TOPIC 1

Science is …
1.1 Overview
Although science is a body of knowledge, it is
also a way of solving problems and finding the
answers to questions. ­ Scientific knowledge is
always growing and changing because scientists
design and perform new investigations.
Observing, measuring, constructing tables,
drawing graphs and forming conclusions are
just some of the skills used in conducting scien-
tific investigations.

1.1.1 Think about

Science
•• What is the connection between a
pendulum, a playground swing and a
metronome?
•• What can I measure with a computer?
•• Which famous scientist saved the French
wine industry from collapse?
•• Why are graphs useful to scientists?
•• How do you start your own scientific
investigation?
•• What do the letters CSIRO stand for?

LEARNING SEQUENCE
1.1 Overview1
1.2 Safety first 3
1.3 Planning your own investigation 7
1.4 Record keeping and research 10
1.5 Controlling variables 13
1.6 The main game 16
1.7 Presenting your data 19
1.8 Using data loggers 26
1.9 Greats from the past 29
1.10 Project: An inspiration for the future 31
1.11 Review33

Numerous videos and interactivities are embedded just where you need them, at the point of learning, in
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. They will help you to learn the content and concepts covered
in this topic.

TOPIC 1 Science is …  1
1.1.2 Your quest A data logger can be
Researching the CSIRO used for Investigation 1.1.
Investigate
1. What is the CSIRO?
2. The CSIRO’s website describes some of the research done by CSIRO
scientists. Read the information provided for one area of research that the
CSIRO is involved with and summarise this research in point form.
3. Form groups of three. Explain to the other two students the area of
research you have just read about. Try doing this without referring to
your notes.

INVESTIGATION 1.1
Milk now or later?
You have just finished making yourself a cup of coffee when the phone rings. For your coffee to stay as warm
as possible, should you add the milk now or after you have finished talking on the phone? Does your answer
depend on the length of the phone call?
AIM: To compare the rate of cooling of hot coffee with and without the addition of milk
Materials:
kettle
2 identical cups
instant coffee
milk
2 thermometers or a data logger with 2 temperature probes
2 measuring cylinders

Method and results

• Your teacher will assign a particular ‘phone call’ time to each group of students.
• Heat some water in a kettle and use it to make two cups of instant coffee. Use the same type of cup and
the same amount of hot water and coffee powder.
• Place a thermometer or temperature probe in each cup of coffee. If you are using a data logger, set it to
collect results for at least 10 minutes.
• Add 40 mL of milk to one of the cups.
• If you are using thermometers, record the temperature of the coffee in both cups every 30 seconds.
• After your phone call time has passed, add 40 mL milk to the second cup.
• Continue measuring the temperature in both cups every 30 seconds until 10 minutes has passed since you
added the milk to the first cup.
1. If you used thermometers, record your results in a table.
  Temperature (°C) 
Time (minutes) Milk added at time 0 Milk added after ‘phone call’
0.0    
0.5    
1.0    
1.5    
2. Plot line graphs of your results on the same set of axes. Put time on the horizontal axis and temperature on
the vertical axis.
3. If you used a data logger, a graph is plotted automatically. If necessary, adjust the settings so that the graph
shows the temperatures measured by both probes on the same set of axes. Put the graph into the results
section of your experiment report.

2  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

 Discuss and explain
4. Does hot coffee cool faster than warm coffee? How can you tell from your graph?
5. Did the two lines on the graph cross at any stage? What does this indicate?
6. Write a conclusion based on your results.
7. Does the length of the ‘phone call’ affect the results? Compare your graphs with those of other groups.
8. Why was it important to put exactly the same amount of water in both cups and to use the same type of cup?
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a data logger for this experiment?
10. Explain how this experiment could be improved.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Explore more with this weblink: CSIRO

1.2 Safety first

1.2.1 Take care
Conducting scientific investigations in a laboratory can be exciting, but accidents can happen if experi-
ments are not carried out carefully. There are certain rules that must be followed for your own safety and
the safety of others.

ALWAYS . . .
• follow the teacher’s instructions
• wear safety glasses and a laboratory coat or apron, and tie back
long hair when mixing or heating substances
• point test tubes away from your eyes and away from your fellow
students
• push chairs in and keep walkways clear
• inform your teacher if you break equipment, spill chemicals, or cut
or burn yourself
• wait until hot equipment has cooled before putting it away
• clean your workspace — don’t leave any equipment on the bench
• dispose of waste as instructed by your teacher
• wash your hands thoroughly after handling any substances in the
laboratory.

NEVER . . .
• enter the laboratory without your teacher’s permission
• run or push in the laboratory
• eat or drink in the laboratory
• smell or taste chemicals unless your teacher says it’s ok.
When you do need to smell substances, fan the odour to your
nose with your hand.
• leave an experiment unattended
• conduct your own experiments without the teacher’s approval
• put solid materials down the sink
• pour hazardous chemicals down the sink (check with your
teacher)
• put hot objects or broken glass in the bin.

TOPIC 1 Science is …  3
Handy hints
• Use a filter funnel when pouring from a bottle or container without a lip.
• Never put wooden test-tube holders near a flame.
• Always turn the tap on before putting a beaker, test tube or measuring
cylinder under the stream of water.
• Remember that most objects get very hot when exposed to heat or a naked
flame.
• Do not use tongs to lift or move beakers. CORROSIVE
1.2.2 Working with dangerous chemicals 8
Your teacher will tell you how to handle the chemicals in each experiment. At
times, you may come across warning labels on the substances you use.
Always wear gloves and safety glasses when using chemicals with the
‘Corrosive’ symbol. Corrosive substances can cause severe damage to skin
and eyes. Acid is an example of a corrosive substance.
Flammable substances are easily set on fire, so keep them away from
flames. Ethanol is flammable. FLAMMABLE
Chemicals with the ‘Toxic’ label can cause death or serious injury if swal- GAS
lowed or inhaled. They are also dangerous when touched without gloves 2
because they can be absorbed by the skin. Mercury is a toxic substance.

1.2.3 Heating substances

Many experiments that you will conduct in the laboratory require heating. In
school laboratories, heating is usually done with a Bunsen burner. A Bunsen
burner provides heat when a mixture of air and gas is lit.
Bunsen burners heat objects or liquids with a naked flame. Always tie hair
back, and wear safety glasses and a laboratory coat or apron when using a
Bunsen burner.

A GUIDE TO USING THE BUNSEN BURNER Barrel

1. Place the Bunsen burner on a heatproof mat.
2. Check that the gas tap is in the ‘off’ position.
Gas hose
3. Connect the rubber hose to the gas tap.
4. Close the airhole of the Bunsen burner collar.
5. Light a match and hold it a few centimetres above the
Collar
barrel.
6. Turn on the gas tap and a yellow flame will appear.
7. Adjust the flame by moving the collar until the airhole is
open and a blue flame appears. Airhole (gas jet inside)
8. Remember to close the collar to return the flame to
yellow when the Bunsen burner is not in use. Base

4 Jacaranda Science Quest 8

Heating containers
Beakers and evaporating dishes can be placed straight onto a gauze mat for heating. Never look
directly into a container while it is being heated. Wait until the equipment has cooled properly before han-
dling it.
Use a gauze mat Gauze mat
over a tripod to
hold containers
over a Bunsen
burner flame.

Bunsen burner
Beaker

Tripod

Heatproof mat Evaporating dish

Heating a test tube

Tripods and gauze mats are not used when heating test tubes. Hold the test tube with a test-tube holder.
Keep the base of the test tube above the flame. Make sure that the test tube points away from you and other
students.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Explore more with this weblink: Robert Bunsen

1.2.4 Glassware
Pouring a liquid into a test tube
Pour liquids carefully into the test tube from a beaker or measuring cylinder. Use a filter funnel when
pouring from bottles or containers without a lip.

Stand the test tube

in a test-tube rack.

Use heatproof mats

under all equipment.

