DEPTH STUDY 1: THE WESTERN AND ISLAMIC WORLD

TOPIC 6
Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600)
6.1 Overview
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in this topic.

6.1.1 Links with our times

The term renaissance, meaning ‘rebirth’, has been used to describe the great changes that took place during
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries CE. These changes began in Italy but spread throughout Europe. They
marked the end of the Middle Ages and the
beginning of the modern age. SOURCE 1 In early modern times it could be dangerous
In our times, we are used to change. We have to promote new ideas. This engraving depicts people
being burned alive in seventeenth-century Spain for
only to think about relatively recent technologies having ideas that were different from those of the Roman
like computers, mobile phones and the internet, Catholic Church. Some Protestant church leaders were
and issues such as global warming, to know just as intolerant.
that the future will be very different from the
present. Today, in much of the world, people
are able to freely investigate scientific issues.
We can express ourselves through the arts and
can debate different opinions. In modern‑day
Australia, we sometimes take for granted the
freedom we have to express different ideas
and beliefs. No authorities have the right to
discriminate against us on such matters. But
this freedom does not exist everywhere in the
modern world, and it did not exist in early
modern times. In many ways, our lives today
are shaped by changes that began in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries.
For most people in most places, life during
those times probably seemed to go on as it
had before. Few people could have been
aware that the changes that were happening
would have enormous consequences. Almost
all of the great changes that began in this
period started in Europe but would affect the
whole world. These changes made it possible
for Europe to do something which no other
civilisation had been able to do — to spread
its power and culture across the world.

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600) 197

 SOURCE 2 A timeline of the Renaissance and the Reformation SOURCE 3 An illustration of the human
skeleton that Vesalius published in 1543
CE

1400

1415
Jan Hus is burnt alive
for his religious ideas.
1417–36
Brunelleschi
creates the dome of
Florence Cathedral. 1445
Johannes Gutenberg
produces the first European
1450
book on a printing press
using moveable type.

1492
Christopher Colombus
sails to the Americas.
Leonardo da Vinci
1500 1501 Big questions
Michelangelo begins work
designs a flying on his great statue As you work through this topic, look
machine. David. for information that will help you to
answer these questions:
1517 1. What were the main features of
Martin Luther begins Italian Renaissance society?
the Protestant 1531–32 2. What kinds of relationships existed
Reformation. The Church of England between the rulers and those they
breaks away from the
ruled?
1536 Roman Catholic Church.
The Inquisition is 3. What were some of the most
established in 1550 significant achievements of the
Portugal. Renaissance?
4. How did significant individuals
1543
influence the Renaissance?
Nicolaus Copernicus
publishes the first 5. What have been the legacies of the
book showing that Renaissance era?
the Earth is not
1600
the centre of the
universe. The astronomer Starter questions
Giordano Bruno 1. How might the mass production
is burnt at the stake
of books on printing presses have
1589–1613 1600 in Rome.
changed society?
William Shakespeare
1606 2. How might discovering that the
creates most of his
Dutch sailors first Earth is not the centre of the
known work.
land in Australia.
universe have changed the way
people thought about their world?
3. What would it be like to live in
a time when a person could be
1633 1618–48
The Thirty Years’ War
tortured and burned alive because
Galileo is arrested for
denying the Earth is kills a third of they had different ideas?
the centre of the Germany’s people. 4. Why is religious tolerance very
universe. 1650 important in the modern world,
especially in countries such as
CE Australia?

198 Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

6.2 How do we know about the Renaissance era?
6.2.1 Renaissance
The period between 1400 and 1750 was an age
SOURCE 1 Part of the Roman Catholic Basilica
of great changes in science, art, religious belief,
of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri
exploration and power. These changes were made (Saint Mary of the Angels and the Martyrs)
possible by the Renaissance, a term first used in the in Rome. The church was built in the ancient
nineteenth century to describe the fifteenth century Roman Baths of Diocletian. It was designed
as the beginning of a new age. However, modern in the sixteenth century by the great Italian
Renaissance artist Michelangelo Buonarotti.
historians use the term to refer to two periods: the
medieval Renaissance and the fifteenth‑century
Renaissance.

The medieval Renaissance

During the medieval Renaissance of the twelfth century,
the Crusades brought Europe back into contact with the
East. Europeans rediscovered ancient Greek culture that
had been kept alive by the Byzantine Empire and by
the Muslims. As European scholars translated Greek
and Arabic texts into Latin, new  teachers moved from
place to place questioning church doctrines. Among
them was Peter Abelard (1079–1142), who taught that
reason should guide all thinking. The first universities
formed around such teachers. However, the church
authorities crushed this new spirit of inquiry. The fate
of Arnold of Brescia, a pupil of Abelard, was a warning
to those who were too outspoken. For criticising the
power of the Pope, he was hanged and burned in Rome
in 1155.

The fifteenth-century Renaissance

During the fifteenth‑century Renaissance, western
European scholars were again inspired by the classics.
Ancient Greek and Roman buildings, arts and ideas
inspired new art and architecture and a new interest
in scientific investigation. The humanist movement developed. Humanism stressed the dignity of human
beings and the importance of reason and inquiry. It encouraged questioning and exploring new ideas rather
than simply accepting the ideas of the Church.

The Reformation
There had been many earlier challenges to the ideas and power of the Roman Catholic Church, but in the
sixteenth century such movements led to the creation of the huge number of different Protestant Christian
denominations that exist in the world today. Historians are divided on how far Renaissance attitudes were
responsible for the Reformation.

Voyages of discovery
Voyages of discovery by western Europeans changed Europe’s understanding of the world. They opened up
new worlds for Europeans to conquer and exploit, and gave Catholics and Protestants new opportunities to
spread their beliefs.

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600) 199

6.2.2 Renaissance primary sources
There are an enormous number of records of this period. A few types of sources are:
• maps and other records made by those who conducted voyages of discovery
• books, including the Italian Niccolo Machiavelli’s The Prince (1513) and the works of English dramatist
William Shakespeare (1564–1616)
• lectures and sermons given by leaders of the Reformation such as Martin Luther
• music created by composers such as Giovanni Palestrina (1525–1549)
• Renaissance architecture such as the works of Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446)
• great collections of Renaissance art in museums and churches throughout Italy and other parts of
Europe.

SOURCE 2 A view of the city of modern-day Florence, Italy. SOURCE 3 A canopy in the Basilica of
Filippo Brunelleschi’s great fifteenth-century dome of the Saint John Lateran in Rome. The Catholic
Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore towers above the city. Church claims the canopy of this Roman
church holds relics of the skulls of Saint
Peter and Saint Paul.

6.2 Activities
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Check your understanding

1. Describe the changes that occurred during the Renaissance.

Apply your understanding

2. Look closely at Source 1. The painting on the far wall depicts Mary, the mother of Jesus, with seven angels.
At certain times of the day, the light from the window falls across the statue of Mary on the bottom right. What
emotional effect do you think such features of the design were intended to have on worshippers at the church?
3. Study Source 3.
(a) What was supposed to be held in the canopy in the church?
(b) Do you think that people at the time would have believed such claims?
(c) Do you think the claim could be true? Give reasons for your answer.
4. Study Source 2. Why would one of the most prominent buildings in a European city be a church or
cathedral?
5. Using your answers to activities 1–3, write a summary of the influence of religion on the lives of people in
western Europe in the time of the Renaissance.

