Walls and Buried Structures
Chapter 8
of transportation, and storage. However, bars are more easily protected against
corrosion, and are easier to develop stress and transfer load.
The geotechnical report will provide a reliable estimate of the feasible factored design
load of the anchor, recommended anchor installation angles (typically 10 degrees to
45 degrees), no-load zone dimensions, and any other special requirements for wall
stability for each project.
Both the “tributary area method” and the “hinge method” as outlined in
AASHTO LRFD Section C11.9.5.1 are considered acceptable design procedures to
determine the horizontal anchor design force. The capacity of each anchor shall be
verified by testing. Testing shall be done during the anchor installation (See Standard
Specifications Section 6-17.3(8) and Geotechnical Design Manual M 46-03).
1. The horizontal anchor spacing typically follows the pile spacing of 6 to 10 feet.
The vertical anchor spacing is typically 8 to 12 feet. A minimum spacing of
4 feet in both directions is not recommended because it can cause a loss of
effectiveness due to disturbance of the anchors during installation.
2. For permanent ground anchors, the anchor design load, T, shall be according
to AASHTO LRFD. For temporary ground anchors, the anchor design load, T, may
ignore extreme event load cases.
3. The lock-off load is 60 percent of the controlling factored design load for
temporary and permanent walls (see Geotechnical Design Manual Chapter 15).
Permanent ground anchors shall have double corrosion protection consisting of
an encapsulation-protected tendon bond length as specified in the WSDOT General
Special Provisions. Typical permanent ground anchor details are provided in the
Appendix 8.1-A1.
Temporary ground anchors may have either double corrosion protection consisting
of an encapsulation-protected tendon bond length or simple corrosion protection
consisting of grout-protected tendon bond length.
B. Design of Soldier Pile
The soldier piles shall be designed for shear, bending, and axial stresses according to
the latest AASHTO LRFD and Geotechnical Design Manual M 46-03 design criteria.
The flexural design shall be based on the elastic section modulus “S” for the entire
length of the pile for all Load combinations. The flexural design of soldier piles
with tiebacks shall consider the requirements of AASHTO LRFD Article 6.10.8.2
and 6.10.3.2.
1. Application of Lateral Loads
a. Lateral loads are assumed to act over one pile spacing above the base of
excavation in front of the wall. These lateral loads result from horizontal
earth pressure, live load surcharge, seismic earth pressure, or any other
applicable load.
b. Lateral loads are assumed to act over the shaft diameter below the base
of excavation in front of the wall. These lateral loads result from horizontal
earth pressure, seismic earth pressure or any other applicable load.
c. Passive earth pressure usually acts over three times the shaft diameter
or one times the pile spacing, whichever is smaller.
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2. Determining Depth of Pile Embedment
The depth of embedment of soldier piles shall be the maximum embedment
as determined from the following;
a. 10 feet
b. As recommended by the Geotechnical Engineer of Record
c. As required for skin friction resistance and end bearing resistance.
d. As required to satisfy factored horizontal force equilibrium and factored
moment equilibrium about the bottom of the soldier pile for cantilever
soldier piles without permanent ground anchors.
e. As required to satisfy factored moment equilibrium of factored lateral
force about the bottom of the soldier pile for soldier piles with permanent
ground anchors.
3. Soldier Pile Shaft Backfill
Specify controlled density fill (CDF, 145 pcf) for the full height of the soldier pile
shaft when shafts are anticipated to be excavated and concrete placed in the dry.
Specify pumpable lean concrete for the full height of the soldier pile shaft when
shafts are anticipated to be excavated and concrete placed in the wet.
C. Design of Lagging
Lagging for soldier pile walls, with and without permanent ground anchors, may be
comprised of timber, precast concrete, or steel. The expected service life of timber
lagging is 20 years which is less than the 75 year service life of structures designed in
accordance with AASHTO LRFD.
The Geotechnical Engineer will specify when lagging shall be designed for an
additional 250 psf surcharge due to temporary construction load or traffic surcharge.
The lateral pressure transferred from a moment slab shall be considered in the design
of soldier pile walls and laggings.
1. Temporary Timber Lagging
Temporary lagging is based on a maximum 36 month service life before a
permanent fascia is applied over the lagging. The wall Design Engineer shall
review the Geotechnical Recommendations or consult with the Geotechnical
Engineer regarding whether the lagging may be considered as temporary as
defined in Standard Specifications Section 6-16.3(6). Temporary timber lagging
shall be designed by the contractor in accordance with Standard Specifications
Section 6-16.3(6)B.