TOPIC 1 Science is …  5
Shaking a test tube
There are two ways to shake substances in a test tube.
Method 1
Hold the top of the test tube and gently move its base in a sideways direc-
tion. This method is good to use with non-hazardous substances that do
not need to be shaken vigorously. This is the method you will use most of
the time.
Method 2
Use a stopper when a substance needs to be mixed by shaking vigorously.
Place an appropriately sized stopper into the mouth of the test tube. With
your thumb over the stopper and your hand securely around the test tube,
shake the test tube with an up and down motion. Shake a test tube in this
way only if instructed to do so by the teacher.

1.2.5 Using electricity safely

Electrical equipment in the science laboratory should be used with great
care, just as it should be in the home or workplace. Never:
•• place heavy electrical appliances near the edge of a bench or table
•• allow water near electrical cords, plugs or power points
•• place objects other than the correct electrical plug into a power point
•• use appliances with damaged cords or exposed wires.

1.2 Exercises: Understanding and inquiring

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Understand
1. Explain, with the aid of a diagram, how to safely heat a liquid in a test tube using a Bunsen burner. Ensure all
relevant safety rules are included in your explanation.
2. How should a substance in a test tube be shaken if you are not instructed to shake it vigorously?
3. Methylated spirits is a flammable liquid. What does this mean?

Think
4. List the dangers of each of the following examples of unsafe behaviour in the science laboratory.
(a) Not wearing safety glasses while heating a liquid in a beaker
(b) Using an electronic balance to measure the mass of a substance before cleaning up some spilled water
on the bench next to it
5. Why should you always wear gloves when working with:
(a) corrosive substances
(b) toxic substances?
6. Long hair should be tied back when heating or mixing substances in the laboratory. Why is this so?
7. Explain why a test tube should be standing in a test-tube rack when you are pouring a liquid into it.

Create
8. Draw a flowchart to illustrate the correct method for lighting a Bunsen burner. Use pictures or cartoons as
well as words.
9. Which one safety rule do you feel is the most important when you are mixing two liquids and heating them?
Create a poster to illustrate the rule.

6  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

 RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Try out this interactivity: Using equipment (int-0200)

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 1.1: Safety in the laboratory (doc-18695)

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 1.2: Safety rules (doc-18696)

1.3 Planning your own investigation

1.3.1 Planning your own investigation
Discuss your ideas with others.
Scientists learn new things by asking questions and then con-
ducting investigations to find answers. You will take on the role of
a scientist by planning an investigation of your own.
Before you define your question in detail, you need to find a
topic that interests you. Selecting your topic is the first step and
one of the most crucial parts in conducting your research project.
1. Start by searching for a general area of interest. List your
hobbies and other interests.
2. Do you have a friend or relative who might be able to help
you in a scientific investigation? Write down the topic areas in
which you could get help.
3. Discuss the possible research topics you have already written
down with a group of fellow students. Listen carefully to their
ideas. They might help you to decide on your own topic. Write
down your ideas.
4. Have a look through the list of ideas below. Even if none of the suggested topics appeals to you, they
may help you to think of other ideas. For example, ‘How strong is sticky tape?’ could lead you to
consider topics such as the strength of glass, wood, paper, plastics or some other material. Brainstorm
possible topics with your friends and make your own list of suggested investigations.
5. Search in a library for resources about the topic areas that you have already written down. You might
also find magazines or journals that include articles about these topic areas. Conduct an internet search.
Use reliable websites and do not rely on just one source.

SOME IDEAS FOR TOPICS

How do fertilisers affect the growth of plants?
Can plants grow without soil?
What makes algae grow in an aquarium?
What is the best shape for a boomerang?
What type of wood gives off the most heat while burning?
What makes iron rust?
Which paint weathers best?
Which battery lasts longest?
How strong is sticky tape?
Which type of glue is best?
How much weight can a plastic bag hold?
Which food wrap keeps food freshest?
How effective are pre-wash stain removers?
Which fabrics burn faster?

TOPIC 1 Science is … 7
 How can the growth of mould on fruit be slowed down?
Which concrete mixture is strongest?
What type of fishing line is the strongest?
Does the thickness of a rubber band affect how far it stretches?
What type of paper aeroplane flies furthest?
What is the best recipe for soap bubble mixture?
Do tall people jump higher and further than short people?
What type of fabric keeps you warmest in winter?

1.3.2 The aim of the game

Your investigation should have a clear and realistic aim. Your aim should be very specific. The aim of an
investigation is its purpose, or the reason for doing it. Some examples of aims are:
•• to find out how the weight and shape of paper aeroplanes affects how far they fly
•• to compare the effect of different fertilisers on the growth of pea plants
•• to find out whether different coloured lights affect the growth of algae in an aquarium
•• to find out how exposing iron to salty water affects how quickly it rusts.
‘To find out if the weight of paper planes makes them fly better’ is not a suitable aim because ‘fly better’
has not been defined. ‘Fly better’ could mean fly further, fly in a straighter line or stay in the air longer.
A better aim would be ‘To find out how the weight of paper planes affects their flight distance and time in
the air’.
When you have decided what your aim is, make sure that it is realistic. You should be able to answer
‘yes’ to each question below.
•• Is my aim simple and clear enough?
•• Will I be able to get the background information that I need?
•• Is the equipment I need for my experiments available or can it be made?
•• Is the question a safe one to investigate?
If you answer ‘no’ to any of these questions you need to rethink your aim.

1.3.3 Forming a hypothesis

A hypothesis is a sensible guess about the outcome of an Will nylon be better? Your own experience
might help you form a hypothesis.
experiment. Your hypothesis should relate to your aim and
should be testable with an experimental investigation. The
results of your investigation will either support (agree with)
or not support (disagree with) the hypothesis. It is not pos-
sible to prove conclusively that a hypothesis is correct.
When scientists make a hypothesis, they usually carry out
a number of experiments to test it. Sometimes, a number of
teams of scientists test the same hypothesis with slightly dif-
ferent experiments. Even if the results of each experiment
agree with the hypothesis, the scientists could never say that
the hypothesis is proven to be correct. They would say that
each experiment has provided further evidence to support the
hypothesis.
Your hypothesis should be based on what you know about
the topic or what you have already observed. For example,
if you are trying to design the best parachute for a toy, you
should read about parachutes before writing your hypothesis.

8  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

You might also recall that when you are walking in the rain, a cotton T-shirt soaks up a lot of water and
becomes heavy, whereas a nylon jacket does not soak up water. As a result, your hypothesis might be:
‘Closely woven nylon is a better fabric to use for a parachute than loosely woven cotton.’
A statement that cannot be tested with a scientific experiment is not a suitable hypothesis.
The table below shows how problems and observations can lead to hypotheses.

Problem Observation Hypothesis

The television remote control If I press the ‘on’ button on the The batteries in the remote control
doesn’t work. remote control, the television are flat.
doesn’t come on.

My hair is sometimes dry and My hair is driest soon after washing Mum’s shampoo dries out my hair.
frizzy. it with Mum’s shampoo.

No parrots come to our bird feeder. There is bread in the bird feeder, Parrots prefer wheat seeds.
and magpies and miner birds
feed there.

1.3 Exercises: Understanding and inquiring

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Understand
1. List four questions you should ask about your aim before it is final.
2. Define the term ‘hypothesis’.
3. How can a hypothesis be tested?

Think
4. Why is ‘to find out which glue is best’ not a suitable aim? Write a more suitable aim for an investigation
about glue.
5. Is each of the following statements a suitable hypothesis? If not, justify your answer.
(a) White chocolate tastes better than dark chocolate.
(b) Washing powder X removes tomato sauce stains faster than washing powder Y.
(c) Plants grow faster under red light than under green light.
(d) Sagittarians are nicer people than Leos.
(e) Playing video games increases the muscle strength in your thumbs.
(f) Playing video games affects the development of social skills.
(g) Science teachers are more interesting people than English teachers.
(h) Science teachers perform better in IQ tests than English teachers.
6. Consider the table above. Describe how you could test each of the three hypotheses.

