AGR 201 Weed Management

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Theory

Unit I: Introduction to Weeds

Weeds: Introduction, Definitions; harmful and beneficial effects, classification,
propagation and dissemination; Weed biology and ecology, crop weed association,
crop weed competition and allelopathy.

Unit II: Methods of weed control

Concepts of weed prevention, control and eradication; Methods of weed control:
physical, cultural, chemical, biological and biotechnological methods. Integrated
weed management.

Unit III: Herbicides

Herbicides: advantages and limitation of herbicide usage in India, Herbicide
classification, formulations, methods of application; Introduction to Adjuvants and
their use in herbicides;

Unit IV: Selectivity, absorption and translocation

Introduction to selectivity of herbicides; Herbicide absorption and translocation;
Compatibility of herbicides with other agro chemicals

Unit V: Weed management

Weed management in major field and horticultural crops, shift of weed flora in
cropping systems, aquatic and problematic weeds and their control.

Practical
Identification of weeds; Survey of weeds in crop fields and other habitats;
Preparation of herbarium of weeds; Calculations on weed control efficiency and
weed index; Herbicide label information; Computation of herbicide doses; Study of
herbicide application equipment and calibration; Demonstration of methods of
herbicide application; Preparation of list of commonly available herbicides; Study of
phytotoxicity symptoms of herbicides in different crops; Biology of nut sedge,
bermuda grass, parthenium and celosia; Economics of weed control practices; Tours
and visits of problem areas.

Theory schedule
1. Weeds – Definition, classification and characteristics, harmful and beneficial effect of
weeds
2. Weed biology and ecological adaptation to different agro ecosystems
3. Classification and characteristics of weeds of different agro ecosystems-lowland weeds,
irrigated upland and rainfed land weeds
4. Classification and characteristics of weeds – Aquatic, parasitic and obnoxious weeds
5. Life cycle of weeds, weed migration, weed seed distribution, dormancy, germination,
establishment and perennation of weeds in different ecosystems.
6. Crop weed interactions - Critical crop weed competition, competitive and allelopathic
effects of weeds and crops.
7. Principles and methods of weed management: Preventive, cultural, mechanical
8. Principles and methods of weed management: chemical, biological and alternate methods
9. Mid Semester Examination
10. Classification and characteristics of herbicides and herbicide formulations – History and
Development
11. Herbicide Use Efficiency - Adjuvants, herbicide protectants and antidotes - Herbicide and
herbicide mixtures in India – Interaction with moisture, fertilizer and other agrochemicals
12. Mode of action of herbicides and their selectivity - Mechanism of action of herbicides
and their selectivity
13. Herbicide persistence and degradation in plants and soils-Herbicide residue and
management
14. Herbicide resistant weeds and their impact on weed management
15. Success of Herbicide Resistant Crops (HRC) in Indian and World agriculture
16. IWM in crops and cropping systems-Agricultural Crops, Horticultural Crops
17. Weed shift: Causes and management options for weed shift in crop production

Practical schedule
1. Identification, classification and characterization of terrestrial weeds
2. Identification, classification and characterization of Aquatic weeds
3. Identification, classification and characterization of problem and parasitic weeds
4. Weed survey and weed vegetation analysis- density, frequency, SDR and IVI
5. Study on biology of nut sedge, bermuda grass, Parthenium and Celosia;
6. Practicing Skill development on cultural and non chemical weed management
7. Identification, classification and characterization of herbicides
8. Practicing Skill development on herbicide application techniques
9. Practicing Skill development on spray equipment’s and spray fluid calibration
10. Practicing Skill development on herbicide weed management in lowland, upland and
rainfed ecosystems
11. Calculation of herbicide quantity and recommendation for different eco systems
12. Study on phytotoxicity symptoms of herbicides in different crops;
13. Visit to Problem and parasitic weed infestation areas/ herbicide industries
14. Herbicide residue determination by bioassay techniques
15. Herbicide residue determination by volumetric, spectro-photometric methods and
chromatographic methods
16. Economic analysis of different weed management methods in crops and cropping
systems
17. Final Practical Examination.