2. Permanent Lagging
Permanent lagging shall be designed for 100 percent of the lateral load that
could occur during the life of the wall in accordance with AASHTO LRFD
Sections 11.8.5.2 and 11.8.6 for simple spans without soil arching. A reduction
factor to account for soil arching effects may be used if permitted by the
Geotechnical Engineer.
Timber lagging shall be designed in accordance with AASHTO LRFD Section
8.6. The size effect factor (CFb) should be considered 1.0, unless a specific size
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is shown in the wall plans. The wet service factor (CMb) should be considered
0.85 for a saturated condition at some point during the life of the lagging. The
load applied to lagging should be applied at the critical depth. The design should
include the option for the contractor to step the size of lagging over the height of
tall walls, defined as walls over 15 feet in exposed face height.
Timber lagging designed as a permanent structural element shall consist of
treated Douglas Fir-Larch, grade No. 2 or better. Hem-fir wood species, due
to the inadequate durability in wet condition, shall not be used for permanent
timber lagging. Permanent lagging is intended to last the design life cycle
(75 years) of the wall. Timber lagging does not have this life cycle capacity but
can be used when both of the following are applicable:
a. The wall will be replaced within a 20 year period or a permanent fascia will
be added to contain the lateral loads within that time period.
And,
b. The lagging is visible for inspections during this life cycle.
D. Design of Fascia Panels
Cast-in-place concrete fascia panels shall be designed as a permanent load carrying
member in accordance with AASHTO LRFD Section 11.8.5.2. For walls without
permanent ground anchors the minimum structural thickness of the fascia panels
shall be 9 inches. For walls with permanent ground anchors the minimum structural
thickness of the fascia panels shall be 14 inches. Architectural treatment of concrete
fascia panels shall be indicated in the plans.
Concrete strength shall not be less than 4,000 psi at 28 days.
The wall fascia shall extend below ground the maximum of the following;
a 2 feet minimum below the finish ground line adjacent to the face of the wall.
b. 3 feet minimum below the lowermost PGA.
c. 2 feet minimum below the scour elevation, unless a greater depth is specified.
When concrete fascia panels are placed on soldier piles, a generalized detail of
lagging with strongback (see Bridge Standard Drawing 8.1-A3-5) shall be shown in
the plans. This information will assist the contractor in designing formwork that does
not overstress the piles while concrete is being placed.
Precast concrete fascia panels shall be designed to carry 100 percent of the load
that could occur during the life of the wall. When timber lagging (including pressure
treated lumber) is designed to be placed behind a precast element, conventional
design practice is to assume that lagging will eventually fail and the load will be
transferred to the precast panel. If another type of permanent lagging is used behind
the precast fascia panel, then the design of the fascia panel will be controlled by
internal and external forces other than lateral pressures from the soil (weight,
temperature, Seismic, Wind, etc.). The connections for precast panels to soldier piles
shall be designed for all applicable loads and the designer should consider rigidity,
longevity (to resist cyclic loading, corrosion, etc.), and load transfer.
See Section 5.1.1 for use of shotcrete in lieu of cast-in-place conventional concrete
for soldier pile fascia panels.
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Chapter 8 Walls and Buried Structures
8.1.6 Design of Structural Earth Walls
A. Preapproved Proprietary Structural Earth Walls
Structural earth (SE) wall systems meeting established WSDOT design and
performance criteria have been listed as “pre-approved” by the Bridge and Structures
Office and the Materials Laboratory Geotechnical Branch. A list of current pre-
approved proprietary wall systems and their limitations is provided in the Geotechnical
Design Manual Appendix 15-D. For the SE wall shop drawing review procedure, see
the Geotechnical Design Manual Chapter 15.
B. Non-Preapproved Proprietary Structural Earth Walls
Structural earth walls that exceed the limitations as provided in the Geotechnical
Design Manual Appendix 15-D are considered to be non-preapproved. Use of
non-preapproved structural earth walls shall require the approval of the State
Geotechnical Engineer and the State Bridge and Structures Engineer.
8.1.7 Design of Standard Plan Geosynthetic Walls
Details for construction are given in the Standard Plans Manual Section D.
