Stress and Coping

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Stress & Coping
Table of Contents
1 What is Stress?
2 General Adaptation Syndrome
2.1 Physiological Stress Response
2.2 Nature of Emotions
3 Psychological Theories of Stress

3.1 James-Lange Theory of Emotion
3.2 Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
3.3 Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
3.4 Stress and Cognitive Appraisal
4 Individual Differences - Stress Response

4.1 Social Support and Stress
4.2 Gender, Culture and Stress Response
5 Stress and Coping Mechanisms

5.1 Theories of Coping
5.2 Stress Management
5.3 Traditional Stress Therapies
5.4 How does Stress Affect Performance?
6 Three Different Kinds of Stress

6.1 Knowing Your Stressors
7 Stress and Illness

7.1 Stress and Cancer
7.2 The Warning Signs of Burnout
7.3 Stress in Children
8 Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

9 Myths about Stress
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1 What is Stress?
Stress is the physical, mental and emotional human response to a particular stimulus,
otherwise called as ‘stressor’. It is the adaption/coping-response that helps the body to
prepare for challenging situations. Stress can be either negative or positive, depending
on the stressor.
When you hear the word “stress”, isn’t it that you fret a little bit because you know that stress
has been affecting your whole life? Well, you’re not alone. Each one of us has his own
feelings towards stress, and those feelings are more on the negative effects of stress.
Defining Stress
Strictly defined, stress is the physical, mental and emotional human response to a particular
stimulus, otherwise called as ‘stressor’.
For instance, if you are to start with making your thesis, the thesis itself is not the stimulus,
rather it’s the deadline, the depth of the subject, the extent of research to be done, and even
your partners in your research group are just some of the many potential stimuli that can
influence your response. The way you respond to these stimuli is exactly what stress is.
Stress is the mismatch between the perceived obstacle and the perceived resources for
coping with the "demands" of the obstacle.
The stress response may be thought of as the general component common in all emotions,
general adaption syndrom, where the strength of the response predetermine the strength of
the emotion. Actually this also applies to positive feelings.
How does stress affect performance?
The Two Faces of Stress

Stress can be negative or positive, depending on the level of our response to the stressors we
encounter.
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Apparently, most of us only think about the bad sides of stress. Negative stress are actually
about stress that are beyond one’s control. This bad impact of severe stress is often
manifested in physical and mental signs and symptoms.
However, when we are only exposed to mild or moderate stress, we are actually able to
experience the good side of stress, which include improved creativity, learning, efficiency at
work and, eventually, a higher level of self-esteem that could lead us to be able to withstand a
higher stress levels in the future.
Causes of Stress
What is stressful for one person may not be the same for another, that is why the causes of
stress is diverse and individualized. The most common stressors, though, include hectic work
schedule, heavy work load, family and relationship problems, and financial problems. While
these popular stressors are often pointed as the culprits for stress, do you know that even
positive life moments, like getting married, may also act as stressors?
As long as something demands for your efforts or pushes you to work on it, it can be called a
stressor. Choosing a university to go to, getting married, selecting a car, and other great life
events can be stressful for you. With all these stressors around you, you need to learn about
stress management techniques in order to maintain the balance in your life.
How to cite this article:
Sarah Mae Sincero (Aug 5, 2012). What is Stress?. Retrieved from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/what-is-stress
4
2 General Adaptation Syndrome
In 1936 Hans Selye created the stress model "General Adaptation Syndrome", which
thoroughly explains the stress response and how aging and disease are caused by
chronic exposure to stress.
“Every stress leaves an indelible scar, and the organism pays for its
survival after a stressful situation by becoming a little older.”
Hans Selye (1907-1982)
This quotation clearly summarizes his belief on how stress affects the human body through
aging and other natural body processes that occur as we encounter various stressors in our
daily lives.
The Observations by Selye

In his studies, Selye noticed that the body has been adapting to external stressors in terms of
a biological pattern that is actually predictable, so that the internal balance, or homeostasis,
would be restored and maintained.
In its attempt to retain homeostasis, the body makes use of its hormonal system, also known
as the fight or flight response. With this response, you would notice how the body wants
things to be resolved fast and easy, that’s why it already resorts to releasing hormones that
would enable you to combat stress in the most immediate way possible. This struggle of the
body against stress is the main theme of the General Adaptation Syndrome.
Another observation that Selye discovered was that even if one’s body wants to control or
reduce the stress, it still has its limits. The limited supply of body’s energy to adapt to the
stressful environment is even more compromised when the body is exposed to the stressor
continuously.
Three Phases of Stress Response
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The General Adaptation Syndrome is a model that is comprised of three elements or phases
which describe the body’s response to stress:
1. Alarm Stage
In this phase, the initial reaction of the body to stress is that it labels the stressor as a threat or
danger to balance,that is why it immediately activates its fight or flight response system, and
releases the “stress” hormones such as adrenaline, noradrenaline and cortisol. These
hormones enable you to perform activities that you don’t usually do.
For instance, when one’s house is on fire, his body shifts to the alarm stage, his stress
hormones released (particularly adrenaline) and then he lifts a very heavy appliance outside
the burning house. But there’s a catch – your blood pressure starts to rise after a minute or
less, which can predispose you to damage of the brain and heart’s blood vessels, putting you
at risk to stroke or heart attack. The muscles you’ve utilized might also become painful due to
tissue damage.
2. Resistance Stage
After the body has responded to the stressor, it is more likely that the stress level has been
eradicated, or simply reduced. What happens next to the fight or flight response is that you
body’s defences become weaker, as it needs to allocate energy to the repair of damaged
muscle tissues and lower the production of the stress hormones.
Although the body has shifted to this second phase of stress response, it remains on-guard,
particularly when the stressors persist and the body is required to fight them continuously,
although not as stronger as it could during the initial response.
3. Exhaustion Stage
During this phase, the stress has been persistent for a longer period. The body starts to lose
its ability to combat the stressors and reduce their harmful impact because the adaptive
energy is all drained out. The exhaustion stage can be referred to as the gate towards burnout
or stress overload, which can lead to health problems if not resolved immediately.
All in all, the General Adaptation Syndrome model by Hans Selye presents a clear biological
explanation of how the body responds and adapts to stress.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Jul 10, 2012). General Adaptation Syndrome. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/general-adaptation-syndrome
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2.1 Physiological Stress Response
The process of physiological stress response starts from the moment the body realizes
the presence of the stressor, followed by the sending of signals to the brain, and to the
specific sympathetic and hormonal responses to eliminate, reduce or cope with the
stress.
The Nervous System

When your body senses that a particular stressor is present, signals about that stimulus are
sent to your brain. The master gland called the hypothalamus is then alerted to arouse the
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). The ANS is the system which controls most of the major
organs of your body: the heart, lungs, stomach, glands and even the blood vessels. With
these organs, you’ll readily notice that the ANS is responsible for the unconscious regulation
of the heart beat and breathing.
The ANS is further divided into two subsystems: the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS), and
the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS). The PNS is responsible for the conservation of
energy, as well as in defending our body by controlling gland secretions such as gastric acid,
tears, saliva and mucus. It’s opposite, the SNS, is the one that we can call the “action
system”, because it is the system that is very active during a stressful situation.
Sympathetic Response
The SNS surely likes things to go very quickly when you are faced with stress. The
neurotransmitter noradrenaline is released by the nerve endings and is sent to the SNS so
that the latter can:
1. Enhance the strength of your skeletal muscles. Have you heard news about people
who were able to carry heavy furniture or equipments outside their house during fire?
Well, fire is a very stressful situation, and thankfully we have our sympathetic response
to aid us during these circumstances.
2. Increase heart rate. During stressful moments, your heart beats faster than it usually
does so that the parts of your body which are needed to cope up with the stress would
be supplied by enough oxygenated blood to remain functional until the stressful situation
subsides.
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3. Shoot up sugar and fat levels. We all know that sugar and fat provides our body with
energy. During stressful situations, we need more energy to cope up, and so the SNS
assists us to have more energy.
Furthermore, the SNS also:
Enhances mental activity