References
1. Gupta, O. P. 1998. Modern Weed Management. Agro Botanica Bikaner, India.
2. Jaganathan R., and R.Jayakumar. 2003. Weed Science Principles, Kalyani Publishers,
New Delhi.
3. Hance, R.J. and K. Holly. 1990. Weed Control Handbook: Principles. Blackwell
Scientific Publications, Oxford, London
4. Musselman, L. J. 1987. Parasitic Weeds in Agriculture. Vol. I. Striga. CRO Press Inc.
Florida, US.
5. Rao, V. S. 1983. Principles of Weed Science. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. New
Delhi.
6. Subramanian, S. A. Mohammed Ali and R. Jayakumar. 1991. All about Weed Control.
Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
 LECTURE I
WEEDS – Definition, Classification and Characteristics, harmful and beneficial effects of
Weeds
Definitions
Weed is a plant that originated under a natural environment and in response to imposed
and natural environments, evolved and continues to do so as an interfering associate with our
desired plant and activities.
Weed is a plant growing out of place. They are unwanted not useful, persistent and
prolific, effectively competing with the beneficial and desirable crop plants for space, nutrients,
sunlight, and water, interfere with agricultural operations and thereby reducing the yield and
quality of produce.
Weeds are unwanted and undeserved plants that interfere with the utilization of the land
and water resources and thus adversely affect crop production and human welfare. Thus a plant
out of its place or a plant growing where it is not desired is a weed. This definition was given
by Buchholtz in 1967. e.g. Bajra is a weed in pulse, Pulse is a weed Bajra, tomato is a weed in
Brinjal field.
Weeds are all types of undesirable plants i.e. sedges grass, broad leaved weeds,
aquatic plants, trees and parasitic flowering plants (Striga orobanche) affecting crop area and
non- crop area (industrial side, road side, railway line, water tank, irrigation channel etc.).
Weeds are unwanted, pernicious and harmful plants which interfere with agriculture
operations, increase labour, add to the cost of cultivation and reduce yield of crops. Weed has no
species. but name was suggested as a useless and harmful plant that persistently grows
where it is quite unwanted.
Weed is defined as the unwanted, undesirable plant growing out of their proper place
which interfere with the utilization of natural resources, prolific, persistent, competitive, harmful
and even poisonous in nature and can grow in adverse climatic conditions. ( Jethro Tull: father of
weed Science)
Weediness: Weediness is defined as the state or condition of a field, flower beds, lawns
and so forth in which there is an abundance of weeds.
Weeds are plants that are unwanted in a given situation and may be harmful, dangerous
or economically detrimental. Weeds are a serious threat to primary production and biodiversity.
They reduce farm and forest productivity, displace native species and contribute significantly to
land and water degradation. The costs of weeds to the natural environment are also high, with
weed invasion being ranked second only to habitat loss in causing biodiversity decline.
Despite considerable government and private sector investment, weed invasion still
represents a major threat to both the productive capacity of land and water and the integrity of
our natural ecosystems. An efficient weed control program can only be developed after the weed
has been properly identified. Weeds can be managed using many different methods. The most
effective management of weeds is usually achieved through collaboration and co-operation, in
partnerships between the community, land owners, agriculture, industry and the various levels of
government, using a combination of methods in conjunction with a thorough follow-up
campaign.
Weed management is an important component of plant protection improving the
production potential of crops. It includes management of the weeds in a way that the crop
sustains its production potential without being harmed by the weeds. Weed management is done
through the mechanical, cultural and chemical means. Use of biological control methods in field
crops is being considered, but still not much in use. Use of herbicides is an important method in
the modern concept of much in use. Use of herbicides is an important method in the modern
concept of weed-management technology. New hand-tools and implements have also been
designed to assist in wed-management programme.
Characteristics of weeds
1. Weeds have rapid seedling growth and ability to reproduce when young e.g. Redroot Pigweed
can flower and reproduce when it is less than eight inches tall.
2. Weeds have quick maturation period or takes only a short time in the vegetative phase e.g.
Canada thistle can produce mature seeds in two weeks after flowering. e.g. Russian thistle
seeds can germinate very quickly between 280 -110 0 F in late spring.
3. Weeds may have dual mode of reproduction. Most weeds are angiosperms & reproduce by
seeds. Many reproduce vegetatively too.
4. Weeds have environmental plasticity. Many weeds are capable of tolerating and growing
under a wide range of climatic and edaphic conditions.
5. Weeds are often self-compatible but self-pollination is not obligatory.
6. If a weed is cross pollinated, this is accomplished by non- specified flower visitors or by wind.
7. Weeds resist detrimental environmental factors (Most crop seed rot, if they do not germinate
shortly after planting) and weed seeds resist decay for long periods in soil and remain dormant
for longer duration.
8. Weed seeds exhibit several kinds of dormancy and escape the rigors of environment and
germinate when conditions are more favorable for their survival. Many weeds have no special
environment requirements for germination.
9. Weeds often produce seeds of same size and shape as the crop seed, making physical
separation difficult and facilitating spread by men.
10. Some annual weeds produce more than one seed crop per year and seed is produced as long
as growing conditions permit.
11. Each generation is capable of producing large number of seeds per plant and seed is
produced over a wide range of environmental conditions.
12. Many weeds have specially adapted long and short range seed dispersal mechanisms.
13. Roots of some weeds are able to penetrate and emerge from deep in the soil, while most roots
are in the upper foot of the soil; Canada thistle roots routinely penetrate 3-6 feet and field
bindweed roots upto 10 feet deep. Roots and rhizomes are capable of growing many feet per
year.
14. Roots and other vegetative parts of perennial weeds are vigorous with large food reserves,
enabling them to withstand environmental stress.
15. Perennials have bitterness in the lower stem nodes or in rhizomes and roots and, if
severed vegetative organs will quickly regenerate in to whole plant.
16. Many weeds have adaptation mechanism that repels grazing, such as spines, odd taste or
odour.
17. Weeds have great competitive ability for nutrients, light and water and can compete by
special means, (e.g. Rosette formation, climbing growth and allelopathy.)
18. Weeds are ubiquitous (present everywhere). They exist everywhere, where we practice
agriculture.
19. Weeds resist control, including herbicides.
Harmful effects of weeds
Weeds have serious impacts on agricultural production. It is estimated that in general weeds
cause 5% loss in agricultural production in most of developed countries, 10% loss in less
developed countries and 25% loss in least developed countries.
In India, yield losses due to weeds are more than those from pest and diseases. Yield losses
due to weeds vary with the crops. Every crop is exposed to severe competition from weeds. Most
of these weeds are self-sown and they provide competition caused by their faster rate of growth
in the initial stages of crop growth. In some crops, the yields are reduced by more than 50% due
to weed infestation. These loses caused by weeds in some of the important crops are given in the
following table.
Weeds compete with crops for water soil, nutrients, light, and space, and thus reduce the crop
yields. An estimate shows that weeds can deprive the crops 47% N, 42% P, 50% K, 39% Ca and
24% Mg of their nutrient uptake.
Weeds are also act as alternate hosts that harbor insects, pests and diseases and other micro-
organisms. Alternate hosts of some of the pest and diseases

