Study Session 6:

Traditional Medicine in Africa

6.1 Introduction
This study session discusses traditional medicine in Africa, defines traditional medicine,
identifies types of treatment provided by traditional medicine in Africa and traditional medicine
therapies, differentiates between complementary, alternative and non-conventional medicine,
defines and highlights different traditional medicine healers in selected African countries and
defines herbal medicines. You will also learn other things such as why people use traditional
medicine.We also attempt to identify and discuss means of diagnosis and prognosis in African
traditional medicines, summarize common means of treatment in African traditional medicines,
understand elements of African medicines, discuss the merits and demerits of African traditional
medicines and the integration of African traditional medicine with modern medicines.

6.1.1 Learning Outcomes for Study Session 6

At the end of this study session 6, you should be able to:
6.1.2 Define traditional medicine.
6.1.3 Identify the types of treatment provided by African traditional medicine.
6.1.4 Identify traditional medicine therapies; differentiate between complementary, alternative
and non-conventional medicine.
6.1.5 Define traditional healer, herbal medicine and identify different traditional medicine
healers in selected African countries.6.1.8 Identify and discuss means of diagnosis and
prognosis in African traditional medicines.
6.1.6 Assess the merits and demerits of African traditional medicines.

6.1.2 Traditional Medicine

Traditional Medicine is also referred to as folk or indigenous medicine. It is a systematic
knowledge system that developed over generations within specific societies in Africa before the
advent of modern medicine. Practices that constitute traditional medicine may include herbal,
Ayurveda, Siddha Medicine, Unani, ancient Iranian medicine, Islamic Medicine, traditional
Chinese medicine, traditional Korean medicine, Acupunture, Ifa etc. depending on the
community or society in question.

Traditional medicine in Africa is considered as a holistic means of accessing health care among
the people. It involves indigenous herbalism and African spirituality consisting of diviners,
traditional birth attendants and herbalists. Practitioners of African traditional medicine lay claims
to curing different diseases such as psychiatric disorders, high blood pressure, cholera, cancer,
epilepsy, fever, depression, diabetes, healing of wounds, etc. Traditional Medicine is generally
transmitted through oral tradition within the community, family and among individuals. In
essence, traditional medicine includes knowledge and practices either codified in writing or
transmitted orally.
WHO (1998) defines traditional medicine as “the sum total of all the knowledge and practices
whether explicable or not, used in diagnosis, prevention and elimination of physical, mental or
social imbalance and relying exclusively on practical experience and observations handed down
from generation to generation whether verbally or in writing. It also comprises therapeutic
practices that have been in existence often for hundreds of years before the development of
modern scientific medicine and are still in use today without any documented evidence of
adverse effects”.

From this definition, two major things can be identified. These are the explicable form of
traditional medicine that can be described as „crude‟ scientific and the direct application of
plants, animals and other mineral substances for healing, for examples, plant juices, gums, fatty
oils, etc (WHO 1978). The use of these items can be researched, rationalized and explained
using modern scientific methods. For instance, aspirin, morphine, quinine, atropine etc were all
developed through traditional medicines.

The second thing is the inexplicable form of traditional medicine which is magico-spiritual,
supernatural, occultic, mystical, or metaphysical dimension that cannot be scientifically
investigated or explained,for examples, the use of incantations for healing purposes or the use
of oracle (Ifa) in diagnosis and prognosis of certain types of diseases or the use of traditional
rituals to treat patients.

WHO estimates that up to 80% of the population in Africa makes use of traditional medicine-
leaves, roots, and berries extracts as its primary source of medicine. While in sub-Saharan
Africa, the ratio of traditional healers to population is approximately 1:500, while the medical
doctors have a 1:40,000 ratios to the rest of the population (Colvin et al., 2002). When
traditional medicine is adopted outside of its original setting or culture, it becomes known or
called complementary and alternative medicine. Major disciplines which study traditional
medicine include ethno-medicine, ethno-botany and medical anthropology.

6.2.1 In-Text Question (ITQ): What is traditional medicine? Give examples of

traditional medicines and how is traditional medicines transmitted?