Slows down blood clotting time
Decreases intestinal movements
Limits digestive secretions and tears
Dilates Pupils
Constricts peripheral blood vessels, especially those that are not needed to cope up with
the stress at hand
Hormonal Response
Other than the nervous system, the body’s stress response also includes the help of the
adrenal glands. Situated on top of each kidney, the adrenal glands are also included in the
physiologic stress response because the adrenal medulla (the center part of the glands) has
nerves that connect the gland to the SNS. The SNS stimulates the adrenal medulla to start
releasing adrenaline and noradrenaline into the blood circulation. This action results in the
“fight or flight” response, which is manifested by the increase in heart rate, dilation of bronchial
airways and enhancement of the metabolic rate so more of the stored energy can be used.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Nov 23, 2012). Physiological Stress Response. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/physiological-stress-response
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2.2 Nature of Emotions
In order to have deep understanding of the nature of emotions, one must look for
answers to the “Five Perennial Questions of Emotion” that was formulated by John
Marshall Reeve (2009).
The "Five Perrenial Questions" must be addressed to improve one's knowledge of the nature
of emotions. These include:
1. What is an emotion?
2. What causes an emotion?
3. How many emotions are there?
4. What is good with the emotions?
5. What is the difference between emotion and mood?
Let’s discuss them one by one.
1. What is an Emotion?
Merriam-Webster defines emotion as a conscious and subjective mental reaction toward a
particular event and is usually accompanied by changes in the physiologic and behavioural
aspects of a person. From this definition, we can deduce that an emotion has four
components, namely: cognitive reactions, physiological reactions, behavioural reactions and
affect. Cognitive reactions refer to a person’s memory, thinking and perception of an event.
Physiological reactions are primarily caused by changes in the hormonal levels in the body.
On the other hand, behavioural reactions comprise the active expression of the emotion.
Lastly, affect includes the positive or negative state of the emotion and is what makes an
emotion a conscious and subjective experience.
Let’s use a scenario to clearly discuss these aspects of emotion. Suppose you are watching a
scary television show alone late at night. You see the physical form of the antagonist and you
think he is so scary and spooky (cognitive reaction). Because of this thinking, your face shows
fear towards the character (affect). The character runs after the protagonist, and you feel your
heart beating fast (physiological reaction) and you cover your eyes with your hands in fear
(behavioural reaction).
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2. What Causes an Emotion?
There are several theories that provide explanations regarding the origin and process of
emotions and what causes them. These theories use the concepts of emotional arousal,
physiological responses and/or the subjective perception/interpretation of the event in
formulating hypotheses on emotions and their causes. In the early theories of emotion, there
is a distinction between cognition and biological responses as the causes of emotions, as
explained in the James-Lange Theory and the Cannon-Bard Theory. On the other hand, there
are theories that use two-systems view approach, such as the Schachter-Singer Theory.
Having a sound knowledge of these theories provides a better understanding of the
theoretical causes of emotions.
3. How Many Emotions are There?

As defined, emotion is a subjective experience. There are over 7 billion humans on Earth, and
each one of us experiences different kinds of emotions. For this reason, there is no clear
answer as to the exact number of emotions and its types. Robert Plutchik (1980) states that
there are eight basic emotions, which include: anger, fear, sadness, disgust, surprise,
anticipation, trust and joy. Many theorists also believe that the mixture of two or more
emotions yields another kind of emotion, also know as a secondary emotion. For instance,
anger and disgust might lead to contempt. There is probably no "correct" answer to how many
emotions there are: It dependes on how you think about emotions.
4. What is Good with Emotions?

The fourth perennial question inquires about the function of emotions. According to Kennedy,
Moore & Watson, emotions play three important roles in the lives of humans. First, emotions
are needed for adaptation and survival. Happiness and trust motivate a person to perform at
his best, while fear and disgust make a person vigilant to danger. Second, emotions influence
a person on how he perceives the world. Thus, emotions have a regulatory function. Third,
emotions helps people communicate their needs, wants and feeling to others.
5. What is the Difference Between Emotion and Mood?
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“Emotion” and “mood” are two words that are mistakenly used interchangeably. One of the
differences between the two lies on their time course. Emotions are generally short-lived,
whereas moods are often long-lived. Another difference is that emotions may be expressed
(and are easier to express) while moods may not be expressed due to the lack of
perception/understanding of the stimulus.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Apr 6, 2012). Nature of Emotions. Retrieved from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/nature-of-emotions
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3 Psychological Theories of Stress
The psychological theories of stress gradually evolved from the Theory of Emotion
(James-Lange), The Emergency Theory (Cannon-Bard), and to the Theory of Emotion
(Schachter-Singer).
Because stress is one of the most interesting and mysterious subjects we have since the
beginning of time, its study is not only limited to what happens to the body during a stressful
situation, but also to what occurs in the psyche of an individual. In this article, we will discuss
the different psychological theories of stress proposed by James & Lange, Cannon & Brad,
and Schachter & Singer.
James-Lange: Theory of Emotion

In 1884 and in 1885, theorists William James and Carl Lange might have separately proposed
their respective theories on the correlation of stress and emotion, but they had a unified idea
on this relationship - emotions do not immediately succeed the perception of the stressor or
the stressful event; they become present after the body’s response to the stress. For instance,
when you see a growling dog, your heart starts to race, your breath begins to go faster, then
your eyes become wide open. According to James and Lange, the feeling of fear or any other
emotion only begins after you experience these bodily changes. This means that the
emotional behavior is not possible to occur unless it is connected to one’s brain.
See the full article: The James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Cannon-Bard: The Emergency Theory
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This theory is quite the opposite of what James and Lange proposed. According to theorist
Walter Cannon, emotion in response to stress can actually occur even when the bodily
changes are not present. Cannon said that the visceral or internal physiologic response of
one’s body is more slowly recognized by the brain as compared with its function to release
emotional response. He attempted to prove his theory by means of creating the so-called
“decorticated cats”, wherein the neural connections of the body are separated from the cortex
in the brain of the cats. When faced with a stressful response, the decorticated cats showed
emotional behavior which meant feelings of aggression and rage. This emotion was then
manifested by bodily changes such as baring of teeth, growling and erect hair.
To further enhance Cannon’s theory, theorist Philip Bard expanded the ideals of Cannon by
arguing that a lower brain stem structure called the thalamus is important in the production of
emotional responses. According to Bard, the emotional response is released first, and then
sent as signals by the thalamus to the brain cortex for the interpretation alongside with the
sending of signals to the sympathetic nervous system or SNS to begin the physiologic
response to stress. Therefore, this theory argues that emotional response to stress is not a
product of the physiologic response; rather, they occur simultaneously.
See the full article: Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
The Schachter-Singer Theory

Theorists Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer argued that the appropriate identification of
the emotion requires both cognitive activity and emotional arousal in order to experience an
emotion. Attribution, or the process wherein the brain can identify the stress stimulus
producing an emotion is also proposed by Schachter and Singer. The theory explains that we
become aware of the reason behind the emotional response, and when we the reason is not
obvious, we start to look for environmental clues for the proper interpretation of the emotion to
occur.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Aug 25, 2012). Psychological Theories of Stress. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/psychological-theories-of-stress
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3.1 James-Lange Theory of Emotion
We have experiences, and as a result, our autonomic nervous system creates

physiological events such as muscular tension, heart rate increases, perspiration,
dryness of the mouth, etc. This theory proposes that emotions happen as a result of
these, rather than being the cause of them.
Proposed by 19th century scholars Wiliam James and Carl Lange, the James-Lange Theory
of Emotion presents a sequence explaining the cause-and-effect relationship between
emotions and physiological events.
The Theory
Event ==> Arousal ==> Interpretation ==> Emotion
The above sequence summarizes the Theory of Emotion, a combination of concepts

developed by William James, a psychologist from the United States and Carl Lange, a
physiologist from Denmark. According to the theory, when an event stimulates a person
(arousal), the autonomic nervous system (ANS) reacts by creating physiological
manifestations such as faster heart beat, more perspiration, increased muscular tension, and
more. Once these physical events occur, the brain will interpret these reactions. The result of
the brain’s interpretation is an emotion. In this sense, the theory is likened to the “fight-or-
flight” reaction, in which the bodily sensations prepare a person to react based on the brain’s
interpretation of the event and the physiological events.
In his statements, Lange attempted to give a simple explanation of his theory by relating its
concept to the concept of common sense. He said that our common sense tells us that if a
person encounters a bear, he tends feel afraid and then he runs. According to Lange’s theory,
seeing a bear causes the ANS to stimulate the muscles to get tensed and the heart to beat
faster. After such bodily changes, that is the time that emotion of fear emerges. It is as simple
as saying that statement A, “My heart beats faster because I am afraid.” is more rational than
statement B, “I am afraid because my heart beats faster.”Furthermore, Lange explained that
statement B would just make the perception of the event a pure cognitive occurrence, and
would be “destitute of emotional warmth”.
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Criticisms
The James-Lange Theory has been criticized by many theorists, including Walter Cannon and
Philip Bard who opposed the theory with their own theory of motivation, the Cannon-Bard
Theory. One of the criticisms emerged from the experiments on rats to test the James-Lange
Theory. The theory explains that the emotions depend on the impulses from the periphery,
primarily the viscera. However, Cannon’s experiments revealed that the viscera react slowly
to stimuli since the viscera are composed of smooth muscles and glands. This means that a
person feels the emotion prior to the occurrence of bodily changes. The experiments on rats
and cats also revealed that cutting the visceral nerves has no effect on emotions.
The James-Lange Theory is indeed an important theory as it is one of the earliest theories
that provided explanations of the physiologic process of emotion. However, the theory has
been largely refuted by later theorists who gave clearer concepts on the said process.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Nov 26, 2012). James-Lange Theory of Emotion. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/james-lange-theory-of-emotion
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3.2 Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
In the late 1920s, Walter Cannon and Philip Bard proposed their own theory in
refutation of the James-Lange Theory of Emotion. According to the Cannon-Bard
Theory of emotion, emotions and bodily changes do not share a cause-and-effect
relationship. Rather, they occur simultaneously, following a stimulating event.
Origin of the Theory