Crop Pest Alternate host

Sweet potato Sweet potato weevil Convolvulus arvensis
Potato stalk borer, beetles and Chenopodium album
cutworms
Some weeds release into the soil inhibitors of poisonous substances that may be harmful
to the crop plants, human brings and livestock. Health problems caused by weeds to humans,

Health problem Weed

Hay fever and Asthma Pollen of ambrosia and Franseria
Dermotitis Parthenium, Ambrosia
Itching and Inflammation Utrica sp
African sleeping sickness Brush weeds
Malaria, encephaliltisand filaria caused by Aquatic weeds like Pistia lanceolate,
mosquito Salvinia auriculata
 Weeds reduce the quality of marketable agricultural produce. Cotamination of weed
seeds of datura, Argemone, Brassica etc., is harmful to human health and weed seeds present in
the produce cause odd odour sometimes.
Weeds not only reduce yield but also interfere with agricultural operations. Weeds make
mechanical sowing a difficult process and render harvesting difficult, leading to increased
expenditure on labour, equipment and chemicals for their removal.
In aquatic environment, weeds block the flow of water in canals, water-transport system
and drainage system, rendering navigation difficult. The dense growth of aquatic weeds pollutes
water by deoxygenating it and killing the fished.
Weeds are also a nuisance and a fire hazard along railway lines, roads, right-of- ways,
airports, forest and industrial sites.

Beneficial Effects
In spite of all the difficulties caused by weeds, they can offer some beneficial properties,
particularly when occurring at low densities. These aspects should be utilised in the farming
system, although this may make organic management more complicated than chemical based
systems. Some of the potential benefits of weeds are listed below:
Helping to conserve soil moisture and prevent erosion. A ground cover of weeds will
reduce the amount of bare soil exposed helping to conserve nutrients, particularly nitrogen which
could otherwise be leached away, especially on light soils.
Food and shelter can be provided for natural enemies of pests and even alternative food
sources for crop pests. The actual presence of weed cover may be a factor in increasing
effectiveness of biological control of pests and reducing pest damage.
Weeds can also be valuable indicators of growing conditions in a field, for example of
water levels, compaction and pH.
Weeds can be an important source of food for wildlife, especially birds. Bird populations
have been declining on farmland over the last few decades and leaving weeds as a resource has
been shown to help revive bird populations.
 LECTURE 2
WEED BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY
Weed biology
Weed biology is the study of the establishment, growth, reproduction, and life cycles of
weed species and weed societies/vegetation. Weed biology is an integrated science with the aim
of minimizing the negative effects, as well as using and developing the positive effects, of
weeds.
Life Cycle - Based on life cycle weeds are classified as annuals, biennials or perennials.
Annuals
Annuals complete their life cycle from seed in less than one year. There are two types:
summer and winter annuals. Summer annuals germinate in the spring, mature, produce flowers
and seeds and die before fall. Winter annuals germinate in the fall, overwinter in a seedling or
rosette stage, mature, produce flowers and seeds, and die in the spring or early summer. Because
of the seedling stage, annual weeds are generally easy to control. There are usually few annual
weeds present in lowbush blueberry fields.
Biennials
Biennials generally complete their life cycle over two years. The first year the seeds
germinate and form a basal cluster of leaves and a tap root. The plant overwinters in this stage.
During the second year the weed produces a flower stalk, sets seed and dies. Examples of
biennial weed are evening primrose and wild carrot.

Evening primerose Wild carrot

Perennials
Perennial weeds live for more than two years. These weeds are the most common in
blueberry fields and generally the most difficult to control. Perennial weeds may reproduce
primarily by seed (daisy); by both seed and roots (sheep sorrel); or primarily be vegetative means
(bunchberry). Many perennial weeds grow in the same manner as the blueberry plant. Therefore,
many of the production practices that promote blueberry growth (e.g. pruning) also promote
growth of these weeds. Perennials which are low growing and spread vegetatively by
interconnected underground root systems are the most difficult to control. Perennial weeds
growing above the blueberries may be controlled by wiping or spot treatments with registered
herbicides. Perennial weeds include both woody and herbaceous species.

Growth Characters – Based on growth characters weeds are classified as grasses, broadleaf
weeds, ferns and herbaceous or woody weeds.

Broadleaf
Broadleaf weeds are annual, biennial or perennial plants which generally have two leaves
(cotyledons) emerging upon germination. The leaves normally have a branching network of
veins and the flowers have distinct petals.