In-Text Answer (ITA): Traditional medicine is also referred to as folk or indigenous medicine. It
is a systematic knowledge system that developed over generations within specific societies in
Africa before the advent of modern medicine.It involves indigenous herbalism and African
spirituality consisting of diviners, traditional birth attendants and herbalists. Traditional medicine
is generally transmitted through oral tradition within the community, family and among
individuals.
6.3 Types of Treatment Provided by Traditional Medicine in Africa
Traditional Medicines provide treatment for physical, emotional and Psycho-Spiritual conditions.
It could be used to prevent and eliminate the influence of witchcraft, to appease spirits and to
cure chronic diseases.
6.4Traditional Medicine Therapies, the Concepts of Complementary, Alternative and
Non-Conventional Medicine

Traditional medicine therapies include medication therapies- those involving the use of herbal
medicines, animal parts and/or minerals; and non-medication therapies- those carried out
primarily without the use of medication, as in the case of acupuncture, manual therapies and
spiritual therapies.

In countries where traditional medicine has not been incorporated into the national health care
system, it is termed “complementary”, “alternative” or” non-conventional” medicine (WHO,
2000). The concept of “complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) often refers to a broad
set of healthcare practices that are not part of a country‟s own tradition and are not integrated
into the dominant health-care system. Other terms used to describe these health-care practices
include “natural medicine”, “non-conventional medicine” and “holistic medicine” (WHO, 2000).

However, in all systems of traditional medicine, the fundamentals are to use the medicinal
plants in the treatment and prevention of disease, as well as in the maintenance of health
(Prasad & Tyagi, cited Acharya & Shriva-stava 2008). In traditional systems, plants products are
used for the cure of diseases; however, in modern science, the bioactive compounds of the
plants are identified. Globally, of the 121 prescription drugs in use today for cancer treatment,
90 are derived from plants. About 877 small-molecule drugs introduced worldwide between
1981 and 2002, most (61%) can be traced back to natural products (Newman & Cragg cited in
Prasad & Tyagi, 2015).

Carefully look at the Nigerian healthcare system and identify the non-conventional
medicine in use today, if any.

6.5 Traditional Healers, Herbal Medicines and Indigenous Healers in Africa

Traditional healer is a person who is recognized by the community in which he or she lives as
competent to provide healthcare by using vegetables, animal and mineral substances and
certain other methods based on the social, cultural and religious background, as well as on the
knowledge, attitudes and beliefs that are prevalent in the community regarding physical, mental
and social well-being and the causation of disease and disability (WHO, 1978). He/she serves as
nurse, pharmacist, physician, dentist, mid-wife, dispenser, etc.

6.5.2 Herbal Medicines

According to WHO, herbal medicines are “finished labelled medicine products that contain as
active ingredients, aerial underground parts of plants or other plant materials, or combination
thereof, whether in the crude state or as plant preparations. Plant material includes juices,
gums, fatty oils, essential oils, and any other substance of this nature. Chemically-defined,
isolated constituents of plants are not considered to be herbal medicines. Exceptionally, in some
countries, herbal medicines may also contain natural organic or inorganic active ingredients
(WHO, 1996).
6.5.1 ITQs: Who is a traditional healer?

ITAS: According to WHO (1978) traditional healer is a person who is recognized by the
community in which he or she lives as competent to provide healthcare by using vegetables,
animal and mineral substances and certain other methods based on the social, cultural and
religious background, as well as on the knowledge, attitudes and beliefs that are prevalent in
the community regarding physical, mental and social well-being and the causation of disease
and disability. He/she serves as nurse, pharmacist, physician, dentist, midi-wife, dispenser, etc.

6.5.3 Indigenous Healers in Africa

Categorisation or classification of indigenous healers in Africa depends on the culture of the

particular society or community for examples, among the Yoruba in Nigeria, Oyebola (1980)
classified traditional healers into six:

Babalawo; Oni segun (or adahunse) Ala sotele (Sooth Sayer) Olorisa (or Abore)
Awon „leku–leja (traditional pharmacist)
Specialist comprising traditional bone- setters
Traditional Psychiatrists
Traditional birth attendants or midwives and the “Olola”
Miscellaneous group- Afaa (Mallams) and Aladura (Spiritual healers)

South Africa

In South Africa, there are four major groups of healers and these include:

Iyangas- These are herbalists who possess extensive knowledge about curative herbs
and medicines of animal origin. Majority of them are males.
1. Isangomas-These are diviners and determine the cause of illness by using ancestral
spirits. Majority of them are females. No individual can choose to become a diviner but
must be “called” by the ancestors to become one.
2. Umthandazi- These are faith healers who are professed Christians. They belong to one
of the independent African Churches and heal by prayer using holy water or ash, oil or
by touching a patient.
3. Traditional birth attendants are usually elderly women and are respected in society for
their skills. The conditions for becoming a traditional birth attendant include having at
least two babies of your own and an apprenticeship lasting up to 15-20 years. Birth
attendants do not charge for their services but may accept gifts. If a complication should
occur, they seek the advice of an „Inayanya‟
In Tanzania

In Tanzania, just as we have in South Africa, there are four classifications of traditional healers.
Traditional healers in modern day Tanzania are known as fundi (engineers or technicians).
Before the modern era, they were called waganga wa kieniyeji or waganga wa judi (traditional
practitioners or doctors).