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6.3 The origins of the Renaissance
6.3.1 The spirit of the Renaissance
The fifteenth‑century Renaissance began and
SOURCE 1 A map of Italy in 1494. In the fifteenth
thrived in Italy, especially in city‑states such century, Italy was several separate states that were not
as Florence, Genoa and Venice. These cities unified until the late nineteenth century.
were at the crossroads of trade routes linking
Europe, the Middle East and Asia. From Italy,
the Renaissance spread to northern Europe, MARQUISATE
OF MANTUA
especially after 1445, when books started to be MARQUISATE OF
MONTFERRAT
BISHOPRIC
OF TRENT
0 200 400
printed in Europe.
kilometres
The spirit of the Renaissance was expressed DUCHY
DUCHY
RE
BL
PU
OF
in the thinking and creations of many people. SAVOY OF
MILAN DUCHY OF
IC
O
F
ASTI FERRARA V
Renaissance attitudes led to developments in DUCHY OF
EN
I
REPUBLIC MODENA
art, architecture, literature, music, philosophy,

CE
OF GENOA REPUBLIC
San Marino
REPUBLIC OF FLORENCE REPUBLIC
education and science. Artists and scholars OF LUCCA
REPUBLIC PAPAL
OF RAGUSA

OF SIENA STATES
created the Renaissance and the wealthy classes CORSICA A D R I AT I C

financed it. Merchants in cities had grown rich (GENOA) Rome SEA
Pontecorvo
through trade. They became patrons of the arts BENEVENTO
Naples
to show off their achievements. The Church KINGDOM
OF NAPLES
SARDINIA
also invested its wealth in art and architecture, (ARAGON) TYRHENNIAN SEA

although it saw the Renaissance spirit of

inquiry as a threat to its authority. However,
Palermo
the Renaissance had no significant impact on KINGDOM OF
SICILY
IONIAN SEA

unskilled, uneducated workers in cities and (ARAGON) Syracuse

towns or on the vast majority of people who

lived in the countryside.
Key
Rome City MEDITERRANEAN SEA
6.3.2 Renaissance Italy ASTI State

Renaissance Florence
The city of Florence was perfectly situated to play a leading role in the Renaissance. Located in central
Italy, it had a population of about 60 000 in the mid‑fourteenth century and an economy based on banking
and trade in woollen textiles. It had a republican form of government that was dominated by its wealthier
citizens, especially the Medici family who ruled Florence continually between 1389 and 1492. The Medici
and other members of the ruling class attracted, encouraged and employed artists and architects to design
and decorate palaces, paint portraits, create sculptures and adorn the city with beautiful churches.

Renaissance Venice
Venice was also a republic that was ruled by wealthy citizens. By the thirteenth century, it had become
a strong naval power and a very successful centre of trade at the crossroads of the Byzantine Empire,
the Muslim world and Europe. Venice created an empire by seizing territories on the eastern shores
of the Adriatic Sea and islands in the Aegean Sea. Venice profited by financing the Fourth Crusade
when it attacked, seized and plundered Constantinople in 1204. From the late thirteenth century, wealthy
Venetians displayed their power by building palaces and by supporting artists. Venice came into conflict
with the Catholic Church on several occasions because the city discouraged religious fanatics and
generally tolerated new ideas. By 1482, Venice led Europe in printing books but it declined as a trading

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600) 201

power after losing most of its empire to the Ottoman Turks, and after the Portuguese found a sea route to
India. This discovery destroyed Venetian control of east–west trade. The Black Death (bubonic plague)
also contributed to the city’s decline. Between 1576 and 1577 the plague killed about 50 000 Venetians.
It returned in 1630 to kill around a third of the population.

SOURCE 2 A nineteenth-century copy of the Pianta della Cantena, a woodcut made about 1470, showing
Florence at the height of the Renaissance

SOURCE 3 A fifteenth-century Venetian SOURCE 4 The Doge’s Palace in Venice. The

aristocrat’s palace Great Council made up of members of aristocratic
families governed Venice and elected a doge (duke)
as the ceremonial head of state.

Deepen and check your understanding of the topic with the following resources and
auto-marked questions:
 Renaissance Italy

202 Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

 6.3 Activities
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Check your understanding

1. Where did the Renaissance begin?
2. Which cultures inspired the Renaissance?
3. What kinds of developments did Renaissance attitudes contribute towards?
4. Why were many wealthy Florentines (citizens of Florence) and Venetians willing to become patrons of the arts?

Apply your understanding

5. Study Source 1. List the Italian states that were:
(a) republics
(b) kingdoms or duchies (ruled by dukes)
(c) ruled by the Pope.
6. Study Source 2. Using it as a guide, sketch Florence as it was in 1470 and label the following features:
(a) the Arno River and its bridges
(b) the massive dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore
(c) the walls surrounding the city.
7. Compare Source 2 in this subtopic with Source 2 in subtopic 6.2. How accurate is the depiction of Florence
in the woodcut?
8. What do Sources 3 and 4 tell you about the wealth of fifteenth-century Venice?
9. In small groups, discuss the differences between the kinds of republics that existed in Renaissance Italy and
modern ideas about what a republic should be. You may need to research this using the internet or your library.

6.4 Renaissance society

6.4.1 The power of the Church
Western Europeans lived in many different states and there was great inequality in all of them. Republics
such as Venice and Florence were ruled by wealthy citizens. Many smaller states were ruled by princes,
aristocrats or bishops. Several states, including England and France, were ruled by kings.
Regardless of the form of government, the head of the Catholic Church, the Pope, claimed authority over
the rulers of all Christian states. The Pope’s power had grown since early medieval times when he had been
simply the bishop of Rome, one bishop out of many.
•• The Pope could excommunicate any ruler who defied him.
•• He could call on other rulers to make war against those who defied him, and he could award the lands of
the defeated rulers to their enemies.
•• When people challenged the Church’s interpretation of the Christian scriptures, the Pope could have
them declared to be heretics. The punishment for heresy was being burned alive.
•• In addition, the Pope was a monarch who ruled the Papal States in central Italy.
However, in practice, there were limits to the Pope’s power. In each state, local rulers appointed bishops to
head the Church at the local level, and there were often disputes over the limits of the powers of rulers and the
powers of the Church.

DID YOU KNOW?

Church leaders told the poor to accept their position, but during the fourteenth century there were many
uprisings of peasants, cloth workers and miners. The poor were deeply religious and they resented injustice for
religious reasons. They believed that Jesus died for all, not just for the privileged classes, which they considered
the Church leaders to belong to.

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600)  203

 SOURCE 1 Jan Hus being burned at the SOURCE 2 From the writings of Jan Hus
stake in 1415. Hus was a Czech Catholic
priest and teacher at the University of Prague. One pays for confession, for mass, for the sacrament
He was condemned for criticising the Church. … for a blessing, for burials, for funeral services and
His death was followed by fourteen years of for prayers. The very last penny which an old woman
conflict known as the Hussite Wars. has hidden in her bundle for fear of thieves or robbery
will not be saved. The villainous priest will grab it.

6.4.2 The growth of states and cities

Huge changes took place between the 1400s and the
1600s. In the fifteenth century, Europeans felt that they
belonged to Christendom. By the mid‑seventeenth
century, European kingdoms and principalities
had become stronger with more authority over towns and
provinces. Each state was a world to itself with no bond
to other states apart from temporary treaties.
There were powerful, largely self‑governing cities
in Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany.
Most of the literate population of Europe lived in cities.
City and town governments supported schools and
universities. From the middle of the fifteenth century,
economic life expanded with more land being cleared for
farming, population growth and a big increase in mining
and cloth‑making. This contributed to the expansion of
existing cities and the growth of new cities from villages.

