CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 1

SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES ON CRIMINALISTICS

COMPILED BY ALECKS B GACHO

Criminalistics = Is the application of the principles of various sciences in

solving problems in connection with the administration of justice. Also referred
to as Forensic Science or Police Science. The word forensic was derived from
the Latin word “Forum” which means a “market place”, a place where people
gathered for “public discussion”. Dr. Hans Gross = an Australian magistrate
to described Search for Truth as the ultimate goal of all investigative and
detective works. He is known as the Father of Modern Criminalistics. Dr.
Paul Kirk = Father of Criminalistics in United States.

A. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
“Law of Multiplicity of Evidence” The greater number of similarities or
dissimilarities; the greater is the probability for the conclusion to be correct.
Alphonse Bertillon = Father of Personal Identification. The first to devise a
scientific method of identification called Anthropometry. A fingerprint was
first used in China before the birth of Christianity. They called it Hua Chi.

I. Personalities in Fingerprints:
1. Nehemiah Grew (1684) – describes the ridges and pores of the hands and
feet (Philosophical Transaction) presented in Royal Society of London, England.
2. Govard . Bibloo – works on the sweat pores and ridges.
3. Marcelo Malpighi (1628-1694) – Professor at the University of Bolognia,
Italy, known for his discovery of the Epidermis and Dermis layer. Written the
book entitled “De Externo Tactus Organo” Father of Dactyloscopy.
4. J.C.A. Mayer (1788) – the first to state that fingerprints are never
duplicated in two persons ( Anatomiche Kuphertafeln).
5. Johannes Purkenjie (1823) – Professor at the University of Breslau,
Germany. Established a certain role for classification and be able to identify
nine (9) types of pattern although never associated to identification
6. Herman Welcker – took his own fingerprints twice with a lapse of forty-one
years and show the ridges formation remains the same.
William Herschel – the first to advocate the use of fingerprints as substitute for
signature from among Indian native to avoid impersonation.
Rajadhar Konai = the first person Herschel printed the palm.
7. Henry Faulds – A surgeon at Tsukuji Hospital, Tokyo, Japan, who claimed
that latent prints would provide positive identification of offenders once
apprehended (A Manual of Practical Dactyloscopy).
8. Francis Galton – Developed the Arch. Loop and Whorl Patterns as general
classification and identified nine (9) types of pattern. First to establish a Civil
Bureau of Personal Identification. He said that the possibility of two prints
being alike was 1:64,000,000,000.
9. Edward Richard Henry – Developed the Henry System of Classification at
Scotland Yard which was accepted by almost all English-speaking country.
Known as Father of Fingerprint.
Khan Bahadur Azizul Haque and Rai Hem Chandra Bose – the two Hindu
police officers who have help Henry in attaining his goal.
10. Juan Vucetich – A Spanish counterpart of Henry who developed his own
system of classification in Argentina and was accepted in almost all Spanish
Speaking country.

IN AMERICA
Gilbert Thompson = a geologist in New Mexico, adopted the first individual use
of fingerprint in august 8, 1882 as a protection to prevent tampering with the
pay order.
Isaiah West Tabor = Photographer in San Francisco who advocated the use of
the system for the registration of the immigrant Chinese.

1
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 2

Samuel Langhorne Clemens = An Englishman who informally introduced

Dactyloscopy in the United States in his book “Life in the Mississippi” and “
Pupp n Head Wilson”.
Dr. Henry p De Forest = Utilized the first Municipal Civil use of fingerprint for
Criminal Registration on December 1902 (Mun. Civil Service Comm., New
York).
Capt. James L. Parke = Advocate the first state and penal use of fingerprint
adopted in Sing Sing prison on June 5, 1903 later on Auburn Napanoch and
Clinton Penitentiaries.
Sgt. John Kenneth Ferrier = First fingerprint instructor at St. Louis Police
Dept. Missouri.
Maj. R. Mc Cloughry = warden of the Federal Penitentiaries of Leaven Worth.
Established the first official National Government use of fingerpprint.
Mary K. Holand = first American instructress in dactyloscopy.
FBI = identification unit herein was officially established by an act of congress
in 1924.
Institute of Applied Science = First private school to install laboratories for
instruction purposes in dactyloscopy.
People vs. Jennings, Dec. 21, 1911 = United States leading case wherein the
first conviction based on fingerprint was recognized by the judicial authorities
(14 points).

IN THE PHILIPPINES
Mr. Jones = one who first taught FP in the Phils. (1900)
Bureau of Prison = (1968) CARPETAS fingerprint was used.
Generoso Reyes – First Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by P.C.
Isabela Bernales – first Filipina Fingerprint Technician
Capt. Thomas Dugan, New York Police Dept. and Flaviano Guerrero, FBI
Washington – gave the first examination in FP in 1927 and Agustin Patricio of
the Phils. Top the Examination
People of the Phil’s. Vs. Medina- First conviction base on Fingerprint and
leading case decision in the Phil. Jurisprudence (10 points).
Plaridel Education Institute (PEI) now known as Phil. College of Criminology,
first government recognized school to teach the Science of Fingerprint and
other Police Sciences.
John Dellinger – known U.S. public enemy number one who attempted to
destroy his own prints using corrosive acids.
Robert James Pitts – works on Surgery to forged his own fingerprints and was
named “Man without fingerprint”
Lucila Lalu – the first Filipina Chop-chop lady who was identified through
fingerprint.
Alphonse Bertillion – known as the Father of the first scientific method of
Identification (Anthropometry)

DACTYLOSCOPY

Dactyloscopy – (derived from the Latin words Dactyl = finger and Skopien – to
study or examine) is the practical application of the science of fingerprints.
Dactylography – is the scientific study of fingerprint as a means of
identification.
Dactylomancy – is the scientific study of fingerprint for purposes of personality
interpretation.
Dermatoglyphics = is the science which deals with the study of skin pattern. It
is derived from two Greek words, Derma which means Skin and Glype which
means Carve.

Basic Principles of Fingerprint

1. Individuality

2
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 3

No two persons have the same fingerprint (based on Statistic Probability)

2. Infallibility
That fingerprint is a positive and reliable means of identification. It cannot be
easily be forged.
3. Constancy or permanency
That the friction ridge once fully developed its arrangement will remain the
same throughout man’s life.

Fingerprints - Is an impression design by the first joint of the fingers and

thumb on smooth surface through the media of ink, sweat or any substance
capable of producing visibility.

Related Sciences to the Study of Fingerprint:

1. Chiroscopy – ( Greek word “ Cheir” – a hand, “Skopien” –to examine) is the
science which deals with the study of the prints of the palms of the hand.
2. Podoscopy – (Greek word “Podo” – the foot, and Skopien – to examine)is the
science which deals with the study of the footprints.
3. Poroscopy – (Greek word “poros” – a pare, and “Skopien” – to examine) is the
scientific study of the arrangement of the sweat pores. (Edmond Locard- Father
of Poroscopy)

Phalange = is the skeletal finger covered with friction skin. It is made up of

three bones.
Basal or proximal phalange – it is located at the base of the finger nearest the
palm.
Middle phalange = the next and above the basal done.
Terminal phalange = the particular bone covered with friction skin, having all
the different types of fingerprint patterns and it is located near the tip of the
finger.

Friction Skin – is an epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower

surface of the hands and feet covered with ridges and furrows. (Also called as
papillary skin).

Components of the Friction Skin

1. Ridge surface
a. Ridge – the elevated or hill like structure/ the black lines with tiny white
dots.
b. Furrow – the depressed or canal like structure/ the white space between
ridges.
2. Sweat pores – the tiny opening/ the tiny white dots.
3. Sweat duct – the passage way.
4. Sweat glands – the producers of sweat.

Fundamental Layers of the Friction Skin

1. Epidermis – the outermost layer
a. Stratum Corneum,
b. Stratum mucosum
2. Dermis – the inner layer containing the blood vessel, dermal papillae,
various glands and nerves.

Ridge Formation – (Ridges starts to form in the fingers and thumb during the
3rd to 4th months of the fetus life.) Dermal Papillae = are irregular pegs
composed of delicate connective tissue protruding and forming the ridges of the
skin on the fingers, palms, toes and soles of the feet.
Ridge Destruction – destruction of the friction skin can either be temporary or
permanent. Generally temporary destruction occur when only the epidermis

3
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 4

layer of the friction skin has been damage, while permanent damage can be
injected to the friction skin due to damage to the dermis layer.

General Rules on Ridge Destruction

a. Destruction of the Epidermis – temporary, dermis – permanent
damage.
b. Cut == a depth of more than 1 mm will constitute permanent scar.
The Fingerprint Patterns
1. The Arch (5%)
a. Plain Arch (A) – is a pattern in which the ridges flow from one side to the
other side with a slight raise at the center.
b. Tented Arch (T) – is a type of pattern having either an angle, up trust or
an incomplete loop form.

2. The Loop (60%)

Elements of loop
1. A core 3. A sufficient Recurve
2. A delta 4. At least one Ridge count

a. Radial Loop (RH=/. LH=\) is a type of loop pattern in which the slanting
or looping ridge flows towards the thumb finger.
b. Ulnar Loop (RH=\, LH=/) is a type of loop pattern in which the slanting
or looping ridge flows towards the little finger.

3. The Whorl (35%)

Basic Elements of Whorl
1. Two or more Deltas
2. At least one complete circuiting ridge
a. Plain Whorl (W)
At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by the imaginary line
traversing between the two deltas.

b. Central Pocket Loop Whorl

No circuiting ridge within the pattern area is touched or crosses by an
imaginary line drawn between the two deltas.

c. Double Loop Whorl

1. Two separate loop formation
2. Two Separate and distinct shoulder
3. Two deltas

d. Accidental Whorl
1. A combination of two different patterns with the exception of the
plain arch.
2. Two deltas

Ridge Characteristics (Galton Details)

1. Ridge Dot (island ridge) – refers to a ridge formation in a form of a dot or
period.
2. Bifurcation – a ridge formation in which a single ridge splits or divides into
two or more ridges. It resembles a fork shape.
3. Converging Ridge – two ridges that meets at a certain point
4. Diverging Ridge – two ridges that spread apart
5. Enclosure or Lake Ridge – a single ridge that divides into two but does not
remain open and meet at a certain point to form the original single ridge.
6. Ending ridge – it refers to an abrupt end of a ridge
7. Type lines – is a diverging ridge that tends to surround the pattern area and
serves as a basic boundary of fingerprint impression.

4
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 5

8. Pattern Area – is a part of a loop of whorl pattern surrounded by the type

lines and consisting of the delta, the core and other ridges.
9. Recurving ridge – a single ridge that curves back to the direction where it
started.
10. Sufficient Recurve – a recurving ridge which is complete with it’s should
and free from any appendage.
11. Appendage – is a short ridge found at the top or summit of a recurve
12. Rod or Bar – is a short or long ridge found inside the recurve and
directed towards the core
13. Obstruction ridge – is a short ridge found inside the recurve which
blocks the inner line of flow towards the core.

The Two Fingerprint Terminus (Focal Points)

1. The Delta (also called the outer terminus) is a point along a ridge
formation found at the center or near the center of the diverging type lines.
2. The Core (also known as the heart or the inner terminus) usually found
at the center or innermost recurve.

Types of fingerprint impression

1. Rolled Impression – are fingerprint impression taken individually by rolling
each finger from one side to the other side and from the tip to the end of the
first joint.
2. Plain Impression – are impression made by simultaneously pressing the
finger to the card, use as a reference to classification.

Basic Instrument in taking prints:

Ink Slab – is a metallic or glass plate where the ink is spread for purpose
Ink Roller – is a rubber made roller designed to spread the fingeprint ink to the
slab.
Fingerprint Ink – is a special form of ink designed for taking fingerprint
impression sometimes submitted with a printer’s ink.
Fingerprint card – is an 8” x 8” card designed for recording fingerprint
impression
Card holder – usually a fixed card holder placed in a flat table designed to
prevent the movement of the card in the course of the taking of the fingerprint.

Basic Rules in taking Fingerprints:

Subject should be instructed to stand straight but relax facing the slab.
The subject hand should be completely dry
Thumb fingers are rolled towards the body while other fingers are rolled away
from the body.

Fingerprint Classification Formula:

1. Checking
2. Blocking-out – is the process of placing under each pattern the letter
symbols representing their pattern interpretation prior to the actual
classification formula.
3. CLASSIFICATION FORMULA
a. Primary Division. Always represented by a numerical value
assigned to whorl patterns depending on what finger they appear.
Arch and Loop are non-numerical patterns.
A, T, / \ = Zero (0)
Whorl patterns.(WCDX)
Finger 1 and 2 Right Thumb and Right Index (16)
Finger 3 and 4 Right middle and Right Ring (8)
Finger 5 and 6 Right little and Left Thumb (4)
Finger 7 and 8 Left Index and Left middle (2)
Finger 9 and 10 Left Ring and Left Little (1)

5
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 6

The sum of the numerical value assigned to even number of finger

represent the numerator and the sum of the assigned value to odd number
represent the denominator Plus the pre-established fraction of l/1 to complete
the primary.

b. Secondary – Represented by Capital and small letter

combination based on interpretation made during the blocking.
Capital letter – derived from the index fingers which can be
(A, T, U, R, W, C, D or X).
Small letter – derived from the thumb, middle, ring and little fingers. It
only includes the radial loop (r), plain arch (a) and tented arch (t).

c. Sub-secondary Division – derived by ridge counting of loop and

ridge
Tracing of whorl found at the index, middle ring fingers only.

c.1 Ridge Counting of Loop

Index Finger 1 to 9 Ridge Count =I 10 or more =0
Middle Finger 1 to 10 Ridge Count =I 11 or more =0
Ring Finger 1 to 13 Ridge Count =I 14 or more =0

c.2 Ridge Tracing of Whorl

Inner Whorl (I) when the tracing goes above or inside the right delta and there
are three (3) or more intervening ridges.
Outer Whorl (O) when the tracing ridge goes below or outside the right delta
and there are three (3) or more intervening ridges.
Meeting Whorl (M) when there are only two or less intervening ridge/s

C.3 Plain Arch and Tented Arch are always dash (-)

d. Major Division (Taken from Thumb fingers only)

D.1 Whorl = Ridge tracing = I, O, or M.
D.2 Loop = Ridge Counting = S, M or L
Table 1 Table 2
1 to 11 = S          1 to 17 = S
12 to 16 = M 18 to 22 = M
17 or more = L 23 or more = L
D.3 Arch = dash (-)

e. Final Division (derived from the little fingers only).

E.1 Loop and Whorl are both subject to ridge counting.
Radial or Ulnar
Plain or Central pocket loop Whorl = will be treated as an ulnar loop.
Double loop Whorl – get the ridge count of the top loop
Accidental Whorl = get the least ridge count.
E.2 Arch = dash (-)

f. Key Division = derived by getting the ridge count of the first (l) loop except
the little fingers. In the absence of the loop, the first whorl will be ridge
counted for the purpose.

Reference Classification Formula = is an additional formula serve as a

reference in case of doubtful prints. Place the bottom of the classification
formula.

Latent Prints = prints found at the scene of the crime.

6
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 7

Types of latent prints

1. Visible prints = are those prints which are readily visible to the naked eye.
It can either be: Molded prints or Prints made by contamination with
colored substance.
2. Invisible prints = prints that are generally made by sweat or perspiration
that requires developing for visibility.

Factors Affecting Stability or Prints at the Crime Scene

a. Subject Factor
b. Nature of the surface
c. Climatic Condition

Methods of Developing Prints:

1. Dusting Method = considered as the simplest and traditional methods
used in developing prints at the scene of the crime. (Use of Powder and Brush)
2. Rolling Method = basically used in developing prints in paper done by
simply rolling the paper with powder spreading in its surface.
3. Fuming Methods = done by using chemical fumes such as Iodine and
Ammonium Fumes.
4. Silver Nitrate method – done by spraying a 5 percent solution of silver
nitrate to the surface of the paper.
5. Ninhydrin Method = is considered as one of the best method used in
developing prints in paper.
6. Laser Method = is a modern method of tracing and developing prints.
Post Mortem Fingerprints = are prints taken from a diseased person.

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

A. DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1. Photography = Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which
means “light” and “Grapho” means “Writing” or “Graphia” meaning “to
Draw”. Sir John F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first
wrote a letter to Henry Fox Talbot.
= Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some
sensitized material with the aid of a camera, Lens and its accessories and the
chemical process required in order to produce a photograph.

2. Forensic = Derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a

market place” where people gathered for public discussion.
= When used in conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to the
administration of justice. It is sometimes used interchangeably with the word
legal.

Police Photography = is the application of the principles of photography is

relation to the police work and in the administration of justice.

Photograph = is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography. Picture

and photograph are not the same for a picture is a generic term is refers to all
kinds of formed image while a photograph is an image that can only be a
product of photography.

B. USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Personal Identification - Personal Identification is considered to be the
first application of photography is police work. Alphonse Bertillon was the
first police who utilized photography in police work as a supplementary
identification in his Anthropometry system.

7
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 8

2. For Communication - Photograph is considered to be one of the most

universal methods of communication considering that no other language can
be known universally than photograph.
3. For Record Purposes - Considered to be the utmost used of
photography in police work.

Different Views in photographing

General View = taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows
direction and location of the crime scene.
Medium View = is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by
dividing it into section. This view will best view the nature of the crime.
Close-up View = is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the
scene of the crime. It is design to show the details of the crime.
Extreme Close-up View = commonly designed in laboratory photographing
using some magnification such as Photo-macrography and photomicrography.

4. For Preservation - Crime scene and other physical evidence requires

photograph for preservation purposes. Crime scene cannot be retain as is for a
long period of time but through photograph the initial condition of the scene of
the crime can be preserved properly.