RESOURCES— ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 1.3: Observations and inferences (doc-18697)

TOPIC 1 Science is …  9
1.4 Record keeping and research
1.4.1 Background research
Scientists do experiments to test hypotheses,
Part of a blog site used by a researcher to share the
which are based on observations as well as results of her investigations into acid–base indicators
the previous discoveries of other scientists.
Before designing their experiments,  sci-
entists do background research, which usu-
ally includes reading reports written by
other scientists. Scientists also need to keep
records of all their observations and any
changes they make to the design of their
experiments. When you conduct your own
research investigation, you will probably be
asked to do this by keeping a logbook.

1.4.2 What is a logbook?

A logbook is a document in which you keep
a record of all the work you do towards an
investigation. Each entry should be dated
like a diary. In your logbook, you might
include the following items.

• A timeline or other evidence of planning your time

• Notes about conversations you had with teachers, friends, parents or experts and how these conversations
affected your project. Make sure you record each person’s details so you can acknowledge their contribution
in your report.
• Notes from library research you did. Include all the details you need for your bibliography.
• A plan or rough outline of the method you will use for your experiment(s)
• Notes about any problems you encountered during your project and how you dealt with these
• Information on any changes you made to your original plan
• Results of all your experiments (these may be presented roughly at this stage)
• A plan or storyboard for your presentation if you will present your research to your class

A logbook can be written by hand on paper, with a word-processing program on a computer, or it can
even be written in an app or as a website. A blog is a website that has dated entries so it can be used
as a logbook. It has the added advantage that you can invite other
people, such as your friends, parents and teachers, to look at your Make notes on your topic.
work and post comments. You should check with your teacher on
the format required for your logbook.

1.4.3 Researching your topic

Before you start your own experiments, you should find out more
about your topic.
As well as increasing your general knowledge of the topic, you
need to find out whether others have investigated your problem.
Information already available about your topic might help you to
design your experiments. It might also help you to explain your
results.

10  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

 Make notes on your topic as you find information. You may be able to include some relevant background
information in your report.

The internet
The internet provides a wealth of information on almost every topic imaginable. Use a search engine such
as Google or Yahoo! The success of your search will depend on a thoughtful choice of keywords.

Using the library

Another good place to start is the school library. There are several different types of information sources in
the library, including those listed below.
Nonfiction books
Use the subject index catalogue to learn where to find books with information about your topic. Your
library catalogue is most likely to be stored in a computer database. You might need to ask the librarian to
help you use the catalogue at first. It is a good idea to browse through the contents list of science textbooks.
Your topic may appear.
Reference books
These include encyclopaedias, atlases and yearbooks. The index of a good encyclopaedia is a great place to
start looking for information.
Look for information beyond the library.
Journals and magazines
There are quite a few scientific
journals that are suitable for use by
school students. They provide up-to-
date information. Your library may
have an index for journals, such as
‘Guidelines’, which you can use
to find articles on your topic. You
may, however, need to browse. Some
journals to look for are: New Scientist,
Ecos, Australasian Science, Habitat,
Popular Science, Choice and Helix.
Information file
Many school libraries keep collections
of digital files of newspaper articles
on topics of interest. Ask your school
librarian if you don’t know how to
access these resources.
Audiovisual resources
The library may have slides, videos
and audio tapes that can be used or bor-
rowed. These resources can be located
using the subject index catalogue.

Beyond the library

Information on your topic may also be
available from the following sources.

TOPIC 1 Science is …  11
Your science teacher
This may seem obvious, but many people don’t even think to ask. Your science teacher may also be able to
direct you to other sources of information.
Government departments and agencies
Federal, state and local government departments and agencies may be able to provide you with information
or advice on your topic. Try searching government webpages, which usually list contact details. A polite
email to the appropriate department or agency is the best way to ask for help.
Industry
Information on some topics can be obtained from certain industries. For example, if you were testing glues
for strength or batteries to find which ones last longest, the manufacturers might have useful information.
Use the internet to find contact details. A polite email is often the best way to ask for help.
Relatives or friends
Perhaps you or a relative know somebody who works in your area of interest. Let your friends and relatives
know about your intended research.
In your logbook, complete a checklist like the one below to see if you have thoroughly searched sources
of information.

The internet: ⃞
School library:  
•  nonfiction books ⃞
•  reference books ⃞
•  journals and magazines ⃞
•  information files ⃞
•  audiovisual resources ⃞
Beyond the library:   In your logbook, keep an accurate
•  your science teacher ⃞ list of resources that you have used.
•  government departments and agencies ⃞
• industry ⃞
•  relatives or friends ⃞
•  other sources ⃞

How to use information

Make notes on information that is relevant to your research topic.
Think about what you really need to know. You need information
that will help you to:
•• plan your experiments
•• understand your results later on
•• show in your report how your research relates to everyday life
or why your research is important.
You will need to keep an accurate list in your logbook of the
steps you have taken and the resources you have used.

1.4 Exercises: Understanding and inquiring

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Understand
1. Why is a logbook a bit like a diary?
2. Define the term ‘blog’.

12  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

 3. List the resources that you could use to research your investigation topic:
(a) in your school library
(b) outside the school library.

Think
4. Imagine you are a scientist. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of maintaining a blog rather than
keeping a logbook in your office.
5. You can find information about science topics in science textbooks and on the internet.
(a) Explain why you would not find the results of scientific research that was done last month in a science
textbook.
(b) Outline some advantages and disadvantages of using the internet as a source of information.

1.5 Controlling variables A playground swing is simply a large pendulum.

A pendulum is a suspended object that is free to
1.5.1 In the swing of things swing to and fro. Each complete swing is called
an oscillation. The time taken for one complete
When was the last time you were on a swing? A oscillation of a pendulum is called its period.
playground swing is simply a large pendulum.
Pendulums are used mainly as measuring
instruments. Their most well-known use is in
clocks, such as grandfather clocks.
To answer a question scientifically, you need to
perform a controlled investigation. The investigation
must also be reliable.
In the simple investigation of a swinging ­pendulum
in Investigation 1.2 variables are c­ontrolled.
­However, to be reliable as well, ­measurements in
the investigation need to be a­ ccurate, repeated and
averaged.

INVESTIGATION 1.2
The period of a pendulum
AIM: To investigate the effects of mass and length on the Setting up a swinging pendulum
period of a pendulum
Bosshead
Materials: Rod
length of string (at least 80 cm long)
set of slotted masses
retort stand with bosshead Retort
stand
pair of scissors and a one-metre ruler
stopwatch or clock with a second hand Angle
Length of release
Method and results
Part 1: The effect of mass
• Set up your pendulum so it can swing freely. Start with the largest
possible length and the smallest weight.
1. Copy the table below into your logbook, and record the mass and
the length of the pendulum in it. The length should be measured
from the top of the pendulum to the bottom of the swinging mass, as
shown in the diagram.
• Pull the mass aside so that the angle of release is about 20°. Take
note of the height from which the mass is released so that this
angle of release is used throughout the experiment.

TOPIC 1 Science is …  13
 • Release the pendulum. Measure the time taken for 10 complete swings of the pendulum. Repeat your
measurement at least twice to find the average time for 10 swings. Use this average to calculate the time
taken for one complete swing (the period).
The effect of mass on the period of a pendulum
Length of pendulum = ______ cm Angle of release = 20°
Time taken for 10 complete swings (seconds)   

Mass (grams) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average Period (seconds)

           

           

           

2. Record all the measurements in your table.

• Repeat this procedure for three larger masses, completing the table as you go.
Part 2: The effect of length
3. Construct a table like the one on page 15 to identify all of the variables that need to be considered for an
investigation of the effect of length on the period of a pendulum.
4. Construct a second table in which to record your measurements. Remember that this time you’ll be testing
four different lengths without changing the mass. Use the same procedure as you did in part 1 for measuring
the period.
5. Draw a line graph to show how the period of the pendulum is affected by its length.