6.4.3 Classes and social unrest

SOURCE 3 An illustration from the fifteenth- In the countryside, society was structured much as it had
century manuscript De Sphaera, showing the
been in the Middle Ages with landowning aristocrats at
artisans of Florence at work
the top and peasants at the bottom. There were tensions
between peasants and landlords, including the Church,
which was a huge landowner. In towns, merchants and
bankers were at the top. Next came small traders and
artisans (skilled craftsmen) and at the bottom were
unskilled workers and the unemployed.

Rank and status

How people lived in Renaissance Italy depended mainly
on where they ranked in society. Near the top, rank
became more complicated during the fifteenth century,
as much wealth was transferred to the rising class of
merchants and bankers. This occurred mainly because
the nobility borrowed money to finance their luxurious
lifestyles, entertainments and wars. When they were
unable to repay their debts, much of their wealth passed
to the merchants who had provided their loans. Besides
birth and social class, people’s social status was also
influenced by age and gender, and whether or not they
were married.

204 Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

 DID YOU KNOW?
Four groups of people were considered to be outside Italian Renaissance society. These were: prostitutes,
who earned their living by providing sex; Jews, who were despised as non-Christians; mercenary soldiers,
who fought for the city-states in wars; and slaves, who were mostly Muslims from North Africa, Spain and
the Balkans. Although slave numbers were small, most wealthy Italian families had at least one slave as a
household servant.

6.4.4 Women and children in SOURCE 4 This painting of Lucrezia

Renaissance Italy Borgia (1480–1519) was created by
the artist Pinturicchio. Lucrezia was
Women had fewer rights than men but they could gain status the most famous of all Renaissance
through marriage. Both men and women were considered to Italian women. She was the daughter
be under the authority of their fathers until they married. But of Rodrigo Borgia, who later became
when a woman married, she was under the authority of her Pope Alexander VI, and Vannozza dei
Cattanei, one of Rodrigo’s mistresses.
husband. Marriage in Renaissance Italy was not based on
The Borgia family was ruthless and
the modern idea of romantic love. The Catholic Church saw corrupt, but also wealthy and very
marriage as a sacred institution in which men and women powerful. The family arranged several
could have sex without sinning, produce children and help marriages for Lucrezia to further their
each other to achieve salvation. Under Church law, marriage own power and influence. It is generally
believed that Lucrezia’s brother, Cesare,
was supposed to take place with the free consent of both
had her second husband murdered.
parties. In reality, marriages were often arranged by families,
and it was not unusual for a couple to first see each other at
their wedding. Especially among wealthy families, marriage
was seen as a means of securing a family’s prosperity and
influence through alliances with other families.

Family honour — sexual relationships

and dowries
The Catholic Church taught that sex outside marriage was a
sin for men and women, but in reality, only women were held
to blame when this rule was broken. At all levels of society,
but especially among the upper classes, a family’s honour was
thought to be upheld or damaged by the sexual behaviour of
its women. Upper class girls were usually married off when
they were just fifteen or sixteen years old to avoid the risk of
sexual relationships that would bring ‘dishonour’ on a family,
especially if a pregnancy occurred. Men usually married
in their mid‑twenties or even later. Despite the Church’s
teachings, Italy had many brothels. In 1500, Venice had 100
000 residents of whom about 12 000 were prostitutes. Their clients included men from all levels of society,
including priests and visitors from other places. Many prostitutes had been forced into their profession by
poverty. Despite this, it was usually the prostitutes, rather than their clients, who received the blame for the
situation.
Dowries were also a mark of family honour. At marriage, a bride’s family was expected to provide a
dowry to her husband and his family. This could consist of money, household goods and property. Generally,
the amount would depend on a family’s wealth. At times the cost of dowries became so high that laws tried,
unsuccessfully, to limit them. Many church congregations raised funds to provide dowries for girls from
poorer families to increase their chances of marriage.

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600) 205

Renaissance women artists
The home was regarded as the place for women in Renaissance Italy. However, by the sixteenth century
humanist influence made it possible for a few women from the upper classes to study painting. Although
women were barred from academies where male nudes provided models, some women managed to become
successful artists. Among them were: Sofonisba Anguissola; Marietta Robusti, the daughter of the famous
artist, Tintoretto; and Caterina dei Vigri, a nun.

Childhood in Renaissance Italy

Life was short in Renaissance times, with few people living into their forties. Working class houses usually
had no more than two rooms, a bed, table and bench, and a few utensils. Yet in most families a child was
born every two years. In poorer families particularly, most children did not live long enough to reach
adulthood. Childbirth itself was so dangerous that it was common for women to make their wills before a
baby was due to be born.
In all social classes children were
SOURCE 5 Like this street, much of Venice has changed very
regarded as little adults and expected
little from the way it would have appeared during the Italian
to dress and behave like their elders. Renaissance.
But, unlike their elders, children had
no rights. Peasant and artisan children
usually had no formal education. In
peasant families children were put to
work in the fields as soon as they were
old enough to be useful. In artisan fam‑
ilies, children would work alongside
their fathers from an early age, with
boys normally learning the father’s
trade through apprenticeships from
about age fourteen.
It was only among the wealthy
classes that childhood began to be seen
as a period of freedom from the respon‑
sibilities of adult life. Upper class boys
usually attended colleges from around
age seven to fifteen unless they had
home tutors. Upper class girls might attend a convent school until they were married or became nuns.
In all classes, girls had less status than boys. Babies were often abandoned or left to orphanages because
their parents had died, were unmarried or could not afford to keep them. The records of the city‑states show
that two‑thirds of all abandoned babies were girls. To relieve the burden on poor families, many girls were
sent out to work as servants in wealthy households. Although some were treated well by their employers,
others suffered physical and sexual abuse and the laws gave them little protection from such treatment.

6.4 Activities
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Check your understanding

1. Copy the following sentences and complete them by filling in the gaps.
(a) Some western European states were republics. Others were ruled by ________________,
________________, bishops or ________________.

206 Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

 (b) The Pope could ________________ rulers who opposed him and could have critics burned alive as
________________.
(c) The Pope also ruled as a monarch in the ________________ ________________.
2. Choose the correct word from inside the brackets to complete each of these sentences.
(a) From the 1400s to the 1650s, European states grew (stronger/weaker).
(b) Most people who could read and write lived in (villages/cities).
(c) Economic growth took place from the mid-(fifteenth/sixteenth) century.
3. Name three groups of workers who took part in uprisings in the fourteenth century.
4. Draw a social pyramid to show the position of different social classes in cities.

Apply your understanding

5. Study Source 1 and 2.
(a) Describe what is happening in Source 1.
(b) What was Jan Hus’s main criticism of the Church in Source 2?
(c) From these two sources, what could you say about the character of Hus?
(d) What does his execution tell us about one aspect of Renaissance society?
6. Almost six centuries after the execution of Jan Hus, Pope John Paul II expressed ‘deep regret for the cruel
death inflicted’ on him. In groups, discuss why you think the Church was intolerant in the fifteenth century
and why its perspective has changed.
7. Using Source 5 and the information in this subtopic, imagine you are around your present age but you
are living in this street during the Renaissance. If you are a girl, you have been sent out by your poor
family to work as a servant in the mansion at the left. If you are a boy, you have just commenced an
apprenticeship in a workshop further down the street. Write a description of what you would see and
hear, how you would feel about your situation, and what hopes you would have for your future.
8. Write four questions a historian investigating the Renaissance could ask when analysing Source 3.
9. Use the internet to research the life of Lucrezia Borgia (see Source 4). Prepare a presentation in which you
give a brief outline of her life and explain what her story reveals about the character of Renaissance Italian
society and the position of women in that society.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 6.1: The Renaissance — what was it?