Diviners- they are diagnosticians (wapiga ramli), diviners (ramli) and spiritualists (a
Mashetani midzima). They consult with spirits who may identify the type and cause of
the illness. Diviners may treat or refer to herbalist. They can also differentiate between
normal health problem and traditional health problem that involves evil spirits.
Herbalists – they use plants, roots and bark as medicines to cure illness.
Herbalist- ritualists- they use both herbs and rituals to diagnose and treat illness.
Faith healers- they use Koranic phrases or recite texts from the Bible for healing
illnesses. However, sometimes they use medicines.

For anyone to become a recognised traditional healer in Tanzania, the person must be
inducted through one of the four following path-ways: Inheritance within the family
kinship, ancestor sprits contacted through dreams, the experience spirits contacted
through dreams, personal decision through a period of apprenticeship.

6.5.1 Elements of African medicines.

African traditional medicines deal with both physical illness and social dilemma of the people.
We can identify three main elements of African traditional healing.

Prevention and protection from problems

Determination of the causes of these problems
Elimination of these problems

Utilization of Traditional Medicine

6.5.2 ITQs: Why do people still use traditional medicines? We can identify and
examine the reasons for the continued use of traditional medicine despite modernity
and even post-modernity. Some of the reasons include: It is perceived to be holistic in
its approach; the rise in incidence and prevalence of chronic diseases without cure,
perceived side-effects of orthodox medicine,increased interest in faith and spiritualism
and high cost of orthodox medicine.

6.5.3 Diagnosis and Prognosis in African Traditional Medicine

In African traditional medicines, healing a sick individual is made up of both medicine and
religious rituals in an integrated and institutionalized process. This is unlike the orthodox
medicine of the western societies, where diseases are considered as a biological phenomenon
and medicine is regarded as the solution to curing diseases.

According to Okwu (1979), diagnosis in the African traditional healing process (e.g., Igbo) is a
complicated procedure used to establish:
Immediate or secondary cause of the ill health or the natural cause that is acting as the agent
of the supernatural forces;the primary or remote cause of the disease, the originators, or the
supernatural forces that are responsible for, or that approved of the illness;the reasons for the
supernatural action;the propitiatory sacrifice required to placate or cajole the gods and thus,
make the actual medical therapy effective;And finally, the healer that should be invited to
perform both the ritual sacrifices and the practical healing exercise.

The diviner is usually an expert when it comes to the issue of diagnosis and this has different
names in different culture. In treating illnesses, the healer may employ purificatory means to
remove ritual sanctions which may be manifested by boils, rashes, and peeling of the skin.
There are usually attributed to the non-observance of taboos, mother‟s failure to observe
dietary regulations during pregnancy of the patient, and in some cases incest by the patient
among other attributions (Okwu 1979).

The therapeutic effectiveness of traditional medicine depends on the reputation and character
of the healer, the confidence he generates between himself and the patient, the patient‟s own
will and desire to be healed, and above all, the disposition of the divinity towards both the
healer and the patient. Effectiveness of medication must also be associated with divinity and
with sacrifice toward/or invocation of the deity or the ancestors.

African traditional medicines also make use of traditional prophylaxis, which is normally
recommended after treatment. The prophylactic consists mainly of wearing of charms or
amulet, rings or marks of white chalk and yellow chalk depending on the particular culture or
community. The charms usually contain a variety of objects believed by virtue of their cosmic
characteristics, identification with the patient, their shape and the circumstances of their
constitution to have the power to ward off disease and misfortune for the individual for whom
they are constructed. The prophylactic may also include an injection into the blood or rubbing
into the body of a mixture of purified objects and ointments, as a means of fortifying him
against malevolent forces or sprits.