2.0
Period (s)

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Length (cm)
Discuss and explain
6. How does the mass of the pendulum affect its period?
7. How does the length of the pendulum affect its period?
8. The period of most standard clock pendulums is one second. Use your graph to predict the length of a
standard clock pendulum.
9. Explain why it is a good idea to measure the time for 10 swings rather than just one.

Variables
There are several factors that affect the period of a pendulum. They include:
•• the length of the pendulum
•• the total mass that is swinging
•• the height from which the pendulum is released.
These factors are called variables. The variable that you are measuring (in this case the period of the pen-
dulum) is called the dependent variable. The variable that you are investigating is called the independent
variable. In Investigation 1.2, on the previous page you investigated two independent variables, the mass of
the pendulum and the length of the pendulum.

14  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

Fair testing
Scientific investigations must be fair tests. In a fair test, only one variable is changed at a time — the
­independent variable. In the first part of Investigation 1.2, the independent variable is the mass of the
pendulum. All variables other than the independent variable must be controlled; that is, they must be kept
the same. If they were not, you couldn’t tell which variable was affecting the period of the pendulum. You
might find it helpful when designing your own investigations to use a table like the one below to identify
all the variables.

Experiment: How does mass affect the period of a pendulum?

Independent variable • The mass of the pendulum

Dependent variable • The period of the pendulum

Controlled variables • The length of the pendulum

• The angle of release
• The method of release

1.5 Exercises: Understanding and inquiring

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Understand A metronome’s period is

1. What is a variable? changed by moving the
2. Explain the difference between a dependent variable and an sliding mass up or down.
independent variable.
3. Why is it important to control variables in a scientific investigation?

Think
4. In Investigation 1.2 you conducted three trials for each measurement
and calculated an average. List two or more reasons for the repetition.
5. A metronome is an ‘upside-down’ pendulum. To make the period of the
metronome longer, should you move the sliding mass up or down?
6. What are (i) the independent variable and (ii) the dependent variable in:
(a) part 1 of Investigation 1.2
(b) part 2 of Investigation 1.2?

Investigate
7. Predict whether the angle of release affects the period of a pendulum
and write down your hypothesis. Perform an investigation to test your
hypothesis and write a brief report. In your conclusion, state clearly
whether your results supported your hypothesis.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 1.4: Fair testing (doc-18698)

TOPIC 1 Science is …  15
1.6 The main game
1.6.1 Getting approval
Almost all scientists need the approval of their employer before they commence an investigation. As a stu-
dent, you should not commence an investigation until your plan has been approved by your teacher.
1. Title
Choose a likely title — you may decide to change it before your work is completed.
2. The aim or problem
Briefly state what you intend to investigate or the question you intend to answer.
Aim: To study the behaviour of slaters
Problem: What makes algae grow in an aquarium?
3. Hypothesis
Make an educated guess about the answer to your problem or what you expect to find out. It is important
to be creative and objective, and to use logical reasoning when devising a hypothesis and testing it.
4. Outline of experiment
Explain how you intend to test your hypothesis, and briefly outline the experiments you intend to conduct.
5. Equipment
List any equipment you need for your experiments.
6. Resources
List the sources of information that you have used or intend to use. This list should include library
resources, organisations and people.

1.6.2 Performing your experiments

Once your teacher has approved your plan, you
All observations and measurements should be recorded.
may begin your experiments. Detail how you
conducted your experiments in your logbook.
All observations and measurements should be
recorded. Use tables where possible to record
your data. Use graphs to display your data.
Some information about using tables, graphs
and data loggers is provided on pages 19–25.
Where appropriate, measurements should be
repeated and an average value determined. All
­measurements — not just the averages — should
be recorded in your logbook.
Photographs should be taken if appropriate.
You might need to change your experiments
if you get results you don’t expect. If things go
wrong, record what happened. Knowing what
went wrong allows you to improve your exper-
iment and technique. Any major changes should
be checked with your teacher.

1.6.3 Writing your report

You can begin writing your report as soon as you have planned your investigation, but it cannot be com-
pleted until your observations are complete. Your report should be typed or neatly written on A4 paper.
It should begin with a table of contents, and the pages should be numbered. Your report should include the
following headings (unless they are not applicable to your investigation).

16  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

Abstract
Briefly describe your experiments and your main conclusions. Even though this appears at the beginning of
your report, it is best not to write it until after you have completed the rest of your report.

Introduction
Present all relevant background information. Include a statement of the problem that you are investigating,
saying why it is relevant or important. You could also explain why you became interested in the topic.

Aim
State the purpose of your investigation — that is, what you are trying to find out.

Hypothesis
Using the knowledge you already have about your topic, make a guess about what you will find out by
doing your investigation.

Materials and method

Describe in detail how you carried out your experiments. Begin with a list of the equipment used and
include photographs of your equipment if appropriate. The description of the method must be detailed
enough to allow somebody else to repeat your experiments. It should also convince the reader that the var-
iables in your investigation are well controlled. Labelled diagrams can be used to make your description
clear. Using a step-by-step outline makes your method easier to follow.

Results
Observations and measurements (data) are presented in this section. Wherever possible, present data as a
table so that they are easy to read. Graphs can be used to help you and the reader interpret data. Each table
and graph should have a title. Ensure that you use the most appropriate type of graph for your data (see
pages 19–25).
Discussion
Discuss your results here. Begin by stating what your results indicate about the answer to your question.
Explain how your results might be useful. Outline any weaknesses in your design or difficulties in meas-
uring here. Explain how you could improve your experiments. What further experiments are suggested by
your results?
Conclusion
This is a brief statement of what you found out and may link with the final paragraph of your ‘Discussion’.
It is a good idea to read your aim again before you write your conclusion. Your conclusion should also
state whether your hypothesis was supported. Don’t be disappointed if it is not supported. Some scientists
deliberately set out to reject hypotheses!
Bibliography
Make a list of books and other printed or audiovisual material to which you have referred. The list should
include enough detail to allow the source of information to be easily found by the reader. Arrange the
sources in alphabetical order.
For each printed resource, list the following information in the order shown:
•• author(s) (if known)
•• title of book or article
•• publisher or name of journal/magazine (if not in title)
•• place of publication (if given)

TOPIC 1 Science is …  17
•• date of publication
•• chapter or pages used.
For example:
Breidahl, H., Australia’s Southern Shores, Lothian, Melbourne, 1997, Chapter 2.
For websites, list the following:
•• name of the website
•• date the site was updated
•• URL address
•• date accessed.
For example:
‘Millipede Mayhem’, last updated 14 March 2008, http://www.csiro.au/csiro/channel/pchgb.html,
accessed 30 November 2011.

Acknowledgements
List the people and organisations who gave you help or advice. You should state how each person or
­organisation assisted you.

1.6 Exercises: Understanding and inquiring

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Understand
1. In which section of your investigation report should you write each of the following?
(a) A list of the books and other resources you used to find information for your project
(b) A table showing all the measurements you recorded
(c) A diagram of the equipment you used
(d) The purpose of the experiment
(e) A brief summary of your investigation and findings
(f) A statement that relates the results back to the aim and outlines what your results show

Think
2. When scientists write up their investigations for publication in a scientific journal, the abstract is one of the
most important parts of the report. Explain why the abstract is usually read by many more people than the
full report.
3. Explain why it is important for scientists to publish their investigations in scientific journals and to read the
reports written by other scientists.

Investigate
4. There have been instances where scientists have faked their results or committed other types of scientific
misconduct.
(a) Enter the words ‘scientific misconduct’ in a search engine to find examples of such instances.
(b) Why do you think that some scientists might be tempted to fake or fabricate their results?
(c) Explain why cases of scientific misconduct are damaging to all scientists.
(d) What do you think might happen to scientists who are found to have faked their results?