5. For Discovering and Proving - Photography can extend human vision

in discovering and proving things such as:
a. The use of Magnification
Photomicrography = Taking a magnified photograph of small object through
attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope so as to show a
minute details of the physical evidence.
Photomacrogaphy = Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object
by attaching an extended tube lens (macro lens) to the camera.
Microphotography = is the process of reducing into a small strips of film a
scenario. It is first used in filmmaking.
Macrophotography = used synonymously with photomacrogaphy.
Telephotography = is the process of taking photograph of a far object with the
aid of a long focus and Telephoto lens.

b. Use of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red rays to

show something which may not be visible with the aid of human eye
alone.

6. For Court Exhibits = Almost all evidence presented in court before

formally be accepted requires that they satisfy the basic requirements for
admissibility which is relevancy and competency. A question of relevancy is
usually proved by proving the origin of the evidence and its relation to the case
and this is usually supplemented by photograph of the evidence giving
reference as to where it came from.

Evidence presented in court once accepted became known as Exhibit. Either

Exhibit 1, 2, 3 etc. for the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution.

7. Crime Prevention = with the use of video camera (hidden camera) and
other advanced photographic equipment crimes are being detected more easily
and even to the extent of preventing them from initially occurring.

8. Police Training = Modern facilities are now being used as instructional

material not only in police training as well as in other agencies.

9. Reproducing and Copying = with the use of photography any number

of reproduction of the evidence can be made those giving unlimited opportunity

8
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 9

for its examination and even allow other experts or person to examine the
specimen without compromising the original.

C. ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Light = is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of a wave with the
speed of 186, 000 miles per second.
Camera = a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light
from reaching the sensitized material.
Lens = is the light gathering mechanism of the camera that collect the reflected
light coming from the object to form the image.
Sensitized material = composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound
which is capable of being transformed into an image through the action of light
and with some chemical processes. (Film and Photo Paper).
Chemical Process = is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a
form so as a latent image and a positive image be made resulting to what we
called Photograph.

D. THEORIES OF LIGHT
1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens) = It is the theory that was transcribed
from the motion of the water that if we observe a piece of log floating in the
ocean and with the force of the air would naturally will make the log move up
and down.
2. Corpuscular theory (Newton) = this later opposed the wave theory
stating that light has its effect by the motion of very small particles such as
electrons.
3. Modified Wave theory (Maxwell and hertz) = Based on
electromagnetics.
All these theories are still considered to be of little lacking that law enforcement
need not to be very focus on this but rather go along with the accepted
conclusion that light is a form of energy, which is electromagnetic in form.

E. LIGHT: ITS NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS, SOURCES AND

CLASSIFICATION
Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186, 000 miles
per second. Its wave travel is said to be characterized in certain extent based
on velocity, wavelength and frequency of the number of vibration of the wave
per second. Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2)
successive crest or through of wave and it is expressed in either Mill micron
(nanometer) or Angstrom. Mill micron is the units of light wavelength which is
equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter which the Angstrom is
relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth
part of a millimeter. Once light hits a certain medium, its action can be
characterized as either: Reflected, Transmitted or Absorbed (RAT). Reflected
once the light hits a mirror and it bounce back. Transmitted when the light
hits a transparent glass which would allow the light to pass through its
medium and Absorbed when the light hits a dark colored object and prevents it
from either bouncing or passing through. Isaac Newton in 1666 proved that the
light which men see as white light is actually a mixture of all colors of the
spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism (Sharp
Edge of the Glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors red, orange,
yellow, green, blue and violet colors (from top to bottom). The visible light is
also said of have a wavelength of between 400-700 mill micron and nanometer.

1. Types of Light
Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.
Visible Light - Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach
the human eye. It is the type of light, which is capable of exciting the retina of
the human eye.

9
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 10

Invisible Light - lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too
long to excite the retina of the human eye i.e. X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red
lights.

2. Photographic Rays
a. X-ray =Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 mill microns. It is
produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube.
It was incidentally discovered by Conrad Wilhelm Roentgen. This type of light
works in the principle of shadow photography.

b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet) = Radiation having a wavelength of

30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph fingerprints in multi colored
background, documents that are altered, decipherment of erase writing and
developing invisible writing. It is commercially known as “black Light”.

c. Visible Light = It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of

400 to 700 mill microns designed for ordinary photographing purposes.

d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red) = Considered as the photographic rays with

the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000 mill microns. It is designed to
take photograph of over-written documents, obliterated writing, and charred
documents or for black out photography. It is sometimes referred to as heat
rays).

3. Light Source
A. Natural Light= are those light which come to existence without the
intervention of man i.e. Sunlight, moonlight and starlight.
Bright Sunlight = object in an open space casts a deep and uniform shadow
and the object appears glossy.
Hazy Sunlight = object in an open space casts a transparent or bluish
shadow. This is due to thin clouds that cover the sun.
Dull Sunlight = object in an open space cast no shadow due to thick clouds
covering the sun.

Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade
bright sunlight, hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight. These
conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object being
photograph. Factors such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and quality
of the reflected light coming and not coming from the source should likewise be
considered.

B. Artificial Light = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb,

incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.

Continuous radiation
Photoflood lamp= is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a
light with a reflector at the back which focuses the light to the object the
common wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.

Fluorescent Lamp = are tube lamps in which the walls are coated with
fluorescent powders with both ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the
reflector. This is commonly used by everybody more than it is used in
photographing.

Incandescent bulb = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which
sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. Everybody likewise
commonly uses this although it is more expensive in terms of electrical
consumptions.

10
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 11

Infra-red Lamp
Ultra-violet Lamp

Short Duration type

Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generate lights by the rapid combination
of metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when
fired electrically. There are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electrical
contacts. When the current flows through the filament, it becomes
incandescent and ignites the explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil
that burns, giving flash of tense light.

Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges

between two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the
discharge is kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300
second and 1/5000 second, and because of this, subject in fast motion can be
arrested or stopped in the photographs.

SENSITIZED MATERIAL = It refers to the film and photographic paper that

basically composed of emulsion containing Silver Halides suspended in gelatin
and coated on a transparent or reflective support.

Parts of the Sensitized Material

1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which
contains the silver grains which is the one sensitive to light. In a colored film
this emulsion surface can be composed of three layers (Blue, Green and Red)
with filters intervening.
2. Anti Halation Backing = is the one designed to hold back the light and
prevents halation.
3. Base = Support the emulsion

I. Types of Film
A. According to Use
Black and White Film = usually represented by a prefix or a suffix “Pan” or
“Ortho” and generally used in black and white photography. Examples are
Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.
Colored Film = can be divided into two: the Negative type and the reversal
type of colored film. The former is usually having names ending in color while
the word chrome represents the latter.
e.g. Blue sensitive film, Ultra-violet film, Infra-red film, orthochromatic film
and panchromatic film.

B. According to Spectral Sensitivity

Spectral sensitivity = is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different
wavelength of the light course.
Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color.
Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green.
(Popular in the marker as KODALITH FILM)
Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red
(Sensitive to all colors of the visible light)
Process Panchromatic film = permit short exposures under average lighting
condition and has the advantage of the grain structure.
Grain Panchromatic film
High Speed Panchromatic film designed originally for photographing object
under adverse lighting condition.

Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light.

11
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 12

FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed) - This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the
film to light.
1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is expressed in
arithmetic value system. The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is.
ASA 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000
2. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen) = expressed in Logarithmic value
system. Used in the same principle as the ASA.
Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.

3. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed as

combination of ASA and DIN rating.

II. Photographic Paper - It is that sensitized material that will record the
visible image in the final development and become the photograph.

Types of Photographic Papers

A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)
Silver Chloride paper = used for contact printing, the size of the positive print is
the same as the size of the negative used. Sensitivity to light is low and gives
blue-black tones when properly developed.
Silver Bromide paper = used projection, printing and enlarging process. This is
one of the most ideal photo paper used for police photography. Will give a black
tone when properly developed.
Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for projection and contact printing.
Slow emulsion.
Variable contract paper = combines the contrast range in one paper it uses a
special chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon
exposure to different colors of light.

B. According to Physical Characteristics

B.1. Weight
Light weight = designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not of
consideration. Intended for purposes, which involves folding?
Single Weight = papers used for small prints or which are need to be mounted
on solid and fine details necessary in the production. Used in ordinary
photographic purposes.
Double weight = generally used for large prints because they stand up under
rough treatment.

B.2. Surface Texture

Glossy paper =designed for fine details and brilliant image formation.
Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details
Rough papers = used for large prints or where breath rather than detail is
necessary.

B.3. Color
White = better used in police photography.
Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when warmth
effect is desired.
Buff papers = prepare for tone prints

C. According to Contrast (grade)

Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely
exposed film.
Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over exposed film)
Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed film
Velox No. 3 = used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed)

12
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 13

Velox No. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or
weak negatives. It is useful imprinting which high contrast is desired.
Velox No. 5 = for flat negative that are unprintable.

5. CAMERA - Is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of
blocking unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.
Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4) basic parts such as light
tight box, lens, and shutter, Holder of sensitized material.

Essential Parts of a Camera

Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold
other parts.
Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected light from an object to form
an image on the film.
Shutter – designed to control the time during which the light reaches the film
Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens
designed to hold firmly the sensitized material to prevent the formation of the
multiple or blurred image
View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent
of the coverage of the given lens

OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA

Viewing System - Is that part of the camera which provides the means of
showing to the photographer the entire scene coverage that can be recorded in
the sensitized material.

Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob) =designed to transfer the exposed
film to the other side or to the take up spool and the unexposed film will be the
opposite side of the lens for another exposure.

Shutter speed = is that part of the camera which regulates the time exposure
of the film thus, affecting the amount of light reaching the sensitized material.
It is usually expressed in a fraction of a second.
1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.

The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of
light gathering than that of the right number. Using a fast shutter speed the
photographer can stop or “freeze” the action of a person provided that
necessary adjustment on the lens opening is made in order to maintain normal
exposure.

Lens Aperture = the ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in relation to
the focal length of the lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens.
Otherwise known as lens opening or relative aperture and it is expressed in F-
number.
F 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16

The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the
lens opening the greater the volume of air that will passed through the lends
and reach the sensitized material. If the objective of a photographer is obtain
the widest possible coverage of the lens in which objects are all sharp, It will be
advisable to used a smaller lens opening.

Focusing = is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of

sharpness of the object to be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating
the distance from the camera and that of the object that will make a sharp or
clear image.

13
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 14

Types of focusing device:

Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type) - Coincidence
otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this type of focusing a
single object will appeared double once the object is not in focus, but moving
the focusing adjustment this double image will coincide or superimposed to
form a single object.

Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or two parts
once the object in not in focus once the two parts of the image has been united
then the object is already focused

Ground Glass - This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once
the object is not in focused the object will be viewed to be blurred and will turn
sharp and clear once adjusted.

Scale Bed - Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera
control based on his estimation do this.

TYPES OF THE CAMERA

1. View Finder Type – it is considered as the smallest and the simplest
type of camera
2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera best suited for police
work due to its interchangeability of the lens
3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with dual lens, one for
focusing and the other for forming the image.
4. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and expensive type of
camera, used for movie making

5. LENS = It is the image-forming device of the lens that actually has

a greater effect on the quality of the image to be formed. = a medium or system
which converge or diverge light rays passing through it to form an image. Lens
maybe made up of a glass or transparent material, which permit light to pass
through and change the direction of light. Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce
the use of lens in the camera.

CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES
1. According to the type of image to be produced
a. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens) Characterized by the
fact that it is thicker at the center and thinner at the side which is capable of
bending the light together and forms the image inversely.
b. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) Characterized by the
fact that it is thinner at the center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual
image on the same side of the lens.

2. According to Degree of Corrections

a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction.
b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion
c. Anastigmatic Lens – correcting astigmatism
d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration
e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism and chromatic
aberration

INHERENT LENS DEFECTS

1. Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side
of the lens producing an image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the
side.

14
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 15

2. Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) = Inability of the lens to focus

light that travels straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while the light
reaching the lens oblique is the one the is transmitted sharp.
3. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images of the different point are
incorrect with respect to one another.
4. Distortion = is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be
Pincushion distortion (curving inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
5. Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the lens to focus light of varying
wavelength. The lens refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than
those of longer wavelength and therefore bringing blue rays to a shorter focus
than the red.
6. Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and
vertical axis are not equally magnified. Inability of the lens to focus both
horizontal and vertical lines.
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification
8. Flares = condition of the lens producing multiple images.

LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the
lens is set to focus at infinite position. As according to focal lenses may be
classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length not longer than the
diagonal half of the negative. Useful in taking photograph at short distance
with wider area coverage.
b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length approximately equal
but not longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative.
c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer than twice the
diagonal half of the negative. Best used in long distance photographing but
with narrow area coverage.
d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted
continuously by the movement of one or more elements in the lens system.

2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-

number
a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the
farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the lens
b. Hyper focal distance = Is the nearest distance at which when a
lens is focused with a given particular diaphragm opening will gives the
maximum depth of field.

3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp

image. The one that controls the degree of sharpness of the object.

6. CHEMICAL PROCESS
The process of making the latent image visible and permanent.
Development (Use of D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution) = is the process
necessary for reducing the silver halides to form the image.
Elon, Hydroquinone = used as main developing agents
Stop bath = normally composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid
that serves as a means to prevent contamination between the developer and
the acid fixer.
Fixation = is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or
removed from the emulsion surface and making the image more permanent.
Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main fixing agent that dissolves unexposed
silver halides.

Other chemicals used:

Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer

15
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 16

Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative

Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener
Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves as accelerator

Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative

during enlarging.
Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging
and printing.
Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful
adjustment on the dodging board.
Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the
photograph.
Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative
used for purposes of making a balance exposure.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Ballistics is the science of the motion of the projectile and the condition that
affects their motion. It is a science in itself for it is an orderly arranged
knowledge, which is a product of series of experimentation, observation and
testing. Ballistics is not an exact science rather it is applied physics or applied
science, which is subject to changes and improvement depending upon the
demands of the modern civilization. Motion refers to the mobility or movement
of the projectile from the time it leaves the shell empty; it leaves the gun muzzle
and until it reaches its target or fall in the ground. A projectile is any metallic
on non-metallic ball which is propelled from a firearm. Its motion can be
categories into three general types: Direct motion, Rotatory motion and
Translation motion.

3 Types of Motion
1. Direct Motion = is the forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the shell
by the action of the expansive force of gases from a burning gunpowder.
2. Rotatory motion = is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore
barrel firearm which is either twisted to the left or to the right.
3. Translational = is the action of bullet once it hits a target and subsequently
ricocheted.

Origin of the Word Ballistics

The word Ballistics was derived from two Greek words. The word “ballo” and
the word “ballein” which literally mean, “to throw”. The term also said to
have been derived from the Roman war machine called “Ballista”, a gigantic
catapult that was used to furl missiles or large object at a distance like stone,
dead animal or even dead person. The study of Ballistics in the early age is
divided into (3) three Divisions: Internal Ballistics, Exterior or External
Ballistics and Terminal Ballistics. From the time the guns was fired until it
reaches the target and have its maximum effect. At present ballistics is
branches into four (4) and this is due to its subsequent used in solving
problems in connection with the administration of justice particularly cases
involving firearms and ammunition which is termed as Forensic Ballistics.

Branches of Ballistics
1. Interior (Internal) Ballistics = it treats of the motion of the projectile while
it is still inside the firearm (chamber /barrel) which extends from the breech to
the muzzle. The conditions attributed to internal ballistics are as follows:
a. Firing pin hitting the primer
b. Ignition of the priming mixture - The priming mixture (composing of the
KCLO3, sulfur and carbon) located either at the cavity rim or at the center of

16
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 17

the primer upon the striking effect of the firing pin will ignite and such action
is known as “Percussion action”.
c. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or propellant.
d. Expansion of heated gas.
e. Pressure developed
f. Energy generated
g. Recoil of the gun - Is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the
forward movement of the bullet upon explosion. The backward or rearward
movement of the gun in relation to the forward movement of the bullet.
Jump is another portion of the recoil action characterized as the backward and
upward movement of that takes place before the bullet leaves the muzzle.
H. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel - It is the relative speed of the
bullet per unit of time while it is still inside the barrel expressed in feet per
second.
i. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel
j. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

2. Exterior (external) Ballistics = treats of the attributes or movement of the

projectile after leaving the gun muzzle.
a. Muzzle Blast - Is the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun.
b. Muzzle energy - Energy generated at the muzzle point measured in foot-
pound.
c. Trajectory - Refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time
it leaves the muzzle until it hits the target. It is also described as the actual
curve path taken by a bullet during its flight.
d. Range - It refers to the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of
the gun and the target.
d.1. Accurate Range= the distance within which the shooter or gunner
has control of his shots.
d.2. Effective Range = the distance within which when the bullet was
fired it is still capable of inflicting fatal injury.
d.3. Maximum Range= the distance that a projectile can be propelled
from a firearm. The farthest distance the bullet could travel.
e. Velocity - Refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit
of time usually express is feet per second (ft/sec.)
f. Pull of Gravity - It is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth
surface due to its weight.
g. Air Resistance - Refers to the force of the air encounter by the bullet in its
flight.

3. Terminal Ballistics= is that branch of Ballistics which deals with the effects
of the impact of the projectile on the target.
a. Terminal Accuracy - It refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target.
b. Terminal Energy - Is the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the
target same as striking energy.
c. Terminal Velocity - Is the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
d. Terminal Penetration - Is the depth of entry of the bullet in the target.

4. Forensic Ballistics - This branch of ballistics is the product of the

application of the ballistics to law. The idea comes with the used of the word
forensic. The word Forensic was derived from the Latin word “forum” meaning
a “market place” where people gathered for public disputation or public
discussion. When used in connection with the word ballistics or other natural
science, it suggests a relationship to the courts of justice or legal proceedings.
Forensic Ballistics is defined as the study of the motion of the projectile as
applied to law or simply the science of firearm identification by means of the
ammunition fired through them.