During the time of Cannon, the James-Lange theory was one of the most prominent theories
of emotion. To test the theory, Cannon experimented on cats by severing the afferent nerves
of the ANS’ sympathetic branch. He believed that doing this would test whether emotion
expression could emerge without a visceral afferent feedback (through the afferent nerves),
as what the James-Lange theory implied. The results of his experiments in 1915 challenged
the James-Lange theory by proposing that arousal and emotions emerge at the same time
after the perception of a stimulating occurrence.
The Theory
Event ==> Simultaneous Arousal and Emotion
The above sequence summarizes the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion. In essence, the
theory is backed up by neurobiological science. In a stimulating event, sensory signals are
transmitted to the brain’s relay center, the thalamus. Once the thalamus receives the signal, it
relays the information to two structures: the amygdala and the brain cortex. The amygdala is
responsible for the instantaneous response in the form of emotions, whereas the brain cortex
is for the slower response. At the same time, the autonomic nervous system or ANS sends
signals to muscles and other parts of the body, causing them to tense, increase in rate,
change in rhythm, and more. Therefore, this theory views stimulation/arousal and emotion as
a combined response to a stimulating event.
For instance, when a person sees a venomous snake, he feels afraid and his muscles get
tensed at the same time, preparing to run away from the dangerous animal. One can observe
the person’s emotion based on the physiological signals that his body displays.
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Criticisms of James-lange Theory
As mentioned, the theory by Cannon and Bard emerged from their refutation of the concepts
under the James-Lange Theory. Based on their experiments, the theorists came up with
seven concepts that negate the James-Lange Theory. These include:
1. No alteration on emotional behaviour occurs when the viscera is totally separated from
the central nervous system or CNS. This was proven by the cats being alive after the
viscera have been removed.
2. Various emotional and non-emotional (purely physiologic) states emerge as a result of
similar visceral changes. For instance, increased heart rate may not only indicate fear,
but may also be a sign of high fever.
3. The components of the viscera are found to be reasonably insensitive parts of the body.
4. Emotions and feelings may not result from visceral changes simply because visceral
changes occur too slowly.
5. Strong emotions that are typically attributed to specific visceral changes may not be
produced if the same visceral changes are triggered through artificial means.
6. The action of the subcortical centers of the brain leads to emotional expression.
7. Affective experience results from thalamic responses.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Oct 19, 2012). Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/cannon-bard-theory-of-emotion
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3.3 Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
Also known as the “Two-Factor Theory of Emotion”, the Schachter and Singer theory
of emotion is a cognitive approach to understanding how emotional states are
determined by cognitive factors.
Note: Not to be confused with the “Two-Factor Theory of Motivation”, by Herzberg.

From the late 1950s, the so-called cognitive revolution became prominent among
psychologists. Following this trend, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed that there
are cognitive factors that influence the varied states of emotions, moods and feelings. They
took account of the physiological-based theories such as the James-Lange Theory and the
Cannon-Bard Theory, and came with a conclusion that the various visceral or physiological
patterns do not match the wide variety of emotional states of individuals. The theory was
formally introduced by Schachter and Singer in 1962.
The Theory
Source: PsychWiki
The framework above shows the sequence from the stimulating event to the emergence of
emotions. When an individual encounters a stimulating event, perception and interpretation of
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the stimulus follows. After perception and interpretation of the sensory information, the
processed information is divided into two: stimulus and the context of the event, which is a
specific cognitive label. The information about the stimulus triggers a general autonomic
arousal. In addition to the general autonomic arousal, the cognitive label causes a particular
emotion to be experienced. Once an emotion is experienced, feedback occurs.
Supporting Evidence
In 1962, Schachter and Singer conducted a study to test their theory. The research included
184 male college students as participants who were told that a vitamin compound called
Suproxin would be injected to them. However, the injection was not Suproxin; rather, it is
composed of either 0.5 mL of epinephrine (experiment group) or 0.5 mL of saline solution as
placebo (control group). Then, the researchers divided the subjects into three conditions: (1)
Informed condition (participants know the potential side effects of the injection), (2) Ignorant
condition (participants do not know the potential side effects), and (3) Misinformed condition
(participants know of the side effects being fabricated). Then, the participants encountered
paired stooges whose roles were to act in either euphoric or angry manner. The variable
being manipulated was the “cognitive circumstance”. The measurement of emotions was done
via two processes: semi-private index (one-way mirror assessment) and public index (Likert
scale self-report).
The result of the study was that the subjects under the Ignorant condition and Misinformed
condition revealed considerably and consistently higher scores on both euphoric and angry
conditions as compared to participants under the Placebo condition and the Informed
condition. This proved the original hypothesis of Schachter and Singer, that is, cognitive
labelling (informed, ignorant or misinformed) together with general autonomic arousal
(euphoric or angry) lead to the emergence of emotions.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Aug 11, 2012). Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/schachter-singer-theory-of-emotion
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3.4 Stress and Cognitive Appraisal
by Lazarus and Folkman
The model "Theory of Cognitive Appraisal" was proposed by Lazarus and Folkman in
1984 and it explained the mental process which influence of the stressors.
According to Richard Lazarus, stress is a two-way process; it involves the production of

stressors by the environment, and the response of an individual subjected to these stressors.
His conception regarding stress led to the theory of cognitive appraisal.
What is Cognitive Appraisal?

Lazarus stated that cognitive appraisal occurs when a person considers two major factors that
majorly contribute in his response to stress. These two factors include:
1. The threatening tendency of the stress to the individual, and

2. The assessment of resources required to minimize, tolerate or eradicate the stressor
and the stress it produces.
In general, cognitive appraisal is divided into two types or stages: primary and secondary
appraisal.
See also: Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
Primary Appraisal
In the stage of primary appraisal, an individual tends to ask questions like, “What does this
stressor and/ or situation mean?”, and, “How can it influence me?” According to psychologists,
the three typical answers to these questions are:
"this is not important"
1. "this is good"
2. "this is stressful"
3.
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To better understand primary appraisal, suppose a non-stop heavy rain suddenly pours at
your place. You might think that the heavy rain is not important, since you don’t have any
plans of going somewhere today. Or, you might say that the heavy rain is good, because now
you don’t have to wake up early and go to school since classes are suspended. Or, you might
see the heavy rain as stressful because you have scheduled a group outing with your friends.
After answering these two questions, the second part of primary cognitive appraisal is to
classify whether the stressor or the situation is a threat, a challenge or a harm-loss. When you
see the stressor as a threat, you view it as something that will cause future harm, such as
failure in exams or getting fired from job. When you look at it as a challenge, you develop a
positive stress response because you expect the stressor to lead you to a higher class
ranking, or a better employment.
On the other hand, seeing the stressor as a “harm-loss” means that the damage has already
been experiences, such as when a person underwent a recent leg amputation, or
encountered a car accident.
Secondary Appraisal
Unlike in other theories where the stages usually come one after another, the secondary
appraisal actually happens simultaneously with the primary appraisal. In fact, there are times
that secondary appraisal becomes the cause of a primary appraisal.
Secondary appraisals involve those feelings related to dealing with the stressor or the stress it
produces. Uttering statements like, “I can do it if I do my best”, “I will try whether my chances
of success are high or not”, and “If this way fails, I can always try another method” indicates
positive secondary appraisal. In contrast to these, statements like, “I can’t do it; I know I will
fail”, “I will not do it because no one believes I can” and, “I won’t try because my chances are
low” indicate negative secondary appraisal.
Although primary and secondary appraisals are often a result of an encounter with a stressor,
stress doesn’t always happen with cognitive appraisal. One example is when a person gets
involved in a sudden disaster, such as an earthquake, and he doesn’t have more time to think
about it, yet he still feels stressful about the situation.
Sarah Mae Sincero (May 24, 2012). Stress and Cognitive Appraisal. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/stress-and-cognitive-appraisal
21
4 Individual Differences - Stress
Response
There have been many studies conducted that focus on the individual differences in
the stress response. According to Friedman & Rosenman, every individual belongs to
either of the two types of personalty: Type A or Type B. On the other hand, Suzanne
Kobasa relates "hardiness" and personality to stress response. Dr. Albert Bandura,
however, introduced "self-efficacy" as an important related factor to stress response.
We all know that each of us is a unique person, and that our personalities are so vast that
more mysteries of the mind are still to be studied by psychologists. Everyone has his own life
experiences, which can never be exactly the same as that of another person’s. While life
experience is one of the major factors that affect stress response, an individual’s personality,
as well as hardiness and self-efficacy levels greatly influence’s his or her methods on
responding to stress.
Type A & Type B Personality