6.5 Artistic stars of the Renaissance

6.5.1 Renaissance artists
Many people consider the Italian ‑Renaissance artists and architects to be among the greatest of all time.
Among the most famous are Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475–1564), Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519),
Raphael (1488–1520) and Titian (1488–1576).

6.5.2 Renaissance painting and sculpture

During the Renaissance, there was a great increase in demand for the works of talented painters, sculptors
and architects, and cities competed to attract them by promising great rewards. Renaissance visual artists
created works that were different in style from most art of the Middle Ages (compare Sources 5 and  6).
Artists now felt free to experiment with technique, light and colour. Unlike earlier artists, they used rich
colours and tried to show depth in scenes by painting perspectives and distances realistically. This gave
their paintings the feeling of having three dimensions. Artists began to use oil paint, and many of them
created frescoes on buildings by applying paint to wet lime plaster.

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600)  207

 SOURCE 1  Michelangelo Buonarotti SOURCE 2  Leonardo da Vinci

SOURCE 3  Raphael SOURCE 4  Titian

Medieval sculptures had been mostly relief sculpture (shallow figures carved out of a flat background).
Renaissance sculptors were inspired by ancient Greek statues of the classical style that had developed in
the fifth century BC. They were also inspired by Roman statues that copied this Greek style. To achieve
realism, Renaissance painters and sculptors used live models to create the figures in their works. They also
studied anatomy to gain a better understanding of how the human body functions and moves.

Subject matter
Like medieval artists, Renaissance artists still painted religious scenes, especially scenes depicting events
in the Bible and the lives of saints. However, many also worked on other subjects including scenes from
Greek and Roman myths, landscapes and ­portraits, especially of their wealthy patrons.

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 SOURCE 5 An illustration from a medieval SOURCE 6 A detail from Sandro Botticelli’s
manuscript depicting the Three Graces (goddesses painting Primavera (c. 1482) showing the
from Greek and Roman myths) Three Graces

DID YOU KNOW?

Antonio Pollaiuolo, who lived during the fifteenth century, was probably the first artist to dissect (cut up) human
corpses to study anatomy. Leonardo da Vinci did the same and even discovered that hardening of the arteries
was a cause of death in older people.

6.5.3 Renaissance architecture SOURCE 7 Michelangelo Buonarotti’s

Like Renaissance sculptors, Renaissance architects were famous Pieta (meaning ‘pity’). The marble
inspired by the reawakened interest in the knowledge and sculpture depicts Mary holding the body of
her son Jesus Christ after his crucifixion.
techniques of ancient Greece and Rome. The remains of
ancient Roman buildings with their Greek columns and
Roman arches and domes stood in many places, especially in
Italy. Architects copied their styles and techniques to design
new buildings.
Among the most brilliant of their works is the dome of the
Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. The building
of this church had commenced in 1296. In 1419 Filippo
Brunelleschi (1377–1446) won a competition to design its
dome. Brunelleschi  based his dome on the style of ancient
Rome. His completed dome is considered one of the greatest
architectural achievements of the Renaissance (see Source 2
in subtopic 6.2).

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600) 209

 SOURCE 8  A small section of the mural on the SOURCE 9  Rooftop view of the Cathedral of Santa
ceiling of the Sistine Chapel (the Pope’s private Maria del Fiore in Florence
chapel) in Rome. This section shows God giving
life to Adam. Michelangelo spent four painful years
painting the entire mural.

SOURCE 10  Interior view of Last Judgment Fresco Cycle in the dome (duomo) of
Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence

6.5 Activities
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Check your understanding

1. Name four famous Renaissance artists.
2. How did the Renaissance benefit talented painters, sculptors and architects?
3. Why did Renaissance artists study anatomy?
4. What ancient styles inspired Renaissance sculptors and architects?

210  Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

 Apply your understanding
5. Compare Sources 5 and 6. Identify three differences between the styles of these two artworks using the
following headings:
(a) depth
(b) realism
(c) colour.
6. Look closely at Source 7.
(a) Describe the details of the sculpture.
(b) Describe the emotional effect of the sculpture.
(c) What would have been the difficulties of carving this out of a single piece of marble?
7. The mural in Source 8 was painted on a ceiling very high above the chapel floor. Imagine and discuss the
difficulty of such a task in the sixteenth century.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 6.2: Artistic stars

Explore more with these weblinks: Renaissance art gallery

6.6 The spread of the Renaissance

6.6.1 A widening movement
From about 1450, the Renaissance spread from Italy
to every part of Europe. Historians call this ­movement SOURCE 1  An engraving from the 1800s of
the Northern Renaissance. Ideas were spread in s­everal William Shakespeare (1564–1616), the English
ways: through rulers importing Italian art and employing playwright and poet who is regarded as the
greatest writer in the English language
Italian artists and architects; through trade; through
northern European students attending Italian u­ niversities;
and through northern writers and scholars who were
influenced by Italian humanism. But the most ­important
reason for the spread of Renaissance ideas was the
growing availability of printed books.
Influential scholars, such as Erasmus and Rabelais,
spread humanist ideas as they travelled. King Francis I
of France brought in Italian artists, including Leonardo
da Vinci, to paint for his court. Several Italian artists
came to Poland from the mid-fifteenth century. King
Ivan III brought in Italian architects to design R
­ ussian
buildings. Young Hungarians studying in Italy returned
with humanist ideas and, in the late ­fifteenth century, the
­Hungarian city of Buda became an important centre of the
arts with one of Europe’s greatest collections of books.
The spread of the Renaissance was not about the
­copying of Italian ideas but the development of them. In
Northern Europe, the brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck
perfected techniques of painting in oils. This e­nabled
paintings to survive for a longer period of time. In the

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600)  211

Netherlands, the painter and printmaker Pieter Bruegel (1525–1569) followed Italian artists in depicting
scenes from the Bible. An example is his famous Massacre of the Innocents (1565–1567), which depicts
the biblical story of King Herod’s attempt to wipe out all young male children in ancient Bethlehem. How‑
ever, Bruegel also explored other ideas in his artwork, such as the horrors of war in his Triumph of Death
(1562), and he went on to influence many artists through his landscapes and scenes of peasant life.

The English Renaissance

Some historians have argued that cultural developments in England were unrelated to the movement that
began in Italy. However, from the early sixteenth century, Renaissance culture flourished in England, espe‑
cially through the works of poets such as John Milton and John Donne, and playwrights such as Christo‑
pher Marlowe and William Shakespeare. Of all the great figures of the English Renaissance, none has had
a more lasting influence than Shakespeare (see section 6.10.1).

6.6.2 The printing press

Even though many Europeans were illiterate, no means of spreading Renaissance ideas was more important
than the printing press. A form of printing with moveable type had been used in China since the late tenth
century, but the first European printing press was developed in Germany between 1440 and 1452 by Johannes
Gutenberg (1398–1468), a goldsmith. Before Gutenberg’s press, books had to be copied by hand or printed
from wooden blocks on which each letter had to be hand‑carved.

SOURCE 2 A modern artist’s impression of printers producing books on a fifteenth-century printing press

C
D

A Metal letters, numbers B A frame of type was then C A press, adapted from D The press was raised
and symbols called ‘type’ fixed onto the press and a wine press for squashing and the printed pages
were arranged and the surface of the type grapes, was pulled down were removed. The
rearranged side by side was covered with ink. to press sheets of paper complete sets of pages
in rows held together by against the ink-covered were bound together to
a frame to create each type in the frame. make a copy of a book.
page of print.