The width “w” of the precast panels as defined in Standard Plan D-3.11 is to be shown
on the plan sheets and should be selected considering the architectural requirements for
the wall.
8.1.8 Design of Soil Nail Walls
Soil nail walls shall be designed in accordance with the FHWA Publication FHWA-
NHI-14-007 “Geotechnical Engineering Circular No. 7 Soil Nail Walls” February 2015.
The seismic design parameters shall be determined in accordance with the most current
edition of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic Bridge Design (SEISMIC).
Typical soil nail wall details are provided in Appendix 8.1.
8.1.9 Scour of Retaining Walls
The foundation for all walls constructed along rivers and streams shall be evaluated
during design by the Hydraulics Engineer for scour in accordance with AASHTO LRFD.
The bottom of the wall foundation and bottom of wall elements such as, the fascia panel,
lagging, leveling pad, footing, pile cap or shaft cap shall be located a minimum of 2 feet
below the scour elevation in accordance with the Geotechnical Design Manual Section
15.4.5 unless a greater depth is otherwise specified.
In situations where scour (e.g., due to wave or stream erosion) can occur in front of
the wall, the bottom of the wall foundation (e.g., structural earth or Geosynthetic wall
leveling pad, concrete wall spread footing, the cap for pile or shaft supported walls), and
the bottom of fascia panel or lagging, shall meet the minimum embedment requirements
relative to the scour elevation in front of the wall.
At any location where a retaining wall or reinforced slope can be in contact with water
(such as a culvert outfall, ditch, wetland, lake, river, or floodplain), there is a risk of scour
at the toe. The wall designers shall address this risk, based on the Hydraulics Engineer’s
assessment of the scour potential at the wall site.
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It is important to differentiate between scour and stream migration. In this discussion,
scour is the amount of streambed vertical elevation drop at a given location due to the
removal of streambed material caused by flowing water. In accordance with AASHTO
LRFD Section 3.7.5 consequences of changes in foundation condi-tions (due to scour)
shall be considered at Strength and Service Limit States.
Stream migration is a natural occurrence in some streams, and can occur slowly or
rapidly, with or without accompanying scour. AASHTO LRFD provides little guidance
on the subject of stream migration. AASHTO LRFD Section 2.6.4 states only that lateral
movements of the stream shall be considered.
Information for stream migration risk shall be provided in the Preliminary Hydraulic
Design Report. The Report should indicate the risk of stream migration (low or high) and
the Report may also predict how far a stream may migrate, and whether it may migrate
incrementally or all at once.
Retaining walls or portions of retaining walls that are located within the scoured ground
line of a stream shall be designed to resist scour as shown in Figure 8.1.9-1.
For retaining walls that are located outside of the scoured ground line, the following
criteria shall be used to determine whether or not to design these adjacent retaining walls
for the scour or stream migration condition:
1. If stream migration risk is classified as “Low” in the Preliminary Hydraulic De-sign
Report, stream migration considerations for retaining walls outside of the scoured
ground line may be ignored if the following two conditions are met:
a. Scour and stream migration requirements may be ignored for retaining walls with
a 10 feet or less differential between finish ground lines in front of and behind
the wall.
b. Scour and stream migration requirements may be ignored for fill-type re-taining
walls (SE, Geosynthetic, Gabion, Gravity Rock or Gravity Concrete Block).
2. For retaining walls that do not meet the above two conditions (1a and 1b), and for
stream migration risk classified as anything other than “Low” in the Preliminary
Hydraulic Design Report, the retaining walls shall be designed for scour and stream
migration in the zones described in Figures 8.1.9-2 and 8.1.9-3. The Hydraulics
Engineer may need to provide input on the likely limits of stream migration for
these cases
This situation will also require that abutment footings or shaft/pile caps be placed
below the stream migration and scour lines, as shown in Figure 8.1.9-3, to protect the
roadway fill contained behind the retaining walls.
Alternatives for designing retaining walls adjacent to bridge ends for scour and stream
migration could include:
1. Increasing bridge span lengths or number of spans to move any associated retaining
walls beyond the stream migration and scour lines.
2. Including revetment or scour countermeasure designs at the bridge ends, and
obtaining the permits required for these features.
Both of the above mentioned approaches may allow the abutment shaft/pile caps to be
placed higher, above the stream migration and scour lines.