Famous researchers Friedman & Rosenman believed that people belong to either two basic
types of behaviour or personality: Type A and Type B. According to the researchers, a person
with a Type A personality is competitive, desires to be recognized, longs for development and
advancement, wants to achieve goals and therefore, tends to rush in order for him to finish the
tasks assigned to him. He is typically active and alert both mentally and physically.
The person with a Type B personality is the complete opposite of the Type A person. Why?
It's because the Type B personality includes the apparent lack of motivation, drive, urgency,
competitive spirit, and even ambition or desire. The person with a Type B personality is
described as calm, relaxed and non-competitive. A third type, Type C, is described as a
personality which involves passion for work and desire to achieve goals (typical of Type A),
but when faced with stress, the person becomes apathetic (typical of Type B).
So What does This Have to Do With Stress Response?
In 1974, Friedman and Rosenman conducted a longitudinal study to prove their own theory of
personality. The study involved 3200 male participants who were asked to answer
22
questionnaires. Based on their responses, they were classified into three groups: Type A,
Type B and Type C. The participants were then included in the second part of the study eight
years later; that is, to know how they responded to stress in a matter of eight years. The
results showed that 257 of all the participants had suffered from coronary heart diseases, a
group of illnesses wherein stress is the most common cause.
What’s alarming is that 70% of the 257 participants had a Type A personality. This means that
people who are classified in Type B respond to stress better than those in Type A.
Hardiness
Another researcher, Suzanne Kobasa, initiated a study of hardiness, in which the “hardy
personality” possesses the three C’s: Control, Commitment, and Challenge. According to
Kobasa, hardy people reflect on themselves as the managers of their environment and not the
other way around. Also, she argued that hardy individuals are committed to face problems
and won’t stop until they find resolutions to these. In addition, hardy people view change not
as a threat, but as a challenge.
In her study, Kobasa found out that hardy people rarely experience being ill compared to non-
hardy individuals, which means that if a person is classified as a hardy individual, he can
respond to stress in a more positive way in that his health is maintained rather than damaged.
Self Efficacy
Coined by Dr. Albert Bandura, self-efficacy refers to the sum of the internal beliefs of an
individual on their capacity to influence that have an effect on his life. In relation to stress, self-
efficacy refers to how you perceive yourself in terms of dealing with stressful situations.
According to psychologists, high self-efficacy levels tend to decrease negative stress feelings
due to the increase in the person's sense of control of the stressful situation. On the other
hand, low self-efficacy levels may result to stronger negative feelings towards the stresful
experience, and ultimately to inability to cope with the stress in a positive manner.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Jan 13, 2012). Individual Differences - Stress Response. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/individual-differences-in-the-stress-response
23
4.1 Social Support and Stress
A network which involves an individual's family, friends and peers who are able to
support the person psychologically and emotionally is called a social support network.
Psychologists say that a strong social support network leads to a better coping
experience with stress.
Have you ever had a very stressful moment, and suddenly felt bold enough to face the stress
all because someone tapped you on the shoulder and said the magical words, “You can do it!”
?
What is Stress?
Having a strong social support network can provide a lot of benefits to anyone, because all of
us are bombarded by stress in our daily lives. Knowing what a social support network really is
and how to cultivate your very own network of supportive people can do wonders in your life
as you combat stress.
Defining Social Support Network

Basically, a social support network is a network of family, friends and peers who provide
support in times you are faced with stressful situations. This is not like a support group that is
organized by a mental health professional, though; it’s more like your group of social
supporters who are present on a regular basis, and whom you can relate to even when you
are not under significant stress.
Unlike a support group, your social support network isn’t formalized. You don’t have to call
your friends or family members, sit on a circle and talk about the stressful moments you are
enduring. Actually, your quick talk with your parents, siblings or children, your lunch break with
an officemate, or your counselling with a church leader are ways wherein you breathe out
your stress experience with your social support network, and strengthen your relationship with
them at the same time.
Advantages of Social Support Network

Stress can be better managed when your social support network is as strong as it can be.
Here are the reasons why you should strive harder in strengthening your relationship with
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each identified member of your social support network:
Sense of Security
Your social support network has it all – information about your stressful situation, advice on
how to manage stress, and even the silence and listening ear you need when you experience
burnout. When you have them close by, you know you are secure even when stress seems to
consume you.
Source of Strength
When you feel like giving up because of too much stress, your social support network is there
to remind you of the abilities you possess to cope up with the stressful situation. They can
personally help you with solving problems you can’t handle yourself.
Feeling of Belongingness
In times of stressful moments, you may feel alone and no one is there to help you. Calling a
friend, your parents, your workmate or your church mate and talking about your feelings,
emotions and thoughts will make you feel a lot better and will remind you that there’s always
someone to comfort and support you.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Jul 7, 2012). Social Support and Stress. Retrieved from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/social-support-and-stress
25
4.2 Gender, Culture and Stress Response
Differences in gender and culture are found to have significant influences in how
humans respond to stressors and stressful situations. These differences require a
deeper understanding in order for a person to learn how he responds to stress, and
whether his stress response is still healthy or not.
Personality and life experiences are truly affecting the way we respond to stress, but do you
know that other factors like gender and culture can contribute to our different responses to
stressors?
Gender and Stress

The ways in which stress is physically and psychologically experienced may vary because of
sex difference, according to psychologists who focused their study on the relationship
between gender and stress response. In 1972, Johansson & Post conducted a study which
involved equal number of male and female participants. They were subjected to a particular
non-stressful situation, and were then transferred to a stressful circumstance.
The results of the study showed that both male and female participants showed an increased
in adrenaline levels, yet the adrenaline levels of men was much higher as compare to women.
Because of this, the physiological stress response of women was lower compare to men.
Johansson & Post concluded that the results might be because of three reasons.
Men and women differ biologically in terms of hormones.
Men are typically more aggressive in physical terms than women. This was supported
by Hastrup, et.al. in 1980, proving that hormonal levels truly affect stress response in
women throughout their menstrual cycle.
Men and women differ in traditional gender roles, such as women are typically more
gentle and caring than men. However, this assumption might have been changed over
the years because women are now assuming traditionally male roles.
Culture and Stress

Learning about cultural differences also plays a vital role in understanding how each person
26
responds to stress.
It’s widely known that more black Americans suffer from coronary heart diseases than white
Americans. This triggered the study of Cooper, et.al in 1999 to learn the reason behind this
trend.
Together with his research team, Cooper found out that there was an unintentional genetic
selection during the transfer of black Americans to the New World via slave ships. The
ancestors of the black Americans today most probably survived the diarrhea outbreak during
that time, which means they had a better ability to retain water which contributed to the
development of CHD.
Looking at today’s situation, we could see that the higher unemployment and literacy rates of
black Americans as compared to that of white Americans, might have created a poverty-
related stress, leading them to suffer from the consequences of negative stress response
such as CHD and other diseases.
In 1983, Weg initiated a study on the cultural difference between a Georgian Tribe and other
cultures like the United Kingdom. He found out that the members of the Georgian tribe had a
much longer life expectancy than people living in UK.
Weg concluded that there were many factors that might have contributed to the great
difference between the two cultures’ life expectancy rates. These include the stress-free
lifestyle, fresh meat and vegetable diet, a greater social support system, higher levels of
physical activity and lack of vices such as cigarette and alcohol in the Georgian Tribe. It is to
be studied yet whether the genes of people living in different cultures affect the stress
response tendencies.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Aug 3, 2012). Gender, Culture and Stress Response. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/gender-culture-and-stress-response
27
5 Stress and Coping Mechanisms
Coping mechanisms are ways to which external or internal stress is managed, adapted
to or acted upon. Susan Folkman and Richard Lazarus define coping as "constantly
changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal
demands that are appraised as taxing".
Defining Coping Mechanisms

Psychologists Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman scientifically defined coping as the sum of
cognitive and behavioural efforts, which are constantly changing, that aim to handle particular
demands, whether internal or external, that are viewed as taxing or demanding. Simply put,
coping is an activity we do to seek and apply solutions to stressful situations or problems that
emerge because of our stressors. Actually, the term "coping" is more associated with "reactive
coping", because in general, we see coping as a response to a stressor. On the other hand,
there's also what we call "proactive coping", wherein the coping response is aimed at
preventing a possible encounter with a future stressor.
While coping mechanisms are brought about by a person's conscious minds, it doesn't mean
that all of them bring about positive coping; there are some types of coping mechanisms
which are maladaptive. Other psychologists say that maladaptive coping is also synonymous
to "non-coping", since a person who responds to a stressor using a coping mechanism but
isn't able to positively ward off the stressor or solve the stressful situation hasn't coped with
the stress at all.
Types of Coping Strategies

Over the years, psychologists and researchers have identified about 400 to 600 coping
strategies, and yet there are so many other potential coping strategies that are still under
research. Because of this, the classifications of coping strategies vary from textbook to
textbook.
One of the recognized groupings of coping strategies is that which was written in the
psychology textbook by Weiten, which includes the appraisal-focused or adaptive cognitive,
the problem-focused or adaptive behavioural, and the emotion-focused.
1. the appraisal-focused strategies are those coping mechanisms which involve the
28
change of mindset or a revision of thoughts. Denial is the most common coping
mechanism under this category.
2. the problem-focused strategies are those that modify the behaviour of the person. A
good example of this is learning how to cook a family dinner upon knowing that your
spouse's family would come over your house this weekend.
3. the emotion-focused strategies include the alteration of one's emotions to tolerate or
eliminate the stress. Examples include distraction, meditation, and relaxation techniques.
Many psychologists also contributed in the study of coping mechanisms by grouping

mechanisms or strategies according to their manifestations and purposes. In general, here
are the general classifications of coping mechanisms:
Defense - the unconscious ways of coping stress. Examples: reaction formation,

regression
Adaptive -tolerates the stress. Examples: altruism, symbolization
Avoidance -keeps self away from the stress. Examples: denial, dissociation, fantasy,
passive aggression, reaction formation.
Attack - diverts one's consciousness to a person or group of individuals other than the
stressor or the stressful situation. Examples: displacement, emotionality, projection.
Behavioral - modifies the way we act in order to minimize or eradicate the stress.
Examples: compensation, sublimation, undoing.
Cognitive - alters the way we think so that stress is reduced or removed. Examples:
compartmentalization, intellectualization, rationalization, repression, suppression.
Self-harm - intends to harm self as a response to stress. Examples: introjection, self-
harming
Conversion - changes one thought, behaviour or emotion into another. Example:
somatisation.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Nov 13, 2012). Stress and Coping Mechanisms. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/stress-and-coping-mechanisms
29
5.1 Theories of Coping
Basically, coping refers to an individual's attempt to tolerate or minimize the effect of

the stress, whether it is the stressor or the experience of stress itself. Coping theories
can be classified according to orientation or focus (trait-oriented or state-oriented) and
approach (macroanalytic or microanalytic).
Classification of Coping Theories