6.5.4 Common Means of Diagnosis in African Traditional Medicine

We have about four general means of diagnosing disease or illness in African traditional
medicines and these include:

Dreams- a deity or ghost may visit the ill person in his sleep and reveal the cause of the
illness.
Divination- The diviner is possessed by a god who is the messenger and servant of the
higher deities.
Oracles- an oracle is any institutionalized technique applied to get a divine verdict.
Possession- some people are chosen to be the vehicle of a god or ghost from time to
time through possession by the supernatural being. Some of these supernatural beings
are famous seers, who when they have foreseen a disease or an impending disaster,
 take an individual into possession and reveal the danger and what to be done to stop
the impeding danger.

6.5.5 Treatment of Diseases in African Traditional Medicine

Here, we will use Wooding (1979) subdivision of different kinds of diseases and their treatment
into rational, magical and combined categories.

Rational treatment

By Rational treatment, we mean any treatment that is devoid of magic. The illnesses that fall
into this category are cured with herbs whose medicinal powers have been established by trial
and error. These are folk medicines and are easily accessible within the community. According
to Harley (1970) they are also known as household remedies to cure special maladies. Some of
the diseases are ringworm and some eye problems.

Magical treatment

Magical diseases are much more complicated and involve the supernatural world. Such diseases
occur when social and cultural norms have been violated and taboos broken.

Ethereal treatment

This also belongs to the magical group. Ethereal disease is brought directly to a human being
by a supernatural being (a god or a ghost). The ancestral gods and ghosts, when offended by a
descendant could attract punishment either on the individual or the entire family of the
offender.

Both rational and magical treatment

This is the mixture of rational and magical process for treating certain ailments. For example,
fracture in some African societies could be cured using herbs. The herbs are carefully pounded
into a pappy substance, which is put around the broken bone and covered with a bandage. It is
said that the sap of the herbs softens the bone, which gradually hardens again and heals.
During this process of treatment, the leg of the rooster is broken and treated with a bit of the
same pappy substance. If the rooster leg in cured, he will stand on both legs and crow. This
implies that the person‟s leg is also cured. The magical aspect lies in the breaking of the
rooster‟s leg and the belief that if the rooster does not get up and crow, then the broken bone
will not heal. While the logic behind the magic is that if the medicine does not work on the
cock‟s leg, it will not work on the person‟s broken bone either, which means that the treatment
has to be repeated.
Self-Assessment Question: Recall your personal experiences of the treatment from
an African traditional healer or that of someone you have heard from friends and
relatives.

6.6 Merits and Demerits of Traditional Medicine

6.6. 1ITQs: what are the advantages of African traditional medicines? We have
numerous advantages of using African traditional medicines but we will restrict ourselves to
just identifying few of such and these include: it is readily available and accessible to those in
rural and urban areas, where modern medicine is out of reach of the people.The contributions
of traditional healers to promoting health have been rediscovered during the 1970s and 1980s,
patients consult traditional healers because they may feel more comfortable with traditional
healers, who reside in the community and who are familiar with the social context, traditional
medicines are relatively cheaper than the modern medicine.Traditional Medicine may not
demand immediate payment of cash. Hence, it is much easier for their clients to meet the
payment conditions, because it is indigenous in nature, the people (patients) seem to have
more confidence in the therapeutic skills of the traditional healers, which is found in the nature
and scope of the therapies which the healers administer.

6.6.2 Demerits of African Traditional Medicines

Despite the numerous advantages attached to African traditional medicines, there are also
disadvantages attached to the practice of African traditional medicine. These include most
traditional healers are illiterate and in most cases, records are not kept. This has made it
difficult to study their practices; the efficacy of most of the herbal medicines has not been
validated. There is the problem of imprecise diagnosis and dosage, occult practices are involved
in traditional medicine, which cannot be scientifically proved; shelf life of herbs is not easy to
determine and, in most cases, there could be contamination. Using both traditional herbs and
modern drugs at the same time may result in drug interactions which may be fatal; there are no
recorded scientific data on the safety, efficiency, optimal dosage, and side –effects of these
herbs.

6.6.3 Integration of African Traditional Healing System with Orthodox Therapy

6.6.3.1 ITQs: Identify some of the efforts at boosting the development of African
traditional medicines.The debate on integrating African traditional medicine with orthodox
medicine has remained a contentious issue in different countries of the continent. The questions
on standard and scientific or unscientific nature of traditional medicine permeate the debate.
However, questions that need to be addressed include: what‟s the standard? Who set the
standard and on what bases are the standards set?

The concept of integration in ethno-medical literature means the incorporation of aspects of

traditional medicines into national healthcare in a way acceptable to modern medicine. Many
African countries including Nigeria, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania have initiated and
created research institutions to isolate the active ingredients in traditional medicines with the
intention of using such naturally-occurring substances to replace expensive imported
pharmaceuticals.