Grasses, Sedges and Rushes

Grasses can be annual or perennial plants. They generally have narrow, upright, parallel-
veined leaves. Grasses have jointed stems, usually hollow at the internodes and are circular in
cross section.
Sedges are a large group of perennial (rarely annual) grass-like plants which are common
in wet, poorly drained soils. Sedge stems are triangular in cross section, solid, and not jointed.
Rushes are annual or perennial plants similar in appearance to sedges with grass-like
tufted leaves common at the plant base. Rush stems are hollow, circular in cross section, and not
jointed. Like the sedge, this plant is also common in wet areas or poorly drained soil, but is also
found in woodland and open fields.
Ferns
Ferns are primitive perennial plants that do not produce flowers and seeds.
Ferns consist of a leaf or frond, a stalk and an expanded blade which may then be
further subdivided several times. Ferns spread by long creeping rhizomes and/or
by spores.

Fern plant Fern spores

Reproductive Strategy – Based on reproductive strategy weeds are classified as seed,

vegetative reproduction.
Reproduction by seed
Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction. It requires the fertilization of an egg
by sperm, usually in the form of pollen. Pollination of the egg in a flower results in seed that is
capable of producing a new plant. Seed production varies greatly among and within weed species
in part due to environmental variability between years, competition from neighboring plants, and
genetic variability.
Through sexual reproduction abundant and small seeds are produced. Annual and
biennial weeds depend on seed production, as the sole means of propagation and survival of
perennial weeds are less dependent on this mechanism. For example, while Canada thistle has
been observed to produce as few as 680 seeds per plant, curly dock often produces more than
30,000 seeds per plant.

The seed production capacity of some of the weeds is

Ontogeny Seeds/plant Name of weed/crop Seeds/plant

Perennials 16,629 Amaranthus retroflexus 1,96,405
Biennials 26,600 Solanum nigrum 1,78,000
Annuals 20,832 Chenopodium album 72,000
Trianthema portulacastrum 52,000
Wheat & Rice 90 to 100

A few weeds may produce seed through apomixis i.e without fertilization. Eg. Ferns
reproduce by spores.

Vegetative Reproduction
In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new plant develops from a vegetative organ such
as a stem, root, or leaf. Several modifications of these organs are common in perennial weeds,
such as underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground stems (stolons), bulbs, corms, and tubers.
Although vegetative structures generally do not survive as long in the soil as do seeds, very small
structures can result in a new plant. Vegetative reproduction can be as prolific as seed
production.

Weed Ecology
Weed ecology is the study of the interaction or relationship between a weed and its
environment (other living organisms as well as abiotic factors). Ecology is concerned with
growth characteristics and adaptations that enable weeds to survive the change in the
environment. Man plays an important role in changing the environment by altering the crop
husbandry practices and by maintaining weed free monocrop or multicrop culture. For effective
weed control, the study on both biology and ecology of a weed species are important.
The weed seed bank and seed dormancy
Not only can weed seed and vegetative tissue travel great distances to infest new fields,
but once in the soil, weed seed can remain viable for many years. In any given location, the weed
seedbank contains a vast library of weed species and ecotypes that are adapted to a great range of
environmental conditions and are ready to germinate given the proper signal. A study reported
that a square foot of soil, 6 inches deep, contained from 98 to 3,068 viable weed seeds. This
represents between 4.3 million and 133 million viable seeds per acre.
The amount of time that a seed is capable of producing a seedling, or its viability, varies
with weed species. In the extreme, lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) seeds found in a Manchurian
lakebed were viable after 1,000 years. More commonly, the annual plant jimsonweed (Datura
stramonium) has over a 90 percent germination rate after 40 years in the soil.
 Additionally, many weed seeds remain dormant in the soil until the conditions for
germination and survival are appropriate for that particular seed. Dormancy is the seed's resting
stage and is the primary method of weed seed dispersal in time. Some weed seeds have seed
coats that are impermeable to water and/or oxygen or are mechanically resistant. Others contain
immature embryos or have a waiting period (called after-ripening) that must be completed before
the seed will germinate. Seed dormancy is affected by environmental conditions, including
temperature, light, oxygen, and the presence of chemical inhibitors.

Seed dormancy as survival mechanism

Weed seeds possess a variety of special germination mechanisms adapted to changes in
temperature, moisture, aeration, exposure to light, depth of burial of seeds etc., when conditions
are unfavourable for germination, they can remain dormant or delay germination.

Conditions favourable for weeds seed germination are

 Seeds of many weeds require an exposure to light for germination. This is regulated by
bluish-green protein pigment called phytochrome.
 Many weed seeds germinate under aerobic conditions while some require anaerobic
condition. Soil turnover during ploughing and other operations exposes the seeds to light
and induces germination.
 Periodicity of germination is another specialised germination mechanism. Amaranths spp
have a definite pattern of peaks of germination at regular intervals.
 Summer annuals favour higher temperature & winter annuals germinate at lower
temperatures some weeds germinate freely throughout the year.