Coping theories have been divided into two different parameters:
1. Trait-Oriented Theories versus State-Oriented Theories

2. Microanalytic Approach versus Macroanalytic Approach
The trait-oriented theories focus on the early recognition of a person’s resources and
tendencies related to coping, while the state-oriented theories emphasizes the actual coping
of an individual and the outcome of his application of coping methods or strategies.
On the other hand, the microanalytic approach studies a wide variety of specific and concrete
coping strategies, while the macroanalytic approach concentrates on fundamental and
abstract coping methodologies.
Macroanalytic, Trait-oriented Coping Theories
A. Repression–sensitization
This theory states that there is a bipolar dimension in which a person copes with the stress in
only one of two opposite poles – repression or sensitization. People who tend to be
repressers cope with the stress by means of denying or minimizing its existence. They use the
avoidance coping mechanism such that they are unable to realize the potential negative
outcomes of the stressful experience. In contrast to this, sensitizers tend to react to stress
with rumination, excessive worrying and obsessive search for information on stress-related
cues.
B. Monitoring and Blunting
According to Miller, monitoring and blunting is a construct that is based on the repression-
30
sensitization theory due to the similarity in their nature as cognitive informational styles.
However, this construct, particularly blunting, tells us that the impact of uncontrollable
stressful cues can be reduced by the individual through the use of cognitive avoidance (e.g.
denial, reinterpretation, distraction).
Under controllable stress, monitoring is said to be a more effective coping strategy, as it

includes seeking information related to the stressor.
C. Model of Coping Modes (mcm)
This model originates from the monitoring-blunting construct, and is also related to the
repression-sensitization conception, but expands concepts of vigilance and cognitive
avoidance with an underpinning of cognitive motivational approach. It emphasizes that a
person is stimulated to avert the situation and perceive the stressor in an ambiguous manner
in the presence of the stressor.
Macroanalytic, State-Oriented Theories

The Defense Mechanisms constructs by Sigmund Freud in 1926 is one of the few
macroanalytic, state-oriented theories of coping. A number of defense mechanisms were
basically related to intellectualization and repression, the two basic forms that were
emphasized by Freud in 1936.
Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman proposed yet another theory of coping in a
macroanalytic approach, concentrating on the coping strategies that are focused on emotion
or on the problem itself, as well as the functions related to them.
While the theory of Lazarus and Folkman was macroanalytic in its origin, it was expanded to
the microanalytic approach, wherein Lazarus, et.al. was able to specify coping strategies and
classify them into eight groups. These include self-controlling, confrontative coping, seeking
social support, distancing, escape-avoidance, accepting responsibility, positive reappraisal
and planful problem-solving.
Sarah Mae Sincero (May 13, 2012). Theories of Coping. Retrieved from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/theories-of-coping
31
5.2 Stress Management
Stress Management is a wide variety of techniques, methods and procedures to handle

stress. It has been a trending topic ever since different research studies showed the
correlations between stress and the emergence, development and progression of
dreadful diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, stroke, and mental disorders.
Historical Groundwork
In order to fully understand how to manage stress, it is important to discover where the stress
originates. Thus, various studies focused on the sources of stress so that the stress
experience could be managed more efficiently and effectively.
What is Stress?
Hans Selye, the author of the General Adaptation Syndrome, worked with Walter Cannon in
his attempt to provide an underpinning of the scientific study of stress. From the animal
studies, the two researchers extrapolated their experiments to human beings in order to
identify whether the physiological responses of the animals to stressors were also exhibited
by humans.
Following Selye's studies, human response to stress was also studied by Richard Rahe, one
of the proponents of of the Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale. Together with his co-researchers,
Rahe emphasized that external stressors were the sources of stress of individuals. On the
other hand, subsequent studies showed proofs that the earlier identified stressors were not
the actual sources of stress. Rather, those were the internal stressors, or the manner by
which the individual perceives and intends to react to the stressor.
Related Models to Stress Management
A. The Transactional Model
In 1984, Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman proposed the Transactional Model (Cognitive
Appraisal), a model that emphasizes how stress becomes the result of the imbalance between
what the situation demands and what the person possesses in relation to those demands.
According to them, stress is not directly resulting from the source of the stress otherwise
known as the stressors; rather, it emerges because of the individual’s inability to satisfy
32
demands. For these two researchers, therefore, stress management relates to the capacity of
a person to utilize his resources in order to cope with the stress.
The Transactional Model tells us that a stress management program can only become
effective if the individual’s ability to eliminate, reduce, or cope with stress is successful
assessed, and that the factors related to such capacity are put into consideration.
B. Health Realization Model
Also called as the Innate Health Model of Stress, the Health Realization Model states that the
presence of a probable stressor does not directly result to the stress experience. This idea
was opposes that of the Transactional Model, because it states that the stress management
program must be centered on the perception of the potential stressor by the individual, not on
his appraisal of stress coping abilities.
According to this model, the appraisal must be focused on filtering one’s mind of negativity an
insecurity, so that he would not perceived a potential stressor as a source of stress, and
would therefore lead to a more effective elimination or reduction of stress.
Stress Management Techniques

More and more people have realized their need to handle stress in a more effective way ,
which is why it is nearly impossible to identify all the stress management techniques applied
by each of us. Nevertheless, here are the mostly recognized techniques on stress
management:
Exercise
Starting a New a Hobby
Meditation
Autogenic training
Artistic Expression
Fractional relaxation
Progressive relaxation
Spas
Alternative/ natural medicine
Social activity
Cognitive therapy
Conflict resolution
Deep breathing
Reading novels
33
Prayer
Relaxation techniques
Listening to Music
Yoga
Sarah Mae Sincero (May 10, 2012). Stress Management. Retrieved from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/stress-management
34
5.3 Traditional Stress Therapies
Stress can be managed through several traditional therapies that are proven to be
effective in stress relief and recovery. Among the different traditional stress therapies,
the three identified effective therapies include massage, acupuncture, and acupressure.
Massage
One of the oldest ancient healing arts, massage is founded on the principle of relaxing the
body to decrease mental anxiety. India’s ayurvedic tradition contains the earliest practice of
massage therapy, claiming that this kind of therapy provides both physical and emotional
relaxation for all individuals.
Eastern civilizations have utilized massage therapy for centuries, giving rise to the famous
oriental massage. For better therapeutic effects, western people modified the eastern
massage methodology.
Prolonged or excessive stress often makes the body muscles over worked, causing stiffness,
muscle spasms and soreness. This leads to feeling of tiredness and fatigue. In addition, lactic
acid tends to accumulate further in the muscles, causing injury to skeletal muscle cells. All
these and more result to feeling of exhaustion, and later decrease the energy, capacity and
motivation of the person to manage the stress.
Massage is applied through the use of hands and other body parts to locate areas of high
tension and relax these body areas by putting the right amount of pressure.
Many clinical studies have proven the rejuvenating effects of massage, such as the following:
Improved blood and fluid circulation all over the body

Increased oxygen flow
Enhanced elimination of body wastes
Improved muscle tone
Feeling of relief, relaxation and peacefulness
35
There are different types of massage therapies to manage stress. The popular ones being
Traditional Massage, Shiatsu, Reflexology, Polarity, Swedish massage, Sports Massage,
Manual Lymph Drainage, Deep Tissue Massage, Rolfing and Trager.
Acupuncture
Referred to as the most common Chinese therapy, acupuncture is one of the stress therapies
that relieve and control pain, a common symptom experienced by people who are exposed to
constant excessive stress, especially at work.
Acupuncture rests on the principle that the body must be kept in harmony and balance
through the facilitating of “life energy” in it, also called as “chi”. Stress is believed to disrupt
this balance and harmony, and impedes the normal flow of chi, so acupuncture is
recommended by many therapists.
Acupuncture specialists insert needles into acupoints of the body in their attempt to manage
the pain experienced by the person. According to them, this procedure aims to facilitate the
restoration of chi distribution, allowing pain and stress relief.
To prove the effectiveness of this traditional stress therapy, the World Health Organization
(WHO) conducted research and identified the following stress-related disorders as having
been successfully treated by way of acupuncture:
Headache (particularly migraine)

Post-stroke paralysis
Trigeminal neuralgia
Nocturnal enuresis or bed wetting
Meniere’s disease
Neurogenic bladder dysfunction
Sciatica
Irritable Bowel Disease
Anxiety-related problems
Acupressure
Defined as the needle-less version of acupuncture, acupressure is the Chinese healing art
that uses finger pressure instead of needles in facilitating the restoration of energy flow
throughout the body. This is more convenient than acupuncture as it can be done wherever
you are. Acupressure, although not found as effective as acupuncture, has achieved
36
recognition for treating stress symptoms and minor stress-related disorders such as:
Body pain
Headache and migraines
Menstrual problems
Sleep problems
Anxiety-related problems
Digestive problems
Sarah Mae Sincero (Apr 7, 2012). Traditional Stress Therapies. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/traditional-stress-therapies
37
5.4 How does Stress Affect Performance?
The relationship between stress and performance has been portrayed by the stress
response curve created by Nixon P. in 1979. In addition, pressure, an important
stressor, has also a crucial influence on an individual's response to stress.
One of the most noticeable effects of stress in one’s life is the changes in his performance.
While we can easily recognize the consequences of normal or excessive amounts of stress
through mere observation, it’s best to learn about the scientific relationship between stress
and performance.
The Stress Response Curve

