cv ln + R ln
T1 v1
T2 T2
S500 − S300 = cv ln + R ln
T1 T1
T2 T2
S500 − 150 = (cP − R) ln + R ln
T1 T1
T2
S500 − 150 = (cP ) ln
T1
500
S500 = 150 + (21) ln
300
S500 = 160.73kJ/kmol.K
,

8 Question. 8 (Easy)
A spring, having a spring constant of 350kN/m, is initially compressed by 0.4cm.
This implies if the initial, rest length of the spring is r0 cm, then the new
length is (r = r0 − 0.4)cm.
The work done in compressing a spring is given as W = k(r − r0 )2 , where
k is the spring constant and r, r0 are the final and rest lengths of the spring,
respectively.
In the question, the spring is already compressed by 0.4 cm, hence, the work
done in compressing the spring by 0.4cm is,

W = 350 × 103 × (0.4/100)2 = 5.6J

and then further compressed by 0.6 cm, which means that total deviation is
0.4 + 0.6 = 1cm = 0.01m, hence the work done to compress the spring by 0.01m
is:
W = 350 × 0.012 = 35J
Therefore, net work done

W = 350 × (0.012 − 0.0042 ) = 35 − 5.6 = 29.4J

The work done in compressing a spring is given as W = k(r − r0 )2 , where

r − r0 is the change in the length of the spring.
From the question, we can see that the change in length of the spring is 0.6
cm. Hence, the work done to compress the spring by 0.006m is:

W = 350 × 103 × 0.0062 = 12.6J

8
9 Question. 9 (Easy)
From the question, the given data is as follows:

kg 1 kmol
Moles 40 kmol = 40 kg Temperature 300K
(2)
Pressure 2bar = 2 × 105 P a R 8.314 kJ/kmol.K

The equation of state for ideal gas is given as

1
nRT × 8314 × 300
P V = nRT ⇒ V = = 40
= 0.311m3 /kg
P 2 × 105
Units:
kmol J kmol
 Nm
nRT kg × kmol.K ×K 
kg × 

kmol.
 K
×
K
 m3
V = = = = (3)
P Pa N
2
kg
m

10 Question. 10 (Easy)
ADIABATIC PROCESS - ENTHALPY CHANGE
Adiabatic processes are those where there is no heat exchange with the
surroundings.
From the definition of enthalpy, we have H = U +P V . Taking the derivative
on both sides, this can be written as,

∆H = ∆U + ∆(P V )
∆H = (∆Q − ∆W ) + (P ∆V + V ∆P )

By definiton, adiabatic process have ∆Q = 0, and the formula for work done is
W = P ∆V . Substituting these conditions above,

∆H = ( − P ∆V ) + (P ∆V + V ∆P )
∆Q
∆H = V ∆P 6= 0

Thus, enthalpy change for ideal gases is non-zero for adiabatic processes.
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS - ENTHALPY CHANGE The Maxwell Re-
lation for the enthalpy for a reversible process in a thermodynamically-closed
system,
dH = T dS + V dP
Here, T, P, S, V are temperature, pressure, entropy and volume respectively.
Remember that we are talking about ideal gases here. Dividing the entire
expression by the pressure differential,
       
∂H ∂S ∂P ∂S
=T +V =T +V
∂P T ∂P T ∂P T ∂P T

9
 Now, the Gibbs Free energy is given as dG = −SdT +V dP . Note that Gibbs
energy is a state function, meaning that its change depends only on the initial
and final conditions. Also, dG = 0 for isothermal systems.
A consequence of state functions is that its cross derivatives are equal ,
and hence, we have,
dG = −SdT + V dP
   
∂S ∂V
0= +
∂P T ∂T P
   
∂S ∂V
=−
∂P T ∂T P
Combining the relation above and the Maxwell Equation,
∂H ∂V



∂P T = −T ∂T P
+V

This, is the most general equation for enthalpy change, for all systems.
For and ideal gas, P V = nRT =⇒ V = nRT P . Applying this in the relation
above,
   