17
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 18

Scope of Forensic Ballistics

1. Field Investigation
2. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Exhibits
3. Legal Proceeding

The Evolution of Firearms - MEN BEHIND FIREARMS

1. John M. Browning - Wizard of the modern firearms and pioneered the
breech loading single shot rifled which was adopted by Winchester.
2. Samuel Colt - Patented the first practical revolver and maker of the Colt
Peace Maker, a famous revolver in the history.
3. Alexander John Forsyth - Father of the percussion powder.
4. Major Uziel Gal - An Israeli army who designed UZI (Israel) in the year
1950.
5. Col. Calvin H. Goddard - Father of modern Ballistics.
6. John C. Garand - Designed and invented the Semi automatic U.S. Rifle
Cal. 30. M1 Garand.
7. George Hyde - A well-known expert in the field of SMG, (also known as
grease gun) developed in 1941. M3A1 (USA).
8. Michael Kalashnikov - Designed the AK (Automat Kalashnikova) 47
(Soviet Union) adopted by the Russian Army in the year 1951.
9. Horace Smith - Founded the great firm of Smith and Wesson and
pioneered in making breech loading rifles.
10. Eugene Stoner - Designed the U.S. M16 Armalite under licensed by Colt
Company from July 1959 onwards.
11. L.C. Smith - Developed shotgun bearing his name now the Ithaca gun
Company.
12. John T. Thompson - Developed in the course of WW1 the Thompson
M1A1 and model of 1928 A1 (USA). Pioneered the making of Thompson sub-
machine gun.
13. Daniel B. Wesson - Associates of Horace Smith in the making of
Revolver.
14. David “Carbine” Williams - Maker of the first have known Carbine.
15. Oliver Winchester - One of the earliest rifle and pistol makers.

IMPORTANT DATES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIREARMS

1242 A.D. Roger Bacon published the “ (De Mirabili Potestate Artis et
Naturae” On the Marvelous Power of Arts and Nature), which noted Black
powder formula.
1498 Introduction of the rifling and sights became better and breech
loaders were attempted although never succeeded yet even multi shots arms
due to lack of good ignition system.
1500’s the development of the Wheel Lock, operates in the same
principle as the modern day cigarette lighter. At mid of 1500’s “snaphaunce”
was developed.
1575 Paper Cartridge was developed. Ball and powder charged were
wrapped in chemically treated paper to allow the carrying of numerous pre-
measured charges or pre loaded rounds.
1750 The development of Breech-loading firearms leading to the
making of FERGUSON Rifle of Major Patrick Ferguson, COLLIER Rifle,
which is a flint lock repeating rifle operated on a revolving principle and, the
HALL Rifle patented in 1811 by Col. John Hall and was the 1st breechloader
adopted by the U.S. Army.
1805 The Percussion System. Alexander John Forsyth discovered a
compound that would ignite upon blow that would ignite the powder charge. In
1840, it replaces the flintlock ignition and was adopted in 1838 by the British
and in 1842 by the American.
1835 The first real cartridge was developed “The Flobert Cap” same as
the BB and was considered the forerunner of .22 short cartridge.

18
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 19

1835 Samuel Colt patented the first revolver and marketed in 1872, a
breech loading revolver.
1836 Pin fire Cartridge, was developed by Le Faucheux. A much real
pin fire cartridge was also developed in the same year by Houiller.
1845 Rim fire cartridge, Flobert developed the BB (bullet breech) cap,
which was considered the forerunner of the .22 cal cartridge. In the same
year, New Havens Arms Company owned by Oliver F. Winchester, through the
effort of Tyler Henry developed a .44 cal rim fire cartridge for Henry Rifle.
1846 Smokeless powder was discovered. It was used in shotgun first in
the year 1864 by Capt. Eschultze of Prussian Army and in Rifle by the year
1884 by M. Vieille of France.
1873 Colt Peace Maker, model 1873, .45 cal. The most famous revolver
in history and legend was manufactured.
1884 Automatic Machine Gun. Hiram Maxim developed the first fully
automatic gun.

Firearms
Legal Definition of Firearm - Firearms or arms as herein used, includes rifles,
muskets, carbines, shotgun, pistol, revolvers, and all other deadly weapons, to
which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other missiles maybe discharge by means of
gun powder or other explosives. This term also includes air rifle, except such of
being of small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm
shall be considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof. (Sec 877
Revised Administrative Code/ Sec. 290 national Internal Revenue Code).

Technical Definition - Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of

projectile by means of the expansive force gases coming from burning
gunpowder. (FBI manual of Firearms Identification).

Classification of Firearms
A. Two General Classification of Firearms
(According to Interior Barrel Construction)
1.Smooth Bore Firearms = Firearms that have no rifling (lands and grooves)
inside their gun barrel.
Examples: Shotguns and Musket
2. Rifled Bore Firearms = Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel.
Examples: Pistols, Revolvers, and other modern weapons.

B. Main Types of Firearms

(According to the Caliber of the projectile propelled)
1. Artillery = Refers to those type of firearms that propels projectile with more
than one inch diameter. Examples: Cannons, Mortars and Bazookas:
2. Small Arms = Are firearms that propels projectile with less than one inch
diameter and it can be handled, moved and operated by one man. Examples:
Machine gun, shoulder arms and handguns.
2.1 Machine guns - Machine gun is a type of firearm that is
primarily designed for military use. Even in investigation of shooting cases
done in the city, it is not usual or common to encounter this type of firearm
having been used. It can be grouped in three general types:

Sub Machine Gun - Is a light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing pistol
size ammunition, having a shoulder stock that may or may not be folded and
designed to be fired with both hands.

Shoulder Arms
Shoulder Arms are those types of firearm that were normally fired from the
shoulder.

19
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 20

Rifles= A shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with more accuracy

through a long rifled bore barrel, usually more than 22 inches.
Carbine = A short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle, measuring not longer than
22 inches. It fires a single projectile though a rifle-bore either semi-automatic
or fully automatic, for every press of the trigger.
Muskets = is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading military shoulder
arms designed to fire a shots or a single round lead ball. A more detailed
discussion of musketeers can be found on chapter 8 in the discussion of
ignition system.
Shotgun = A smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder arms designed to fire
a number of lead pellets or a shots in one charge (FBA Manual)

The barrel construction of shotgun may also be found in different bore

construction.
A. cylinder bore type = which the bore size is the same through out the
barrel
B. Choke bored gun = designed with a diminishing or reducing bore
diameter type towards the muzzle. This type is designed to cause an effect to
the travel of the shots. It makes the shots travel longer before it spreads.
C. “paradox gun”.= still in a very rear occasions another type of shotgun
can be observed to be having rifling only a few inch from its muzzle points.

2.3 Handguns = those type of firearms that are designed or intended to be fired
using one hand. Ex. Pistols and Revolvers
a. Pistol - in early firearm history, all handguns are generally called as
pistols. There were three classes of pistols in the period. The single shot pistol,
the semi automatic and the revolving pistols now known as the revolver.
b. Revolver - Revolver is a type of firearm designed to position cartridge
into position for firing with the aid of a rotating cylinder serving as its chamber.
There are two types of revolvers according to its mechanical firing action. T

Single action, a type of revolver that needs a manual cocking of the hammer
before squeezing the trigger and the other is Double action, a type of revolver
that does not need manual cocking. Just press the trigger and it both cocked
and released the hammer causing a much faster firing.

Types of Firearms
(According of Mechanical Construction)
1. Single shot firearms = types of firearms designed to fire only one shot every
loading. Examples: Single shot pistols, Revolvers and shotguns.
2. Repeating Arms = A type of firearms designed to fire several loads (shot) in
one loading. Examples: Automatic pistols revolvers rifles and shotguns.
3. Automatic F/A = type of firearms that constitutes a continuous firing in a
single press of the trigger and while the trigger is press. Examples: Machine
guns and rifles
4. Slide Action type = types of firearms in which loading take place by back
and forth manipulation of the under/over forearms of the gun. Examples:
Shotgun and pistols
5. Bolt Action Type = Type of firearms in which reloading takes place by
manipulating the both back and forth. Examples: Rifles, shotguns and
machine guns.
6. Lever type (Break type) = loading takes place by lever action on the
firearms. Examples: Rifles and shotguns.

Miscellaneous Types of Gun

Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. = devices principally designed
for other purpose to which a gun mechanism is incorporated also called as
Freakish gun.

20
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 21

Flare gun = designed for tracing or sending signals or locating enemy troops.
Freakish gun = a tool in which firearm mechanism is attached to prevent easy
identification.
Gas gun = generally referring to all gun designed from firing tear gas.
Harpoon guns = refers to a barbed spear in hunting large fish.
Liberator = U.S. government made smooth bore gun used in Europe during
war designed to fire an automatic colt pistol cartridge caliber .45.
Multi –Barreled gun = refers to all types of gun containing a number of
barrels.
Paradox gun = a type of gun which contains lands and grooves a few inch from
the muzzle point.
Tools = are those devices which resembles a gun designed but are generally
used for construction of furniture.
Traps = refers to gun used for trapping animals that are fired to woods.
Zip Gun = refers to all type of home made gun.

Ammunition
Legal Definition - Ammunition refers to loaded shell for rifles, muskets,
carbine, shotgun, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, shot shell or other
missiles maybe fired by means of gun powder or other explosive. The term also
includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned elsewhere in the code.
(Chapter VII, Sec.290 of NIRC as well as Sec 877 RAC)

Technical Definition - Ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a

single cartridge. Cartridge is a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet (ball),
primer (cap), cartridge case (shell) and gunpowder (propellant).

Origin - The word cartridge was derived from the Latin word “Charta”
meaning – a “paper” and also from the French word “Cartouche” meaning – a
rolled paper. This only indicates that the first type of cartridge was made up of
a rolled paper. It was about the turn of the 16 th century that the term
“cartridge” comes to use.
A. General types of Ammunition
a. Dummy (used as a model)
b. Drill Ammunition (without gun powder)
c. Black Ammunition (without bullet)
d. Live Ammunition

Classification of Cartridge
I. According to the Location of the Primer
Pin-Fire = is a type of cartridge in which the ignition cap (primer) is concealed
inside the cartridge case and has a pin resting upon it.
Rim fire = is a type of cartridge in which the priming mixture is located at the
hallow rim of the case can be fired if the cartridge is tuck by the firing pin on
the rim of the case (cavity rim).
Center fire =refers to a cartridge in which primer cup (ignition cap) is centrally
placed in the base of the cartridge case and the priming mixture is exploded by
the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the anvil.

According to Rim Diameter

Rimmed Case type.
Semi-Rimmed type
Rimless type
Rebated type = refers to the cartridge with rimless pattern, but which has a
rim diameter smaller than the body of the case
Belted type = a cartridge with a prominent raise belt around its body just in
front of the extraction groove.

21
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 22

According Caliber
Calibers in cartridges in inches and their approximate equivalent in mm and
use:

Inches MM.
Cal. .22 about 5.59 mm- used in revolver, pistol and rifles
Cal. .25 about 6.35 mm- used in pistols and rifles.
Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm- (Mauser) – for carbines and other rifles
Cal. .30 about 7.63 mm (luger)
Cal. .32 about 7.65 mm for automatic pistols and revolvers
Cal. .38 about 9 mm- used for pistols
Cal. .35 used in magnum .357 revolvers
Cal. .45 about 11 mm – used in automatic pistols
Cal. .50 used in .50 cal. Machine gun

Shotgun Cartridge - It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting

of the pellets, primer, case, wads and gun powder.

Gauge of Shotgun - Compared with other types of firearms, shotgun has

very unique characteristics in terms of its diameter designation both for its
firearm and cartridge use. The unit of measurement used in shotgun is
expressed in Gauge. This is determined by the number of solid lead balls of
pure lead, each with diameter of the barrel that can be prepared from one
pound of lead. At present the 10-gauge shotgun is considered with the biggest
diameter while the .410 as the smallest one. Listed below are the equivalents of
diameter in gauge to inch.
Gauge Inch
10 .775 inch
12 .729 inch
16 .670 inch
20 .615 inch
28 .550 inch
.410 .410 inch

Types of Shots
1. Soft or Drop Shots = made by pure or nearly pure lead, to which a small
amount of arsenic has been added to make it take on the form of a spherical
drop as it falls down the shot tower. This type is easy to deformed or flattened,
loose their velocity quicker, low penetrating power and string out more.
2. Chilled or Hard Shot = is a type of shot with a small amount of antimony
mixed with lead to increase hardness. It does not deform easily, better
patterns, less string and more uniform velocity and penetration.
3. Coated or Plated Shot = also called as “lubaloy” shot. A chilled shot coated
with thin copper through electroplating design for greater strength and
elasticity, great resistance to deformation and leading and better pattern.
Buck Shot = a large size lead shot for used in shotgun

Bullets - The word “Bullet” was derived from French word “Boullette” which
means a small ball. This term is generally used when we are referring to
projectile fired from any small arms, which has a variety of form, especially
during the earlier history. In a more technical sense, bullet refers to a metallic
or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearm it is sometimes called
as shots or slugs. Bullets have various types depending upon their specific
nature and purpose. In general bullet can be classified as either Lead or
Jacketed.

22
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 23

General Types of Bullets

1. Lead Type – is a type of a bullet that is basically composed of
lead metal. Its used was due to its density; having a good weight is a small size
and easy for casting.
2. Jacketed Type – Is a type of bullet consisting of the regular
lead core, coated with a copper alloy in order to prevent lead
Fouling of the barrel and is generally used in pistols and other high power
guns.

According to their Maximum Effect to their targets

Ball Type – Is a type of bullet, which is intended for anti-personnel and general
use.
Armor piercing – is a type of military bullet designed to penetrate light steel
armor. Its mechanical construction makes it capable of penetrating through
some light vehicles.
Explosive Bullet - Is a small bullet containing a charge of explosive, which will
detonate on impact.
Incendiary Bullet –Type of military bullet used to cause fire in a target,
generally designed to use by aircraft armament in order for the fuel tanks to
ignite.
Tracer Bullet – a type of military bullet capable of leaving visible marks or
traces while in flight giving the gunner the chance to observe the strike of the
shot or make adjustments in the event of a miss

Cartridge Case is the metallic or non-metallic tabular container usually of

brass (70% copper and 30% zinc) designed to unite the bullet, primer and the
gunpowder into one unit. It is also known as shell or casing.

Functions of the Cartridge Case

1. It locates the bullet properly relative to the bore of the firearm.
2. It is used to carry the means of ignition.
3. It provides gas seals at the breech against an unwanted escape of propellant
gas upon firing.
4. Serves as waterproof container for the propellant or powder charge.
5. Acts as the insulator between the propellant and the hot walls of the
chamber in a rapid firing of firearms.

Parts of the Cartridge Case

1. Base= the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head
stamp marking on the base of the shell containing the caliber, manufacturer
and in some cases including the date, trade name, and batch number.
2. Rim= is the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of
the cartridge to chamber.
3. Extracting grooves= is the circular groove near the rim of the shell
designed for automatic withdrawal of the case from the chamber.
4. Primer Pocket=is that part of the shell which provides the means for the
primer to be put in the central position. Its function is extended to: (a) hold the
primer in place; (b) to provide means to prevent the escape of gas; (c) to provide
solid support for primer anvil.
5. Body= is the cylindrical part of the shell which house the gunpowder.
6. Shoulder= that part of the cartridge case which support the neck of the
cartridge which is evident in a bottleneck type.
7. Cannelure= is the cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the cartridge
case designed to secure the shell to the chamber as well as prevent bullet from
being push down to the powder charge. In some instance it is even being
utilized for identification.
8. Neck= is that part of the shell which is actually occupied by the bullet. This
is obvious in a bottleneck type of shell but not with the straight type.

23
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 24

9. Crimp= is the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed for two
purposes: One (1) is to hold the bullet and prevent it from being pull out from
the shell and Two (2) to offers resistance to the bullet out of the neck to ensure
burning of the gun powder.
10. Vent or Flash hole= is the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket as the
passage way for the priming mixture to impart an ignition to the propellant
charge.

Primer (also called CAP) is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center
fire type, containing a highly sensitive chemical compound that would easily
ignite or bursts into flame when struck by the firing pin. It may either be
Berdan or Boxer type. It is also known as the percussion cup. The Berdan is a
type of primer construction, which was designed in 1860s by Colonel Hiram S.
Berdan of the U.S Army Ordinance Department. The Boxer on the other hand,
was developed by Col. Edward M. Boxer of the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich
Arsenal in the year 1866

Parts of the Primer

1. Primer Cup= is the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming
mixture, the disc and the anvil.
2. Priming Mixture= is the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites
by the mechanical blow of the firing pin. It is also called as percussion powder.
3. Anvil= Is that portion of the primer which provides solid support and
absorbs the blow of the firing pin causing friction that would initiates ignition.
4. Disc= Is a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in
order to protect it from moisture attack.

Gunpowder (also called as propellant or Power Charge) is that mixture of

chemicals of various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of
its expansive force of gas when burned. Two of the most popular individuals
whose name is always attached to gunpowder discovery were Roger Bacon and
Berthold Schwartz. Roger Bacon, (1242 A.D.) a Franciscan monk, who wrote
the ---“De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae” (On the Marvelous Power of Art
and Nature), including an anagram. Berthold Schwartz (whose real name was
Constantin Anklitzen), a mysterious monk of Freiburg, who according to
legend that is supported by an engraving dated 1643, while experimenting on
some powder in a cast iron vessel, he ignited a charge and thus blew off the lid,
and from this deduced the principle of containing a charge in a tube and
propelling a shot (Encyclopedia of ammunition).