212 Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

 Gutenberg’s press and those that improved upon it used
SOURCE 3  A model of one of Gutenberg’s
movable metal type. This enabled books and ­pamphlets early (c. 1440) printing presses
to be mass-produced so that ideas could ­circulate widely.
Books were generally printed in Latin because it was the
­international language of scholars. They were also printed in
the various languages used by the ­peoples of Europe. The first
book produced on Gutenberg’s press was the Gutenberg
Bible, which was completed in 1456.

DID YOU KNOW?

A Renaissance printing press could produce 3600 pages
in a day. It has been estimated that more than 20 million
copies of books had been produced on printing presses by
1500. By the late sixteenth century, ten times as many had
been printed.

6.6 Activities
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Check your understanding

1. How did trade, students, scholars and artists contribute to the spread of Renaissance culture?
2. Which European city had a great collection of books by the late fifteenth century?
3. Give one example of a northern artist who was not only influenced by Renaissance ideas but who in turn
went on to influence other artists.

Apply your understanding

4. Study Source 2 and explain, in your own words, how the printing press worked.
5. Why might it have been much more difficult to develop a printing press with movable type using Chinese
characters rather than European letters?
6. Why do you think that newspapers and other mass media are today often referred to as ‘the press’?
7. Why would it have been an advantage for European scholars to communicate in Latin?
8. Before the printing press, the circulation of information was very restricted, especially as monks had done
most of the work of copying books. Which sections of society were most likely to feel threatened by the
mass-circulation of ideas through printing? Why?

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

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6.7 A scientific revolution

6.7.1 The importance of humanism
We live in an age when the skills and knowledge needed in most fields of study have become so demanding
that people have to specialise. Today, it would be unusual for a professional artist or historian to also be a
professional scientist or mathematician. Within branches of the arts and sciences, people focus on specific
areas. For example, modern scientists can specialise in fields such as biology, astronomy and chemistry —
and these fields can be narrowed even further.
However, during the Renaissance, the arts and sciences were not really separate from each other. Nor
were they really separate from religion. A scholar could be a priest, philosopher, scientist, artist and inventor.

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600)  213

That is why the terms ‘Renaissance man’ and ‘Renaissance
SOURCE 1  Self-portrait of Leonardo
woman’ are still used to describe someone whose knowledge da Vinci
spans a wide range of fields of study.
Throughout medieval times, the Catholic Church expected
people to follow its interpretations of r­eligion and science.
Humanists challenged this control, denying that the Church
always knew best. Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494) was a
humanist who argued that God gave humans the potential
to achieve great things if they used their talents. When Pico
called for European scholars to meet in Rome to ­discuss his
ideas, Pope Innocent VIII banned the meeting. In 1488, Pico
fled to France because he was in danger of being declared a
heretic. However, the Church found it hard to crush humanist
thinking, especially after printing helped ideas to spread.
New ideas and scientific understanding came gradually and
many people contributed. Some of those people are discussed
in the following sections.

6.7.2 Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)

Leonardo was one of the most remarkable of all the
Italian ­Renaissance thinkers. He is most famous for his
SOURCE 2  Leonardo da Vinci’s sketch
art, ­especially the Mona Lisa, arguably the most famous
and instructions for building a glider
of all ­ paintings. But he also conducted observations and
experiments  in biology, anatomy, geology, engineering,
­
astronomy, ­mathematics and music. Among Leonardo’s many
designs was an underwater diving suit, a robot and a glider.

6.7.3 A scientific legacy

Girolamo Fracastoro (1478–1553)
Enormous numbers of people died of diseases in medieval and
early modern times. Medical methods had no effect when the
Black Death of the Middle Ages killed about a third of Europe’s
population. Most people believed that
plagues were God’s punishments for human SOURCE 3  In 2002, Steve Roberts built a glider based
sins but Renaissance thinking brought fresh entirely on Leonardo’s sketches and instructions produced
approaches to medicine. Fracastoro was an between 1490 and 1505. Roberts used only materials that
Italian scientist who discovered that diseases would have been available in Leonardo’s time. The glider
reached 10 metres above the ground and flew for up to
contained tiny particles (germs) that spread
17 seconds on its longest flight.
infection by direct contact, such as through
contaminated clothing and bed linen and
through the air. Three centuries later, his
theories were proved to be correct.

DID YOU KNOW?

Leonardo da Vinci recorded his
observations, ideas and inventions in over
4000 pages of notebooks. These have to
be read with a mirror because Leonardo
wrote everything backwards.

214  Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

Ambrose Paré (1509–1590)
SOURCE 4  A fifteenth-century illustration
Paré was a barber and surgeon in an age when depicting an amputation
­amputations were often performed by barbers and the
job was done without anaesthetic. Not surprisingly,
many patients died of shock. Paré developed new
methods of treating war i­njuries and saved many lives
by tying off arteries to reduce blood loss.

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)

Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who d­ eveloped a
theory that put the Sun, rather than the Earth, at the centre
of the universe. The Catholic Church held the view that
the Earth was the centre of the universe and that the Sun,
Moon and planets revolved around it. This belief had
come from the ancient Greek ­philosopher Aristotle and
had been described by the Greek ­astronomer Ptolemy in
the second century CE.
Copernicus spent many years investigating the
­movements of heavenly bodies and, in 1515, he sent
copies of his findings to other ­ astronomers. After
­further study, Copernicus published his theory in a book
called On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres (1543).
Copernicus’s model of the planetary system is called a heliocentric
­
system. It states that the Earth revolves around the Sun in a year and
SOURCE 5  An illustration
rotates on its axis once every 24 hours. This had an enormous impact on
of the human skeleton that
scientific thinking but it was a dangerous idea in an age when the Church Vesalius published in 1543
could have scientific thinkers burned as heretics.

DID YOU KNOW?

Michael Servetus (1511–1553) was a brilliant Spanish scientific thinker
whose studies included sciences, mathematics, languages and law.
He was the first European to describe how blood circulated. Because
Servetus opposed infant baptism and argued that God was one being,
not three, both the Catholic and Protestant churches condemned him as a
heretic. He was arrested in Geneva, Switzerland, and burned at the stake
on the orders of the Calvinist governing council.

Giordano Bruno (1548–1600)

Some thinkers were burned as heretics. That was the fate of Italian friar,
philosopher, astronomer and m­ athematician Giordano Bruno who accepted
Copernicus’s ideas but took them further, recognising that the Sun is just
one of billions of suns in the universe. Several of Bruno’s ­religious ideas
also differed from those of the Church. In 1600, the Roman Inquisition
found him guilty of heresy and had him burned at the stake.

Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564)

Vesalius is often called ‘the father of human anatomy’ because of his contributions to understanding the
human body. The Catholic Church banned people from dissecting human bodies. This meant that up to early
modern times, doctors had to rely on the writings of ancient Greeks such as Hippocrates and Galen for their

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600)  215

understanding of anatomy. This made it
SOURCE 6  Trial of Galileo, painted in the seventeenth century
very difficult to treat injuries and disease.
Vesalius defied the Church and obtained
the permission of the local law courts to
dissect and conduct experiments on the
bodies of people who had been ­executed.
In 1543, Vesalius published a book with
drawings of different parts of the body and
explanations of how they worked.

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)

Galileo was an Italian a­ stronomer,
­physicist, mathematician, ­philosopher
and inventor. He developed a telescope
and carried out observations that enabled
him to prove that Copernicus was right
about the movement of the Earth and other planets. Galileo published his ­findings in 1632, and in the
following year the Roman Inquisition charged him with heresy and threatened him with torture. As he
was found to be ‘suspect of heresy’, he was forced to recant and was kept under house arrest for the
remainder of his life.