Current effort at boosting the development of traditional medicine in the continent includes:

The declaration of 10 years (2001-2010) as period for Traditional Medicine Development

in Africa tagged „Decade of Traditional Medicine in Africa‟ (31st of August of every year)
observed as the African Traditional Medicine day in all countries of Africa.

World Health Organisation is at the forefront of integrating traditional African medicine with
modern medicine. The body has developed model tools for institutionalizing traditional African
medicine with the modern healthcare system. It is recommended that government of any
country may adopt or adapt any of the models to fit into her local settings or environment.
Some of the actions recommended include:

Develop policy, legal and regulatory frameworks for the practice of traditional medicine within
the broad framework of national health policies and health legislation.

Promote and conduct relevant scientific research on medicinal plants in collaboration

with traditional health practitioners to validate claim made on the efficacy of herbs.

Register traditional medicine, if need be by using the W.H.O guidelines on registration

and regulation of traditional medicine in the W.H.O African Region.

Establish enabling economic, regulatory and political environments for local production
of traditional medicines as well as develop industries that can produce standardized
remedies to increase access.

Despite the rapid technological advancement that has taken place and still taking place, African
traditional medicines have remained with the people and have even undergone some changes
so as to meet up with some universal standards. For examples, some of the herbalists now
operate from modern facilities and use orthodox‟ instruments such as stethoscopes, white
coats, white bandage and even use antibiotics for their patients. However, a lot still needs to be
done if African traditional medicines are to remain relevant in the near future.

6.7 Summary of Study Session 6

In study session 6, you have learnt that:
 Traditional medicine is also referred to as folk or indigenous medicine.
 It is a systematic knowledge system that developed over generations within
specific societies in Africa before the advent of modern medicine.
 It involves indigenous herbalism and African spirituality consisting of diviners,
traditional birth attendants and herbalists.
 Practitioners of traditional African medicine lay claims to curing different diseases
such as psychiatric disorders, high blood pressure, cholera, cancer, epilepsy,
fever, depression, healing of wounds, etc.
  Traditional medicine is generally transmitted through oral tradition within the
community, family and among individuals.
 WHO‟s definition of traditional medicine has two major components- the
explicable and the inexplicable dimensions.
 Traditional medicines provide treatment for physical, emotional and Psycho-
Spiritual conditions.
 Traditional medicine therapies include medication therapies- those involving the
use of herbal medicines, animal parts and/or minerals; and non-medication
therapies.
 Categorisation or classification of indigenous healers in Africa depends on the
culture of the particular society or community.
 We identified three main elements of African traditional medicines.
 The reasons people still use African traditional medicines include perceived side-
effects of orthodoxy medicines, increased interest in faith and spiritualism among
other reasons.
 There are four general means of diagnosing diseases in African traditional
medicines.
 Treatment of disease use rational treatment, magical treatment, ethereal
treatment and both rational and magical treatment.
 Identified some of the advantages and disadvantages of African traditional
medicines.
 Identified some of the efforts at boosting the development of African traditional
medicines.

6.8. References/Suggestions for Further Reading

Ackerknecht, E.H. (1942). Problems of primitive medicine. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 2,
50-52.

Beck, A. (1979). Traditional healers in Tanzania. Journal of Opinion, 9(3): 2-5.

Colvin et al., (2002). Integrating traditional healers into a tuberculosis control programme in
Hlabisa, South Africa AIDS Bulletin.

Crouch, R., Elliot, R., Lemmers, T., Charland, L. (2000). Complementary/alternative healthcare
and Hiv/AIDS: legal, ethical & policy issues in regulations Canadian HIV/AIDS legal
network

Elujoba, A.A., Odeleye, O.M., & Ogunyemi, C.M. (2005). Traditional medicine development and
dental primary health care delivery system in Africa. African Journal of Traditional,
Complementary and Alternative Medicines, 2 (1): 46-61.

Gessler, M.C., Msuya, D.E., Nkunya, M.H., et al., (1995). Traditional healers: traditional
medicine: Tanzania Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 48 (45) 60.
Harley, G.W. (1970). Native African medicine. London

Hewson, M.G. (1998). Traditional healers in Southern Africa. Annal of Internal Medicine, 128:
1029-1034

Kale, R. (1995). Traditional healers in South Africa: a parallel health care system. BMJ 310:
1182-5

Klauss, V., Adala, H.S. (1994). Traditional herbal eye medicine in Kenya. World Health Forum,
15, 138-143.