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 1.5: Scientific reports (doc-18699)

18  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

1.7 Presenting your data
1.7.1 Presenting your data
Observations and measurements obtained from an investigation are called data. Having collected the data,
it is important to present them clearly in a way that another person reading or studying them can under-
stand. Tables and graphs are a great way to organise data.

1.7.2 Using tables

When data are organised in a table, they are easier to read and trends are more easily identified. An example
of a simple table is shown below; it includes all the features you need to remember when constructing a table.
Always include a title
for your table.

Temperature of the Earth at Include the measurement units

different depths in the headings.
Depth Temperature
(km) (°C) The column headings show clearly
what has been measured.
0 15

1 44
Use a ruler to draw lines for
2 73 rows, columns and borders.

3 102

4 130

5 158

6 187 Enter the data in the body of the table. Do

not include units in this part of the table.
7 215

8 242

You may need to construct more complex tables, like the one below, to present your research project
results.

Do large paper aeroplanes fly further

Labels than small paper aeroplanes?

Width of paper (cm) 21 15 9

Length of paper (cm) 14 10 6

Trial 1 4.5 6.2 3.2 Units

Distance (m)

Trial 2 4.9 5.9 3.6

Trial 3 4.6 5.8 3.5

Average

1.7.3 Using graphs

Organising data as a graph is a widely recognised way to make a clear presentation. Graphs make it easier
to read and interpret information, find trends and draw conclusions.
A graph, especially a line graph, can also be used to find values other than those used in the investiga-
tion. This can be done by interpolation or extrapolation (see pages 22–23).

TOPIC 1 Science is … 19
Types of graphs
A pie chart
Five different types of graphs commonly used in
Nutrients in 100 g of K-plus cereal
scientific reports are pie charts, column or bar Niacin (0.02 g) Iron (0.01 g)
graphs, divided bar graphs, histograms and line Other B vitamins (0.02 g)
Fat (0.5 g)
graphs. Calcium (0.5 g)
Fibre (5 g)
Pie charts (or sector graphs)
A pie chart (also known as a sector graph) is a
circle divided into sections that represent parts of Sugars (18 g)

the whole. This type of graph may be used when the

data can be added as parts of a whole. The example
at right shows the food types, vitamins and minerals Protein (20.5 g)
that make up the nutrients in a breakfast cereal.
Divided bar graphs
Divided bar graphs are also used to ­represent
parts of a whole. However, the data are
Complex
represented as a long rectangle, rather than
­ carbohydrates
(55.45 g)
a circle, divided into sections. The example
at right shows the type of footwear worn to
A divided bar graph
school today by male and female students.
Types of footwear worn to school today
Column graphs and bar graphs
A column graph (sometimes called a bar graph) has
two axes and uses rectangles (columns or bars) to Female
represent each piece of data. The height or length
of the rectangles represents the values in the data.
The width of the rectangles is kept constant. This
type of graph can be used when the data cannot be Male
connected and are therefore not continuous.
The example below shows data on the average
height to which different balls bounced during an 0 10 20 30 40 50
experiment. Each column represents a different Number of students wearing footwear
type of ball.
School shoes Thongs Running shoes Boots

A column graph
Heights to which different types of balls bounce

1.6
* All balls were bounced by the
1.4 same person, from the same
height and onto the same
1.2
Height of bounce (m)*

surface.
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
Golf ball Tennis ball Basketball

Type of ball

20  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

 The example below shows the lengths of different metal bars when heated. Each bar represents a ­different
metal.

A bar graph
Lengths of different metal bars when
heated in the same way

Note: The metal

Metal A bars were of
identical lengths
before heating.

Metal bar Metal B

Metal C

Metal D

0 10 20 30
Length (cm)

Histograms
Histograms are similar to column graphs except the columns touch because the data are continuous. They
are often used to present the results of surveys. In the histogram below, each column represents the number
of students of a particular height.

A histogram
Heights of a group of students in a class

20

15
Number of students

10

0
140 145 150 155 160 165 170
Height (cm)
Line graphs
A line graph has two axes — a horizontal axis and a vertical axis. The horizontal axis is known as the
x- axis, and the vertical axis is known as the y-axis. A line graph is formed by joining a series of points
or drawing a line of best fit through the points. Each point represents a set of data for two variables, such

TOPIC 1 Science is …  21
as height and time. Two or more lines may be drawn on the same graph. Line graphs are used to show
­continuous data — that is, data in which the values follow on from each other. The features of line graphs
are shown below.

3. Setting up and labelling the axes 2. Title 1. Grid

Graphs represent a relationship Tell the reader what the graph is Graphs should always be drawn on
between two variables. When about! The title describes the results grid paper so values are accurately
choosing which variable to put on of the investigation or the relationship placed. Drawing freehand on lined or
each axis, remember that there is between variables. plain paper is not accurate enough for
usually an independent variable (which most graphs.
the investigator chooses) and a
dependent variable. For example, if Distance covered by a runner in
students wish to find out how far a 15 seconds Data table
runner could run in 15 seconds, they 100
may choose to measure the distance Distance Time
covered every 5 seconds. The time of (m) (s)
each measurement was chosen by the
students and is the independent  0  4
variable. The distance measured is 80
 8  5
therefore the dependent variable.
Usually the independent variable is 37 10
plotted on the x-axis and the 96 15
dependent variable on the vertical
60
y-axis.
Distance (m)

After deciding on the variable for 5. Putting in the values

each axis, you must clearly label the
A point is made for each
axes with the variable and its units.
The unit is written in brackets after the pair of values (the
40 meeting point of two
name of the variable.
imaginary lines from
each axis). The points
should be clearly visible.
Include a point for (0, 0)
4. Setting up the scales 20 only if you have the data
Each axis should be marked into units for this point.
that cover the entire range of the
measurement. For example, if the
distance ranges from 0 m to 96 m,
then 0 m and 100 m could be the 0
0 5 10 15
lowest and highest values on the
Time (s)
vertical scale. The distance between
the top and bottom values is then
broken up into equal divisions and
marked. The horizontal axis must also 6. Drawing the line
have its own range of values and A line is then drawn through the points.
uniform scale (which does not have to A line that follows the general direction of the points is called a ‘line of best fit’
be the same scale as the vertical axis). because it best fits the data. It should be on or as close to as many points as
The most important points about the possible. Some points follow the shape of a curve, rather than a straight line. A
scales are: curved line that touches all the points can then be used.
• they must show the entire range of The type of data you graph may lead you to expect either a straight line or a
measurements curve. For example, you might expect the increase in temperature of water being
• they must be uniform, that is, show boiled to be a straight line because the temperature increases at a steady rate. A
equal divisions for equal increases graph of the growth rate of a red panda (see page 36) would be curved and
in value. irregular because pandas have growth spurts. Inspecting the data will help you
decide whether your line should be straight or smooth and curved.

1.7.4 Interpolation
Line graphs can be used to estimate measurements that were not actually made in an investigation. The
table at the top of the next page shows the results of an experiment in which a student measured how many
spoons of sugar dissolved in a cup of tea at various temperatures.

22  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

 Amount of sugar that dissolves in one cup of tea Using a line graph for interpolation
at different temperatures
Effect of temperature on the amount
Mass of sugar of sugar dissolved in tea
Temperature (°C) dissolved (g) 180

0 4 160

20 30 140 Dotted line 2

40 60
120
60 98

Mass (g)
100
80 120 Dotted line 1
80
100 160
60
The student did not measure how much sugar
40
dissolved at 50 °C, but we can work this out by
interpolation. First we need to plot the data col- 20
lected in the experiment. Then we read off the
0
graph the amount of sugar that would dissolve 20 40 60 80 100
0
at 50 °C (shown by dotted line 1 in the graph at Temperature (ºC)
right). The same procedure can be used to work
out the water temperature that would be needed to dissolve 130 g of sugar in one cup of tea. This is shown
by dotted line 2.