6.7.4 The Enlightenment

The Renaissance encouraged educated people to challenge authority, especially the Church, and to be
guided instead by observation and reason. By the eighteenth century, educated Europeans were influenced
by the ideas of what became known as the Enlightenment. This century saw the emergence of a number of
remarkable thinkers who carried out their own experiments in the search for greater understanding.
The Age of Reason also produced some outspoken critics of the old systems of power. Among them
was the French thinker Voltaire who ridiculed the Church and the monarchy. Another was Jean-Jacques
­Rousseau. In 1743, Rousseau began writing a book about politics and human society. It was called
The Social Contract, and its opening line was ‘Man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains’. Later
in the century, such ideas would inspire the leaders of the French Revolution to overthrow the power of the
Church and the old ruling class of kings and nobles.

6.7 Activities
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Check your understanding

1. How did the power of the Catholic Church restrict scientific investigations?
2. Draw up two columns. In the left column, write the names of each of the scientific thinkers mentioned in this
subtopic. In the right column, list at least one of each thinker’s most important achievements.
3. Explain how plagues and humanism influenced investigations into medical methods.

Apply your understanding

4. How do Sources 2 and 3 support the claim that Leonardo da Vinci, shown in Source 1, was a
revolutionary thinker?
5. Look closely at Source 4. Describe what is happening and give three reasons why this man might not have
survived the operation.
6. Study Source 5. Explain why Vesalius was able to depict the human skeleton so accurately and why it had
been difficult to create accurate anatomical drawings before his time.

216  Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

 7. Working in small groups, write a script and perform a role-play based on the events depicted in Source 6.
Try to convey the different perspectives of Galileo and the judges and prosecutors of the Roman Inquisition.
8. Choose one of the thinkers from the following list:
(a) Konrad Gessner (1516–1565)
(b) Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626)
(c) Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)
(d) Geradus Mercator (1512–1594)
(e) William Gilbert, also known as Gilbard (1544–1603).
Conduct research and write a one-page biography of your chosen thinker, describing his contribution to
science and technology. You could submit your biography as a PowerPoint presentation.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete these digital docs: Worksheet 6.4: Daring to delve

Worksheet 6.5: Analysing a visual source

6.8 The Reformation and Counter-Reformation

6.8.1 Changes to the Church
Religious beliefs had enormous influence over people’s thinking in the Renaissance era. This was
­particularly the case in northern Europe, where humanism encouraged many people to question the ideas
and power of the Church. The Catholic Church lost its influence in most of that region during the sixteenth
century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Church but instead led to significant and
­permanent divisions in Christianity.

SOURCE 1  Portrait of Martin

Martin Luther
Luther painted by his friend
Martin Luther was a German Catholic monk and a professor at Lucas Cranach the Elder in 1529
the University of Wittenberg. Luther believed that some Church
teachings were wrong and that the Church was more concerned
with making money than saving souls. He hated the Church’s
practices of selling indulgences (making people pay to have a
dead person’s soul enter heaven) and selling positions of authority
in the Church. He was also angry that many priests, who had
taken vows of chastity, lived openly in sexual relationships.
In 1517, Luther nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door
of ­Wittenberg Cathedral. His arguments included the following
ideas:
•• Popes, bishops and priests were not superior to other Christians.
•• Indulgences were corrupt because only God could decide on
punishments for sins.
•• Priests should be permitted to marry.
•• People were not saved (able to enter heaven) by following
Church practices.
•• Christians did not need priests to stand between them and God.
•• People could achieve salvation only through faith in Jesus
Christ.

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600)  217

 SOURCE 2 A woodcut by Jorg Breu, c. 1530, showing the Pope’s representatives selling indulgences to
Catholic townspeople

Deepen and check your understanding of the topic with the following
resources and auto-marked questions:
 Protestant Reformation

6.8.2 Why did Protestantism survive?

In 1520, the Pope declared Luther to be a heretic and excommunicated him in the following year. However,
Luther gained many  supporters. These people were called Protestants because they protested against the
Catholic Church. Those who followed Luther’s ideas came to be known as Lutherans.
Luther’s ideas spread quickly through printed pamphlets and he gained support from German rulers.
Many oppressed German peasants were inspired by Luther’s revolt against the Church and they rose up
against their feudal lords. But Luther encouraged German rulers to crush them. Not surprisingly, the
defeated peasants turned away from Lutheranism.
New forms of Protestantism
Other forms of Protestantism soon appeared. In Switzerland, John Calvin formed a church that replaced
bishops and priests with elected ministers. Calvinists believed that only some people were chosen to be
saved. Others were doomed to burn in hell. Calvinism spread into parts of France, Germany, the Netherlands
and Scotland. Among other Protestants were the Anabaptists, who rejected the practice of baptising children.
The Church of England was formed initially because the Pope would not grant England’s King Henry VIII
a divorce. Henry declared that he, not the Pope, was head of the English Church. After Henry’s death,
Protestant ideas came to dominate the Church of England.

218 Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

6.8.3 The Counter-Reformation
From the twelfth century, the Catholic Church had used the Inquisition to crush heretics. But as
Protestantism took hold in northern Europe, Catholic leaders came to see that this movement could
not be defeated through persecution alone. From 1545, the Church worked to stamp out corruption and
to promote Catholic beliefs. Among Catholicism’s most effective defenders was the Society of Jesus
(Jesuits). It was formed in 1534 to convert heretics and non‑believers. Jesuit priests set up missions,
schools and colleges in Africa and Asia. In the New World, they befriended and converted many Native
Americans.
SOURCE 3 The Massacre of Saint Bartholomew’s Eve in Paris on
6.8.4 Wars of 24 August 1572. In this incident, Catholic extremists dragged some
eight thousand Huguenots (French Protestants) out of their beds and
religion slaughtered them. The slaughter of Protestants continued for several
Religious uprisings and wars weeks outside Paris.

raged across Europe for over a

century. In Germany, under the
Peace of Augsburg (1555), it
was agreed that each ruler had
the right to decide the religion
of his subjects. However, in
1618, the Thirty Years’ War
began. It was partly about
religion and partly a struggle
for power between rival rulers.
It spread over much of Europe
but was worst in Germany,
where a third of the population
was wiped out.

6.8 Activities
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Check your understanding

1. In Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses, identify one demand that was concerned with corruption and one demand
that challenged Church beliefs.
2. Why would German peasants have felt betrayed by Luther?
3. Under the Peace of Augsburg, who had the right to decide what religion people would follow in any state?
4. How were the results of the Protestant Reformation different from the intentions of those who started it?
5. What was the Counter-Reformation?

Apply your understanding

6. In what ways might Luther’s portrait (shown in Source 1) be different if it had been painted by either a
Catholic priest or a peasant who took part in the Peasants’ War?
7. What point was Jorg Breu making about indulgences in Source 2 ?
8. Using Source 3 as your evidence, write a paragraph describing one consequence of the Reformation.

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Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 6.6: Church — challenge and change

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600) 219

6.9 SkillBuilder: Interpreting Renaissance-era
sources
6.9.1 What are our main sources for the Renaissance era?
We have a great range of primary sources that provide evidence for the Renaissance. Many of them are
concerned with religion, politics, art, literature, architecture and trade. In this section we will focus on
sources connected with the scientific revolution that was such an important part of the Renaissance.