∂H ∂ nRT nRT
= −T +
∂P T ∂T P P P
nRT d nRT
=− T+
P dT P
=0

Thus, enthalpy change for ideal gases is zero for isothermal processes.
ADIABATIC PROCESS - ENTROPY CHANGE The formula for
entropy change is given as Z
dQrev
∆S =
T
where dQ is in infinitesimal amount of heat (a transfer of energy), it immediately
follows that if no energy is transferred in or out of the system, there will be no
entropy change.
However, note that entropy only remains constant in a reversible adiabatic
process.
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS - ENTROPY CHANGE
We can use the same formula for entropy to calculate the entropy change for
a reversible, isothermal process as follows,
Z
dQrev
∆S =
T
Z  Z
dU
 P dV
= +
T T
V2
= nR ln 6= 0
V1

10
Thus, entropy change for ideal gases is non-zero for isothermal pro-
cesses.
Finally, for a ideal gas undergoing reversible non-flow process, the summary
is as follows,

Adiabatic Isothermal

Enthalpy V ∆P 6= 0 0

Entropy 0 nR ln VV21 6= 0

Correct option: (C) : Only Q and R are correct

11 Question. 11
OTTO CYCLE:
 γ−1
Qout − Qin ncV (T3 − T2 ) − ncV (T4 − T1 ) T4 − T1 V2
η= = = 1− = 1−
Qin ncV (T3 − T2 ) T3 − T2 V1
DIESEL CYCLE:
Qout − Qin ncP (T3 − T2 ) − ncV (T4 − T1 ) T4 − T1
η= = =1−
Qin ncP (T3 − T2 ) γ(T3 − T2 )
We have, from thermodynamics, the TdS relation as follows:
T dS = du + d(pv)
We have, for an Otto cycle, a constant volume ignition process. Let us calculate
the above quantity for Otto cycle,
T dS = du + d(pv)
T dS = cV dT + 0

dT  T
=
ds Otto cV

Similarly, we have for Diesel Cycle, a constant pressure ignition process, and
hence,
T dS = du + d(pv)
T dS = dh + pdv + (vdp − pdv)
T dS = cP dT + (
vdp)


dT  T
=
ds Diesel cP

11
 Finally, since cP > cV ,
 
dT  dT 
>
ds Otto ds Diesel

Higher slope means fsteeper curve, lower slope means flatter curve.
Thus, the dotted curve belongs to diesel cycle. Finally, since its area is
larger,
ηD > ηO

12 Question. 12 (Medium)
ENTROPY CHANGE IN REVERSIBLE SYSTEMS:
We shall try to find out the entropy change in a reversible system using an
example of freezing/melting water at melting/freezing point (0◦ C).
–∆
H2 O(l) −−→ H2 O(l)

The enthalpy of freezing is the amount of heat discharged from the system
(water) that will be removed to the surroundings, resulting in ice. This enthalpy
is ∆Hf reezing = −334J/g. The entropy exchanged for this process is

Hf reezing 334 J
∆Ssystem = =− = −1.22
T 273 g.K
Since there are no other processes happening here, the heat removed from water
goes in to the surrounding, hence, the entropy of the surrounding would be
334 J
∆Ssurroundings = = 1.22
273 g.K
Total entropy change is,

∆S = ∆Ssurroundings + ∆Ssystem = 1.22 − 1.22 = 0

Source Sink-1 Sink-2 Work Output

Temperature 750K 650K 550K -

Q 75kJ/s Q1 Q2 12kJ/s

The schematic of the engine is given in the diagram.

Work wasted = 75-12 = 63 kJ/s
Hence, 63 kJ/s work is distributed among two sinks at the given temperatures.
Thus,
Q1 + Q2 = 75 − 12 − 63

12
Entropy balance for the system:
75 Q1 Q2
= +
750 650 550
Solving the two simultaneous equations above, we get

Q1 = 52kJ/s, Q2 = 11kJ/s

Correct option: (D)

13 Question. 13
JOULE THOMSON COEFFICIENT
Consider a tube with a porous plate separating it into two parts. The porous
plate will allow a gas to go through it, but only slowly. It acts as a throttle. On
each side of the plate there is a piston that fits the tube tightly. Each piston can
(in principle) be pushed up against the porous plate. The tube itself is insulated
so that no heat can enter or leave the tube.
The initial volume of gas on side 1 is V1 . The pressure is p1 and the temper-
ature T1 . Now during the experiment gas is pushed through the porous plate
by pushing on the piston on the left side. At the same time the piston on the
right side is pulled in such a way that the pressure on the right side is always
p2 .
FIG
The curious result of this experiment is that careful measurement shows
that T2 is not equal to T1 . Under some conditions it is higher, under others it
is lower.
From the first law of thermodynamics, we have

∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
0 = U2 − U1 + (p2 V2 − p1 V1 )
0 = H2 − H1
H2 = H1

This means that the process is isenthalpic.