The Black Powder - Black powder, the oldest known explosive, was initially
made from saltpeter (75%), charcoal (15%) and sulfur (10%). The problems in
the used of black powder was later remedied with the introduction of the
smokeless powder. According to Harrison, Captain E. Schultze of the Prussian
Army, made the 1st successful used of smokeless powder in shotgun in the year
1864. (Although historically nitroglycerine compound was first discovered in
1846). The basic ingredient used for smokeless powder is a nitrocellulose that
was first produced by adding a nitric acid to cellulose fiber.

Later, M. Vieille of French developed the first smokeless powder for riffle in
the year 1884 and named it “poudre B” taken after Gen. Boulanger’s name. In
1887, Alfred Nobel invented a smokeless powder with nitroglycerine ( 40%0 and
nitrocellulose (60%) as the main composition and called it “Ballistite”. In Great
Britain, they utilized picrid acid in addition to cellulose powder which they
called “Lyddite” and in germany TNT (Tri-nitrololeune ) was the one used, more
powerful than picric acid but much difficult to detonate. Also In the year 1889,
Prof. Abel, a British War dept. Chemist developed “Cordite” a smokeless powder
with same composition as Nobel in the form of cords or sticks. And in early

24
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 25

1890’s smokeless powder had replaced black powder and became uniformly
used worldwide by the year 1900.

Firearms Characteristics
Stages in the manufacture of barrel
A. Drilling
B. Reaming
C. Rifling - This process necessary for the making of the helical groves inside
the barrel and such can be performed in any of the following methods:
1. Hook – cutter system (cutter)
2. Scrape – cutter system (scraper)
3. Broaching system – (broach)
4. Button – system (button)
D. Lapped

The Breech face - Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech face also
bears with it the same importance.

Types of Characteristics in Firearms

A. Class Characteristics = are those properties or attributes of a firearms
which can be determined even before the manufacture of the gun. This is true
for such characteristics are considered to be a manufacture’s designs or
specifications and security.

Class Characteristics of Firearms

1. Bore diameter (caliber or gauge) it is diameter to which the bore was
reamed. The distance measured between two opposite lands inside the bore in
a hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In most express in either caliber in
inch or in millimeters.
2. Number of lands and grooves = the number of lands an grooves inside the
barrel of a given firearm are always the same or equal. It may run from 3 to 8,
but the most in the modern firearm are five and six.
Lands = are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.
Grooves = are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.
3. Width of the lands = is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun,
grooves, width and number. The lands are the remainders of the circumference
after subtracting all the grooves width.
4. Width of the Grooves = is measured as the shortest distance between the
two dies or edge of a grooves.
5. Direction of Twist = rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to
the left or to the right which cause bullet to rotate as it passes through the
bore, in order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.
6. Pitch of Rifling = it is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves.
It refers to the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to make
a complete turn inside the barrel.
7. Depth of the Grooves = the groove’s depth if measured on a radius of the
bore. Grooves are usually few thousandths of an inch deep, which equal to the
height of the lands.

B. Individual Characteristics = are meant for those characteristics which are

being determined only after the firearm was already been manufactured. They
are the product of machine imperfections and some later due to the used of the
firearms.

Types of Rifling
1. Steyer Type= is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right
twist and the width of the lands grooves. (4 RG=L)

25
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 26

2. Carbine Type = rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of
the grooves is two (2) times the width of the lands (4RG2X).
3. Smith and Wesson = rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right hand twist ,
the width of the land and grooves are equal. (5RG=L)
4. Colt = type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of
the grooves is twice (2) the width of the lands. (6LG2X)
5. Browning = type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the
width of the grooves is twice the width of the lands. (6RG2X)
6. Webley = Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the
width of the groove is three time larger than the boarder of the lands. (7RG3X)
7. Winchester = Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the
width of the grooves is three time larger the width of the lands.

Individual Characteristics in Firearms - Individual Characteristics in

firearms are usually determined by the test firing which will give us both the
test bullet and the test shell that will show the individuality of its property
based on the left marks on every bullet and shell fired from it. Such marks are
so minute that the use of the lens with high magnification is necessary to
discover individuality.

Marks found on Fired Bullets

1. Land Marks = marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact to the
elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the firearm. It appears as slight
depressions or scratches the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
2. Groove Marks = marks found on a fired bullet caused by the grooves of the
barrel which is the same number as that of the landmarks.
3. Skid Marks = Marks that are generally found on fired bullet from a revolver.
It is more or less located at the anterior portion of the fired bullet due to its
forward movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before it initially
rotates. Groove
4. Stripping Marks = marks found on those bullet fired fromMark a “loose-fit”
barrel wherein the rifling are already been badly worn-out.
Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be cause by either chemical reaction
brought about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion)
5. Shaving Marks = marks commonly found on bullet fired from a revolver
cause by its forward movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned to the
cylinder.
6. Slippage Marks = marks found on fired bullets passing through either on
oily or oversize barrel.

Marks found on Fired Shells

1. Firing Pin Mark = mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge
case more specifically near center of the primer cup in a center fire cartridge or
at the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge. Considered as one of the most
important marks for identification of firearms using fired shell.
2. Breech Face Mark = mark found at the base portion of the shell cause by
backward movement to the breech face of the block of the firearm.
3. Extractor Mark = mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the fired
cartridge case. Cause by its withdrawal from the chamber.
4. Ejector mark = mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an
automatic firearms. It is located near the rim of the case cause by the throwing
of shell from the firearm to the area of shooting.
5. Shearing Mark = sometimes called “Secondary Firing Pin mark” found in
the primer near the firing pin mark.
6. Magazine Lip Mark = marking found at the two sides of the rim cause by
the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for
firing.

26
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 27

7. Chamber Mark = mark mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge
case cause by the irregularities of nips inside the walls of the chamber. In fired
cartridge case either of the Firing pin mark and the Breech face marks can be
used as basis for identification, in the absence or none use of these two, both
the ejector and extractor marks can be utilized as secondary choice.

Problems in Forensic Ballistics

1. Given a fired bullet to determine the caliber, type; make of firearm from
which it was fired.
2. Given a fired shell to determine the caliber, type, and make of firearm from
which it was fired.
3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not
the fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the
fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
5. Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired
from one and the same firearm.
6. Given two or more fired shell/cartridge case, to determine whether or not
they were fired from one and the same firearm.

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

Document - Any material that contains a mark symbol or sign, either visible,
partially visible or invisible that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning
or a message to someone. It is any written statement by which a right is
established or an obligation extinguished. (People vs. Moreno, C.A., 38 O.G.
119)

Two Categories of Document

1. Questioned Document – Document to which an issue has been raised or
which is under scrutiny. The focal point of the examination and to which the
document examiner relies as to the extent of the problem. (also referred to as
disputed document).
2. Standard Document – Document in which the origin is known can be
proven and can legally be used as sample to compare with other things is
questioned.

Types of Standards
a. Collected/Procured Std. – Standard specimen executed in the regular
course of man’s activity or that which are executed on the day to day writing
activity.
b. Requested/Dictated (Post litel motam std.) – a Standard document which
are executed upon request, they are prepare at one time.

Contemporary document = documents which are not more than five (5) years
before or after.

Legal Classification of Documents:

Public Document = a document created, executed or issued by a public official
in response to the exigencies of the public service, or in the execution of which
a public official intervened.
= is any instrument authorized by a notary public or a competent public
official, with the solemnities required by law ( Cacnio , et.al. vs. Baens, 5 Phil.
724).

27
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 28

Official Document = a document which is issued by a public official in the

exercise of the functions of his office. Am official document is also a public
document as a larger classification.

Private Document = A deed or instrument executed by a private person

without the intervention of a notary public or other person legally authorized,
by which documents, some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or set
forth. (US Vs. Orera, 11 Phil 596) e.g. Theater Ticket.

Commercial Document = any document defined and regulated by the Code of

Commerce ( People Vs. Co Beng, C.A. 40 OG 1913) or any other commercial
law.

Classes of Questioned Documents:

1. Document with questioned Signature (most common).
2. Document containing fraudulent alteration (Any form of changes either an
addition or deletion to the contents of a document).
3. Holograph Document – a document that is completely written and signed
by one person
4. Document questioned as to the material used in their production.
5. Documents questioned as to their age or date.
6. Documents involving typewriting
7. Document which may identify a person through handwriting
8. Genuine documents erroneously or fraudulently attacked or disputed.
9. Documents containing printing or type prints.

Writings and Signature:

System of Writing – is the combination of the basic shape and designs of
letter and the writing movement which was taught in school.
Copy book form – is an illustration of the basic designs of letters that is
fundamental to the writing system.
Writing movement – refers to factors relative to the motion of the pen such as,
pressure, rhythm, pen lifting, etc.
Writing – is the visible result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a
whole or a combination of certain forms which are the very visible result of
mental and muscular habits acquired by long continued painstaking effort.
Handwriting – is a visible effect of bodily movement which is an almost
unconscious expressions of fixed muscular habits, reacting from fixed mental
impression of certain ideas associated with script form.
Writing Habits – refers to any repeated elements of once handwriting which
serves as an identifying characteristics.
Significant Writing Habits – elements of one’s writing that are sufficiently
unique and well fixed to serve as a strong basis of individuality.
Slant = refers to the relative degree of writing inclination relative to the
baseline.
Baseline = an imaginary or straight line in which the writing rest.
Types of Handwritings
1. Cursive – Writing in which the letters are for the most part joined together.
2. Hand lettering – refers to writing characterized by a disconnected style.
3. Natural Writing – a specimen of writing that is executed normally and
without any attempt of altering its usual writing habits.
4. Disguised – a specimen of writing executed deliberately with an attempt of
changing its usual writing habits in the hope of hiding one’s identity.
5. Guided/assisted – a specimen of writing executed while the writer’s hand is
at steadied. Usually employed by beginners in writing.

Signature – a name of person signed by himself on a document as a sign of

acknowledgement.

28
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 29

Model signature – genuine signature which has been used in preparing a

simulated or traced forgery.
Evidential Signature – specimen signature which was executed in particular
date, particular time and place, under a particular writer’s condition and for a
particular purpose.

Classes of Signature
Formal or complete – used in signing very important document
Informal or cursory – used for routine document
Careless scribble – used for not so important document such as delivery of mail
or receipt of purchase equipment etc.

Forgery – is an act of falsifying or counterfeiting any treasure or bank notes,

paper bills or any documents which are payable to the bearer.
- Is an act of simulating or tracing somebody’s signature without the
latter’s consent for profit.

Major types of Forgery

1. Simple forgery – a forges signature where no attempt has been made to
make a copy or facsimile of the genuine writing of a person purported to sign
the document. Also known as spurious signature
2. Simulated or Copied forgery – a forged signature which resembles the
genuine signature written in free-hand. Considered as the most skillful type
of forgery.
3. Traced Forgery – forged signature which closely resembles the genuine
made by some tracing process or outline form.

Methods of tracing
Carbon outlines process – used of carbon paper.
Indention process- used of considerable pressure, Canal-like process.
Projection or transmitted light process- used of light from the back or bottom.
Laser method – used of hologram.

CHARACTERISTICS IN WRITING:
Characteristics – refers to any property, marks or elements which distinguish.
Also referred to as identifying details.

Types of characteristics:
1. Class Characteristics – characteristics or properties which are common or
which can be found in the specimen writing of other person. Gross
characteristics.
2. Individual Characteristics – characteristics which are highly personal or
peculiar. That which is unlikely to occur in other’s handwriting.

Elements of Forms in Writing:

1. Arc – the rounded inner part of an upper curve, bend or crook,
2. Beard – is an introductory up and down strokes found in some capital
letters. Also called as double hitch.
3. Blunt – is a part of a stroke characterized by an abrupt beginning or end at
which the pen does not creates a diminishing strokes.
4. Buckle Knot is a horizontal or loop strokes used to complete letters A, H, F
and D.
5. Central Part – is the body of the letter. Characterized by a small rounded
or circular strokes.
6. Ductus-link, Ductus-broken- refers to the connection between letters,
either joined or disconnected.
7. Eyelet/ eye loop – refers to small oblong strokes.

29
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 30

8. Hitch – Introductory backward strokes found in most capital letters and in

some small letters.
9. Hiatus - an obvious gap between letters.
10. Humps – is the outer portion of an upper curve bend or crook, (see arc)
11. Knob – is a tiny pool of an ink at the beginning or ending strokes.
12. Loop – is an oblong strokes
13. Stem/shank/staff – is considered as the backbone of the letter
characterized by a long downward strokes
14. Initial/terminal Spur – a long running initial or terminal strokes.
15. Through – refers to any garland form of a letter strokes
16. Whirl – is the long upward strokes usually found opposite the stem

Embellishments – added strokes that serves as an ornamental or flourish to

the design of the letters. They considered unnecessary to the legibility of the
writing.
Diacritics = strokes added to complete certain letters. They are necessary to
the legibility of the letters.
Writing Movement – refers to all factors relative to the motion of the pen.

Line Quality – is the visible records in the written strokes of the basic
movements and manner of holding instrument. It is derived from a
combination of factors, including writing skill, speed, and rhythm, freedom of
movement, shading and pen emphasis.

Types of movement:
1. Finger (used by beginners)
2. Hand (wrist serves as the point of pivotal & of limited freedom)
3. Forearm (most skillful type of movement)
4. Whole arm (used for ornamental or large writings)

Elements of Writing Movement

Pen pressure – is the average or usual pressure applied in the writing.
Pen Emphasis – is the act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper
surface with an increase in speed.
Rhythm – is the harmonious or balance recurrence of strokes or impulses.
Skills – refers to the degree of writer’s proficiency in writing
Speed – cannot be measured precisely from the finished handwriting but it can
be interpreted in broad term as to either fast, slow or moderate.
Pen-lift – an interruption is strokes caused by sudden removal of the writing
instrument from the paper surface.
Shading – refers to the more obvious increase in the width of the letter strokes.
Pen Position – is the relative location of the pen in relation to the paper
surface.
Pen scope – represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest.
Retracing or retraced – is the strokes which goes back over another writing
strokes that is slightly to occur in other’s writing.
Retouching or patching – is a stroke, which goes back over a defective portion
of a writing to repair or correct an error.

Factors that affects writing characteristics:

1. Natural Variations – is the usual or normal deviation found in a repeated
specimen of an individual’s handwriting or in the product of any typewriter.
2. Transitory Change – are meant to those changes which only continue to
exist while the basic cause of the deterioration is still affecting the writer, once
the such cause has been removed from the writer, the writing will reverts in its
normal form.
3. Tremor – is the weakening of the strokes characterized by wavering or
shaky strokes.

30
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 31

a. Genuine Tremor
a.1. Weakness of sickness
a.2 Old age
a.3. Illiteracy (lack of skills)

b. Tremor of Fraud
4. Writing Conditions – refers to all factors affecting the over-all quality of
writing such as the writer’s condition under which the writing was prepared.

5. Writing instrument
a. Ball point pen (John Loud) consisting of a ball bearing at the point of
the pen.
b. Fountain pen (Lewis Watterman) consisting of pen nib point.
c. Fiber pen (originally designed by Hongkong)

Miscellaneous Document Problem

1. Detection of Alteration
Alteration - refers to any form of changes either an addition or a deletion to
the original content of the document which is not a part of its original
preparation.
2. Decipherment of Erased Writings
Erasure – refers to removal of a writings or any part of a document either by
mechanical or chemical process.
Mechanical Erasure – done by means of abrasive method through rubbing or
scrapping.
Chemical Erasure – done with the aid or use of bleaching agent called
ink eradicator.
Usually examined with the aid or fuming, transmitted light, oblique light
and ultra-violet light examination.
3. Decipherment of Obliterated writing
Obliteration – is the process of smearing over an original writing to make it
undecipherable or illegible. Done with the used of superimposing inks.
Usually examined with the used of Infra-red light.
4. Examination of Charred Document and water soaked document
Charred Document – refers to partly burned or brittle document.
Decipherment is usually accomplished with the used of infra-red light
examination.
5. Development of Invisible writing
Invisible writing – writing that has no readily visible ink strokes. Made by
Sympathetic inks such as acids, juice and others. They are possible of
development   depending on the ink used. Methods of development can be by
heat. Water, chemical fuming or by ultra-violet light process.
6. Decipherment of Contract writing
Contact writing – refers to partially visible ink strokes cause by sudden
contact between a sheets of paper with another paper containing fresh ink.
Can be enhanced through fuming or ultra-violet light process.

EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITING
Definition of Terms:
1. Typeface – is the printing surface of the type block in a conventional
typewriter. In electric typewriter it is the printing surface of the rotating head
sphere.
2. Typeface defect – any form of peculiarity of the type printing caused by
actual damage to the typeface metal or which maybe an abnormality in its
printing condition.
3. Characters – in connection to typewriting, it is used to include letters,
symbols, numerals      or points of punctuation.

31
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 32

4. Pica typeface – type face impression ordinarily spaced ten (10) characters
to the      horizontal inch.
5. Elite typeface – type face impression ordinarily spaced twelve (12)
characters to the horizontal inch.
6. Proportional spacing machine – a typewriter with a type letter spacing
similar to the type spacing of conventional printed in which all letters are
allotted horizontal in conformity with their relative widths.
7. Transitory Defects – is an identifying typewriter characteristic which can be
eliminated by simply cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon.
8. Permanent Defects – any identifying typewriting characteristics of the type
face which      cannot be corrected by simply cleaning the machine or replacing
the ribbon.
9. Mal alignment or alignment defects – refers to defect in the printing
condition of the type character in which the letters are printed either at the top
or bottom, left or right of inclined from its proper position.