The importance of interpreting sources

Primary sources for any age can be used as a window into the way people thought, what they understood
or could not understand about their world, and how their world view was different from ours. Interpreting
a source involves:
• identifying its origin
• identifying its purpose
• recognising what it provides evidence for
• recognising the ideas or points of view represented by the source
• drawing conclusions about the information identified.

6.9.2 How to interpret Renaissance sources

We need to think carefully about the clues and insights that a source might provide. This involves asking
questions such as the following:
1. Who created the source and what do we know about its creator?
2. Where and when was it created?
3. What was its purpose?
4. For what aspect of the age does the source provide evidence?
5. What ideas or viewpoints does the source represent?
6. What conclusions about the Renaissance era can we draw from the source?

Step 1
The view of the universe shown in Source 1 was
developed by Aristotle (384–322 BCE), an ancient
SOURCE 1 The structure of the universe as
Greek thinker, and changed only slightly by Ptolemy,
theorised by Aristotle
another Greek, in the second century CE.
Aristotle’s view was taught in universities in
Christian Europe from the twelfth century CE.
During the Renaissance era, the Catholic Church
still maintained that Aristotle’s explanation was
unquestionably true. Aristotle held that Earth stood still
at the centre of the universe. Water, air and fire were
shells around the sphere of Earth. Heavenly bodies
were believed to be spheres of an element called
aether, and they were supposed to rotate in perfect
circles around Earth in the following order: Moon,
Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, fixed stars
and a ‘prime mover’ (Primu Mobile on the diagram).
It was believed that beyond this system there was no
wider universe.

220 Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

Step 2
Study Source 1. The questions for interpreting sources have been applied to this source.
1. Who created the source and what do we know about its creator? Its original creator was Aristotle, an
ancient Greek.
2. Where and when was it created? The model represented in this drawing was created in Greece in the
fourth century BCE.
3. What was its purpose? Its purpose was to explain the order of the universe.
4. For what aspect of the Renaissance era does the source provide evidence? It provides evidence for the
progress or lack of progress of scientific investigation during the Renaissance era.
5. What ideas or viewpoints does the source represent? It provides evidence that the Church still upheld an
explanation of the universe that had been developed about 2000 years earlier.
6. What conclusions about the Renaissance era can we draw from the source? There had been little or
no advances in astronomy in Europe for thousands of years, and the Church stood in the way of such
advances.

6.9.3 Developing my skills SOURCE 2 This alternative view of the universe

Study Source 2. This alternative view of the was presented by the Polish astronomer and
universe was presented by the Polish astronomer mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus
and mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus (see
subtopic 6.7). From about 1507, Copernicus’s
calculations convinced him that the Earth rotated
on its own axis and that it rotated around the Sun,
which was the real centre of the universe. He spent
much of the next thirty or more years working on
this theory, but he delayed publishing his ideas
because he feared that the Church would call him
a heretic. The theory was finally presented in his
book The Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies,
which was published in 1543 as he was dying. Like
other scholarly books of the time, it was written
and printed in Latin. In Copernicus’s diagram, sol
means Sun and terra means Earth.
Now use the six questions to interpret Source 2.
1. Who created the source and what do we know
about its creator?
2. Where and when was it created?
3. What was its purpose?
4. For what aspect of the age does the source provide evidence?
5. What ideas or viewpoints does the source represent?
6. What conclusions about the Renaissance era can we draw from the source?

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 6.7: Interpreting Renaissance-era sources

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600) 221

6.10 Legacies of the Renaissance
6.10.1 Legacies of the Renaissance
The legacy of the Renaissance is enormous. Its spirit of inquiry encouraged change and a thirst for new
knowledge and understanding. It brought in ways of thinking that are essential to the scientific advances
that are so much a part of the modern world. The Renaissance era has also given us a wonderful cultural
legacy, while the Reformation and Counter‑Reformation have shaped relations between the different
Christian denominations in the world today.

Renaissance art
Millions of people visit Italy every year to see the artistic legacies of the Renaissance. In Florence,
they visit sites such as the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, the Uffizi Gallery, which has some of
the great works of Renaissance art, and the Accademia Gallery, which holds Michelangelo’s magnificent
sculpture David. The Vatican in Rome holds many more Renaissance artistic treasures, and there are
others scattered around churches, galleries and museums across Italy and throughout the world.

SOURCE 1 Artwork on the ceiling of the Sistine SOURCE 2 The dome of St Peter’s Basilica is
Chapel at St Peter’s Basilica considered to be a Renaissance cultural treasure.

Renaissance literature
The spirit of the Renaissance combined with the introduction of printing contributed to the rise of literature,
which has been with us ever since. Among the most famous of all Italian Renaissance writers was Niccolo
Machiavelli (1469–1527). His book The Prince described ruthless methods of gaining political power.
In modern times, we use the word Machiavellian to describe someone who uses ruthless, scheming methods
to rise in politics.
Even more significant have been the works of the great English Renaissance era playwright William
Shakespeare (1564–1616) who produced about 38 plays and over 160 poems. Not since the age of the
ancient Greeks had such great steps been taken to explore human behaviour through drama. In his own
time, the audiences for performances of Shakespeare’s plays included every level of English society.
Shakespeare’s plays are still widely studied. They have been translated into almost all modern languages
and their performances still draw huge audiences throughout the world. This is because they portray human
situations and conflicts and pose questions that are still relevant to modern times.

222 Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

Scientific legacies
Probably the most important of all legacies of the Renaissance era is scientific thinking. In the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries, there was no such profession as science. Scientific studies were not seen as ­separate from
religion, and authorities saw inquiry as a threat to their beliefs and their power. We know today that there
is much more to the universe than was discovered by Copernicus or Galileo, and we also know that there is
still much remaining to be discovered. However, what these Renaissance thinkers did was to courageously
­investigate and to develop hypotheses based on observations, calculations and other kinds of evidence.
We owe a great debt to those who pushed the
boundaries of knowledge, knowing that asking SOURCE 3  Ruins of Kirkstall Abbey, near Leeds in
England. When King Henry VIII of England broke away
questions could cost them their lives.
from the Catholic Church he closed down the Catholic
monasteries. Kirkstall Abbey was closed in 1539. The
6.10.2 Legacies of lands of such monasteries were given to powerful
the Reformation and supporters of the king. This was one of many acts during
the Renaissance era that caused centuries of bitterness
Counter-Reformation between Catholics and Protestants.
The Reformation and Counter-­ Reformation
also encouraged the spread of education
and learning. One immediate result was the
­translation of the Bible into the native languages
of each country. Previously, the Bible could be
read only by scholars who had studied Latin.
The Reformation was followed by centuries of
hatred and intolerance between Catholics and
Protestants that lasted until the latter part of the
twentieth century in some countries. However,
since then, people in most Christian countries
have become much more tolerant.

6.10 Activities
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Check your understanding

1. Draw up three columns in your workbook.
(a) In the first column, make a list of legacies of the Renaissance era.
(b) In the middle column, give one example of each type of legacy. You may need to look back at previous
subtopics for more information.
(c) In the third column, rank these legacies in the order in which you think they have had the most impact on
the modern world.
(d) Share your list with the class and justify your rankings.

Apply your understanding

2. Working in pairs, discuss what Sources 1 and 2 can show us about the ideas, values and skills of
Renaissance artists and architects.
3. Suggest ways in which Source 3 provides evidence of:
(a) religious intolerance
(b) ways in which some people used the Reformation to increase their wealth and power.
4. In Renaissance Italy, wealthy individuals such as members of the Medici family, and wealthy institutions
such as the Catholic Church, played important roles as patrons of the arts. This meant that they paid

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600)  223

 artists to produce artwork. Without such support, many great Renaissance artworks would not exist.
Hold a class discussion on whether it is still important to support art and, if it is important, who should
play such a role today.
5. The Renaissance saw conflict between science and religion. Do you think there is still such a conflict today
or can a person now be both scientific and religious?