Thus, there is some coefficient, that determines that change of tempera-
tures with respect to pressure, at constant enthalpy. This is the Joule-Thomson
coefficient.  
T2 − T1 ∂T
µJT = lim =
∆p=0 p2 − p1 ∂p H
Expression of Joule-Thomson coefficient: The expansion of differential of en-
thalpy is given as:

13
    
∂H ∂H
dH = dT + dp
∂T p ∂p T
   
∂H ∂H
0= dT + dp
∂T p ∂p T
     
∂H ∂T ∂H
0= + dp
∂T p ∂p H ∂p T
   
  ∂H ∂H
∂T ∂p ∂p
=− ∂H

T = T
∂p H ∂T p
Cp

Also, without proof, we state that,

   
∂H ∂V
=V −T
∂p T ∂T p

Putting it all together, we have,

 
∂H ∂V



∂T

∂p V −T ∂T p
µJT = =− ∂H

T =−
∂p H ∂T p
Cp

The equation of state for the gas is given as,

aP 2
P (v̄ − b) = RT +
T
∂V


In order to calculate µJT , we first need to find ∂T p
, which comes out as,

aP 2
   
∂V 1
= R−
∂T p P T2

Thus, the Joule-Thomson coefficient becomes,

 
T aP 2
P R − T 2 −V
µJT =
cP

T 500K a 10−5 J.K/P a2 kmol v̄ ?

P 10bar b 8 × 10−2 m3 /kmol

∂V


We can calculate the factor ∂T p
as follows,

aP 2 10−5 × 106 × 106

     
∂V 1 1
= R − 2 = 6 8.314 − = −3.1686×10−5
∂T p P T 10 5002

14
We still need to find the molar volume v̄.Rearranging the equation of state to
get the molar volume as the subject of the equation, we have,
aP 2
 
1
v̄ = RT + +b
P T
Filling this up with requisite values, we have,
10−5 × 106 × 106
 
1
v̄ = 8.314 × 500 + + 8 × 10−2 = 0.1041m3 /kmol
10 × 105 500
We can now find the value of the Joule Thomson coefficient from the follow-
ing formula:
 
T aP 2
P R − T2 −V 500 × −3.1686 × 10−5 − 0.1041
µJT = = = −3.99×10−6 K/P a
cP 30 × 103
Correct Option: (B)

14 Question. 14
RANKINE CYCLE
Rankine cycle is a theoretical cycle in which heat energy converts into work.
Rankine Cycle is developed by William John Macquorn Rankine, and is most
widely used in many kinds of steam engines. The various parts of a Rankine
Cycle are as follows:
• 1-2: Heat transfer at constant pressure:
High pressure liquid enters the boiler from the feed pump (1) and is heated
to the saturation temperature (2). Further addition of energy causes evap-
oration of the liquid until it is fully converted to saturated steam (3).
hf 1 + QB = h2

• 2-3: Isentropic expansion:

The vapor is expanded in the turbine, thus producing work.
h2 = WT + h3

• 3-4 Constant pressure cooling:

The vapor-liquid mixture leaving the turbine (4) is condensed at low pres-
sure, usually in a surface condenser using cooling water.
h3 = QC + hf 4

• 4-1: Isentropic compression:

The pressure of the condensate is raised in the feed pump. Because of the
low specific volume of liquids, the pump work is relatively small and often
neglected in thermodynamic calculations.
hf 4 + WP = hf 1

15
Efficiency of Rankine Cycle:
Wnet WT − WP
ηrankine = =
QB QB

Turbine Condenser

P2 = 10M P a P3 = 10kP a

T2 = 500◦ C

h2 = 3375.1kJ/kg hf 3 = 191.81kJ/kg

hg 3 = 2583.9kJ/kg

s2 = 6.5995kJ/kg.K sf 3 = 0.6492kJ/kg.K

sg 3 = 8.1488kJ/kg.K

Since heat loss in a turbine, that produces work is an isentropic process,

hence

s2 = s3
s2 = sf 3 + xsg 3
6.5995 = 0.6492 + x × 8.1488
x = 0.7302

Finally, heat rejected in condenser is,

h3 − h2 = (hf 3 + xhg 3 ) − h2
h3 = (191.81 + 0.7302 × 2583.9) − 191.81
h3 = 1886.76kJ/kg