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Chapter 8 Walls and Buried Structures
Retaining walls built on or adjacent to WSDOT designated lifeline roadways re-quire a
reduced level of risk acceptance by WSDOT. Prevention measures for scour and channel
migration such as lowering bridge abutments to protect the end fills from scour and
Wallsstream migration
and Buried shall be utilized. Retaining wall footings, bot-tom of aforementioned
Structures wall8
Chapter
elements, and bottom of bridge footing/shaft cap elevations shall be located below the
scour and stream migration lines.
Figure 8.1.9-1 Scour without Stream Migration
INTERSECTION OF
FINISH GROUND LINE
AND SCOUR LINE
DESIGN THIS PORTION OF
FINAL GROUND LINE, RETAINING WALL FOR SCOUR
OR TOP OF ROADWAY, INTERSECTION OF
AT BACK OF WALL FINISH GROUND LINE
AND RETAINING WALL
FINISH GROUND LINE
SCOURED GROUND LINE
DEPTH
SCOUR
BOTTOM OF RETAINING WALL
ELEMENT SEE SECTION 8.1.9
Figure
Figure 8.1.9-1
8.1.9-1 Scour
Scour without
without Stream
Stream Migration
Migration
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Walls and Buried Structures Chapter 8
Figure
Walls 8.1.9-2
and Buried Structures Stream Migration without Scour Chapter 8
DESIGN THIS PORTION OF RETAINING
FINAL GROUND LINE, WALL FOR STREAM MIGRATION
OR TOP OF ROADWAY,
INTERSECTION OF
AT BACK OF WALL
FINISH GROUND LINE
AND RETAINING WALL
INTERSECTION OF
FINISH GROUND LINE
AND MIGRATION LINE
FINISH GROUND LINE
STREAM MIGRATION LINE
BOTTOM OF RETAINING WALL
ELEMENT SEE SECTION 8.1.9
Figure 8.1.9-2 Stream Migration without Scour
Figure 8.1.9-2 Stream Migration without Scour
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Walls and Buried Structures Chapter 8
Figure 8.1.9-3 Stream migration WITH Scour
DESIGN THIS PORTION OF RETAINING WALL
FOR STREAM MIGRATION AND SCOUR
FINAL GROUND LINE,
INTERSECTION OF
OR TOP OF ROADWAY,
FINISH GROUND LINE
AT BACK OF WALL
AND RETAINING WALL
INTERSECTION OF FINISH
GROUND LINE AND,
STREAM MIGRATION
AND SCOUR LINE
FINISH GROUND LINE
STREAM MIGRATION
AND SCOUR LINE
DEPTH
SCOUR
BOTTOM OF RETAINING WALL
ELEMENT SEE SECTION 8.1.9
Figure 8.1.9-3 Stream Migration with Scour
8.1.10 Miscellaneous Items
Figure 8.1.9-3 Scour with Stream Migration
A. Architectural Treatment
Approval by the State Bridge and Structures Architect is required on all retaining wall
aesthetics, including finishes, materials, and configuration.
B. Fall Protection
For retaining walls with exposed wall heights of 4 feet or more, fall protection shall be
provided in accordance with WAC 296-155-24615(2) and WAC 296-155-24609 and
as described in the Design Manual Chapter 730.
Fall protection shall be required regardless of the location of a traffic barrier placed
behind the wall, unless the traffic barrier has a minimum height of 3’-6” and is
either a moment slab traffic barrier located on top of the wall or a traffic barrier
constructed integral with the top of the wall. The Standard Plan Chain Link Fence
Types 3 and 4, and Glare Screen Types 1 and 2 are not considered acceptable fall
protection systems.
C. Drainage
Drainage features shall be detailed in the Plans.
Permanent drainage systems shall be provided to prevent hydrostatic pressures
developing behind the wall. A cut that slopes toward the proposed wall will invariably
encounter natural subsurface drainage. Vertical chimney drains or prefabricated
drainage mats can be used for normal situations to collect and transport drainage
to a weep hole or pipe located at the base of the wall. Installing horizontal drains to
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intercept the flow at a distance well behind the wall may control concentrated areas
of subsurface drainage (see Geotechnical Design Manual Chapter 15).
All reinforced concrete retaining walls shall have 3-inch diameter weepholes located
6 inches above final ground line and spaced about 12 feet apart. In case the vertical
distance between the top of the footing and final ground line is greater than 10 feet,
additional weepholes shall be provided 6 inches above the top of the footing. No
weepholes are necessary in cantilever wingwalls. See Figure 7.5.10-1.