Principal technique utilized in typewriting identification

1. Measure the type face pitch
2. Verify the type size and design (W-G-T)
3. Look for individual type face defects

Typeface Defects
1. Vertical mal alignment – a character printing above or below of its proper
position.
2. Horizontal mal alignment – an alignment defect in which the characters are
printed to the left or right of its proper position.
3. Twisted letters – letters and characters are designed to be printed at a
certain angle to the baseline. Once letters leans to the left or right of its proper
position such is called twisted letters.
4. Off-its-feet – is a condition of the type face printing at which then character
outline is not equally printed that is the printing is heavier in one side than the
remainder of the outline of the character.
5. Rebound – typeface defect in which a character prints a double impression
with the lighter one slightly off-set to the right or left.
6. Actual breakage – any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to
the type face metal.
7. Clogged type face (dirty) – is a typeface defects characterized by dirty prints
due to constant used without cleaning of the type bar or due to use of new
carbon. These are common in closed letter outline such as o, a, p, g etc.

LIE DETECTION AND INTERROGATION

Polygraphy – is scientific methods of detecting deception done with the aid of a

polygraph machine.

Polygraph = (derived from the Greek words Poly) = many or several and Graph
= (writing chart) is a scientific instrument capable of recording simultaneously
changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and skin resistance as
indicative of emotional disturbance especially of a lying subject when being
questioned. Thomas Jefferson (first man to use the word “polygraph”)

Polygraph machine is a sensitive machine which is likened or compared to an

X-ray, which requires proper interpretation for validation and its accuracy is
said to be directly proportional to the knowledge, skills, education, desire,
competency and integrity of the operator. Hence, the attitude of “let’s put them
on the lie box” should be firmly discouraged. There are three fundamental
bases on the polygraph test and they are:

32
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 33

1. Mechanical Leg basic Premise = polygraph is capable of making graphic

record containing reliable information regarding physiological responses of the
subject.
2. Physiological Leg basic Premise = that among the physiological responses
that may be recorded are those that automatically occur only following the
stimulation of specific nervous component system.
3. Psychological Leg Basic Premise = states that specific nervous system
component whose stimulation can thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the
involuntary and emotional processes of the individual who is continuously
attempting concealment of deception especially if that individual has something
at stake and the prevailing circumstances lead him to believe that exposure to
deception is quite possible although undesirable.

Definition of terms
1. Admission = is a statement of facts, partial acknowledgement of guilt and
usually given with some justification or exemplification in admitting.
2. Confession = direct acknowledgement of guilt or a statement of guilt.
3. Deception = is the act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by
lying.
4. Diastolic blood pressure = refers to the downward blood pressure
representing the low pressure to the closing of the valves and heart relaxed.
5. Diacritic notch = refers to the short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing
located at the middle of the diastolic stem.
6. Electro dermal response = it refers to human body phenomenon in which
the skin changes resistance electrically upon the application of certain external
stimuli. Also referred to a Psycho galvanic skin reflex or galvanic skin response.
7. Fear= it refers to an emotional response to specific danger that appears to
be beyond a persons defensive power.
8. Environment = is the sum total of the dissimulation that a person acquired
from the time he was conceived and his exposure to his surroundings.
9. Heredity = is the transmission of physical and mental traits of the parents
to their offspring through the genes.
10. Interview = simple questioning of one who is willing and cooperative.
11. Interrogation = forceful questioning of a person who is reluctant to
divulge information.
12. Lying = is the act of uttering or conveying falsehood or creating a false or
misleading impression with the intention of affecting wrongfully.
13. Normal response = refers to any activity or inhibition of a previous
activity of an organism or part of the organism resulting from stimulation.
14. Ordeal = refers to the oldest form of crime detection done by subjecting a
subject to an obstacle or trial and sometimes even involving third degree.
15. Specific response = refers to the response given by the subject which
considered a deviation from the normal tracing or norms of the subject.
16. Stimulus = refers to any force or motion coming from the environment
and which reach an organism has the tendency to arouse.
17. Systolic Blood pressure = the upward blood pressure as the apex of the
curve caused by the contraction of the heart, valves are open and blood is
rushing into the arteries.

Ayur Vida = a Hindu book of science and health around 500B.C. Considered
as an earliest known reference to a method of detecting deception.

Early methods of Detecting Deception

Trial by Combat - One of the ancient practices of detecting deception whereby
an accuser will fight against the accused or will hire a champion to fight the
accused in a duel, whosoever lost the duel, will be adjudged guilty.

Methods of Ordeal

33
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 34

Red hot Iron Ordeal (Accused touch his tongue to an extremely hot metal
for nine (9) times.)
Boiling Water Ordeal (Practice by Borotso Native in Bengal India)
Balance Ordeal
Rice Chewing Ordeal
The red Water Ordeal
The Donkey’s tail ordeal
The ordeal of the axe

Scientific Methods of Detecting Deception

1. Polygraphy test
= aid and not a substitute or replacement for investigation.
= not admissible in court to prove the guilt of the subject.
= cannot be conducted if insufficient amount of information were gathered.
= minors, mentally-ill or retarded are exempted.
= cannot be conducted to unfit subject.
= polygraph machine is not a lie detector machine.
= the accuracy of the machine is directly proportion to the credibility of the
examiner.
= cannot be used for diagnostic purposes.

2. Use of Alcoholic Beverages

= the subject is made to drink hard liquor in such a mount that would make
him lose control or inhibitions.
= information gathered through this method is not admissible in court.

3. Narco-Analysis Test/Administration of Truth Serum

= use of narcotic or anesthetic drug.
= drugs injected hypodermically or intravenously.
= dangerous and not admissible.

4. Word Association Test

= group of words, objects or photographs will be presented.
= time pressure.

This was first devised by F. Galton in 1870 and later was modified and
improved by others such as Munsterberg, Oreland, Luria and Jung. In the
Galton’s technique there are two main criteria for detecting indications of
deception and these are: (1) Incriminating answer words, and (2) Delayed
answer.

5. Use of Hypnotism
= information gathered through this method is also not admissible in court.

Development of the Polygraph

A. Cardiosphygmograph
a. Cesare Lombroso (1895) - Credited to be the first to conceive the idea of
utilizing scientific lie detection
b. Angelo Mosso (1895) - Utilized a scientific cradle and focus on the
importance of fear as a strong influence to deception
c. William M. Marston (1915) - He made used of a sphygmomanometer
and focus on the importance of the Systolic Blood pressure. He also devised
the discontinuous technique in questioning.
d. John A. Larson (1921) - Devised the so-called “Bread Lie Detector”, a
scientific instrument capable of simultaneously recording changes in blood
pressure, pulse beat and respiration.
B. Galvanograph

34
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 35

a. Sticker - Worked on the galvanograph component and study the

influence of the sweat glands to skin resistance.
b. Veraguth - Formulated the term Psycho-galvanic skin reflex following the
study of sticker
c. Richard O. Arthur - The person who developed a polygraph machine
with two galvanic skin resistances.

C. Pneumograph
a. Vittorio Bennussi - Focus on the formulation of the Inhalation and
Exhalation ratio.
B. Harold Burtt - Considered respiration as a weak basis in determining
deception and incorporate the systolic blood pressure to respiration.

D. Kymograph
Leonarde Keeler - Developed the kymograph machine and the Keeler’s
Polygraph in the year 1926 as one of the great advancement to the
development of the polygraph machine.

OTHER PERSONALITIES:
John E. Reid – Developed the Reid Polygraph with an incorporation of
muscular resistance compare to the Keelers and the Stoelting. Also
developed the SAT test and Control

Question Test.
Francis Galton = Formulated the Word Association test.
Cleve Backster = Formulated the Numerical Scoring on the polygraph chart
and standardizing quantitative polygraph technique.
Sir James Mackenzie = a heart specialist who published in two British journal
the machine he used in his work and named it “INK POLYGRAPH”

The Major Components and its Parts:

The Polygraph machine is basically composed of three major components
serving as the detecting mechanism and five major sections by adding
kymograph component and pen and inking system to serve as the recording
mechanism.

Pneumograph – designed to detect changes in respiration of the subject

consisting of the Chest and the Abdominal Assembly with sub part:
Rubber Convoluted Tube – a 10 inches corrugated rubber attached to the body
of the subject.
Beaded Chair – used to lock the rubber convoluted tube.
Recording pen unit – consisting of two 5 inches recording pen
Resonance Control Unit
Centering knob
Sensitivity knob

Cardiosphygmograph – Designed to detect changes in blood pressure and

pulse beat of the subject
Blood pressure Cuff – attached to the upper right arm of the subject, above the
brachial artery.
Sphygmomanometer – used to indicate the amount of air pressure inflated to
the system. Usually about 60 mm of mercury for male subject.
Resonance Control Unit
Recording pen unit – five (5) inches length
Air Pump – designed to supply air to the system

Galvanograph – to detect changes in skin resistance of the subject.

Finger Electrode Assembly consists of:

35
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 36

A.1 finger electrode plate and retainer bond – attached to the left index and
ring finger of the subject.
A.2 connecting plug – designed to attached the system to the machine
Recording pen unit – usually 7 inches
Amplifier Unit – designed to support the galvanometer in converting electrical
to mechanical current.

Kymograph – serves as the paper feed mechanism of the polygraph machine.

The one that records the different tracing by driving the paper out under a
recording pen unit.
Chart – (approximately 100 ft.) rolled graph paper composed of twelve division
in one minutes run designed to measure the rate of various body functioning.
Cutter bar = used to cut the paper at the end of the test
Rubber roller – the one responsible for pulling the paper out of the machine.
Pen table = flat portion where the pen write on the chart.
Paper rail guide – serves as the security for the unnecessary movement of the
chart paper or to ensure the paper’s forward movement without shaking.
Synchronous motor = to run the chart paper at the uniform rate speed
regardless of the voltage change.

Pen and inking system = the one that provides for the permanent record of
the test.

Stages in the Conduct of the Polygraph Test:

Initial Interview - Conducted by an investigator handling the case, designed

for the obtaining of pertinent information necessary for the conduct of the test.
This is falling short of the basic process of investigation. All information
gathered by the investigator will be copied furnished to the investigator. As a
rule no polygraph test can be conducted if there is insufficient amount of data
gathered.

1. Pre test Interview - An interview conducted by the polygraph

examiner designed to prepare or condition the subject for the actual test. It
usually last for about 20 – 30 minutes. There are four basic things being
undertaken in this stage.
a. Informing the subject of His Basic Constitutional Rights
a.1 Right to remain silent
a.2 Right to be informed of the nature and the cause of his accusation
a.3 Right to council
a.4 Right against self-incrimination
Taking of the subject consent, taking of the subject personal data sheet,

Determining the subject physical, mental and psychological suitability to

undergo the test:
1 the subject should stop from smoking at least 2 hours prior to  the test
2 the subject should avoid taking drugs at least 12 hrs before the test
3 the subject if female should not be: pregnant, having       menstruation or
not wearing tight shirt or girdle.
4 the subject should not be hungry
5 the subject should not be physically or emotional abuse
6 the subject should not be highly nervous. Etc.

2. Actual Test - Is the actual conduct of the test administered by a polygraph

examiner:
Condition of the room: It should be spacious for two, well lighted, well
ventilated, Sound Proof and not decorated.

36
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 37

3. Post-test Interview or Interrogation

Is an interview or an interrogation administered by a polygraph examiner after
the test designed to obtain confession or admission by the subject. An
interview is conducted when the subject indicates an innocent response and
very cooperative to the examiner. An interrogation is conducted when the
subject shows sign of deception and being uncooperative to open information.

Types of Reaction
Internal Reaction – reaction of the internal organs which may not be readily
noticeable.
External Reaction – reaction of an individual which are observable and which
can either be:
Facial or Postural

General Rules in formulating Test Questions:

Questions must be simple and direct
They must not involve legal terminologies
They must be as simple and as short as possible
Answerable by Yes or No.
They must not be in a form of accusatorial.
Their meaning must be clear and they must be phrased in a language that the
subject can easily understand.
They must never contain inference which presupposes knowledge on the part
of the subject.
They must refer to one offense only
They must refer to one element of the offense.
They must not contain inference to ones religion, race or belief.

Types of Questions
Irrelevant – questions pertaining to the basic background of the subject and
are generally not related to the case in issue but are designed to obtain or
established the individual norms of the subject. = answerable by “yes”. =
designed to absorb the initial response as to the question sequence commence
and to produce little or no emotion change in the subjects normal reaction
under testing condition.

Relevant = the primary of key questions asked by the examiner in order to

resolve specific subject matter. =questions related to the issue which may
either be:

Strong Relevant – directly proving the guilt of the subject questions with
intense and specific relation to the crime or problem being considered.
Constructed to test for direct involvement only and specifically to produce
emotional response in guilty subject.

Weak Relevant – indirectly proving the guilt of the subject and is further sub-
divided into three:
1 Knowledge – questions given for the purposes of determining information
known or the subject possess.
2 Evidence Connecting – designed to obtain link between the subject and the
crime.
3 Sacrifice – questions designed to determine truthfulness of the subject.

Control Questions – questions that either relevant or irrelevant designed to

established response from an innocent subject. Further classified into primary
based on a known lie and secondary control question.

Types of Test

37
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 38

General Question Test = consist of series of relevant and irrelevant questions

in a planned order.
Peak of Tension test = consist of only one relevant and a series of irrelevant
questions. = resemble, in every general way, the card test, for it consist
essentially of the asking of a series of question in which only one has any
bearing upon the matter under investigation. = padding questions before the
after the relevant questions.
Card test = the subject is presented with seven (7) previously numbered cards
face down. = he will be instructed to take one, look at it and return it with the
rest of the cards.
= the examiner will shuffle the cards and each card will be shown to him, with
the instruction that he will answer “NO” to all cards , even if the one being
shown to him is the one he has seen earlier.
Guilt Complex Test = used primarily for overly responsive subjects.
= a totally fictitious incident but a similar nature to the matter being
investigated and make him believe it is real. The purpose is to compare the
response with those responses made concerning the actual matter under
investigation.
Silent Answer test = Subject is instructed not to give any verbal answer; the
subject will only answer in his mind.
Yes test
No test
Guilt complex test
Mixed test = consist essentially of an arrangement of the first and third test
questioned. Administered response on earlier test or to compare the degree of
reaction between relevant and control questions.

FORENSIC MEDICINE

Law- defined as a rule of conduct, just and obligatory, land down by legitimate
authority for the common observance and benefit.
Medicine- A science and art of dealing with prevention, cure and alleviation of
disease. It is that part of science and art of restoring and preserving health.
Legal- Refers to anything conformable to the letters or rules of law as it is
administered by the court.
Jurisprudence- A science of giving wise interpretation of the Laws.
Legal Medicine = is that branch of medicine which deals with the application
of medical knowledge to the purposes of law and in the administration of
justice.
Forensic Medicine = use of medical science to elucidate legal problems in
general without specific reference or application to a particular case. It
encompasses a variety of fields in forensic science such as pathology,
anthropology, odontology, toxicology, entomology, and others.
Medical Jurisprudence = a branch of law which concerns with the aspects of
law and legal concepts to medical practice. It includes rights, duties, and
liabilities of physician, patient and health institution.

Medico-Legal Cases
1. Injuries or deaths involving persons who have no means of being
identified.
2. Persons pronounced as “dead on arrival”
3. Death under the following circumstances:
Death occurring within twenty-four (24 hrs) of admission when the clinical
cause of death is unknown or indeterminate; Unexpected sudden death
especially when the deceased was in apparent good health; Death due to
natural diseases but associated with physical evidence suspicious of foul play;

38
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 39

Death as a result of violence, accident, suicide or poisoning; and Death due to

improper or negligent act of another persons.
a. Physical injuries caused by: gunshot wound, stab wound etc.,
Vehicular accident; Asphyxia; Electrocution, Chemical or thermal insult;
Accident, Attempted homicide or suicide; and Poisoning
4. Cases of child abuse, domestic violence, rape, alcoholism and drug
addiction.
5. Cases involving the mental incompetency of the patient.

Difference between a medical jurist and an ordinary physician

1. An ordinary physician ignores trivial injuries not needing treatment
which a medical jurist records all injuries to qualify the crime or justify the act.
2. An ordinary physician sees injury or disease to be able to treat while a
medical jurist sees injury or disease in order to find out the cause.
3. The purpose of an ordinary physician is to arrive at a definite diagnosis
and institute proper treatment while a medical jurist testifies on bodily lesion
seen for justice.

Difference between Legal Medicine and Medical Jurisprudence

1. Legal medicine is a 1. Medical jurisprudence is a branch of law.
branch of medical science.
2. It is a medicine applied 2. It is a law applied to the practice of
to law and administration medicine.
of justice.
3. It originates from the 3. It emanates from the act of congress,
development of medical executive orders, administrative circulars
science. customs and usages and decisions of
tribunals which have relation to the practice
of medicine.

4.It is based on the 4. It is based on the principle of

principle of coordination; subordination; that is the duty of the
that legal medicine physician to obey the laws in as much as
coordinate medicine to law our government is established on the
and justice. principle of government of laws and not of
men and that no one is considered above the
law.

A. The Medico-legal System

1. Medico-Legal Office System - The system used in the Philippines,
which is handled by a medical jurist who is a registered physician duly
qualified to practice medicine in the Phil’s. The National Bureau of
Investigation and the Phil. National Police have their own medical jurist
who handles medico-legal cases. His duty is to examine the victim or
assailant, to make report, and to appear in court as an expert witness when
summoned by the proper authorities.

2. Medical Examiner System - This is a system under the control of the

Chief medical Examiner that is a doctor of medicine and appointed by
the mayor from the classified lists compiled by the civil service by the
basis of competitive examination. The office of the chief medical examiner is
on 24 hours work with clerical staff always present. His duty is to investigate
the cause of death especially violent death of the victim.

3. Coroner System - The coroner system is headed by a country coroner or

borough coroner who may be a barrister, solicitor or a legally qualified
practitioner of not less than five (5) years standing in his profession and is
elected by the county council or borough council. The coroner is an inquest

39
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 40

officer whose duty is to inquire into the circumstances of certain medico-legal

deaths within his jurisdiction. Unlike the medico-legal officer or the medical
examiner whose qualifications, duties, and powers are practically the same, the
coroner has investigative and judicial functions.