To better understand the effects of stress to performance, Nixon, P. (1979) created the
following graph of the stress performance curve explaining how stress affects performance in
theoretical terms.
(Image fromlesstress.net)
Figure 1: The Stress Response Curve
38
The curve shows that as the level of stress increases, the performance level also increases,
to the point of eustress, or healthy tension. Near the point of fatigue, an identified area called
the Comfort Zone indicates the range of stress levels that we can absolutely manage and
facilitates good performance levels.
As stress begins to be perceived as overwhelming or excessive, the person reaches a fatigue

point wherein the performance levels starts to decline. The ultimate end of overwhelming
stress, called burnout, can be exhaustion, ill-health or breakdown.
Positive Effects
As shown by the graph, performance levels increase when stress management is effective.
Stressors such as pressure and demands can facilitate better stress response and thus,
higher levels of performance. For instance, a basketball player tries to run faster, shoot a
three-point shot and succeeds in it because of the pressure he has obtained from the
audience, the close scores and the tough opponents.
Another example is the short but adequate deadline given to an employee, which motivates
and encourages her to work actively and efficiently on the project assigned to her. Yet another
instance is an approaching major examination which leads a college student to double time on
studying and reviewing of lessons.
Negative Effects
When stress is perceived as uncontrollable or unmanageable, the person begins to

experience a gradual to drastic decrease in performance levels, causing a decline in
productivity and enthusiasm to respond to the stress.
For instance, a very tight deadline is given to an office employee who has to take care of her
four children at home and a sick mother at the hospital. This overwhelming mix of situations, if
not managed carefully and totally, will result to a poor performance at work, bad relationships
with other members of the family, ill health, and burnout.
Pressure and Performance

Pressure, one of the significant life stressors, affects performance, as shown by the “Inverted-
U” graph below, which was created by Robert Yerkes and John Dodson in 1908.
39
(Image frommindtools.com)
Figure 2: The Inverted-U Model or the Yerkes-Dodson Law
Looking at the left side of the graph, you will notice that low pressure or low levels of stress
results to s person’s stress response as “boredom” or unchallenging. Even if the task is of
great important, in the absence of an appropriate level of pressure, attention and
concentration to perform the task are significantly low.
On the other hand, extreme levels of pressure doesn’t mean high performance levels; rather,
it’s the same as the result from low pressure – low performance levels due to “unhappiness”
or negative feelings due to overwhelming stress.
However, there’s a region called the “area of best performance”. In this region, moderate
pressure resulting to optimum stress or stress that is totally manageable leads to the highest
level of performance.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Feb 12, 2012). How does Stress Affect Performance?. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/how-does-stress-affect-performance
40
6 Three Different Kinds of Stress
Aiming for effective stress management initially includes the proper recognition of
stress, the stressor, the manifestations, and its effect in one’s well-being.
For a better understanding of stress and its influence to an individual, psychologists

categorize stress into three different types: acute stress, episodic stress, and chronic stress.
In this article, we will discover the characteristics and attributes of each type of stress.
Acute Stress
Of all forms of stress, acute stress is the most widely experienced one, since it typically is
caused by the daily demands and pressures encountered by each one of us. While the word
“stress” connotes a negative impression, acute stress is what actually brings about
excitement, joy and thrill in our lives. Riding a roller coaster in a theme park, for instance, is a
situation that brings about acute stress, yet brings excitement. However, riding a higher and
longer roller coaster can bring so much stress that you wish it would end sooner, or that you
should have not gone for the ride in the first place. When the long and windy ride is over, you
might feel the effects of too much acute stress, such as vomiting, tension headaches, and
other psychological and/or physiological symptoms.
Because acute stress occurs only at a very short period of time, these symptoms might only
come out when the stress has already accumulated:
Emotional distress, such as anger, anxiety, irritability, and acute periods of depression
Physical problems, such as headache, pain, stomach upset, dizziness, heart
palpitations, shortness of breath, hypertension and bowel disorders
Episodic Stress
Acute stress that is suffered too frequently is called episodic stress. This type of stress is
usually seen in people who make self-inflicted, unrealistic or unreasonable demands which
get all clamoured up and bring too much stress in their attempt to accomplish these goals.
Episodic stress is not like chronic stress, though, because this type of stress ceases from time
to time yet not as frequently as acute stress does.
41
Episodic stress is also typically observed in people with “Type A” personality, which involves
being overly competitive, aggressive, demanding and sometimes tense and hostile. Because
of this, the symptoms of episodic stress are found in Type A persons. These include:
Longer periods of intermitted depression, anxiety disorders and emotional distress

Ceaseless worrying
Persistent physical symptoms similar to those found in acute stress
Coronary heart diseases, or other heart problems
Chronic Stress
Chronic stress is the total opposite of acute stress; it’s not exciting and thrilling, but dangerous
and unhealthy. Chronic stress tears the life of a person apart his mind, body or spirit.
This type of stress is brought about by long-term exposure to stressors, such as unhappy
marriage, traumatic experiences, unwanted career or job, stress of poverty, chronic illnesses,
relationship conflicts, political problems, and dysfunctional families. These stressful situations
seem to be unending, and the accumulated stress that results from exposure to them can be
life-threatening, and can even lead a person to resort to violence, suicide and self-harm.
Serious illnesses like stroke, heart attack, cancer, and psychological problems such as clinical
depression and post-traumatic disorder can originate from chronic stress.
Common physical signs and symptoms of chronic stress are:
dry mouth
difficulty in breathing
pounding heart
stomach ache
headache
diaphoresis
frequent urination
tightening of muscles
...and more...
Mental signs and symptoms include:
sudden irritability
tension
problems with concentration
42
difficulty in sleeping
narrowed perception
frequent feelings of fatigue
Sarah Mae Sincero (Sep 10, 2012). Three Different Kinds of Stress. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/three-different-kinds-of-stress
43
6.1 Knowing Your Stressors
Stressors are objects, persons or situations that lead to the emergence of stress to an
individual, as well as the triggering of his stress response system. Recognition of one's
stressors is the first step towards effective stress management.
Knowing Your Stressors

Stressors are typically perceived as threats to the wellbeing of a person, because of the
possibility of these stressors to overwhelm the available resources to be used for stress
response. The definition tells us that in order for a person to manage stress in the best way
possible, proper recognition of one’s stressors is highly necessary.
Types of Stressors
Psychologists often categorize stressors into two major types: internal stressors and external
stressors.
Internal Stressors
Most often than not, the stressors or stress inducers that we are able to recognize are those
outside of ourselves. However, it is always important to identify our personal internal stressors
first because they affect us more than the external stressors. These internal stressors, also
called emotional stressors, include anxiety, fear and personality traits.
Too much worrying about the outcome of a job interview is actually an internal stressor which
leads you to respond to this anxiety by excessive perspiration, difficulty in sleeping or
perhaps, nail biting. Your personality trait can also be an important internal stressor,
especially traits that are associated to perfectionism, suspiciousness, pessimism or feelings of
helplessness.
External Stressors
Anything outside one’s self that induces stress is called an external stressor. This may include
family stressors, such as family role expectations, parent-to-child relationships, sibling
relationships, financial struggles and ill family members.
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Other external stressors are called social stressors, which emerge from the relationships,
problems and challenges we face at work, school or other places. In particular, work stressors
arise from workplace pressures such as an erratic boss or hectic schedules and tight
deadlines.
Yet another subtype of external stressors is the change stressor, or stress inducers related to
significant life changes. Common examples of change stressors include finding a job, moving,
marriage and pregnancy.Change stressors are often paired with decision stressors, wherein
the stress results from the need to make crucial decisions such as where to study for college
or what career to follow.
Chemical stressors are any drugs a person uses or abuses, such as alcohol, nicotine,
caffeine, or tranquilizers. On the other hand, disease stressors are those that result from
health problems, such as being bed ridden or following a strict diet. Lastly, environmental
stressors include pollution, noise, heat, congestion, etc.
Identification and Management