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 6.8: Legacies of the Renaissance

6.11 Research project: Renaissance Antiques

brochure
6.11.1 Scenario and task
Your new concept store is about to open. The sign above the door says Renaissance Antiques. You are
hoping to attract a wealthy and discerning clientele and your store will exclusively stock items made or
invented in the Renaissance period — a marvellous time of new ideas and discoveries. You will launch your
new store with a well‑designed and highly informative catalogue.
Design a catalogue for Renaissance
Antiques. Your catalogue should showcase
the items you are selling and include short
descriptions of their history and why they
are part of the Renaissance Antiques range.
Because yours is an upmarket store that
caters to a certain class of buyers, there is no
need to advertise the prices of the goods to
the public; prices will be ‘available on appli‑
cation’. The project would work best with a
design team of three to four, with each team
member responsible for at least four to five
brochure items. You might like to organise
your brochure around categories such as:
• inventions that changed our world
• art
• learning
• famous families
• everyday items
• weapons
• religious items
• transport
• architecture
• moving around the world (shipping
materials, maps, navigation aids, etc.)

224 Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

6.11.2 Process
• Work in pairs or small groups to complete this research project.
• Access your learnON title to watch the introductory video lesson for this project.
• In the Resources tab you will also find a selection of images that have been provided to help you get
started on your brochure. A sample brochure item is also included to help you understand the language
of selling.
• Using the information throughout this topic as your starting point, research four to five sales items (they
can be the actual items or plans, drawings and other graphic material related to items) in the categories
you have chosen. You should each find at least three sources (other than this resource and at least one
offline source such as a book or encyclopaedia) to help you discover extra information about life in this
time and place.
• When your research is completed, your group should collaborate and decide on a style for your brochure.
You need to consider how you will design the layout of the items, the font and style for your headings,
a shop logo, and where to place basic information, such as how to find your shop, contact details and
opening times. Remember that you are honest merchants, so please advise customers of any item that is
of contemporary manufacture and merely a copy of an item made or designed in the Renaissance.
• Once your design is finalised, create your brochure using Word or desktop publishing software.
• Proofread and check your work thoroughly — ensure each group member participates in this checking
process.
• When you are happy with your completed brochure, print and submit it to your teacher for assessment.

ONLINE ONLY

Go online to access additional resources such as templates, images and weblinks.

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600) 225

6.12 Review
6.12.1 Review
In this topic you have learned about Renaissance Italy, including the social, cultural, economic and political
characteristics of some of the Italian city-states. You have learned about some significant people of the era,
some great artistic achievements and about the scientific revolution that took place in Europe. You have also
learned about the spread of the Renaissance, about the religious upheavals that accompanied it and about
its continuing legacies.

KEY TERMS
anatomy  the scientific study of the structure of the body
anatomical drawings  drawings showing the workings of organs and systems of the body
chastity  choosing not to have sexual relationships
Christendom  an old term for Christian countries
classics  the literature of ancient Greece and Rome
denomination  a religious group, especially an established church
excommunicate  to cut off from all communication with the Church. It was taught that those who were
excommunicated would go to hell when they died.
fresco  a picture painted on a freshly plastered wall or ceiling
friar  a member of a Catholic order who was supposed to live in poverty
heresy  any religious opinion that differed from that of the Roman Catholic Church
humanism  the study of human beings using reason and broad knowledge
Latin  the language of ancient Rome and of the Catholic Church until recent times. It was also the international
language of scholars throughout Europe until the eighteenth century.
mercenary  a soldier who fights for money rather than for patriotic reasons
philosophy  the study of the principles underlying all knowledge
Pope  the head of the Roman Catholic Church
principalities  states ruled by princes
reason  thinking critically and arguing logically
recant  to take back a former opinion, usually with a confession that you were wrong
republican  political system that does not have a monarch as its head
Roman Inquisition  a system of tribunals set up by the Catholic Church during the sixteenth century to censor
literature and prosecute people accused of heresy and other crimes
status  position or standing in a society
­Venetian  a citizen of Venice

6.12 Activities
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Multiple choice quiz

Short answer quiz

1. What was humanism?
2. What role did Italian cities play in starting the Renaissance?
3. Why were many people critical of the Catholic Church by the beginning of the sixteenth century?
4. Name three important artists of the Renaissance.
5. Why is Leonardo da Vinci regarded as one of the greatest of all Renaissance thinkers?
6. Who was Galileo Galilei and how was his work stopped in 1633?
7. Who were Martin Luther and John Calvin?
8. What was the Counter-Reformation?
9. Why was Giordano Bruno burned alive?
10. Which Italian writer wrote The Prince?

226  Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition

11. Who was Johannes Gutenberg?
12. How many pages could be printed in a day using a Renaissance-era press?
13. Which English Renaissance playwright’s work is still widely performed today?
14. Name one famous Italian art gallery.
15. What important medical discovery was made by Girolamo Fracastoro?
16. Who was Andreas Vesalius?
17. How did Ambrose Paré save lives?

Apply your understanding

18. In this topic you have encountered some remarkable Renaissance artists and thinkers. To gain a deeper
understanding of individual contributions to this era, use the internet and your library to prepare a
PowerPoint presentation on the work of one of the following people.
Italian Renaissance artists
• Leonardo da Vinci
• Michelangelo Buonarroti
• Raphael
• Giovan di Lorenzo Larciani
• Titian
• Paris Bordone
• Paolo Caliari (called Veronese)
• Jacopo Robusti (called Tintorreto)
• Michelangelo Merisi (called Caravaggio)
European Renaissance writers, scientists and thinkers
• Desiderius Erasmus (called Erasmus of Rotterdam), Dutch humanist
• Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
• Andreas Vesalius, anatomist and physician
• Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish author
• Niccolo Machiavelli, Italian author
• Francois Rabelais, French author
• Thomas Moore, English author
• William Shakespeare, English playwright
19. (a) Examine Source 1. Where did the gold that lines the ceiling of the Church of Santa Maria Maggiori come
from?
(b) How does this ceiling provide evidence to support some of the criticisms that Luther and others made of
the Catholic Church in this period?

SOURCE 1 The interior of the Church of Santa Maria Maggiori in Rome. This Catholic church
dates from the fifth century. However, the ceiling was constructed during the Renaissance, and it
is lined with gold brought from the New World (a term for the newly discovered Americas).

TOPIC 6 Renaissance Italy (c. 1400–1600) 227

 RESOURCES — ONLINE
ONLINE ONLY
ONLY

Go online to access additional end of topic resources such as interactivities and printable worksheets.
Try out these interactivities: Renaissance Italy timeline (int-2946)
Renaissance Italy word search (int-4097)
Complete these digital docs: Worksheet 6.9: Word search
Worksheet 6.10: Summing up
Worksheet 6.11: Reflection

Back to the big questions

At the beginning of this topic several big questions were posed. Use the knowledge you have gained to answer
these questions.
1. What were the main features of Italian Renaissance society?
2. What kinds of relationships existed between the rulers and those they ruled?
3. What were some of the most significant achievements of the Renaissance?
4. How did significant individuals influence the Renaissance?
5. What have been the legacies of the Renaissance era?

A small section of the mural on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel (the Pope’s private chapel) in Rome. This
section shows God giving life to Adam. Michelangelo spent four painful years painting the entire mural.

228  Jacaranda History Alive 8 Australian Curriculum Second Edition