1.7.5 Extrapolation
In many cases it is also possible to assume that the two variables will hold the same relationship beyond
the values that have been plotted. This is called extrapolation. Consider the table below, which shows the
results obtained when different masses were attached to a spring and the increase in length of the spring
was measured.

Amount a spring stretched when various masses

were attached
Using a line graph for extrapolation
Mass attached to Length by which spring
Effect of mass on spring stretch
the spring (kg) stretched (cm) 40
0.0 0
0.5 8
Length by which spring stretched (cm)

1.0 16
30
1.6 26
? 32

If you want to predict the mass needed to 20

stretch the spring by 32 cm, you need to plot the
data on a graph and extrapolate the value.
The data in the table above are plotted on
10
the graph at right. Values have been plotted up
to a mass of 1.6 kg and an increase in length of
26 cm. The line on the graph has been projected
onwards (as the dotted lines show). This extrap- 0
olation shows that a mass of 2 kg will stretch the 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
spring 32 cm. Mass attached to spring (kg)

TOPIC 1 Science is …  23
 INVESTIGATION 1.3
Drawing a line graph
AIM: To use a line graph to record data obtained in an experiment
A student conducted an experiment to see how temperature affected the amount of
sugar that would dissolve in a cup of tea. Each cup contained the same volume of tea,
and the sugar was stirred in at an equal rate for each cup. The results obtained are
shown in the table below.
Graph the data in the table using the steps and diagrams below.

Amount of sugar dissolved in one cup of tea

Temperature (°C) Mass of sugar dissolved (g)

0 4

20 30

40 60

60 98

80 120

100 160

1. Set up the grid. 2. Give the graph a title.

Effect of temperature on the

amount of sugar dissolved in tea

3. Set up the axes and label them. 4. Place the scales on the axes.
Effect of temperature on the Effect of temperature on the
amount of sugar dissolved in tea amount of sugar dissolved in tea
180
160
140
120
Mass (g)

Mass (g)

100
80
60
40
20
0
Temperature (°C) 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (°C)

24  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

5. Plot each pair of values as a point marked with 6. Draw a line of best fit; that is, a line drawn in
an x. Make sure each point is clearly visible. between the points so that some points are on
Don’t forget to plot (0, 4) because you have the line, some are below it and some are above.
the data for this point.

Effect of temperature on the Effect of temperature on the

amount of sugar dissolved in tea amount of sugar dissolved in tea
180 180
160 160
140 140
120 120
Mass (g)

Mass (g)
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
20 40 60 80 100 120 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

1.7 Exercises: Understanding and inquiring

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Analyse and evaluate

1. The following table shows the uses of plastics in
Australia. Uses of plastics in Australia
(a) Select a suitable graph type and prepare a graph Use Percentage (%)
from this table.
(b) Choose two uses of plastic from your graph. For Agriculture  4.0
each use, state a particular item that is made of
Building 24.0
plastic.
(c) There has been controversy about the waste Electrical/electronic  8.0
products that humans create.
(i) List some uses of plastics that contribute to Furniture and bedding  8.0
waste products. Housewares  4.0
(ii) Suggest some action people can take to reduce
the amount of plastic waste products. Marine, toys and leisure  2.0
2. The data in the following table relate the speed of a
Packaging and materials 31.0
car to its stopping distance (the distance the car
handling
travels after the brakes are applied).
(a) Graph the data. Transport  5.0
(b) Make a conclusion about the information in the
graph. Others 14.0
(c) How could this information be applied to your
everyday life?

Relationship between the speed of a car and its stopping distance

Speed of car (m/s) Stopping distance (m)
10 12
20 36
30 72
40 120

TOPIC 1 Science is …  25
 3. The boiling point of water changes with air pressure.
For example, water does not boil at 100 °C at the top Boiling point of water at different air
of Mount Everest, where the air pressure is less than pressures
the pressure at sea level. The following data show the Air pressure in Boiling point
boiling point of water at various air pressure values. kilopascals (kPa) of water (°C)
(a) Graph the data.
(b) Describe the shape of your graph.  1  20
(c) What is the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level?   7  40
(d) Would it take a longer or shorter time to boil water at
 21  60
the top of Mount Everest compared with sea level?
Explain your answer.  45  80
4. The following graph shows the increase in mass of a
  101 100
growing pondweed.
(a) What was the mass of the plant after 3 weeks of 200 120
growth?
Increase in mass of pondweed with time
600
pondweed (g)
Dry weight of

400

200

0
0 2 4 6
Time (weeks)

(b) How long did it take for the plant to grow to 250 grams?
(c) Predict the mass of the plant after 6 weeks of growth.
(d) Can you be sure that your extrapolation for part (c) is accurate? Suggest reasons why it may not be
accurate.
(e) Would the interpolations from parts (a) and (b) be more accurate than your extrapolation? Discuss your
ideas in class.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Try out this interactivity: Constructing a pie graph (int-3128)

Try out this interactivity: Creating a simple column or bar graph (int-3135)
Try out this interactivity: Drawing a line graph (int-3131)

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 1.6: Scientific drawing skills (doc-18700)

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 1.7: Data analysis (doc-18701)

1.8 Using data loggers

1.8.1 What is a data logger?
A data logger is a type of scientific recording instrument. It collects and stores measurements that are
called data because they are numbers. A data logger has to be attached to a measuring instrument called a
sensor. The sensor does the measuring and sends the measurements to the data logger.

26  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

 The real advantage of working with a data logger is that it can store
Some data loggers have
thousands of individual measurements. The measurements can be taken in their own touch screen and
quick succession or over a long period of time, and the data logger can be work like mini computers.
programmed to do this automatically. This is why scientists often use data
loggers in their work.
Data loggers also tend to be portable and battery-powered, and can
therefore be used for applications such as remote weather monitoring and
car crash testing. You may have been in a car that has driven over two
closely placed rubber strips on the road — these strips are connected to a
data logger used to count traffic.
Of course, to be useful, the stored measurements must be easy to
access. That is why the data logger is also attached to either a computer
or a graphics calculator. The computer or calculator takes the data and,
using special software that comes with the data logger, shows the data as
a table, a graph or both.

Other uses for data loggers

Data loggers can be used for just about any experiment
More basic data loggers require the use of
where measurements are taken. All that is needed is the a computer to analyse the results.
appropriate sensor to be plugged in. It is even possible to
plug in several sensors to take different measurements at the
same time.
Some of the many different sensors that are available
include:
•• temperature sensors capable of measuring up to several
­hundred degrees Celsius
•• light intensity sensors
•• soundwave sensors (microphones)
•• motion sensors
•• magnetic field sensors
•• acceleration sensors
A data logger for measuring blood pressure
•• force sensors
•• electric current and voltage sensors
•• humidity sensors
•• blood pressure sensors
•• heart rate sensors.
One type of sensor that isn’t necessary is a time sensor
(stopwatch) because the data logger has its own inbuilt clock
that is very accurate. In fact, one of the most useful things
about data loggers is their ability to collect measurements
at very small and precise time intervals, even as many as a
thousand measurements in one second!

1.8.2 Data loggers in temperature measurement

In Investigation 1.1 on page 2, the measuring instrument you used was a thermometer. You looked at the
thermometer every 30 ­seconds and observed the temperature, which you wrote down in a table. You then
made a line graph of temperature against time. If you had used a data logger with a temperature sensor
instead of the thermometer, it could have taken the temperature every second and sent it to a computer that
automatically tabulated the temperature data and graphed it as well.

TOPIC 1 Science is …  27
 1.8 Exercises: Understanding and inquiring
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Remember
1. Match each of the words listed below with its meaning.

Word Meaning

a. Sensor A You may need to download the data from the data logger to one
of these.

b. Data logger B  Piece of information

c. Computer C These are plugged into the data logger and take the measurements.

d. Data logger software D Allows you to input data into the data logger or computer by touching it
with your finger or a stylus

e. Touch screen E Allows you to process the data collected by the data logger

f. Data F Collects and stores data from sensors connected to it

2. Sensors are devices that take the measurements that the data logger collects. Outline scientific
investigations that could use data collected by sensors that measure:
(a) electric current
(b) heart rate
(c) motion
(d) sound waves
(e) light intensity.