Medical Evidence
Evidence is the means, sanctioned by the Rules of the Court, of ascertaining in
a judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact

Types of Medical Evidence:

I. Autoptic or Real Evidence - This is an evidence made known or addressed
to the senses of the court. It is not limited to that which is known through the
sense of vision but is extended to what the sense of hearing, taste, smell, and
touch is perceived.
Limitations to the presentation of Autoptic Evidence:
Indecency and Impropriety – Presentation of evidence may be necessary to
serve the best interest of justice but notion of decency and delicacy may cause
inhibition of its presentation.
Repulsive Objects to those Offensive to Sensibilities- Foul Smelling objects,
persons suffering from highly infectious and communicable disease, or objects
which when touch may mean potential danger to the life and health of the
judge may not be presented.

II. Testimonial Evidence: A physician may be commanded to appear before a

court to give his testimony. While in the witness stand, he is obligated to
answer the question propounded by the counsel and presiding officer of the
court. His testimony must be given orally and under oath or affirmation.

a. Ordinary Witness- A physician: who testifies in court on matters he

perceived from his patient in the course of physician-patient relationship is
considered as an ordinary witness.

b. Expert Witness - A physician on account of his training and experience can

give his opinion on a set of medical facts. He can deduce of infer something,
determine the cause of death or render opinion pertinent to the issue and
medical in nature.

III. Experimental Evidence- A medical witness may be allowed by the court to

confirm his allegation or as a corroborated proof to an opinion he previously
stated.

IV. Documentary Evidence: A document is an instrument on which is

recorded by means of letters, figures or marks intended to be used for purpose
of recording that matter which may be evidentially used. The term applies to
writings, to words printed, lithographed or photographed; to seals, plates or
stones on which inscriptions are cut or engraved; to photographs and pictures;
to maps or plans.

V. Physical Evidence: These are articles and materials which are found in
connection with the investigation and which aid in establishing the identity of
the perpetrator or the circumstances under which the crime was committed, or
in general assist in the prosecution of a criminal.

Types of Physical Evidences:

Corpus Delicti Evidence- Objects or substance which may be a part of the
body of the crime.
Associative Evidence- These are physical evidences which link a suspect to
the crime.

40
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 41

Tracing Evidence- These are physical evidences which may assist the
investigator in locating the suspect.

MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION

= Law of Multiplicity of Evidence (is true in the case of identification.)
The greater the number of similarities or dissimilarities, the greater is the
probability for the conclusion to be correct.
= The value of the different points of identification varies in the formulation of
conclusion.
= The longer the interval between the death and the examination of the
remains for purposes of identification, the greater is the need for experts in
establishing identity.
= It is necessary for the team to act in the shortest possible time especially in
cases of mass disaster.
= There is no rigid rule to be observed in the procedure of identification of
persons.

Importance of Identification of Persons:

In Criminal case, the identity of the offender and that of the victim must be
established; otherwise it will be a ground for the dismissal of the charge or
acquittal of the accused.
Identification of missing person or presumed dead will facilitate settlement of
the estate, retirement, insurance and other social benefits. It vests on the heirs
the right over the properties of the identified person.
Identification resolves the anxiety of the next-of-kin, other relatives and friends
as to the whereabouts of a missing person or victim of calamity or crime.
Identification may be needed in some transaction, like cashing of check,
entering a premise, delivery of parcels or registered mail in post office, sale of
property, release of dead bodies to relatives, parties to a contract, etc.

Methods of Identification:
By comparison – with the used of standard specimen, evidence under question
can be compared in order to effect identification.
By exclusion = is two or more persons have to be identified and all but one is
not yet identified, then the one whose identity has not been established may be
known by the process of elimination.

Ordinary methods of Identification

I. Points of Identification applicable to the living only:
Characteristic that may easily be changed: Growth of chair, beard or
mustache; Clothing, Frequent place of Visit, Grade of profession and Body
ornamentation

Characteristic that may not easily be changed:

- Mental memory
- Speech
- Gait a manner of walking or moving on food (Webster dic.)
1. Ataxic Gait- a gait which the foot is raised high, thrown forward and
brought down suddenly.
2. Cerebellar gait- a gait associated with staggering movement.
3. Cow’s Gait- a swaying movement due to knock-knee.
4. Paretic gait- a gait in which the steps are short, the feet dragged, and
the legs held more or less widely apart.
5. Spastic gait- a gait in which the legs are held together and move in stiff
manner, and the toes to drag and catch.
6. Waddling gait- a gait resembling duck
7. Frog gait- a hoping gait in infantile paralysis.

41
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 42

Gait line = the straight line connecting the center of the succeeding steps. It is
more or less in zigzag fashion especially when the legs are far apart while
walking
Foot line = the longitudinal line drawn on each foot mark.
- Mannerisms- These are the characteristic movement of the body
peculiar to a person.
1. Way of sitting
2. Movement of the hands
3. Movement of the body
4. Movement of the facial muscles
5. Expression of the mouth while articulating
6. Manner of learning
- Hands and feet
- Facies
- Left or right handedness
- Degree of nutrition (thin, medium built or stout)
- Changes in the eye

II. Points of identification applicable to both living and dead before onset
of decomposition:
1. Occupational Marks

2. Race- In the living, race may be presumed on:

a. Color of the skin
Caucasians- fair
Malayans- brown
Negroes- Black
b. feature of face:
Caucasian- prominent sharp nose
Malayan - flat nose with round face
Mongolian- almond eyes such and prominent cheek bones.
Negroes - thick spreading lips
c. Shape of Skull
Red Indians- Flat head
Malayan- Round head

3. Stature (height)
Methods of approximating the height of a person
a.)   measure the distance between the height of a person    fingers of both
hands with the arms extended laterally    and it will be equal to the height of
the person.
b.) Two times the length of one arm plus 12 inches for the clavicle and
1.5inches for the sternum is the approximate height.
c.) Two times the length from the vertex of the skull to the public symphyses.
d.) The distance from the sternal netch and the public symphyses is about one-
hand of the height.
e.)   The distance from the base of the skull to the coccyx is about 44% of the
height.

4- Teeth
The following points must be considered in the study of the teeth for
identification process:
Determine whether it is temporary or permanent set;
Number of teeth present;
Number of teeth lost, including evidence of length of time lost;
Nature of the teeth present, whether reverse, crooked, mal-aligned or straight;
Condition of those present, whether carious, colored, presence of cavities,
erosion, filling and cleanliness;

42
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 43

Presence of supernumerary teeth;

Odontoid gum; and
Extraction, dental fitting, permanent bridge work, fitting of crown and filling
cavities.
= the most convenient way of identifying a person by means of the teeth is the
use of dental diagram or chart.

5- Tattoo marks
Importance of Tattoo marks
It may help in the identification of the person
It may indicate memorable events in his life
It may indicate the social stratum to which the person belongs
It implies previous commitment in prison or membership in a gang

Methods of Tattoo Removal

Excision = involves an injection of a local anesthetic to numb the area after
which the tattoo is removed surgically. The edges are then brought together
and sutured.
Dermabrasion = a small portion of the tattoo is sprayed with a solution that
freezes the area. The tattoo is then “sanded” with rotary abrasive instrument
causing the skin to peel. Because some bleeding is likely to occur, a dressing is
immediately applied to the area.
Laser = Laser surgery is considered to be one of the best methods of tattoo
removal. The Q-switched Nd: Yag, Q-switched Alexandrite and the Q-switched
Ruby are among the most frequenctly used lasers. If necessary, a cream to
numb the skin can be applied prior to the treatment. Pulse of light from the
laser is directed unto the tattoo breaking up the tattoo pigment. Over the next
several weeks the body’s scavenger cells remove the treated pigmented areas.
More than one treatment is usually necessary to remove the entire tattoo.
Salabrasion = a centuries old procedure using local anesthetic applied around
the tattoo area after which a solution of ordinary tap water dipped in table salt
is applied and an abrading apparatus such as the one used in dermabrasion or
even a simpler device is used such as a wooden block wrapped in gauze.

6- Deformities
7- Birth marks
8- Injuries leaving permanent result
9- Moles
10-Scars = they are composed of fibrous tissues which take the place of the
original tissues which have been injured or destroyed. They are devoid of
specialized tissue so they do not contain pigment layers, sweat or sebaceous
glands.
Recent scars of two to three weeks old are vascular with red or pink color.
Contracted bloodless scars with white and glistering surfaces are usually more
than six months old;
Scars resulting from superficial wounds and from wounds healing by first
intention develop earlier.

SOME SCARS MAY SHOW CHARACTERISTICS APPEARANCE SUCH AS:

Surgical Operation = regular form and location with stitch marks.
Burns and scalds = scars are large, irregular in shape and may be keloid.
Gunshot wounds = disc like with depressed center. They may be adherent to
the underlying tissues.
Tuberculous sinus = irregular in shape, furrowed, with edges hardened and
uneven.
Gumma = depressed scar following loss of tissue
Venesection = located at bend of elbow, dorsum of feet, or at the temporal
region.

43
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 44

Lupus = bluish –white scar

Wet cupping = short parallel scars on the lower part of the back and loin.

11- Tribal marks - A common practice of some tribes in Africa is to place some
marks on the exposed parts of the body.

12- Sexual organs - Circumcision may help in identification. The uterus and
breast may indicate previous pregnancy. The best evidence of sexuality is the
presence of Testes in Male and Ovaries in the Female.

13- Blood examination (ABO grouping and MN typing)

Extrinsic Factors in Identification:
1. Identification of ornamental wearing apparel
2. Personal Belongings
3. Clothing’s
4. Dust
5. Identification by close friend
6. Criminal Records
7. Photograph

Methods of Identification
Portrait Parle (Personal description) “speaking likeness” - Is a verbal, accurate
and picturesque description of the person identified.
Photography
Anthropometry (Bertillon System) - A system of identification based on the
measurements of the various bony structure of the human body came to be
known when it was introduced in the police department in Paris, France in
1882 by Alphonse Bertillon.
Bases of the Bertillon’s method of identification
a. Human skeleton does not change after 20 years.
b. It is impossible for two human beings to have bones alike.
c. Measurement easily taken with the aid of simple instrument.

West case: In 1903, Will West arrived at the US Penitentiary at the

Leavenworth, kaneas. While West was being processed in through
identification, a staff member said that there was already a photograph and
Bertillon measurement for him on the file. But a comparison on fingerprints
showed that despite identical appearances and nearly identical Bertillon
measurements, the identification card on file belonged to a William West, who
had been in Leavenworth since 1901.
1. Fingerprint Identification
2. Handwriting Identification
3. Blood Grouping and Blood Typing
4. DNA Testing (Deoxyribonucleic acid) (A-adenine, C- cytosine, T-
thymine, and G- guanine Sequence)

LIGHT AS A FACTOR IN IDENTIFICATION

Clearest moonlight or starlight = experiments have shown that the best
known person cannot be recognized under the clearest moonlight at a
distance greater than 16 to 17 yards and by Starlight any further than 10
to 13 yards.
Broad Daylight = a person can hardly recognized another person at a distance
further than 100 yards if the person has never been seen before; but person
who are almost stranger may be recognized at a distance of 25 yards.
Flash of Firearm = Although by experiment letters of two inches high can be
read with the aid of the flash of a caliber.22 firearm at a distance of two (2)
feet it is hardly possible for a witness to see the assailant in case of a holdup
or a murder because:

44
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 45

Usually the assailant is hidden and the assault is unexpected and the intention
of the person or witness is at its minimum.
The flash of Lighting = produces sufficient light from the identification of
individual provided that the person’s eye is focused towards the individual he
wishes to identify during the flash.
In case of artificial light. The identification is relative to the kind and
intensity of the light.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE SKELETON

Following points can be determined
Whether the remains are of human origin or not.
Oval or round shape of the skull ; less prominent lower jaw and nasal bone
Whether the remains come from a single individual or not - complete
layout of the bones on a table in their exact locations in the human body is
necessary. Any plurality denotes that the remains belong to more than one (1)
person.
Height
Determination of the Sex of the skeleton --the following bones must be
studied: pelvis, skull, sternum, femur and humerous

DETERMINATION OF AGE
Legal Importance of Age Determination
For Identification, To Determine Criminal Liability , For Right of Suffrage or in
the exercise of other political rights, For the exercise of civil rights,
Determination of the capacity to contract marriage, Age is a factor by which the
crime of rape is committed, The crime of infanticide can only be committed
when the child killed is less than three days old., Seduction is committed on a
woman over twelve and under eighteen years of age

Determination of Age of the Fetus:

For fetus less than 25 cm. Long - Find the square root of the length in
centimeters and the result is the age of the fetus in months.
For fetus 25 cm. Long or more - Divide the length of the fetus in centimeters
by 5, and the result will be the age in months.
(Age as referred in this rule is lunar month, not calendar month.
One lunar month is equivalent to 28 days)

Nature of the Intra-uterine product of conception corresponding to the

age in months:
1 month - The Ovum is about 1.0 cm with limb buds only present.
2 months - The ovum has a length of 2.5cm with an embryo about 1.0cm long
with head, ears and hands well formed.
3 months - The length is 9.0 cm. With nails beginning to appear and the
placenta can be differentiated.
4 months - The length is 16.0 cm. And the sex can be differentiated, with the
fingers beginning to open and hair beginning to appear on the head.
5 months - Fetus processes hair on the head and Lanugo over body surfaces.
Nails are distinct. Skin shows sebaceous secretion. Dental gum appears at the
mandible.
6 months - Fetus weighs 2.5 kg. Lanugo and vernix present in the skin are
dark and wrinkled. Meconium is present in the small intestine and at the
beginning of the large intestine. Brain shows convolutions. The testis is found
in the abdominal cavity. Hair of eyebrow and eye-lashes begin to appear.
7 months - The body is dark red and plump, with hair on the scalp. The testis
begins to descend towards the scrotum.
8 months - Fetus has rosy skin, and nails reach the end of the finger-tips.
Convolutions of the brain are more distinct. Second piece of sternum ossified
papillary membrane disappears.

45
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 46

9 months - Brain convolutions reach the gray matter. The scrotum is occupied
by the testis. The body surface is now pale. Sebaceous secretion is formed at
the flexures of joints. Nails fully formed and developed.

Medico-Legal Aspects of Death

Life – is the sum total of all vital processes by which the physical integrity of
the body is maintained.
Death- is the state of complete persistent cessation of the vital function of the
body such as the function of the heart, the lungs and the brain.
A. Importance of Death Determination
The civil personality of a natural person is extinguished by death - The civil
personality is extinguished by death. The effect of death upon the rights and
obligations of the deceased is determined by law, by contract and by will.
The property of a person is transmitted to his heirs at the time of death.
The death of a partner is one of the causes of dissolution of partnership
agreement.
The death of either the principal or agent is a mode of extinguishments of
agency
The criminal liability of a person is extinguished by death.
The civil case for claims which does not survive is dismissed upon death of the
defendant.

B. Kinds of Death
Clinical Death or Somatic Death - Is a type of death usually declare by
members of the immediate family of the diseased or by the physician.
Immediate signs of the in a person are; Sudden cessation of the upward and
downward movement of the chest in the process of respiration (10-15 minutes),
sudden pale color of the faces and lips, pulse and heart beat stops, the jaw or
head drops down and flaccidity of muscles occur; presence of dilated pupil as
well as loss of corneal and light reflexes.
Clinical types of death can either be: Sociologic, Psychic, Biologic or
Physiologic.

Molecular or Cellular Death - Is the type of death characterized by death of

individual cells (one at a time) after the somatic death. The nerve cells and
brain cells die earlier at about 5 minutes due to loss of food and oxygen while
the muscles live longer until the onset of the rigor mortis which about two to
three hours after death.

Apparent Death/ State of Suspended Animation - A transient loss of

consciousness of temporary cessation of the vital function of the body on
account of disease, external stimulus other forms of influence.

C. Signs of Death
A. Cessation of Respiration
Cessation of respiration in order to be considered as a sign of death must be
continuous and persistent. A person can hold his breath for a period of not
longer than 3 – ½ minutes. In case of electrical shock, respiration may cease
for sometime but maybe restored by continuous artificial respiration.
Irregular Types of Respiration
Cheney-Strokes respiration – interval is about fifteen to thirty seconds
In drowning and electric shock
In new born infants
In the voluntary act of respiratory suspension.

Methods of Detecting Cessation of Respiration:

Expose the chest and abdomen and observe the movement during inspiration
and expiration.

46
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 47

Examine the person with the aid of stethoscope which is placed at the base of
the anterior aspects of the neck and hear sound of the current of air passing
through the trachea during each phase of respiration.
Examination with a Mirror
Examination with a Feather or Cotton Fibers
Examination with a glass of water
Winslow’s test

B. Cessation of Heart and Circulation - There must be an entire and

continuous cessation of the heart action and flow of blood in the whole
vascular system, a temporary suspension of the heart action is still compatible
with life. The length of time the heart may cease to function and life is still
maintained depends upon the length of time it is readily reestablished and
upon the oxygenation of blood at the time of the suspension. As a general rule,
if there is no heart action for a period of five minutes death is regarded as
certain.

Methods of Detecting the Cessation of heart Action and circulation:

A. Examination of the heart: -Palpitation of the pulse and heart beat, -
Auscultation with the aid of stethoscope or placing the ear at the region of the
heart, Observation of the point of maximum impulse, Electrocardiography or
ECG and Fluoroscopic Examination

B. Examination of the Peripheral Circulation:

Magnus’ Test Diaphanous Test
Opening of Small Artery Application of heat on the Skin
I card’s test Palpation of the radial pulse
Pressure on the fingernails Dropping of Melted Wax

C. Cooling of the body (ALGOR MORTIS)

After death the metabolic process inside the body ceases. No more heat is
produced but the body loses slowly its temperature by evaporation or by
conduction to the surrounding atmosphere. The progressive fall of the body
temperature is one of the most prominent signs of death. Gradual
decreasing of the body temperature until such time it assumes the temperature
of the environment which is faster during the first two (2) hours after death
and slower during the next 6 to 9 hours and equal to the environmental
temperature beyond 12 hours. The fall of temperature of 15 to 20 degrees
Fahrenheit is considered as a certain sign of death.
Post Mortem Caloricity is the rise of temperature of the body after death due
to rapid and early putrefactive changes or some internal changes. It is usually
observed in the first two hours of death. Occur in the following condition:
Cholera, Tetanus, Small pox and Peritonitis.