In order to identify stressors, it is recommended that you refer to the different types of
stressors and list those stressors that relate to your personal life. You may categorize it
according to internal or external stressor, and then to the subtypes of stressors, such as
family, work, environment, etc.
After recognizing your stressors, you can begin identifying which stressors require total
elimination, partial reduction or coping. For instance, feelings of pessimism may be totally
eradicated and replace by those of optimism for better stress response. If your concentration
is diminished by loud noise, you may use ear plugs or tell your officemates to lower down their
voices a bit. In terms of coping, you can cope up with stressors through the use of effective
time management techniques.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Jul 26, 2012). Knowing Your Stressors. Retrieved from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/knowing-your-stressors
45
7 Stress and Illness
Psychological Stress-Related Disorders
The two major stress-related disorders include the Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) and
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), both referring to an illness resulting from
intrusive recollections of the stressful experience. However, ASD has been
experienced by the patient for a matter of two days to four weeks, whereas PTSD has
been suffered for more than one month.
There are more than a hundred illnesses and disorders that are found to have connections to
stress, links where in stress is most often identified as a contributory factor to these
conditions. On the other hand, there are two recognized disorders directly relating to stress:
Acute Stress Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Let’s find out what these two
conditions are all about, and learn how they are managed through various interventions.
Acute Stress Disorder
Overview
Defined as a short period of intrusive recollections affecting the person within four weeks of
experiencing (or even by mere witnessing) of a devastating traumatic occurrence, acute
stress disorder (ASD) is similar to posttraumatic disorder, but its symptoms last for two days
to four weeks only. The most common identified symptom that point to acute stress disorder is
dissociation, wherein a person detaches himself from his surroundings or even from himself.
Diagnosis
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders recommends diagnosing patients
who are potentially experiencing acute stress disorder based on criteria under the anxiety
disorders category. The health care provider that will assess the patient will ask several
questions regarding the experience or witnessing of an overwhelming traumatic event, the
response of the patient to the event (e.g. helplessness, intense fear, horror), whether the
patient constantly relive the traumatic event, and the experience of more than three of the
dissociative symptoms, which include:
Feeling detached from others
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Emotional unresponsiveness
Feeling “numb”, or “unreal”
Feeling in a daze
Less aware of what occurs in his surroundings
Depersonalization, or feeling detached from self
Derealization, or feeling that the outside world is unreal or strange
Dissociative amnesia, or the inability to recall important parts of the traumatic event
Avoidance of objects, people, places or thoughts related to the event
The patient will also be observed for symptoms of escalating anxiety, such as irritability,
difficulty of sleeping, restlessness, inability to concentrate, hypervigilance, and increased
tendency to startle. And to confirm the diagnosis, the timeframe of the onset and duration of
symptoms will also have to be identified to be no less than two days but no more than four
weeks.
Treatment
Pharmacological interventions for acute stress disorder are kept at minimum, most of which
are given to relieve anxiety or sleep problems. Nonpharmacologic interventions such Critical
Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) help patients process the traumatic event and reflect on the
effects of the event to them. Supportive measures such as showing empathy and empathic
interviewing are also performed.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Overview
Just like acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) includes intrusive
recollections of a traumatic event that the person views as overwhelming or devastating.
However, in this disorder, the recollections are recurring for a longer period of time, typically
more than four weeks. Events such as sexual assault, disasters, combat, war, and chaos are
some common root causes of this disorder.
Diagnosis
The differences between PTSD and ASD include the timeframe of the onset and duration of
the symptoms, as well as the symptoms are far worse in PTSD than ASD. If these symptoms
last for more than three months, the disorder is then classified as chronic.
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The criteria for diagnosis of PTSD are the same with that of ASD, but these symptoms are
additionally assessed:
Experience of recurrent memories that are disturbing

Experience of recurrent nightmares
Hallucinations, flashbacks
Feeling of intense distress (whether psychologic or physiologic) when the event is being
reminded
Treatment
Psychotherapy or exposure therapy are common non-pharmacologic interventions provided to

PTSD patients. In terms of pharmacologic interventions, Selective Serotonin Reuptake
Inhibitors or SSRI drugs as well as mood stabilizers and anti-anxiety agents are found to be
effective.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Jun 8, 2012). Stress and Illness. Retrieved from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/stress-and-illness
48
7.1 Stress and Cancer
Various studies by early and modern researchers showed evidences that stress is a
possible cause or a probable contributory factor to cancer, one of the most feared
disease process of today’s generation.
Stress has been linked to various diseases over time. If you ask a person what diseases are
connected to stress, you’ll probably get answers like “heart attack”, “stroke” or “mental
disorders”. But not many people have realized that stress is highly correlated to cancer,
perhaps due to the ongoing research digging about the mystery behind this connection.
Early Literature On Stress and Cancer

The relation between stress and cancer had been a very old issue, probably as ancient as
medicine’s recorded history. Galen, a scholar who wrote a dissertation about tumors entitled
“De Tumoribus”, believed that women who were more melancholic than other women tend to
be highly at risk for cancer. Because his research was performed over 2000 years ago, the
presumption was that too much melancholy in women was because of too much “melas
chole” or black bile.
The English medical world had been kept into deep silence about this topic until the year
1701, when Gendron, a British doctor, brought up the subject again by indicating that
disastrous events in one’s life result to much grief, which could cause cancer. In 1709,
another researcher named Burrows agreed to this presumption.
As time passed by, more and more physicians and researchers delved deeper into the
connection between stress and cancer. According to Stern, women suffering from cervical
cancer were identified as frustrated and more sensitive than normal. In addition, Nunn stated
that tumor growth was faster in women who had negative emotional factors.
The early nineteenth century doctors were supported by Walshe, emphasized that unfortunate
events in one’s life, as well as the “habitual gloomings of the temper” predispose a person to
cancer. Furthermore, Snow performed a review of London Cancer Hospital patients, in which
he found out that breast and uterine cancer were more probable in those participants who lost
a near relative, which was a very strong stressor.
49
Modern Research On Stress and Cancer
The start of the 20th century was the advent of various research regarding the link between
cancer and external, physical factors, such as food, pathogens and pollution. Compared to the
studies on these subjects, little attention was given to the effects of stress on cancer, and vice
versa. However, the recent years showed that stress which caused negative feelings and
emotions tend to contribute to the emergence as well as the progression of various illnesses,
particularly cancer.
In a research conducted by Everson, et.al., 2500 men were evaluated for their respective
feelings of “hopelessness”. Six years later, those participants who felt hopeless most of the
time were more than thrice as probable to have died from cancer than those who seldom felt
hopeless.
While there is still yet to be studied on the influence of stress to cancer and vice versa, there
were other literature that emphasized how stressful lifestyle have potentially predisposed
people to cancer. For instance, Dr. Albert Schweizer stated that there were zero cases of
cancer in Gabon in 1913; however, years later he found out that cancer cases started to
increase in number, as he noted that the lifestyle of the natives were gradually getting
patterned to the lifestyle of the whites.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Jun 9, 2012). Stress and Cancer. Retrieved from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/stress-and-cancer
50
7.2 The Warning Signs of Burnout
Overwhelming Stress
Burnout is a state of emotional, mental, and physical exhaustion caused by excessive

and prolonged stress. It occurs when you feel overwhelmed and unable to meet
constant demands. As the stress continues, you begin to lose the interest or
motivation that led you to take on a certain role in the first place.
Does the stress you are experiencing recently seem to be so overwhelming that you feel
powerless, helpless, and unusually worn out? Well, take these feelings seriously, because it’s
probable that you are suffering from burnout. In this article, we will venture on what burnout
really is, what causes it and how we can cope with burnout.
What is Burnout?
If there’s one word that can be associated with the term “burnout”, it has to be “exhaustion”.
Whether it is emotional, physical or psychological exhaustion, the state of being exhausted
due to long periods of exposure to excessive stress is called burnout. Simply put, you
experience burnout whenever you feel that stress is too much for you to handle, and that you
cannot satisfy constant demands even if you want.
Effects of Burnout
Feelings of inability to manage the stress and meet the constant demands of the stressor lead
to various effect on physical, emotional, social and mental health of an individual. Since a
person thinks he is unable to handle the stress, he starts to feel that there’s no need to exert
too much effort because he perceives that there’s really nothing he can do about the stress.
As a result, productive is reduced, feelings of powerlessness, hopelessness and resent
emerge. Relationships with others might be negatively affected, and even the tendency to
stop taking good care of oneself, such as poor hygiene or loss of appetite, is increased. In
addition, spiritual health can also be damaged, as many people experiencing burnout tend to
blame God for the overwhelming stress they experience.
Causes of Burnout
For better prevention and management of burnout, one should be aware of the different
51
causes of burnout, which mostly include:
Feeling of little or no control over the stressful situation or the stressor

Lack of rewarding experience (recognition, benefits, etc)
Vague and/or too heavy role expectations
Overly demanding stressors
Unchallenging or monotonous activity
Superior, peer, or environmental pressure
Lack of time for relaxation and socialization
Too much responsibilities
Lack of social support
Lack of sleep
Problems on personality, such as perfectionism, pessimism, authoritarianism, Type A
personality
Most psychologists agree that the “Three R” Approach is one of the most effective ways to
treat and manage burnout. These include:
1. Recognize - The key to manage burnout is early detection, so make sure you assess
yourself regularly regarding the warning signs of burnout.
2. Reverse - After recognizing that you are experiencing burnout, immediately seek the help
of a psychiatrist to assist you in undoing the effects of burnout and manage the stress you
have been encountering.
3. Resilience - Once the effects of burnout are reversed, and the stress are started to
become manageable, it’s time to become flexible in your daily responses to stress by means
of good management of your physical, mental, social, emotional and spiritual health.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Jan 19, 2012). The Warning Signs of Burnout. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/warning-signs-of-burnout
52
7.3 Stress in Children
Stress occurs throughout the lifespan of individuals, thus, children also experience
stress. Causes and responses to stress in children differs according to their age
groups such as preschoolers, school-age kids and adolescents.
Adults tend to see the world of children as worry-free, untroubled and always happy.
Sometimes, teens and adults can’t help but say, “I wish I were able to live as a child forever”.
We all have wanted to drink from the mythical Fountain of Youth, because it’s a common
thinking among adults that kids don’t have anything to worry about. Well, the truth is, children
also feel stressed out not only once, but many times! In this article, we’ll briefly discuss the
experience of stress in children, and how they respond and cope with stress.
Causes of Stress in Children

Typically, adults experience stress from work, school, relationships and other social demands.
Kids also have these causes as the roots of their stress experience. In children, the sources of
stress might be related to their age. In general, children are exposed to stress when they are
at play, which is perhaps equal to work in adults.
According to studies, infants and toddlers tend to experience stress when they get separated
from their parents, even for a few minutes. This is also referred to as separation anxiety.
Preschoolers experience stress when they are in dental checkups, because of their fear of
body mutilation. On the other hand, school age children are pressured by school work, peers
and expectations, causing stress.
Stress Response in Children