Correct option: (A)

16
15 Question. 15
CRITICAL POINT
The point at which a substance in one phase, as the liquid, has the same density,
pressure, and temperature as in another phase, as the gaseous phase.
PRINCIPLE OF CORRESPONDING STATES
Substances at corresponding states behave alike

Substances behave alike at the same reduced states. Substances at

same reduced states are at corresponding states

COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR Ratio of molar volume of a real gas to that

of an ideal gas at same temperature and pressure. It accounts for the deviation
that real gases show from the ideal gas law. It is defined as,
PV
Z=
RT
The deviations occur when gases are closer to the phase change. This usually
happens either when the temperatures are too small or pressures are too large
Reduced Properties Any property (pressure, temperature, volume) divided
by its critical value is known as reduced property.
Actual pressure P
• Reduced Pressure: = Critical pressure = Pc

Actual temperature T
• Reduced Temperature: = Critical temperature = Tc

Actual volume V
• Reduced Volume: = Critical volume = Vc

Z=0.9 Reduced Critical Actual

Pressure 1

Temperature 1.5

Table 1: Methane
From the equation of state:

P V = RT
RT
V =
P
8.314 × 554.7
V = = 108.56m3 /kmol
42.48

17
 Z=0.9 Reduced Critical Actual

Pressure 1 42.48 bar 1 × 42.48 = 42.48bar

Temperature 1.5 369.8 K 1.5 × 369.8 = 554.7K

Table 2: Propane

From equation of state for real gases,

P V = ZRT
ZRT
V =
P
0.9 × 8314 × 554.7
V = = 0.977m3 /kmol
42.48 × 105

Correct Option: (D)

16 Question. 16

Control Volume 2 control volumes for each gas

Control mass 2 control masses for each gas

GIBBS DALTON LAW
The internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of a gaseous mixture, are
respectively equal to the sums of the internal energies, enthalpies,
and entropies of the constituents.
or, in other words,

Each constituent has that internal energy, enthalpy and entropy,

which it could have if it occupied that volume alone, but at the
mixtures temperature.
Some expressions can be written from the statements above:
X
mu = m1 u1 + m2 u2 + ....mu = mi ui
X
mh = m1 h1 + m2 h2 + ....mh = mi hi
X
ms = m1 s1 + m2 s2 + ....ms = mi si

18
 ADIABATIC MIXING OF PERFECT GASES We know that final
internal energy of a mixture of gases will remain same as the sum of internal
energies of initial components.
For a mixture of gases,

Ubefore mixing = Uafter mixing

n1 Cv1 T1 + n2 Cv2 T2 + ... = (n1 Cv1 + n2 Cv2 + ....)T

For the given oxygen and carbon dioxide gases,

nO2 Cv O2 T1O2 + nCO2 Cv CO2 T2CO2 = (nO2 Cv O2 + nCO2 Cv CO2 )T

12 × 0.662 × 280 + 26 × 0.653 × 360 = (12 × 0.662 + 26 × 0.653)T
8336.4 = 24.992T
T = 334.5K

17 Question. 17
18 Question. 18 (Medium)

Subtopic First law of Thermodynamics

Concepts Ideal gases, Joules Law

Difficulty Medium

Time required 5-10 minutes

What is being tested Ideal gas equation, Joules Law, First law

Approach to be taken Mass of gas ⇒ Internal energy of gas ⇒ Temperature of gas

Any possible shortcuts No

Special remarks (if any) Units

Is this a trick question No

Possible pitfalls Joules Law

19
 P 150kPa
cv 0.7163 kJ/kg K
Initial conditions: V 0.05m3 Constants:
R 0.287 kJ/kg K
T 323 K

We shall start the discussion with the Joule’s Law: ’The internal energy
of a perfect gas is a function of the absolute temperature only.’
The expression reads as u = cv T , where u, cv , T are the internal energy,
specific heat at constant volume and absolute temperature respectively.
Further, we can split the discussion in to parts:

• Mass of gas in the chamber: Using P V = nRT , we have,

150×103 ×0.05
n = PRTV = 0.287×10 3 ×323 = 0.081kg

• Internal energy of the gas: Using Joules Law, we have:

u = cv T = 0.7163 × 0.081 × 323 = 18.74kJ
• Total heat in chamber after external heat addition:
u0 = 18.74 + 30 = 48.74kJ
• New temperature of gas in chamber: using Joule’s Law the reverse
way, we have,
u0
u0 = cv T 0 ⇒ T 0 = ncv
48.74
= 0.081×0.7163 = 840.05K

19 Question. 19
STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION The Steady Flow Energy Equa-
tion (SFEE) is used for open systems to determine the total energy flows. It is
assumed that the mass flow through the system is constant. It is also assumed
that the total energy input to the system is equal to the total energy output.
The energies that are included are; internal, flow, kinetic, potential, heat and
work.
Most importantly, it is a practical way of applying the First Law of Ther-
modynamics to use in engineering problems. Also, the Euler and Bernoulli
equations are examples of SFEE as well.
The general equation for a SFEE looks like the following:

∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
Net heat transfer rate = Net change in internal energy + Net work done

20
 ∆Q = ∆(h2 − h1 ) + ∆(K.E.) + ∆(P.E.) + ∆Wext
m2 v22 m1 v12
  
∆Q = ∆(h2 − h1 ) + − + (m2 gz2 − m1 gz1 ) + ∆Wext
2 2

Separating the coefficients aside,

m2 v22 m1 v12
h2 + + m2 gz2 + (∆Q − ∆Wext ) = h1 + + m1 gz1
2 2

Inlet Outlet

Pressure 2 bar 0.2 bar

Temperature 300 ◦ C

Enthalpy 3072.1 kJ/kg 2609.0 kJ/kg

Velocity 0 ??

From the information given above, and the equation for SFEE,
m2 v22 −
2
) = h + m1 1 + m
h2 + +
m2
gz
2 + (
∆Q ∆W 
ext 1 1 gz
1
2 2
Finally, we have,
m2 v22
h2 + = h1
2 p
v2 = 2(h1 − h2 )
*
Substituting the required values.
p
v2 = 2(3072.1 − 2609.9) = 961.45m/s

20 Question. 20
From the P-V diagram, we can see that the net work done is enclosed by the
area of the diagram and it is given as 3 kJ. We can calculate work done in
individual processes and add it all up to 3 kJ.
For the process AB, work done = 12 × (0.021 − 0.006) × (10 − 1) × 105 = 6750.
For the process BC, work done = 21 × (0.021 − 0.006) × (Pc − 1) × 105 .
Since net work done, ∆W = 3kJ, we have,
 
1 5
6750 − × (0.021 − 0.006) × (Pc − 1) × 10 = 3000 ⇒ Pc = 6bar
2

21
21 Question 21
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
In a thermodynamic process involving a closed system, the increment
in the internal energy is equal to the difference between the heat
accumulated by the system and the work done by it.
In terms of various constituent variables, we may write the above equation as,

Q=U +W (4)
∆Q = ∆U + ∆W (5)
dQ dU dW
= + (6)
dt dt dt
(7)

INTERNAL ENERGY: Internal energy refers to all the energy within a

given system, including the kinetic energy of molecules and the energy stored
in all of the chemical bonds between molecules.
• It does not include the kinetic energy of motion of the system as a whole,
nor the potential energy of the system as a whole due to external force
fields which includes the energy of displacement of the system’s surround-
ings.
• It keeps account of the gains and losses of energy of the system that are
due to changes in its internal state.
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS A process that occurs such that the temper-
ature of the system remains constant throughout is called isothermal process. It
is described as P V = const. In here, the internal energy of the system remains
constant and the entire heat transfer is converted to useful work (and vice versa).

Work done in an Isothermal Process

We begin by considering an infinitesimal strip from the
figure such that its height is at P and width is V + ∆V ,
then work done is equal to,

∆W = P (V + ∆V − V )
Z Z P2
dW = P dV
P1
Z P2
const
W = dV
P1 V
P1
W = nRT 1 ln
P2

22
 T 1 = 300K T 2 = 500K T3 =

P 1 = 10bar P2 = P 3 = 2bar

For the first process, there is no change in volume. Hence, W = P ∆V = 0.