D. Insensibility of the body and loss of power to move. No kind of

stimulus is capable to letting the body have voluntary movement.

E. Changes in the Eyes - Loss of Corneal and light reflexes, Haziness of the
cornea, Flaccidity of the eyeball, Finding inside the eye and (Ophthalmoscopy
finding)

F. Changes in skin - Change of color, Loss of the elasticity of the skin, Opacity
of the skin and Absence of reaction to injury

CHANGES OF THE BODY AFTER DEATH

Primary Flaccidity (period of the muscle irritability) -muscles are relaxed
and capable of contracting when stimulated; pupil are dilated, incontinence of
urination and defection. Lasts 3- 6 hours after death.

47
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 48

Stage of Post Mortem Rigidity (Rigor Mortis) 3-6 hours after death and May
last 24 to 36 hours, body becomes rigid due to contraction of the muscles

Conditions Simulating Rigor Mortis

Heat Stiffening body is exposed to temperature above 77 degree Celsius,
Pugilistic attitude and more or less permanent

Cold Stiffening - due to solidification of fat when the body is exposed to

freezing temperature.
Cadaveric Spasm or Instantaneous rigor. Rigidity of the muscles which
occurs at the moment of death due to nervous tension, exhaustion and injury
to the nervous system.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN RIGOR MORTIS AND CADAVERIC SPASM

Rigor Mortis Cadaveric spasm
Time of Appearance 3- 6 hours after Immediately after
death death
Occurrence Natural May or may not appear
Medico-legal Time of death Cause of death
significance
Muscle Involved All the muscles Certain muscle,
asymmetric

Stages of Secondary Flaccidity or secondary relaxation - due to the

dissolution of the muscles protein, onset of putrefaction, and the body become
limp again and the muscles are no longer capable of responding to mechanical
or electrical stimulus. Noted about 48 hours after death

CHANGES IN THE BLOOD

a. Coagulation of the blood - The stasis of the blood due to the cessation of
circulation enhances the coagulation of blood inside the blood vessel. Blood
clothing is accelerated in cases of death by infectious fevers and delayed in
cases of asphyxia, poisoning by opium, hydrocyanic acid or carbon monoxide
poisoning.
Blood may remain fluid inside the blood vessel after death for 6 to 8 hours.

Distinction between Ante-Mortem from Post-Mortem Clot:

Ante-Mortem Clot Post-mortem Clot
1.Firm in consistency 1. Soft in consistency.
2. Surface of the blood vessel 2. Surface of the blood vessels
raw after the clots are removed. smooth and healthy after the clots
are removed.
3. Clots homogenous in 3. Clots can be stripped off in
construction so it cannot be layers.
stripped into layers
4. Clot with uniform color. 4. Clot with distinct layer.

b. POST MORTEM LIVIDITY - It is the discoloration of the body after death

when the blood tends to pool in the blood vessels for the most dependent
portion to the pool in the blood vessels for the most dependent portion of the
body. The blood remains fluid in the body after for 6-8 hours and gradually clot
until it is fully developed at about 12 hrs, The appearance of Post Mortem
lividity usually starts about 20-30 minutes after death, thus, it can also be a
means in approximating the time of death of the person. But it is more useful

48
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 49

in determining the position of the body after death. The discoloration of the
bloody may varies in color. Usually it is dull-red or Reddish-purple with some
bluish-black petechial due to rupture of small capillaries. In carbon monoxide
and cyanide poisoning as well as exposure to cold temperature, the color is
pink while lead color asphyxia. Although the color will become darker and
permanent as it completes.

Stages of Lividity or Livor Mortis

Hypos tactic Lividity - It is the lividity when the discoloration is due to the
blood pooled in the most dependent areas of the body.

Diffusion Lividity - It is a fixed or permanent discoloration when the blood

clotted, inside the blood vessels or has diffused to different parts of the body.

Importance of Cadaveric Lividity

It is one of the signs of death
It may determine the position of the body after death or whether it was
changes after its appearance in the body.
The color of the lividity may indicate the cause of death
e.g. Asphyxia – dark
CO poisoning – bright pink
It gives us an idea as to the time of death.

Points to be considered which may infer the position of the body at the
time of death:
Posture of the body when found
The body may become rigid in the position in which he died. Post-mortem
lividity may develop in the assumed position.
Post-mortem hypostasis - Hypostatic lividity will be found in areas of the body
in contact with the surface where the body lies.
Cadaveric Spasm - In violent death, the attitude of the body may infer position
on account of the spasm of the muscles. e.g. In drowning the victim may be
holding the seaweeds.

POST- MORTEM DECOMPOSITION

1.) Autolysis or autodigestive changes after death - = after death, proteolytic
glycolytic and lipolytic ferments of glandular tissues continue to act which lead
to the auto digestion of organs. This is facilitated by weak acid and higher
temperature. This is also seen in the maceration of the dead fetus inside the
uterus. The stomach may be perforated, glandular tissues become soft after
death due to auto digestion and the action of autolytic enzymes.
=decomposition by enzymes

2.) Putrefaction - It is the breaking down of the complex protein into simpler
components associated with the evolution of foul smelling gases and
accompanied by the change of color of the body. -decomposition by bacteria;
noted after 48 hours after death; first appears as a greenish discoloration,
generalized swelling and reddish discoloration along the lines of the superficial
veins occur: called Marbling.

Principal changes undergone by the soft tissues of the body during

putrefaction:
a. Changes in the Color of the Tissue - A few hours after death, there is
hemolysis of the blood within the blood vessel and as a result of which
hemoglobin is liberated. The hemoglobin diffuses through the walls of the blood
vessels and stains the surrounding tissues thereby imparting a reddish-brown
color. Tissue color gradually changed to greenish-yellow, greenish brown or
greenish black color due to chemical changes in hemoglobin.

49
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 50

b. Evolution of gases in the Tissues - Carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen,

sulphureted hydrogen, phosphoresced hydrogen, and methane gases are
formed. The offensive odor is due to these gases and also due to a small
quantity of mercaptans. The formation of gases causes the distention of the
abdomen and bloating of the whole body. Gases formed in the subcutaneous
tissues and in the face and neck cause swelling of the whole body. Small gas
bubbles are found in solid visceral organs and give rise to the “foamy”
appearance of the organs.

Effects of the pressure of gases of Putrefaction:

1. Displacement of the Blood
2. Bloating of the Body
3. Fluid Coming Out of Both Nostrils and Mouth
4. Extrusion of the Fetus in a Gravid Uterus
5. Floating of the Body

c. Liquefaction of the Soft Tissues - As decomposition progresses, the soft

tissues of the body undergo softening and liquefaction. The eyeballs, brain,
stomach, intestine, liver and spleen putrefy rapidly while highly muscular
organs and tissues relatively putrefy late.

Factors Affecting rate of Purification

I. Internal Factors
2. Age
3. Cause of Death
4. Condition of the body
II. External Factors
5. Air and Moisture
6. Condition and type of Soil
7. Presence of Water
8. Effect of Clothing
9. Effect of Coffin
10. Depth of Burial
11. Mass Grave

E. Special forms of Putrefaction

Mummification- a condition at which the body fluids are removed before
decomposition sets in resulting to shrunkening and preservation of the dead
body. Mummification can be either natural of artificial (embalming). Natural for
the forces of nature such as sunlight, warm climate and hot dry soil influence
the dead body. Artificial when the preservation is done with the introduction of
some chemical like formalin, alcohol, phenol, mercury, arsenic and glycerin
and covering the skin with the Vase ling or plaster of Paris before
decomposition sets in.
Saponification (Adipocere formation) - is the formation of a soft, friable and
brownish- white greasy substance in the soft fatty tissues of the body after
death. This substance is called adipocere that is formed by hydrogenation of
the body fats. It can be possibly being seen in the buttocks, trunk, limbs,
breast and cheeks. It prevents or delays the putrefaction of the body.
Maceration- It is a condition of the dead body, usually the fetus, characterized
by the softening and discoloration of the tissues as well as formation of blisters
in the skin due to the action of autolytic or proteolysis enzymes in the absence
of utero is important in the consideration of legal live-birth which shows
evidence of maceration by the following manifestations: 1) Reddish green to
reddish-brown discoloration of skin; 2) Softness and limpness of the body; and
3) Blebs formation and separation of the epidermis from the underlying tissues.

50
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 51

A. Classification of Death
I. Medico-legal classification of Death:
1. Natural Death- Due to disease or ailment.
2. Violent Death- Due to injuries of some outside force.
a) Accident Death- Art 12, Par 4, RPC e) Homicidal Death- Art. 249, RPC’
b) Negligent Death f) Murder- Art 248, RPC
c) Infanticidal Death g) Euthanasia ( mercy Killing )
d) Parricidal Death- Art 247, RPC h) Suicidal Death- Art. 253, RPC

II. Pathological Classification

Death of Syncope (loss of consciousness, fall of blood pressure, Cardiac
Standstill, cerebral metabolism, hyperventilation, cardiac disease, Tussive
Syncope Hysterical syncope
Death of Asphyxia (Respiratory Obstruction and Circulatory Arrest, Inhalation
of obnoxious gases fumes, drowning and electric shock, Compression of the
neck and strangulation, Compression of the chest and asphyxia in brain
injury)
Death of Coma (Is a profound stupor in sickness or after severe injury)

DEATH BY ASPHYXIA
- A condition resulting from a lack of oxygen in the air or from an
obstructing mechanism to respiration. The general term applied to all forms of
violent death which results primary from the interference with the process of
respiration or the condition in which the supply of oxygen to the blood or to the
tissues or both has been reduced below normal level.

TYPES OF ASPHYXIA
1) ANOXIC DEATH associated with the failure of the arterial blood to become
normally saturated with oxygen.
2) ANEMIC ANOXIC DEATH due to a deceased capacity of the blood to carry
oxygen
3) STAGNANT ANOXIC DEATH brought about by the failure of circulation.
4) HISTOTOXIC ANOXIC DEATH due to the failure of the cellular oxidative
process, although the oxygen is delivered to the tissues, it cannot be utilized
properly.

TYPES OF MECHANICAL ASPHYXIA

1) STRANGULATION (THROTTLING) may be with the use of hands or a
ligature (such as rope)
2) SMOTHERING OR SUFFOCATION occurs when entrance of air through the
nose and mouth is blocked or severely restricted.
3) HANGING the neck is tied while the body is suspended common from
suicide
4) CHOKING there is blocking of the internal airway by a foreign object inside
or outside of the victim’s body.
5.) CRUSH OR TRAUMATIC ASPHYXIA brought about by the mechanical
compression of the chest by some heavy object
6) DROWNING
Death as Punishment
1. Death by Lethal Injection
2. Death by Electrocution (used of about 2,000 to 5,000 voltages)
3. Death by Gas chamber
4. Death by hanging
5. Death by Musketry

AUTOPSY - a comprehensive study of a dead body performed by trained

physician using recognized dissection procedures and techniques, primary to

51
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 52

determine the true cause of death. Indicates that, in addition to an external

examination, the body is opened and internal examination is conducted.

POST MORTEM EXAMINATION - refers to an external examination of a dead

body without incision being made, although blood and other fluids may be
collected for examination.

KINDS OF AUTOPSIES
1) HOSPITAL OR NON-OFFICIAL done on a human body with the consent
of the deceased person’s relatives for the purpose of:
Determining the cause of death
Providing correlation of clinical diagnosis and clinical symptoms
Determining the effectiveness of therapy
Studying the natural course of disease process
Educating students and physicians

2) MEDICO LEGAL OR OFFICIAL an examination performed on a dead

body purpose of:
Determining the cause, manner or mode and time of death
Recovering, identifying and preserving evidentiary material
Providing correlation of facts and circumstances related to death
Providing a factual, objective medical report for law enforcement, prosecution
and defense agencies
Separating death due to disease due to external cause for protection of the
innocent.

NEGATIVE AUTOPSY
- an autopsy which failed to establish cause of death after all efforts have been
exhausted
- An autopsy which after a meticulous examination with the aid of other
examination does not yield any definite cause of death.

NEGLIGENT AUTOPSY - an autopsy wherein no cause of death is found on

account of imprudence, negligence, lack of skill and lack of foresight of the
examiner.

Method of Disposal of the Dead Body

Embalming- Artificial Mummification
Burial- Inhumation or Interment - Is a method of placing the dead body in the
grave.
Funeral- it is the procession of the dead body followed by grieving relatives,
friends and other persons to the place of burial in accordance with the religion,
custom and traditions.
Persons in-charge; The Spouse (if married), the descendant of the nearest
degree and brother and sisters.
Cremation- Is the burning of the dead body into ashes or pulverization of the
body into ashes by the application of heat or flames. Requirement: permit for
cremation, exact identification of the deceased and exact cause of death has
been ascertained.
Disposal of the dead body to the Sea.
Use of the Dead body for Scientific Purpose.
Exhumation- It is the raising or disinterring of the Dead body or remains from
the grave.

EXHUMANTION (DESINTERRING) - refers to the taking out of a body from its

tomb or gravesite, can be done only upon a lawful order, with permission from
the Department of Health. - Remains of persons who died of non- dangerous,
non-communicate diseases may be disinterred after three (3) years. - Remains

52
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 53

of persons who died of dangerous communicable diseases may be disinterred

after five (5) years.

Physical Injury
Injury- Is the scientific impairment of the body structure or function caused by
outside force or agent.
Physical Injury- is an injury of the body caused by physical agents which is
the application of stimulus to the body producing damage or injury to the
tissue.
Wound- is a break or solution in the continuity of the skin or tissues of the
body.
Inflammation- Is a specific tissue response to injury by the living or inanimate
agents, or to electrical, chemical etc., characterized by vascular dilatation, fluid
exudation and accumulation of leukocytes in the tissues.
Classification of Wound or Physical injury
A. As to Severity
Mortal Wound
Non-Mortal Wound

B. As to Kind Instrument used

Blunt instrument – lacerated
Sharp-edge instrument – incised
Sharp-pointed instrument – punctured
Sharp-Edge and Sharp-Pointed – stab
Rough object – abrasion

C. As to Manner of Infliction

D. As to the depth of the Wound

E. As to the relation of the site of application of force and injury

a) Coup Injury- Injury at the side of application.
b) Contre coup- injury found opposite the side of application.
c) Coup Contre Coup- injury both at the side and opposite side of application.
d) Locus Minoris Resistencia- Injury is found on some area offering the least
resistance to the force applied.
e) Extensive Injury- involves a greater area of damage.

F. Medico-legal Classification
A. Mutilation
B. Slight Physical Injury (1-9 days)
C. Less Serious Physical Injury (10-30days)
D. Serious Physical Injury (more than 30 days)
E. Administration of injurious substance or beverages.

G. As to the type of the Wound

1. Closed Wound: superficial Closed wound and deep closed wound,
petechial, contusion or bruise, hematoma or blood cyst, sprain, fracture,
discoloration, Concussion, and Internal Hemorrhage
2. Open Wound: Incised, Lacerated, Punctured, Stab Wound, Avulsion,
and Gunshot and shotgun Wound.
Petechial- Are minute, pin point, circumscribed extravasation of blood in the
subcutaneous tissues or underneath the mucous membrane.
Contusion (Bruise) - Wound in the substance of the true skin and in the
subcutaneous cellular tissues characterized by swelling and discoloration of
tissue due to extravasation of blood.

53
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 54

Hematoma- large extravation of blood in a newly formed cavity secondary to

trauma characterized by swelling, discoloration and effusion of blood
underneath the tissues.
Sprain- The straining or tearing of the articular tendons, ligaments and
muscles characterized by swelling, discoloration of tissues involve and extreme
pain.
Fracture- It is a break or solution in the continuity of the bone tissues
resulting from violence. (It can be simple, compound or comminuted).
Dislocation- Is the displacement of the articular surfaces of the bones forming
the joints usually secondary to trauma. (Simple or compound)
Cerebral Concussion- Condition of the brain resulting from a sudden jarring
or stunning of the brain which follows a blow on the head characterized by
headache or dizziness, unconsciousness or semi-unconsciousness, relaxed and
flaccid muscles, slow and shallow respiration and rapid but weak pulse
Internal Hemorrhage- It is the bleeding usually in the cavity or organs inside
the body. (Intra-cranial, Rupture of organ and Laceration of Organ).
SEXUAL OFFENSES AND DEVIATIONS
Virginity = a condition of a female who has not experienced sexual intercourse
and whose genital organs have not been altered by carnal correction.

Kinds of Virginity
1. MORAL VIRGINITY = state of not knowing the nature of sexual life and not
having experienced sexual relation.
2. PHYSICAL VIRGINITY = a condition whereby a woman is conscious of the
nature of the sexual life but not experienced sexual intercourse. Applies to
women who have reached sexual maturity but not experienced sexual
intercourse.

TRUE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY a condition wherein the hymen is intact, with

the edges distinct and regular, and the opening is small to barely admit the tip
of the smallest finger of the examiner even if the thighs are separated.

FALSE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY = A condition wherein the hymen is enraptured

but the orifice is wide and elastic to admit two or more fingers of the examiner
with a lesser degree of resistance.

3. DEMI-VIRGINITY - a condition of a woman who permits any form of sexual

liberties as long as they abstain from rupturing the hymen by sexual act.