Analyse and evaluate

3. The graph at right shows data collected by Temperature vs time
a data logger for an experiment in which 100
water was heated to boiling point in a beaker.
A temperature sensor was used to take the
measurements. 80
If you were at this computer, you could scroll
Temperature (°C)

through every temperature measurement in the

table. The computer has graphed all this data. 60
Now let’s see how much you’ve learned about
interpreting line graphs.
40
(a) How long did the whole experiment go for?
(b) About when did the heating of the water
begin? 20
(c) What was the temperature of the water when
heating began?
(d) What was the temperature of the water when 0
heating finished? 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
(e) About when did the water begin to boil? Time (s)
(f) Between 100 and 400 seconds, at what
rate (in degrees per second) did the water
temperature rise?
(g) The water continued to be heated even when its temperature reached boiling point, yet its
temperature did not rise beyond 100 °C. What has happened to all the energy that was being put into
the water if it isn’t causing the water temperature to rise? (Hint: Think about what happens to water
while it is boiling.)

28  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

1.9 Greats from the past
Science as a human endeavour
1.9.1 Who’s the greatest?
Who is the greatest scientist of all time? Is it Curie, Einstein, Newton or Pasteur? Or is it one of the people
who saved millions of lives by discovering X-rays, penicillin or vaccination?

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Watch this eLesson: Career spotlight: Scientist (eles-0766)

1.9.2 The slow starter

Albert Einstein (1879–1955) is most well known for his theory of relativity (there are actually two theories
of relativity) and the equation E = mc2, which describes how mass can be converted into energy.
Albert Einstein was certainly a slow starter. Although he was fascinated by mathematics, Einstein
­performed badly at school and left at the age of 15. He returned later and trained as a teacher in Swit-
zerland. Einstein often failed to attend lectures and passed university exams by studying the notes of his
classmates.
Einstein’s first job was as a junior clerk in a patent office. His work was not demanding and he spent a
lot of time doing ‘thought’ experiments.
At the age of 26, Einstein began to publish his ideas. These ideas altered our view of the nature of the
universe by changing existing laws and discovering new ones.
Einstein explained the photoelectric effect, in which light energy is transformed into electrical energy,
and received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for this.
Einstein’s theories of relativity were so different from earlier theories that they were not believed or
understood by most scientists. His theory of special relativity explains the behaviour of objects that travel at
speeds close to the speed of light. His theory of
Einstein’s first wife, Mileva, was a mathematician.
general relativity explains the effect of gravity
He discussed many of his new ideas with her.
on light and predicts that time ‘slows down’
in the presence of large gravitational forces.
These theories provide useful clues about the
development and future of the universe.
Einstein’s theories suggested that mass could
be converted into energy. This idea led to the
development of the atomic bomb and nuclear
power. Einstein, who was Jewish, fled Germany
in 1933 to live and work in the United States.
He was an active opponent of nuclear weapons
and was involved in the peace movement long
before atomic bombs destroyed Hiroshima and
Nagasaki at the end of World War II.

1.9.3 Did that apple really fall on his head?

Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is probably most well known for his laws of gravitation, which explain the
motion of the planets around the sun. According to some historians, his ideas about gravity arose after an
apple fell on his head. We’ll probably never know if this is true.

TOPIC 1 Science is …  29
 Isaac Newton was sent to Cambridge University at the age of 18. When the university closed down in
1665 as a result of the Great Plague, young Isaac went home for two years. There he developed his laws
of gravitation and his three laws of motion. During his life, he also made discoveries about the behaviour
of light and invented a whole new branch of mathematics, called calculus. Much of the scientific knowl-
edge that has been acquired since the seventeenth century is built upon Newton’s discoveries during that
amazing two-year period.

1.9.4 A family affair

Marie Curie (1867–1934) became the first scientist to win two Nobel Prizes when she was awarded the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911 for her discovery of two new elements: polonium and radium. Radium
was used in the treatment of cancer until cheaper and safer radioactive materials were developed. Marie
Curie’s first Nobel Prize, for the study of radioactivity, was shared with her husband, Pierre, and fellow
scientist Antoine-Henri Becquerel in 1903.
As a child, Marie Sklodowska (her birth name)
wanted to study science. However, girls were forbidden Marie Curie with husband Pierre in her laboratory

to attend university in her native country of Poland. She

worked as a private tutor for 3 years to earn enough
money to study at the University of Paris, where she
met her future husband, Pierre. They were very poor
and spent most of their money on laboratory equip-
ment, leaving very little money for food. In fact, they
often couldn’t afford to eat. After Pierre was knocked
down and killed by a speeding wagon, Marie continued
their research in radioactivity, pioneering the develop-
ment of radioactive materials for use in medicine and
industry. She became the first female teacher at the
University of Paris and worked hard to raise money for
scientific research.

1.9.5 The germ of an idea

Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) proved that infectious diseases were caused by microbes. His ideas became
known as ‘germ theory’. He also developed several vaccines that made people immune to diseases such as
rabies and smallpox. In doing this he has been responsible for saving the lives of millions of people and
countless animals.
Pasteur began his scientific career in physics and chemistry, but
became interested in microbes when he was using light to inves- One of Pasteur’s experiments

tigate the differences between chemicals in living and non-living

things. Time elapsed
Pasteur’s next challenge was to rescue the French wine industry.
Boil No microbial
Wine (and beer) became sour very quickly and this was beginning
growth
to have an impact on the French economy, which relied heavily
on the export of wine. Pasteur showed that the souring was caused
by acids produced by the action of bacteria in the wine. Pasteur
invented a process that rapidly heated some of the ingredients of Boil Stem broken, Microbial
the wine. The rapid heating killed most of the offending microbes allowing air to growth
without altering the flavour of the wine. The process, known as enter flask

pasteurisation, was later adapted to slow down the souring of milk.

30  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

 1.9 Exercises: Understanding and inquiring
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Think
1. Make a quick list of your ‘Top 3’ scientists of all time. For each one, answer the following questions.
(a) What impact does their work have on your life?
(b) Did they just happen to be in the ‘right place at the right time’?
(c) Did they work under adverse conditions?
(d) Did their work save lives?
(e) Did their work have any destructive influence?
(f) What other special qualities make them great?
2. Is it fair to select the single ‘greatest’ scientist of all time? Explain your answer.
3. Louis Pasteur conducted many of his experiments on animals. Many of them would now be considered
cruel. However, the experiments saved many human lives.
(a) Present the arguments for and against the use of animals in such experiments.
(b) Were the animal experiments justified? Write a brief statement supporting your opinion.

Imagine
4. Imagine that you are one of the three scientists you chose as the greatest scientists of all time. Write a
short speech (3–5 minutes) about your life and work, and deliver it to your class. Illustrate your speech with
models, diagrams or photographs.

Investigate
5. Write a biography similar to the four presented in this section about one of the following scientists: Michael
Faraday (1791–1867), Charles Darwin (1809–1982), Lise Meitner (1878–1968), Barbara McClintock (1902–
1992), Peter Doherty (1940– ), Stephen Hawking (1942– ).