Seed Dormancy: Dormancy is a state of seeds and buds in which they are alive but not
germinated. If all weed seeds were to germinate at one time, their seedlings could be destroyed.
Dormancy allows storage of millions of weed seeds in soil and enables them to grow in flushes
over years. In this context, the old gardeners saying “One year Seeding seven years Weeding” is
very appropriate. In fact, weed seeds have been found viable even after 20-80 years of burial in
soil. Weed seeds exhibit three types of dormancy.

(1) Enforced Dormancy : It is due to deep placement of weed seeds in soil during ploughing of
the field. Weed seeds germinate readily when they are restored to top 3 to 5 cm. Enforced
Dormancy is a non-specific character of seed. Cultivation encounters enforced dormancy by
bringing the weeds to surface where they are exposed to light besides better aeration. High soil
temperature and NO3 content of surface soil may further help in breaking seed dormancy.

(2) Innate dormancy: It is a genetically controlled character and it is a feature of specific weed
seeds which fail to germinate even if they are present in the top 3-5cm soil and adequate soil
moisture and temperature provided to them. The possible reasons are the presence of
(i) Hard seed coats e.g., Setaria, Ipomoea, Xanthium spp.
(ii) Immature embryos e.g., Polygonum
In certain weed seeds particularly of Xerophyttic origin, presence of inhibitors is
responsible for innate dormancy. It can be overcome with passage of time, or under the
influence of some climatic pressure.
(3) Induced Dormancy: Induced dormancy results from some sudden physiological change in
normally non-dormant weed seeds under the impact of marked rise in temperature and or CO 2
content of soil, low O2 pressure, water logging etc.
Wild oat (Avena fatua) seeds exhibit all three kinds of dormancy.

Persistence of weeds (Adaptation)

Persistence is an adaptive potential of a weed that enables it to grow in any environment.
In an agricultural situation, the cropping system with its (associated habitat) management
practices, determines the persistence of weed species. It is largely influenced by climatic,
edaphic (soil) and biotic factors, which affect its occurrence, abundance, range and distribution.

Factors Affecting Persistence

A. Climatic factors
The important climatic factors are light, temperature, rainfall, wind and humidity.
Light:
Light intensity, quality and duration are important in influencing the germination, growth,
reproduction and distribution of weeds. Photoperiod governs flowering time, seed setting and
maturation and on the evolution of various ecotypes within a weed species. Tolerance to shading
is a major adaptation that enables weeds to persist.
Temperature:
Temperature of atmosphere and soil affects the latitudinal and longitudinal distribution of
weeds. Soil temperature affects seed germination and dormancy, which is a major survival
mechanism of weeds.
Rainfall:
Rainfall has a significant effect on weed persistence and distribution. More rainfall or less
rainfall determines reproduction & survival.
Wind:
Wind is a principal factor in the dissemination of weeds.
Climate can effect variations in cuticle development, pubescence, vegetative growth,
vigour, competitiveness etc. Climate thus has a profound effect on the persistence of weeds
which can adapt to a wide variety of climates.

B. Soil factors:
Soil factors are soil water, aeration, temperature, pH and fertility level and cropping
system. Some weed species are characteristically alkali plants, known as basophilic (pH 8.5)
which can grow well in alkali soils and those grow in acidic soil is known as Acidophiles.
Basophiles Acidophiles Neutophiles
Alkaligrass – Puccinalia spp. Cynodon dactylon common weed
Quack grass – Agrophyron repens Digitaria sanguinalis
Several weed species of compositae family grow well in saline soils. A shift in soil pH,
towards acid side due to continuous use of Ammonium sulphate as a ‘N’ source could cause a
shift in the weed spectrum.
Many weeds can grow well in soils of low fertility level however, can adapt well to soils
of high fertility also. Weeds also has adaptation to moist soil, drought condition etc.
C. Biotic factors: In a cropping situation, the major effects on weeds are those exerted by the
crop as it competes for available resources. Once, a particular weed species is introduced, its
persistence is determined by the degree of competition offered by the crop and also the
agricultural practices associated with the growing of a crop may encourage or discourage
specific weeds.
Eg. Ponding of water – Cynodon dies
Repeated cultivation – discourage nut sedge.
Crops that serve as hosts to parasitic weeds, (Sorghum – Striga) crop-induced stimulants
are examples of other biotic factors.
 LECTURE 3

CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WEEDS OF DIFERENT AGRO

ECOSYSYTEMS LOWLWND, IRRIGATED UPLAND AND RAINFED LAND WEEDS

Out of 2, 50,000 plant species, weeds constitute about 250 species, which are prominent
in agricultural and non-agricultural system. Under world conditions about 30000 species is
grouped as weeds.