In terms of positive stress response, children begin to cry whenever they experience
separation from parents and care providers. In school age children, positive stress response
includes tendency to eat more nutritional foods, balancing academic and extracurricular
activities, and studying harder to achieve better academic performance.
On the other hand, negative stress response include mood swings, sleep problems, acting
out, and even regressive symptoms like thumb sucking and bedwetting. Physical symptoms
like stomach upset and headaches are also common. Older children tend to defy authority,
53
bully younger kids, or resort to lying.
Preschoolers
Typically, preschoolers react to stress through uncontrollable crying, anxiety, irritability,

trembling, and sometimes, sleeping or eating problems. Sometimes, regression follows a very
stressful experience, and toddlers may exhibit infant-like behaviors. They tend not to
understand their own feelings, and their inability to understand their parents’ feelings may also
present added stress. They also show withdrawal, oversensitivity, and sometimes resort to
biting.
School Age Children
Kids aged 6 years old to 12 years old are usually confuse about their stressor, and might
complain about not being able to fully understand what the stressful situation means. They
react to stress in such a manner that they lose concentration especially at academics, they
become aggressive, fearful, and sometimes withdrawn.
Adolescents
Rebelliousness is a common reaction among adolescents, especially during tough, stressful

situations. They easily get agitated and are readily angered. many adolescents react to stress
in such a way that they show low self-esteem, irresponsibility and general distrust.
Helping Kids Cope With Stress

Parents should actively involve themselves in helping their children cope with stress. Experts
say that being aware of the real feelings of kids and being always available for them are two
of the best ways though which parents can help their kids.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Jun 25, 2012). Stress in Children. Retrieved from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/stress-in-children
54
8 Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
by Frederick Herzberg
One of the main content theories of motivation, the Two-Factory Theory was proposed
by American psychologist Frederick Herzberg. According to this theory, there are two
types of factors that influence motivation and satisfaction among individuals,
particularly those who work in the employment sector.
Note: Not to be confused with the “Two-Factor Theory of Emotion”, by Schachter and Singer.

In 1959, Herzberg conducted a study with 200 engineers and accountants as the subjects.
They were asked to recollect their experiences and feelings (positive or negative) they had at
work, and the reasons behind the way they felt. Based on the subjective data from the
respondents, Herzberg began to analyze their job attitudes. From the study, he proposed a
two-factor approach when attempting to understand motivation among employees.
The Two-Step Approach

The Two-Factor Theory includes two types of factors that affect how motivated or satisfied an
employee is at work. These are comprised of hygiene factors and motivator factors.
Hygiene Factors
Hygiene factors are those that need to be addressed by a business in such a way that they
would not result to the employee’s unpleasant experiences and feelings at work. The
satisfaction of hygiene factors motivates employees in their work. The hygiene factors are:
1. Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration

2. Company policy and administration
3. Quality of interpersonal relations
4. Working conditions
5. Feelings of job security
6. Quality of supervision
55
Motivator Factors
Motivator factors emerge from the need of an individual to achieve personal growth. Job
satisfaction results from the presence of motivator factors. Moreover, effective motivator
factors do not only lead to job satisfaction, but also to better performance at work. The
motivator factors are:
1. Challenging or stimulating work

2. Status
3. Opportunity for advancement
4. Responsibility
5. Sense of personal growth/job achievement
6. Acquiring recognition
Application
The two-factor theory of motivation can be used to analyze any evidence of de-motivated
employees at work. Applying Herzberg’s model, these evidences may include a low level of
productivity, poor quality of production and/or service, poor employee-employer relationships,
strikes and industrial disputes concerning pay and/or working condition complaints. Following
a thorough assessment on the hygiene factors of the business and the motivator factors
concerning employees at work, Herzberg suggested that the business’ management to apply
three methods in which work can be rearranged:
1. Job Enlargement
2. Job Rotation
3. Job Enrichment
Supportive Evidence
The study focusing on the Two-Factor Theory has been repeated 16 times in various
populations and work settings, according to Herzberg. The results of the latter two-factor
theory studies had been in agreement with the findings of the original study. This proves that
the Two-Factor Theory deserves being one of the well-regarded theories on job attitudes,
particularly in intrinsic motivation of employees.
Criticisms
The Two-Factor Theory has been criticized by behaviourists due to its general assumption
56
that satisfied workers have greater productivity. In addition, critics said that a statistical theory
such as this explains that a management must work primarily to satisfy the employees, which
may lead to lower business output.
Sarah Mae Sincero (May 7, 2012). Two-Factor Theory of Motivation. Retrieved from
Explorable.com: https://explorable.com/two-factor-theory-of-motivation
57
9 Myths about Stress
There are four big myths surrounding stress, namely: (1) stress is purely negative, (2)
everybody experiences and responds the same way to stress, (3) stress is not present
if there are no symptoms and, (4) attention should only be given to stress that shows
major or grave symptoms.
Each of us has his own perception of what stress is and how it affects one’s life. Because of
these differences in views about stress, some collective knowledge or myths referring to
stress have become widely known even though they do not relate to any scientific basis.
Myth 1: Stress is Purely Negative.
If you go around a public place and ask people, “How does stress affect your life?”, you’ll find
out that the most common answer would be: “Stress makes my health worse”, or something
similar to that. Well, this is true, if we are talking about too much stress, that is. Many people
think that if there’s zero stress in our lives, then we can live happily and achieve optimum
health. However, as per the definition of stress, it’s actually a vital part of our daily life that
gives the spark and enjoyment we’re all been wanting to experience. It’s the very reason why
you feel happy when you performed well on an examination, or feel satisfied after a long and
hard job well done.
Now, why do most people think of stress as all negative? Well, it’s because they are referring
to the stresses in their lives that are left unmanaged or mismanaged. Therefore, if you are
able to manage stress in the most appropriate way you can, then you will look at it as
beneficial rather than destructive.
Myth 2: Everybody Experiences and Responds the Same Way to Stress.
Just as how unique each of us is, stress is actually individualized. Each one of us experiences
stress in a different manner, sensation and response. For instance, suppose a group of 30
students take an examination. The examination is the stressor, which remains the same for all
the students, but the very stress that each of them experience is different from one another.
One may feel that he is prepared to answer all the test questions because he has reviewed for
weeks, while another may feel he’s not as ready as the former. What is stressful for Student A
may not be stressful for Student B, so the responses of the two students are entirely varying.
58
Myth 3: Stress is not Present If There are No Symptoms.
Stress is not a disease process; it is a human condition. Therefore, we should not expect that
all stressful moments provide obvious symptoms, although “symptoms” or feelings of
excitement, worry, or mild anxiety might be left unrecognized due to the continuous exposure
to that same stressor. Stress is always present in our daily lives, so we might have gotten
used to it due to proper management (or even mismanagement) and might not notice that we
feel happy, worried, nervous, etc in the presence of the stressor. Stress is always there, even
in the absence of evident symptoms.
Myth 4: Attention Should Only Be Given to Stress That Shows Major or

Grave Symptoms.
Most often than not, people seek medical or psychological help only when the effects of stress
have gone from bad to worse. “Minor” symptoms, like stomach upset or headache, are often
ignored by people who still believe in this misconception. But the truth is, we experience these
“minor symptoms” in order to warn us about the coming worse symptoms or effects of stress if
it is left unmanaged or mismanaged.
Sarah Mae Sincero (Jan 14, 2012). Myths about Stress. Retrieved from Explorable.com:
https://explorable.com/myths-about-stress
Thanks for reading!

Explorable.com Team
Explorable.com - Copyright © 2008-2015 All Rights Reserved.
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Stress & Coping

3 Psychological Theories of Stress

4 Individual Differences - Stress Response

5 Stress and Coping Mechanisms

6 Three Different Kinds of Stress

7 Stress and Illness

8 Two-Factor Theory of Motivation

Cover design by Explorable / Gilli.me.

How does stress affect performance?

The Two Faces of Stress

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The Observations by Selye

Three Phases of Stress Response

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The Nervous System

Furthermore, the SNS also:

Enhances mental activity

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Let’s discuss them one by one.

3. How Many Emotions are There?

4. What is Good with Emotions?

5. What is the Difference Between Emotion and Mood?

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James-Lange: Theory of Emotion

See the full article: The James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Cannon-Bard: The Emergency Theory

See the full article: Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

The Schachter-Singer Theory

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We have experiences, and as a result, our autonomic nervous system creates

Event ==> Arousal ==> Interpretation ==> Emotion

The above sequence summarizes the Theory of Emotion, a combination of concepts

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Origin of the Theory

Event ==> Simultaneous Arousal and Emotion

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Note: Not to be confused with the “Two-Factor Theory of Motivation”, by Herzberg.

Origin of the Theory

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According to Richard Lazarus, stress is a two-way process; it involves the production of

What is Cognitive Appraisal?

1. The threatening tendency of the stress to the individual, and

See also: Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion

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Type A & Type B Personality

So What does This Have to Do With Stress Response?

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Defining Social Support Network

Advantages of Social Support Network

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Gender and Stress

Men and women differ biologically in terms of hormones.

Culture and Stress

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Defining Coping Mechanisms

Types of Coping Strategies