4. VIRGO INTACTA - applied to women who have had previous sexual act but
not yet given birth.

DEFLORATION = the laceration or rupture of the hymen as a result of sexual

intercourse.

SEXUAL DEVIATIONS
HOMOSEXUALITY = sexual desire towards the same sex.
INFANTOSEXUALITY = sexual desire towards an immature person. Also known as
PEDOPHILIA.
BESTOSEXUAL = sexual desire towards animals; also known as bestiality.
AUTOSEXUALITY = self – gratification; also known as masturbation.
GERONTOPHILIA= sexual desire towards an older person.
NECROPHILIA = a sexual perversion characterized by erotic desire or actual sexual
intercourse with a corpse.
INCEST = sexual relations between person who, by reason of blood relationship cannot
legally marry.
SATYRIASIS = excessive sexual urge of men.
NYMPHOMANIA = excessive sexual urge of women.

54
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 55

FELATTIO = the female agent receives the penis of a man into her mouth and by
friction with the lips and tongue coupled with the act of sucking initiates orgasm.
CUNNILINGUS = sexual gratification is attained by licking or sucking the external
female genitalia.
ANILINGUS = a form of sexual perversion wherein a person derives sexual excitement
by licking the anus of another person of either sex.
SADISM = (Active Algolagnia) = A form of sexual perversion in which the infliction of
pain on another is necessary for sexual enjoyment
MASOCHISM (passive algolagnia) = A form of sexual perversion in which the infliction
of pain by another is necessary for sexual enjoyment.
FETISHISM = a form of sexual perversion wherein the real or fantasied presence of an
object or bodily part is necessary for sexual stimulation and gratification.
PYGMALIONISM = a sexual deviation whereby a person has sexual desire for statutes.
FROTTAGE = a form of sexual gratification characterized by the compulsive desire of a
person to rub his sex organ against some part of the body of another.
VOYEURISM = a form of sexual perversion characterized by a compulsion to peep to
see persons undress or perform other personal activities.

QUESTION DOCUMENTS
DOCUMENT. In its fullest meaning is any material which contains marks, symbols or signs
either visible, partially visible or invisible that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or
message to someone.
 Questioned Document. Any document about which some issue has been raised or
which is under scrutiny, or doubtful origin.
 Standard Document. Are condensed and compact set of authentic specimen which is
adequate and proper, should contain a true cross section of material from a known source.
HANDWRITING. Is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole, and a
combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long continued
painstaking effort.
KINDS OF WRITING
1.      Cursive
2.      Script
3.      Block
SIGNATURE. Is the name of a person written by his own hand as a sign of acknowledgement.
TYPES OF SIGNATURES
1.      Conventional type
2.      Highly individualized type
KINDS OF SIGNATURES
1.      Formal or Complete
2.      Informal or Incomplete
3.      Scribble
MOVEMENT. Is the most important element in handwriting. It embraces all the factors which
are related to the motion of writing instrument such as skill, speed, freedom, hesitation,
rhythm, emphasis, tremors and the like.
KINDS OF MOVEMENT
1.      Finger movement
2.      Hand movement
3.      Forearm movement
4.      Whole arm movement
LINE QUALITY. Is the visible record in the written strokes of the movement and manner of
holding the writing instrument.
CLASSIFICATION
1.      Good line quality
2.      Poor line quality
SLOPE/SLANT. Is the angle of inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the baseline.
BASELINE. Is the ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rest.
ALIGNMENT. The relation of parts of the whole line of writing of one of individual letters in
words to the baseline.
PROPORTION OR RATIO. Is the relation between the tail and the short letters is referred to as
“ratio” of the writing.
STROKE STRUCTURE. Are series of lines or curved within the letters of the alphabet.
PENLIFT. An interpretation in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument (pen) from
the paper.
CHARACTERISTICS. Is any property of mark which distinguishes and in document
examination it is commonly referred to as identifying details.
KINDS OF CHARACTERISTICS
1.      Class characteristics

55
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 56

2.      Individual characteristics

PEN PRESSURE. The average force with which the pen contacts the paper and may be
estimated an examination of the writing.
PEN EMPHASIS. The act of impertinently forcing the pen against the surface with increased
pressures.
RETRACING. Any stroke which goes back over the same stroke.
RHYTHM. An element of the writing movement which is marked by regular or periodic
recurrences.
SHADING. Is the widening of the ink stroke due to added pressure on a flexible pen point or to
the use of such pen.
SKILL. Ability to write or writer’s proficiency
SPEED OF WRITING. Not everyone writer’s writes at the same rate so that consideration of the
speed of writing may be a significant identifying element.
EXAMINATION. Is the act of making a close and critical study of any material and with
questioned document it’s the process necessary to discover facts about them.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION. Any study or examination which made with the microscope in
order to discover minute physical details.
COMPARISON. Is the act of setting two or more items side by side to weight their identifying
qualities.
COLLATION. As used in this text means critical comparison or side-by-side examination.
OPINION. In legal language the document examiner’s conclusion. Actually in court he not only
expresses an opinion but demonstrate the reasons for arriving this opinion.
VARIATION. These are normal or usual deviations found between repeated specimen of any
individual handwriting or in the product of any typewriter.
CAUSES OF VARIATION
1.      Lack of Machine-like precision
2.      External factors such as writing instrument and writing position
3.      Physical and Mental factors
4.      The quality of writing prepared in the course of time
NATURAL WRITING. Any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to
control or alter identifying habits and usual quality or execution.
DISGUISED WRITING. A writing wherein the writer may deliberately try to alter his usual
writing habits in hopes of hiding his identity.
GUIDED SIGNATURES. A signature which is executed while the writers hand or arm is
steadied in any way is classified or assisted signature.
 
 
PREPARATION AND COLLECTION OF STANDARD
TWO(2) CLASSES OF STANDARD
1.      COLLECTED. Are those writings executed from day-to-day in the course of business,
social and personal affairs.
2.      REQUESTED/DEDICATED. Are standard writings prepared upon request of the
investigator and for the sole purpose of comparison with questioned document.
POINTS TO CONSIDER FOR COLLECTED STANDARDS
1.      The amount of standard writings available
2.      Similarity of subject matter
3.      Dates of preparation
4.      Writing material
5.      Writing condition
FOR REQUESTED OR DICTATED STANDARDS
1.      Materials must be dictated to the suspect or suspects
2.      Carefully select the dictated text.
3.      Adequate amount of writing must be included.
4.      Some portion of the dictation should be repeated at least three (3) times
5.      Writing instrument and paper should be similar to those used in preparing the
questioned document.
6.      The dictation should be interrupted at interval.
7.      Normal writing condition should be arranged.
SOURCE OF STANDARD
1.      Personal Document
2.      Educational Papers
3.      Vocational Documents
4.      Financial Documents
5.      Social, Recreational, Fraternal Document
6.      Corporate Documents
7.      Motor vehicle Documents
8.      Military Documents
9.      Governmental and Public Record
10.  Criminal Documents

56
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 57

11.  Miscellaneous Documents

CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

1.      Documents with questioned signatures
2.      Documents containing alleged fraudulent alterations
3.      Holograph Documents
4.      Documents attacked in the question of their age or date
5.      Documents attacked in the question of material used in their production
6.      Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify a person
through handwriting
7.      Genuine Documents erroneously and fraudulently attacked.
8.      Documents investigated on the question of typewriting.

FORGERY. A legal term which involves not only a non-genuine document but also on the part
of its maker.

KINDS OF FORGERY
1.      Simple or Spurious forgery. A fraudulent signature in which there was no apparent
attempt at simulation or imitation.
2.      Simulated Forgery. A fraudulent signature which was executed purely by simulation or
imitation. It is commonly referred to as a free hand imitation.
3.      Traced Forgery. Any fraudulent signature which was executed by actually following the
outline of a genuine signature with a writing instrument.

METHODS OF PRODUCING TRACED FORGERY

1.      By carbon Process
2.      By indentation process
3.      By direct lighting process

DESCRIPTION AND TEMINOLOGY

1.      ARC. a curved formed inside the top curve or loop, as in small letters “h”, “m”,
“n”, “p”
2.      BEARED. A preliminary embellished initial stroke which usually occurs in capital
letters
3.      BUCKLE. A loop made as a flourished which is addressed to the letters as in small
letters “k”, “f”
4.      BODY. The portion of the letter minus the initial upstrokes, terminal strokes and
the diacritic. Ex. The oval of “Q” is the body, minus the downward stroke of the loop.
5.      CONNECTION. The stroke which connects two strokes or letters
6.      DIACRITIC. An element added to the letter to complete its meaning.
7.      EYELET. A small loop or curved formed inside the letter.
8.      FOOT. The lower part which rest on the baseline.
9.      HIATUS. A gap occurring between continuous strokes without lifting the pen.
10.  HOOK. A minute curve or angle which often occurs at the end of the terminal
strokes.
11.  LOOP. An oblong curve found in small “f”, “g”, “h”, “l”. A loop maybe blind or open.
A blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled the open space.
12.  RETRACE. Any part of a stroke which is superimposed upon the original stroke
13.  SHOULDER. Outside portion of the top curve.
14.  OVAL. The portion of letter which is oval in shape small letter “a, d,g, and q”
contains oval.
15.  SPUR. A  short horizontal initial or terminal stroke of a letter.
16.  STAFF. A major long downward stroke of a letter
17.  TICK. Any short backward stroke, which usually occurs at the top of letters.
18.  HUMP. Upper rounded portion of letters.

POINTS IN THE EXAMINATION OF EXTENDED WRITINGS

(Anonymous letter, threat letter, poison letter)
1.      UNIFORMITY. Smooth, rhythmic and free-flowing appearance.
2.      Irregularities. Appear awkward, ill-formed slowly drawn.
3.      Size and proportion. Height of the over-all writing as well as height of individual
strokes.
4.      ALIGNMENT. Are they horizontally aligned.
5.      SPACING. Determine the general, spacing between letters and spacing between
words.

57
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 58

6.      DEGREE OF SLANT. Are they uniform or not

7.      FORMATION AND DESIGN OF LETTER
8.      Initial, connecting and final strokes.
ALTERATIONS. Are the changes made on a document after its original preparation

KINDS OF ALTERATION
1.      ERASURE. The removal of writing, typewriting or printing from a document
Chemical Erasure. The writing is effaced by the use of liquid ink eradicator
Mechanical Erasure. The writing is effaced by rubbing with rubber eraser or scratching
out with a knife or other sharp instrument.
2.      OBILITERATIONS. The blotting out or smearing over of writing to make the
original invisible or undecipherable.
3.      ADDITION.  Any matter made a part of the document after its original preparation.
4.      SUBSTRACTION. Any matter rubbed out, strike out and/or scratched out after its
original preparation.
5.      INTERLINEATION. The term “insertion” and “interlineations” include the addition
or paging or the addition of whole pages to a document.
6.      SUPERIMPOSITION. Often accomplished by covering or smearing over laying the
original writing.
7.      DECIPHERMENT. The process of making out what is illegible or what has been
effaced.
8.      INK ERADICATOR. Consist of chemical solutions which are capable of erasing ink.
SECRET INK. Material used for writing which is not visible until treated by some
developing process or substance.
BALL POINT PEN. A writing instrument which has as its marking tip a small freely
rotating ball bearing rolls the ink in the paper. This pen uses highly viscous non aqueous
ink.
FOUNTAIN PEN. A modern nib pen which contains a reservoir of ink in a specially
designed sack or chamber. After complete filling, the pen is capable of writing a number
of pages without refilling.

COUUNTERFEITING
Counterfeit Note. Is an imitation of a legal and genuine note, a likeness or resemblance
intended to deceive.
Counterfeit Coin. Is an imitation or forging of the particular design of a genuine, legal
and authorized coin regardless of its intrinsic value.

How To Detect Counterfeit Central Bank Notes. :

The first step in the detection of counterfeit note is to study the workmanship of each
denomination of known genuine Central Bank Notes. You must bear in  mind that there
are ten (10) special features you should take note of and familiarize yourself with.

TEN (10) SPECIAL FEATURES

1.      PAPER. A genuine note is course and rough while a counterfeit one is smooth and
slimy and the prints are mere stains on the coating of the sensitized glossy paper. Our
notes are made of linen and cotton. It is not pulp but of cloth. Due to the measurable
thickness of the ink deposited on the paper, it gives the print an embossed effect.
2.      PORTRAIT. The portrait appears “life-like”. The tiny dots forming the details of the
face, hair, etc. are clear, sharp and well defined. The portrait stands out distinctly from
the background. In counterfeit notes, the portrait appears “dead” dull, smudgy and
poorly printed. The eyes do not sparkle.
3.      WATERMARK. Is the same as the colored portrait. This design is placed during the
manufacture of the paper. Sharp details of the outline of the light and shadow effect are
discernible when viewed with the aid of transmitted light. In counterfeit notes, imitation
of the portrait is done on the finished paper. Wax or other oily medium is stamped, to
give transparency to the portion where the design appears or a printed out line is placed
on the inner sheet where two sheets are used or merely a paper cut-out is placed inside.
4.      SECURITY THREAD. A special thread paced vertically on the paper during the
manufacture. It is flat and greyish in colour. In counterfeit note, this is faked by means
of printing a vertical line on the back of the note or on the inner side of the paper or by
insertion of twine thread.
5.      SECURITY FIBER. These are red and blue fibers scattered at random on both
surfaces and can be readily pricked off by means of a needle or a pointed instrument. In
counterfeit note, this is simulated by printed lines and cannot be pricked off and cold
easily be erased with an ordinary rubber eraser or by agitating with wet fingers.
6.      BACKGROUND. The background designs are multi-colored and are composed of
sharp lines which are continuous and traceable even at the joints. The background
designs in counterfeit notes are often blurred, rough, blotched on the intersection
resulting in a different color scheme making the general appearance faded or darker.

58
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 59

7.      COLOR. Genuine notes have polychrome background with one predominant color
for each denomination.
1,000 peso – Light blue
500 peso    -- Yellow
100 peso    -- Mauve
200 peso    -- Green
50 peso      -- Red
20 peso      -- Orange
10 peso      -- Brown
8.      SERIAL NUMBER. The prefixes and numbers are clearly printed. They have a
peculiar style and are uniform in size and thickness. Spacing of the numbers is uniform
and alignment is even. In counterfeit notes, the letters and number are poorly printed
and are of different style. They are not evenly spaced and poorly aligned.
9.      VIGNETTE. The lines and dots composing the vignette are fine, distinct and sharp,
it gives a bold look to the picture that make it stand out of the paper. In counterfeit
notes, it appears dull and poorly printed and dirty.
10.  CLEANNESS OF PRINT. The registry of the different printed features is perfect. The
lines are very clean and sharp. In general, a suspicious counterfeit note exhibits a
“second hand” look. It is dirty due to spattering of ink on the interior area. Over inked
areas are visible instantly.

ADDITIONAL SPECIAL FEATURES

FLOURESCENT PRINT. Also called invisible print, the fluorescent print is one feature
that appears at the centre of the face of the note which is not seen by the naked eye
except by the use of ultraviolet light.
MICROPRINTS. Tiny prints which are clearly printed and readable. Present only on
denomination of 50, 100, 500, and 1,000
LATENT IMAGE/CONCEALED VALUE. True only for 500/1000 denomination
Located at the lower left corner of the face
Recognizable when the note is held at eye level
OPTICALL VARIABLE INK (OVI). Special characteristics of 1,000 denomination which
changes colour from green to blue or gray when the note is held at different angles.
 
   Lastly, you should not only memorize the color of each note with the corresponding
denomination but you know who’s portrait appear in the corresponding in the
corresponding denomination.
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HANDWRITING
1.      Brain’s writing centre in the cortex
2.      Pen functions as the extension of the hand
3.      Motor area of cortex responsible for finer movement involved in writing
4.      Motor Coordination. The delicate way in which the various muscles used in
handwriting work together to produce written forms.
 
THE HAND CONTAINS TWO (2) KINDS OF MUSCLE
Extensor Muscles.  Muscles that push the pen to form upward strokes.
Flexor Muscles. Muscles that push the pen to form a downward strokes.
Flexors, Extensors and Lumbricals. Muscle to form the lateral strokes

EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES
1.      MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
Stereoscopic examination with low and high power objectives is used to detect
retouching, patching, and unnatural pen lift in signature analysis. With proper angle and
intensity of illumination, it aids in the decipherment of erasures, some minutes
manipulation not perfectly pictured to the unaided eye, and the sequence of entries done
by different writing instrument.
2.      TRANSMITTED LIGHT EXAMINATION. Documents are subjected to this type of
examination to determine the presence of erasures, matching of serration and some
other types of alterations.
3.      OBLIQUE LIGHT EXAMINATION.  Decipherment of faded writing, determination of
outlines in traced forgery, embossed impression, et. Are subjected to this type of
examination.
4.      PHOTOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION. This type of examination is very essential in
every document examination. Actual observations are recorded in the photograph.
5.      ELECTROSTATIC DETECTION APPARATUS(ESDA). Detects  indention/indented
writings and records transparencies of any indentations.
6.      ULTRA VIOLET EXAMINATION.  The exposures of a document to this useful when it
consist of several pages and substitution is being suspected. The color  and intensity of a

59
 CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAMINATION REVIEW - RMG 60

substituted page. Mechanical and chemical erasures will certainly change the reflectively
of the area affected.
7.      VIDEO SPECTRAL COMPARISON (VSC).   (a) used in the examination of masked or
obliterated text, watermarks, visible fluorescence and oblique illumination of indented
writing and embossing. (b) detects variation in the infra-red characteristics of inks. (c)
reveals alterations by eliminating interfering background luminescence.
8.      PREPARATION OF COURT EXHIBITS. After the document examiner has completed
his examination and the Laboratory report has been submitted, he prepares the
photographic exhibits for court demonstration and illustration.

60