I. Based on life span

Based on life span (Ontogeny), weeds are classified as Annual weeds, Biennial weeds
and Perennial weeds.
a. Annual Weeds
Weeds that live only for a season or a year and complete their life cycle in that season or
year are called as annual weeds.
These are small herbs with shallow roots and weak stem. Produces seeds in profusion
and the mode of propagation is commonly through seeds. After seeding the annuals die away
and the seeds germinate and start the next generation in the next season or year following.
Most common field weeds are annuals. The examples are
a. Monsoon annual
Commelina benghalensis, Boerhavia erecta
b. Winter annual
Chenopodium album

Commelina benghalensis Boerhavia erecta Chenopodium album

b. Biennials
It completes the vegetative growth in the first season, flower and set seeds in the
succeeding season and then dies. These are found mainly in non-cropped areas.
Eg. Alternanthera echinata, Daucus carota

(c) Perennials
Perennials live for more than two years and may live almost indefinitely. They adapted
to withstand adverse conditions. They propagate not only through seeds but also by underground
stem, root, rhizomes, tubers etc. And hence they are further classified into
i. Simple perennials: Plants propagated only by seeds. Eg. Sonchus arvensis
ii. Bulbous perennials: Plants which possess a modified stem with scales and reproduce mainly
from bulbs and seeds. Eg. Allium sp.
iii. Corm perennials: Plants that possess a modified shoot and fleshy stem and reproduce through
corm and seeds. Eg. Timothy (Phleum pratense)

Phleum pratense
Sonchus arvensis

iv. Creeping perennials: Reproduced through seeds as well as with one of the following.
a. Rhizome: Plants having underground stem – Sorghum halapense
b. Stolon: Plants having horizontal creeping stem above the ground – Cynodon dactylon

Sorghum halapense Cynodon dactylon

c. Roots: Plants having enlarged root system with numerous buds – Convolvulus arvensis
d. Tubers: Plants having modified rhizomes adapted for storage of food – Cyperus rotundus
 Convolvulus arvensis Cyperus rotundus

II. Based on ecological affinities

a. Wetland weeds
They are tender annuals with semi-aquatic habit. They can thrive as well under
waterlogged and in partially dry condition. Propagation is chiefly by seed. Eg. Ammania
baccifera, Eclipta alba

Ammania baccifera Eclipta alba

b. Garden land weeds (Irrigated lands)

These weeds neither require large quantities of water like wetland weeds nor can they
successfully withstand extreme drought as dryland weeds. Eg.Trianthema portulacastrum,
Digera arvensis
 Trianthema portulacastrum Digera arvensis

c. Dry lands weeds

These are usually hardy plants with deep root system. They are adapted to withstand
drought on account of mucilaginous nature of the stem and hairiness. Eg. Tribulus terrestris,
Argemone mexicana.

Tribulus terrestris Argemone mexicana

III. Based on soil type (Edaphic)

(a) Weeds of black cotton soil: These are often closely allied to those that grow in dry
condition. Eg., Aristolochia bracteata
(b) Weeds of red soils: They are like the weeds of garden lands consisting of various classes of
plants. Eg. Commelina benghalensis
(c) Weeds of light, sandy or loamy soils: Weeds that occur in soils having good drainage. Eg.
Leucas aspera
(d) Weeds of laterite soils: Eg. Lantana camara, Spergula arvensis
 Aristolochia bracteata Leucas aspera

Lantana camara Spergula arvensis

IV. Based on place of occurrence

(a) Weeds of crop lands: The majority of weeds infests the cultivated lands and cause hindrance
to the farmers for successful crop production. Eg. Phalaris minor in wheat
 (b) Weeds of pasture lands: Weeds found in
pasture / grazing grounds. Eg. Indigofera
enneaphylla

Indigofera enneaphylla

Phalaris minor

(c) Weeds of waste places: Corners of fields, margins of channels etc., where weeds grow in
profusion. Eg. Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Calotropis gigantea

Gynandropsis pentaphylla Calotropis gigantea

(d) Weeds of playgrounds, road-sides: They are usually hardy, prostrate perennials, capable of
withstanding any amount of trampling. Eg. Alternanthera echinata, Tribulus terestris

V. Based on Origin
(a) Indigenous weeds: All the native weeds of the country are coming under this group and
most of the weeds are indigenous. Eg. Acalypha indica, Abutilon indicum
 Acalypha indica Abutilon indicum

(b) Introduced or Exotic weeds: These are the weeds introduced from other countries. These
weeds are normally troublesome and control becomes difficult. Eg., Parthenium
hysterophorus, Phalaris minor, Acanthospermum hispidum

Parthenium hysterophorus Acanthospermum hispidum

VI. Based on cotyledon number
Based on number of cotyledons it possess it can be classified as dicots and monocots.
(a) Monocots Eg. Panicum flavidum, Echinochloa colona
(b) Dicots Eg. Crotalaria verucosa, Indigofera viscosa
 Echinochloa colona Crotalaria verucosa

VII. Based on soil pH

Based on pH of the soil the weeds can be classified into three categories.
(a) Acidophile – Acid soil weeds eg. Rumex acetosella
(b) Basophile – Saline & alkaline soil weeds eg. Taraxacum sp.
(c) Neutrophile – Weeds of neutral soils eg Acalypha indica

Rumex acetosella Taraxacum sp.