Thus, from the first law of thermodynamics,

∆Q = ∆U + 0
∆Q = mcv ∆T
∆Q = 1 × 20.8 × (500 − 300)
∆Q = 4160kJ

For the second process, which is isothermal, we know that there is no change
in the internal energy, and entire heat transfer is converted to work done.

∆Q = 0 + W
P2
∆Q = 0 + nRT 1 ln
P3
P2
∆Q = 0 + 1 × 8.314500 ln
2

We still need to find P 2, the pressure at end of the isochoric process. Since,
V 1 = V 2, from the ideal gas equation,

P 1
V1 P 2
V2
=
T1 T2
10 P2
=
300 500
50
P2 = bar
3

Substituting this back, we have,

50/3
∆Q = 0 + 1 × 8.314500 ln = 8814.7kJ
2
Adding the two values for heat transfer, we have,

∆Qtotal = 4160 + 8814.77 = 12794.77kJ

22 Question 22
We start off by defining the terms used in the question:

23
• Coefficient of Volume Expansion: Rate of change of volume with
respect to temperature, per unit volume. It defines how much change in
volume will happen if a material is heated (at constant pressure). It is
defined as,  
1 ∂V
α=
V ∂T P

• Isothermal compressibility: Rate of change of volume with respect

to pressure, per unit volume. It defines how much change in volume will
happen if a material is compressed or expanded (at constant temperature).
It is defined as,  
1 ∂V
κ=−
V ∂P T
In the scenario given in the question, we have to calculate change in pres-
sure observed after heating, where volume is kept constant. For any sys-
tem in thermodynamics, change in volume can happen due to change in
pressure or change in temperature or both. This can be represented as a
change in differential volume element as:
   
∂V ∂V
dV = dP + dT
∂P T ∂T P

Now, dividing the entire equation by ∂T at constant volume, we have,

         
∂V ∂V ∂P ∂V ∂T
= +
∂T
 V ∂P T ∂T V ∂T P ∂T 
V
 
The term on LHS has been removed since the change in volume at constant
volume is going to be zero, and the last term cancels out to 1 because the
fractional terms are the same.
Finally,
     
∂V ∂P ∂V
0= +
∂P ∂T ∂T
  ∂V

T V P
∂P ∂T P
=− ∂V


∂T V ∂P T

Now, we shall go back to the definitons previously defined. From the

expression for isothermal compressibility,
   
1 ∂V ∂V
κ=− =⇒ = −κV
V ∂P T ∂P T

and similarly,
   
1 ∂V ∂V
α= =⇒ = αV
V ∂T P ∂T P

24
This can be substituted back in to the modified expression of differential
volume element.
 
∂P α
=
∂T V κ
α
dP = dT
κ
Z P2 Z T2
α
dP = dT
P1 T1 κ
α 1.12 × 10−3
P 2 = (T 2 − T 1) + P 1 = × (350 − 300) + 1 = 514.76bar
κ 1.09 × 10−4

25
Q. 1.
Let us tabulate the inputs given to us,

Model Prototype

D 8 in. 12 in.

ω 40π rad/s 60π rad/s

Q 6f t3 /s

From the question, we have the functional relationship connecting the pa-
rameters, given as ∆p = f (Q, ρ, ω, D), and this can be written in homogeneous
0
form as f (∆p, Q, ρ, ω, D) = 0.
This problem is related to the use of Buckingham-Pi Theorem that concerns
with determination of similarity relations between various parameters of a sys-
tem. Let us first make a list of units of the parameters concerned, in terms of
the fundamental units.

ω = T −1
 
D = [L]

Q = L3 T −1 ρ = M L−3
   

Here, total number of parameters is = 5, and the number of free dimensions

are = 3. Thus, we will have 5 − 3 = 2 dimensionless groups, or
0
f (∆p, Q, ρ, ω, D) = {Π1 , Π2 }

Now, the Π terms shall be chosen such that each grouping contains one geometry
term, one fluid property term and one flow property terms. We, hence, choose
the parameters D, ω, ρ for our purpose, and for each of the Π terms, we take
∆p and Q, one by one.