Weepholes can get clogged up or freeze up, and the water pressure behind the
wall may start to increase. In order to keep the water pressure from building, it is
important to have well draining gravel backfill and underdrains. Appropriate details
must be shown in the Plans.
No underdrain pipe or gravel backfill for drains is necessary behind cantilever
wingwalls. A 3 foot minimum vertical layer of gravel backfill shall be placed behind
the cantilever wingwalls and shown in the Plans.
Backfill for wall, underdrain pipe and gravel backfill for drain are not included in
the bridge quantities. The size of the underdrain pipe should not be shown on the
bridge plans as this is a Design PE Office item and is subject to change during the
design phase. If it is necessary to excavate existing material for the backfill, then this
excavation shall be a part of the bridge quantities for “Structure Excavation Class A
Incl. Haul”.
D. Expansion, Contraction and Construction Joints
Odd panels for all types of walls shall normally be made up at the ends of the walls.
All expansion, contraction and construction joints shall be shown in the plan sheets
and are typically shown on the elevation.
1. Expansion Joints
For cast-in-place construction, a minimum of ½ inch premolded filler should be
specified in the expansion joints.
Precast concrete cantilever wall expansion joints shall be in accordance with the
Standard Specifications Section 6-11.3(3).
For cantilevered and gravity walls, expansion joint spacing in the wall stem
shall be a maximum of 60 feet on centers. For cantilevered and gravity walls
constructed with a traffic barrier attached to the top, expansion joint spacing
in the wall stem shall be consistent with the length determined to be adequate
distribution of the traffic collision loading.
For counterfort walls, expansion joint spacing in the wall stem shall be a
maximum of 32 feet on centers.
For soldier pile and soldier pile tieback walls with concrete fascia panels,
expansion joint spacing should be 24 to 32 feet on centers.
Expansion joints in footings shall align with the expansion joints in the wall stem
and shall be spaced at a maximum of 96 feet on centers. The expansion joint in
the footing shall have either sleeved dowels across the joint or a shear key as
described in Standard Specification Section 6-11.3(3).
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Expansion joints in footings shall be provided at the interface between the
retaining wall footing and the bridge abutments and where the substructure type
changes such as locations where spread footing to pile footing occurs. In these
cases, the footing shall be interrupted by a ½ inch premolded expansion joint
through both the footing and the wall. Expansion joints at these locations do not
require a shear key or sleeved dowels.
2. Contraction Joints
Contraction joints shall be spaced at a maximum of 30 feet for wall stems with
expansion joints spaced at intervals exceeding 32 feet.
3. Construction Joints
Construction joints are only permitted in the footing. The maximum spacing of
construction joints in the footing shall be 96 feet. The footing construction joints
should have a 6 inch minimum offset from the expansion or contraction joints in
the wall stem and footing.
E. Detailing of Standard Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls
1. In general, the “H” dimension shown in the retaining wall Plans should be in foot
increments. Use the actual design “H” reduced to the next lower even foot for
dimensions up to 3 inches higher than the even foot.
Examples: Actual height = 15′-3″, show “H” = 15′ on design plans
Actual height > 15′-3″, show “H” = 16′ on design plans
For walls that are not of a uniform height, “H” should be shown for each segment
of the wall between expansion joints or at some other convenient location. On
walls with a steep slope or vertical curve, it may be desirable to show 2 or 3
different “H” dimensions within a particular segment. The horizontal distance
should be shown between changes in the “H” dimensions.
The value for “H” shall be shown in a block in the center of the panel or segment.
See Example, Figure 8.1.10-1.
2. Follow the example format shown in Figure 8.1.10-1.
3. Calculate approximate quantities using the Standard Plans.
4. Wall dimensions shall be determined by the designer using the Standard Plans.
5. Do not show any details given in the Standard Plans.
6. Specify in the Plans all deviations from the Standard Plans.
7. Do not detail reinforcing steel, unless it deviates from the Standard Plans.
8. For pile footings, use the example format with revised footing sizes, detail any
additional steel, and show pile locations. Similar plan details are required for
footings supported by shafts.
F. Embankment Widening at End of Wall
The minimum clearances for the embankment at the ends of all wall types shall be as
indicated on Standard Plans A-50.10 through A-50.40.
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