VIII. Based on morphology
Based on the morphology of the plant, the weeds are also classified in to three
categories. This is the most widely used classification by the weed scientists.
(a) Grasses: All the weeds come under the family Poaceae are called as grasses which are
characteristically having long narrow spiny leaves. The examples are Echinocloa colonum,
Cynodon dactylon.
(b) Sedges: The weeds belonging to the family Cyperaceae come under this group. The leaves
are mostly from the base having modified stem with or without tubers. The examples are
Cyperus rotundus, Fimbrystylis miliaceae.
(c) Broad leaved weeds: This is the major group of weeds as all other family weeds come under
this except that is discussed earlier. All dicotyledon weeds are broad leaved weeds. The
examples are Flavaria australacica, Digera arvensis, Tridax procumbens

Cynodon Cyperus Tridax

dactylon rotundus procumbens

IX. Based on nature of stem

Based on development of bark tissues on their stems and branches, weeds are classified as
woody, semi-woody and herbaceous species.
(a) Woody weeds: Weeds include shrubs and undershrubs and are collectively called brush
weeds. Eg. Lantana camera, Prosopis juliflora
(b) Semi-woody weeds: eg.Croton sparsiflorus
(c) Herbaceous weeds: Weeds have green, succulent stems are of most common occurrence
around us. Eg. Amaranthus viridis

Prosopis juliflora Croton Amaranthus

sparsiflorus viridis
 LECTURE 4
Classification and Characteristic of Weeds – Aquatic, Parasitic & Obnoxious Weeds

X. Based on specificity
Besides the various classes of weeds, a few others deserve special attention due to their
specificity. They are, a. Poisonous weeds, b. Parasitic weeds and c. Aquatic weeds.
a. Poisonous weeds
The poisonous weeds cause ailment on livestock resulting in death and cause great loss.
These weeds are harvested along with fodder or grass and fed to cattle or while grazing the cattle
consume these poisonous plants. Eg. Datura fastuosa, D. stramonium and D. metel are poisonous
to animals and human beings. The berries of Withania somnifera and seeds of Abrus precatorius
are poisonous.

Datura metel Withania Abrus

somnifera precatorius

b. Parasitic weeds
The parasite weeds are either total or partial which means, the weeds that depend
completely on the host plant are termed as total parasites while the weeds that partially depend
on host plant for minerals and capable of preparing its food from the green leaves are called as
partial parasites. Those parasites which attack roots are termed as root parasites and those which
attack shoot of other plants are called as stem parasites. The typical examples are;
1. Total root parasite – Orabanche cernua on Tobacco
2. Partial root parasite - Striga lutea on sugarcane and sorghum
 Orabanche cernua on Tobacco

Striga lutea on sorghum

3. Total stem parasite - Cuscuta chinensis on leucerne and onion

4. Partial stem parasite - Cassytha filiformis on orange trees and Loranthus longiflorus on
mango and other trees.

Cuscuta chinensis Loranthus longiflorus on

mango
c. Aquatic weeds:
Unwanted plants, which grow in water and complete at least a part of their life cycle in water
are called as aquatic weeds. They are further grouped into four categories as submersed,
emersed, marginal and floating weeds.
1. Submersed weeds: These weeds are mostly vascular plants that produce all or most of their
vegetative growth beneath the water surface, having true roots, stems and leaves. Eg.
Utricularia stellaris, Ceratophyllum demersum.
 Utricularia stellaris Ceratophyllum demersum

2. Emersed weeds: These plants are rooted in the bottom mud, with aerial stems and leaves at
or above the water surface. The leaves are broad in many plants and sometimes like grasses.
These leaves do not rise and fall with water level as in the case of floating weeds. Eg.
Nelumbium speciosum, Jussieua repens.

Nelumbium speciosum Jussieua repens

3. Marginal weeds: Most of these plants are emersed weeds that can grow in moist shoreline
areas with a depth of 60 to 90 cm water. These weeds vary in size, shape and habitat. The
important genera that comes under this group are; Typha, Polygonum, Cephalanthus,
Scirpus, etc.
 Typha sp. Polygonum sp.
4. Floating weeds: These weeds have leaves that float on the water surface either singly or in
cluster. Some weeds are free floating and some rooted at the mud bottom and the leaves rise
and fall as the water level increases or decreases. Eg. Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes,
Salvinia, Nymphaea pubescens.

Eichhornia crassipes Salvinia sp.

 LECTURE 5
PROPAGATION, MIGRATION, DISTRIBUTION, DORMANCY, GERMINATION,
ESTABLISHMENT AND PERENNATION

PROPAGATION OF WEED SEEDS

PROPAGATION
Propagation is the process of multiplying or increasing the number of plants of the
same species and at the same time perpetuating their desirable characteristics. Plants may be
propagated under two general categories: sexual and asexual propagation.
Reproduction by seed
Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction. It requires pollination and
fertilization of an egg which results in seed that is capable of producing a new plant. Seed
production varies greatly among and within weed species in part due to environmental variability
between years, competition from neighboring plants, and genetic variability. For example, while
Canada thistle has been observed to produce as few as 680 seeds per plant, Curly dock often
produces more than 30,000 seeds per plant.
Canada thistle