• Π1 :

Π1 : = f (∆p, ρ, D, ω)
 a b  c 
Π1 : = f M L−1 T −2 M L−3 [L] T −1


26
 On collecting the coefficients, we have,
1+a=0
−1 − 3a + b = 0
−2 − c = 0

And this gives us a = −1, b = −2, c = −2. Finally, the Π term looks like,
∆p
Π1 =
ρω 2 D2
• Π2 :

Π2 : = f (Q, ρ, D, ω)
 a b  c 
Π2 : = f L3 T −1 M L−3 [L] T −1


On collecting the coefficients, we have,

a=0
3 − 3a + b = 0
−1 − c = 0

And this gives us a = 0, b = 3, c = −1. Finally, the Π term looks like,

Q
Π2 =
ωD3
Now, that we have these terms, we understand that no matter what the model
or prototype being used, the ratio of these parameters shall always remain the
same (this is the definition of similarity). Thus,
   
∆p  ∆p  Q  Q 
= and =
ρω 2 D2 model ρω 2 D2 prototype ωD3 model ωD3 prototype
Let us substitute values in the second relation and find Qmodel ,
 
Q 6
=⇒ Qmodel = 1.185f t3 /s
 
3
 = 3

(8/12) 40π model
 (12/12) 60π prototype
Now, referring to the graph, in the question, we see that the value of ∆p that
corresponds to the above value of model flow rate ≈ 5.5psi.
Finally, we shall use this value in the first similarity relation as follows:
 
5.5  ∆p 
 =  =⇒ ∆pprototype = 27.8psi
(40π)2 (8/12)2 model
 (60π)2 (12/12)2 prototype

27
Q. 2.
This question is case of flow through pipes and considers flows and values of
parameters as a fluid flows through valves, bends, fittings, sudden contrac-
tions/expansions, etc. The diagram for the question is given below,

The elements of the pipe are given below:

• Tank, with top level marked as A
• Sudden contraction in pipe, marked as entry

• Two bends of 90◦

• Valve
We shall use the Bernoulli Equation between points marked B and C,

PB V2 PC V2
+ B + zB = + C + zC
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Here, PB = PC = 0, and VC = 0, and hence the equation above reduces to,

VB2 p p
= zC −zB =⇒ vB = 2g(zC − zB ) =⇒ vB = 2 · 32.3 · 3/12 = 4.012f t/s
2g
Thus, we now have the velocity at the exit of the pipe. Now, we need to find
losses throughout the flow section. We see from the image that head loss between
point A and C will include all the losses that occur at all sections, and hence, a
Bernoulli relation between the two shall include all losses that are taking place
in the pipes and various fittings.

PA V2 PC V2 V2
+ A + zA = + C + zC + (Lentry + Lpipes + 2Lbend + Lvalve ) B
ρg 2g ρg 2g 2g
Since points A and C are open, PA = PC = 0 and VA = VC = 0. The values of
losses are as follows:

28
 • Lentry = 0.5, Lbend = 0.75

VD 4.012× 0.5
• Reynolds Number = ν = 12
1.21×10−5 = 13815.42

4×f ×L 4×18 0.079

• L1800 pipe = D = 0.5 Re1/4 = 1.049

4×f ×L 4×32 0.079

• L3200 pipe = D = 0.5 Re1/4 = 1.865

• (Lentry + 2Lpipes + 2Lbend + Lvalve ) = (0.5 + 2 · 0.75 + 1.049 + 1.865 +

Lvalve )
Now, we have all the terms of the Bernoulli’s equation,

4.0122
18 + 27 = 5 + (4.917 + Lvalve ) =⇒ Lvalve = 8.42
2 × 32.2

Q. 3.
The essence of this question is to understand that a bend, will create losses, and
so will a turbulent flow in a straight pipe. What we are being asked is, losses
of what length of pipe, will give the same loss as a drawn copper bend.
We simply have to equate losses in a pipe with a turbulent flow with that of
loss in a 90◦ bend. In other terms,

4f L V 2 V2 kD
=k L=
D 2g 2g 4f
This is it! This is an exact expression that derives the desired length.
After this, we are merely substituting the values from the Moodys chart.
−6
−5
For a drawn tubing, the chart shows D = 5×10 0.75/12 = 8 × 10 . Also, we shall
take Reynolds number 4000 as the onset of turbulent flow. From the Moodys
chart, for the given values of Re and /D, we get the friction factor as f = 0.04.
Finally. from the formula of length derived above,

0.5 × 0.75
12
L= = 0.19f t
4 × 0.04

29