Ngoma, M.C., Prince, M & Mann, A. (2003). Common mental disorders among those attending
primary health clinics and traditional healers in urban Tanzania. British Journal of
Psychiatry 183: 349-355.

Okwu, A.S.O. (1979). Life, death, reincarnation, and traditional healing in africa. Journal of
Opinion, 9:3; 19-24.

Oyebola, D.D.O. (1980). Traditional medicine and its practitioners among the Yoruba of Nigeria.
A classification. Social Science and Medicine vol. 14:1, 23-29

Ulin, P.R. (1975). The traditional healer of Botswana in a changing society. Botswana Notes and
Records 7:95-102.

WHO (1978a). Alma ata declaration. Primary healthcare. Health for all series No. 1

WHO (1978b). The primitive and development of traditional medicine. Technical Report. Series
6222

WHO, (1996). Guidelines for the assessment of herbal medicines, WHO Technical Report Series
NO. 863, Geneva

WHO (2000). General guidelines for methodologies on research and evaluation of traditional
medicine, WHO/EDM/TRM/2000.1

Wooding, C.J. (1979). Traditional healing and medicine in Winti: A Sociological Interpretation.
Journal of Opinion 9:3, 35-40

Prasad, S. & Tyagi, K. (2015). Traditional medicine: the goldmine for modern drugs (Advanced
Techniques in Biology and Medicine, 2015)

Ghalib, H. (2007). The hunt for the next Artemisinin (TDR News, 2007)

Answers to Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for study Session 6

6.11.1 Examples of practices that constitute traditional medicines include herbal, Ayurveda,
Siddha Medicine, Unani, ancient Iranian medicine, Islamic Medicine, traditional Chinese
medicine, traditional Korean medicine, Acupunture, Ifa etc. depending on the community or
society in question
6.11.2 How is traditional medicines transmitted?
Traditional Medicine is generally transmitted through oral tradition within the community, family
and among individuals
6.11.3 Explain the inexplicable form of traditional medicines.
The inexplicable form of traditional Medicine is that which deals with Magico-Spiritual,
Supernatural, occultic, Mystical, or metaphysical dimension that cannot be scientifically
investigated or explained. For examples, the use of incantations for healing purposes or the use
of Oracle (Ifa) in diagnosis and prognosis of certain types of diseases or the use of traditional
rituals to treat patients.
6.11.4 Distinguish between complementary, alternative or non-conventional medicine.
According to (WHO,2000) in countries, where traditional medicine has not been incorporated
into the national health care system, it is termed “complementary”, “alternative” or” non-
conventional” medicine (WHO, 2000). The concept of “complementary and alternative medicine
(CAM) often refers to a broad set of healthcare practices that are not part of a country‟s own
tradition and are not integrated into the dominant health-care system. Other terms used to
describe these health-care practices include “natural medicine”, “non-conventional medicine”
and “holistic medicine”.

6.11.5 List the classification of traditional healers according to Oyebola (1980).

Oyebola (1980) classified traditional healers among Yoruba into six:

(1) Babalawo; Oni segun (or adahunse) Ala sotele (Sooth Sayer) Olorisa (or Abore)
(2) Awon „leku–leja (traditional pharmacist)
(3) Specialist comprises traditional bone- setters
(4) Traditional Psychiatrists
(5) Traditional birth attendants or midwives and the “Olola”
(6) Miscellaneous group- Afaa (Mallams) and Aladura (Spiritual healers)
6.11.6 Identify the three elements of African traditional healing. The elements are:
1. Prevention and protection from problems.
2. Determination of the causes of these problems.
3. Elimination of these problems.

6.11.7 Identify the common means of diagnosing disease or illness in African traditional
medicines.

There are four general means of diagnosing disease or illness in African traditional medicines
and these include:

1. Dreams- a deity or ghost may visit the ill person in his sleep and reveal the cause of the
illness.
 2. Divination- The diviner is possessed by a god who is the messenger and servant of the
higher deities.
3. Oracles- an oracle is any institutionalized technique applied to get a divine verdict.
4. Possession- some people are chosen to be the vehicle of a god or ghost from time to time
through possession by the supernatural being. Some of these supernatural beings are famous
seers, who when have foreseen a disease or an impending disaster, take an individual into
possession and reveal the danger and what to be done to stop the impeding danger.