1.10 Project: An inspiration for the future

Scenario
The Florey Medal was established in 1998 by the Australian Institute of Policy and Science in honour of
the Australian Nobel Prize–winning scientist Sir Howard Florey, who developed penicillin. It is awarded
biennially to an Australian biomedical researcher for significant achievements in biomedical science and
human health advancement.
In a similar spirit, the Australian Academy of Science (AAS) hopes next year to establish an award for
outstanding science students. The AAS wishes to name the medal after an Australian scientist who provides
the greatest inspiration for young people considering a future career in science. After months of consulta-
tion, they have narrowed the choices down to the following:
• David Unaipon (1872–1967): Inventor

TOPIC 1 Science is … 31
• Peter Doherty (1940– ): Veterinarian and • Fiona Wood (1958– ): Plastic surgeon and
immunologist burns specialist

• Fred Hollows (1929–1993): Ophthalmologist

• Ian Frazer (1953– ): Immunologist

• Andrew Thomas (1951– ): Astronaut • Graeme Clark (1935– ): Otolaryngeal surgeon

and engineer

Your task
You will create an 8–10 minute podcast in the format of an interviewer discussing with a number of dif-
ferent people which of these scientists would be the best choice to name the AAS medal after. The inter-
viewees (played by group members) should be people who would be likely to have an interest or stake
in the award. Examples could include a member of the AAS medal panel, the Minister for Industry, the
head of a university science or science education department, a high school science teacher, or even a high
school science student. Each interviewee should have their own preference as to which scientist should be
selected and at least four scientists should be discussed during the interview.

32  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

1.11 Review
1.11.1 Study checklist
The laboratory
•• identify and safely use a range of equipment to perform scientific investigations
•• use specialised equipment to make accurate observations and measurements
•• use digital technology such as data loggers to make and record measurements

Planning and conducting investigations

•• work individually and with others to identify a problem to investigate
•• use information from investigations and scientific knowledge to make predictions and form hypotheses
•• undertake research using a variety of sources
•• develop a logical procedure for undertaking a controlled experiment
•• recognise the need to control variables and distinguish between dependent and independent variables
•• use repetition of measurement to increase the reliability of data

Processing and analysing data and information

•• accurately record observations and measurements
•• organise data clearly using tables and spreadsheets
•• construct an appropriate type of graph to present your data
•• use tables, spreadsheets and graphs to identify trends and patterns, and assist in forming conclusions
•• identify data that support or discount a hypothesis
•• form conclusions based on experimental results

Evaluating and communicating

•• reflect on your methods and make suggestions for improvements to your investigations
•• use information from investigations and scientific knowledge to evaluate claims
•• discuss ideas and investigations with others
•• use a scientific report with scientific language, clear diagrams, tables and graphs where necessary to
describe your investigations and their findings

Science as a human endeavour

•• identify the contributions of individual scientists, including Australians, to scientific knowledge
•• describe some scientific discoveries that have had a major impact on our understanding of the world

Individual pathways

ACTIVITY 1.1 ACTIVITY 1.2 ACTIVITY 1.3

Investigating Analysing investigations Designing investigations
doc-2861 doc-2862 doc-2863

 ONLINE ONLY

TOPIC 1 Science is …  33
 1.11 Review 1: Looking back
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.
1. The affinity diagram below organises some of the ideas used by scientists into four groups. Each category
name is a single word and represents an important part of scientific investigations. However, the category
names have been jumbled up. What are the correct categories for groups A, B, C and D?

Scientific investigation

Group A Group B
Observation Conclusion

Educated guess Seeing

Not certain Tasting
Prediction Hearing
Sensible Feeling
Smelling
Noticing

Group C Group D
Hypothesis Measurement

Beam balance Outcome

Ruler Findings
Thermometer Final
Stopwatch Fairly certain

2. Bahir was sick of being bitten by mosquitoes. He counted several bites each evening when he sat outside
to have dinner. He had heard that burning a citronella candle was a good way to keep mosquitoes away.
Design an experiment to test Bahir’s idea. List the independent and dependent variables, and the controlled
variables needed to make this a fair test. Suggest a control for your experiment.
3. Four students each measured the temperature in the same classroom using a thermometer. Their results are
shown in the table below.

Temperature as measured by each of four students in the same classroom

Student Temperature (°C)

1 23.5
2 24.0
3 25.0
4 22.0

(a) Construct a bar graph of these results.

(b) Propose some possible reasons for the differences between measurements.
4. Jane and Greg decided to test how quickly water would boil when using either the yellow flame or blue flame
of the Bunsen burner. They set up identical experiments, except that Jane used a blue flame and Greg used
a yellow flame. Their results are graphed on the next page.
(a) How long did it take for Jane’s water to boil?

34  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

 (b) What was the temperature of Greg’s water when Jane’s water boiled?
(c) In your own words, explain how you worked out the answers for these two questions.
(d) Jane removed her beaker and Greg quickly placed his beaker over Jane’s Bunsen burner. Assuming that
the temperature of Greg’s beaker did not drop while swapping Bunsen burners, predict the time at which
his water would boil. Using your own words, explain how you predicted this.

100
Jane’s
result
80

Temperature (°C) 60 This is

when
Greg’s Greg
result changed
40
Bunsen
burners.
20

0
0 05 10 15 20 25
Time (min)

5. Singalia and Sallyana are two red panda cubs born at Sydney’s Taronga Zoo. The table on the next page shows
their masses during their first 22 weeks. The photograph below shows one of the cubs being weighed.

(a) Graph both sets of data onto a grid. Use different symbols for the points for each panda and label each
line with the panda’s name. You may have to extend the vertical axis to fit in the scale for the pandas’
masses (or convert the masses to kilograms and plot in kilograms).
(b) Describe the growth of each of the panda cubs. How do they compare with each other?
(c) How long did it take the cubs to double their mass measured in week 1?
(d) Did the pandas grow at the same rate during the 22 weeks?
(e) Which were the fastest and slowest growth periods for each panda?
(f) What age was each of the cubs when it reached 1 kg?
(g) At what age would you predict each cub to reach 1.5 kg? Explain how you made your prediction. What
assumption did you make to answer the question?

TOPIC 1 Science is … 35
 Red panda cubs’ masses (grams)
Week Singalia Sallyana
1   213  219
2   285  290
3   330  349
4   365  377
5   403  408
6   465  452
7   536  514
8   564  576
9   594  610
10   650  637
11   703  680
12   714  740
13   814  796
14   872  812
15   956  806
16 1111  786
17 1043 890
18 1130 1000
19 1163 1083
20 1182 1162
21 1225 1218
22 1335 1270

6. The table below shows the winning times for the men’s 400 m freestyle swimming event. The data are from
various Olympic Games from 1896 to 2012.

Year Name, country Time (min:s)

1896 Paul Neumann, Austria 8:12.60
1908 Henry Taylor, Great Britain 5:36.80
1920 Norman Ross, USA 5:26.80
1932 Buster Crabbe, USA 4:48.40
1948 Bill Smith, USA 4:41.00
1960 Murray Rose, Australia 4:18.30
1972 Bradford Cooper, Australia 4:00.27
1984 George DiCarlo, USA 3:51.23
1996 Danyon Loader, New Zealand 3:47.97
2000 Ian Thorpe, Australia 3:40.59
2004 Ian Thorpe, Australia 3:43.10
2008 Tae-Hwan Park, Korea 3:41.86
2012 Sun Yang, China 3:40.14

36  Jacaranda Science Quest 8

 (a) Are data available for each Olympics
every 4 years?
(b) Construct a line graph of the times for the
men’s 400 m freestyle over these years.
Take into account your answer to part (a).
(c) Use your graph to estimate the winning
time for this event in the 1956 Melbourne
Olympic Games.
(d) Discuss how the winning times have
changed over the 112-year period.
(e) Suggest some reasons for the change in
winning times.
(f) Discuss how you believe the times for the
men’s 400 m freestyle might change over
the next 40 years.
7. Create a storyboard that tells the story of
the main events in the life of one of these
famous scientists.
(a) Albert Einstein
(b) Sir Isaac Newton
(c) Marie Curie
(d) Louis Pasteur
8. On the right is part of a report on an
experiment about dissolving sugar.
(a) Write a ‘Discussion’ section for this
report.
(b) Write a conclusion for this report.
(c) How could this investigation be
improved?

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 1.8: Investigating: Puzzle (doc-18702)

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 1.9: Investigating: Summary (doc-18703)

Link to assessON for questions to test your

readiness FOR learning, your progress AS
you learn and your levels OF achievement.
www.assesson.com.au

TOPIC 1 Science is … 37