Vegetative reproduction
In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new plant develops from a vegetative organ such
as a stem, root, or leaf. Several modifications of these organs are common in perennial weeds,
such as underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground stems (stolons), bulbs, corms, and tubers.
Although vegetative structures generally do not survive as long in the soil as do seeds, very small
structures can result in a new plant. Canada thistle, for example, can produce a new plant from as
small as a 1/4-inch section of root.
Vegetative reproduction can be as prolific as seed production. Yellow nut-sedge
(Cyperus esculentus) has been reported to produce more than 1,900 new plants and more than
6,800 tubers in 1 year.
Cyperus esculentus - tubers
1. Rhizome: A horizontal, underground stem which can produce adventitious roots and shoots
(i.e., new plants) at the nodes. A rhizome can be distinguished from a root because rhizomes
have nodes, internodes, and scale leaves (rudimentary leaves). Roots do not have nodes or
leaves. Johnson grass is example.
2. Stolen: An above-ground stem that grows flat on the ground and can produce adventitious
roots and shoots (i.e., new plants) at the nodes. Bermuda grass is example.
3. Tuber: Enlarged terminal portion of rhizomes. Possess extensive storage tissues and axillary
buds. Yellow nut sedge is example.
4. Bulb: Specialized underground storage organ consisting of fleshy leaves with a short stem at
the base. Food storage in the leaves. Wild garlic is example.
5. Creeping roots: Horizontal roots modified for food storage and vegetative reproduction (can
give rise to shoots). Often deep in the soil. Carolina horse nettle is example.

DISSEMINATION / DISPERSAL OF WEEDS

A plant seed is a unique genetic entity, a biological individual. However, a seed is in a

diapause state, an essentially dormant condition, awaiting the ecological conditions that will
allow it to grow into an adult plant, and produce its own seeds. Seeds must therefore germinate
in a safe place, and then establish themselves as a young seedling, develop into a juvenile plant,
and finally become a sexually mature adult that can pass its genetic material on to the next
generation.
The chances of a seed developing are generally enhanced if there is a mechanism for
dispersing to an appropriate habitat some distance from the parent plant. The reason for dispersal
is that closely related organisms have similar ecological requirements. Obviously, competition
with the parent plant will be greatly reduced if its seeds have a mechanism to disperse some
distance away. Their ability to spread and remain viable in the soil for years makes eradication
nearly impossible.
Seeds have no way to move on their own, but they are excellent travelers. Plants have
evolved various mechanisms that disperse their seeds effectively. Many species of plants have
seeds with anatomical structures that make them very buoyant, so they can be dispersed over
great distances by the winds. In the absence of proper means of their dispersal, weeds could not
have moved from one country to another. An effective dispersal of weed seeds and fruits requires
two essentials a successful dispersing agent and an effective adaptation to the new environment.

There are two ways of looking at weed seed dispersal,

 the expanding range and increasing population size of an invading weed species into a
new area
 the part of the process by which an established and stabilized weed species in an area
maintains itself within that area
Dissemenation includes two separate processes. They are Dispersal (leaving mother plant)
and Post-dispersal events (subsequent movement). Dispersal of seed occurs in 4 dimensions viz.
1. Length and
2. Width : Land/habitat/soil surface area phenomena
3. Height (soil depth, in the air)
4. Time: shatters immediately after ripening (or) need harvesting activity to release
seed
Common weed dispersal agents are Wind, Water, Animals, Human, Machinery, etc.

(a) Wind
Many seeds are well adapted to wind travel. Cottony coverings and parachute-like
structures allow seeds to float with the wind. Examples of wind-dispersed seeds include common
milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), common dandelion, Canada thistle, and perennial sowthistle
(Sonchus arvensis). Weed seeds and fruits that disseminate through wind possess special organs
to keep them afloat. Such organs are
1. Pappus – It is a parachute like modification of persistent calyx into hairs.
Eg. Asteraceae family weeds - Tridax procumbens

Tridax procumbens Pappus seed

2. Comose - Some weed seeds are covered with hairs, partially or fully Eg. Calotropis sp.
3. Feathery, persistent styles - Styles are persistent and feathery Eg. Anemone sp.

4. Baloon - Modified papery calyx that encloses the fruits loosely along with entrapped air. Eg.
Physalis minima
5. Wings - One or more appendages that act as wings. Eg. Acer macrophyllum

Factors that influence wind dispersal:

a. seed weight
b. seed shape
c. structures (wings or pappus)
d. height of release
e. wind speed and turbulence
(b) Water
Aquatic weeds disperse largely through water. They may drift either as whole plants,
plant fragments or as seeds with the water currents. Terrestrial weed seeds also disperse through
irrigation and drainage water.Weed seed often moves with surface water runoff into irrigation
water and ponds, where it is carried to other fields. Weeds growing in ditch banks along
irrigation canals and ponds are the major source of weed seed contamination of irrigation water.
Weed seed often remains viable in water for several years, creating a "floating seedbank"
and allowing weeds to disperse over large areas in moving water. Field bindweed seed, for
example, remains over 50 percent viable after being submerged in water for more than 4 years.
Some seeds have special adaptations that aid in water travel. The seedpod of curly dock, for
example, is equipped with pontoons that carry the floating seed.

Curly dock

Plant Mature seed

Seed

(c) Animals
Several weed species produce seeds with barbs, hooks, spines, and rasps that cling to the
fur of animals or to clothing and then can be dispersed long distances. Farm animals carry weed
seeds and fruits on their skin, hair and hooves. This is aided by special appendages such as
Hooks (Xanthium strumarium), Stiff hairs (Cenchrus spp), Sharp spines (Tribulus terrestris) and
Scarious bracts (Achyranthus aspera). Even ants carry a huge number of weed seeds. Donkeys
eat Prosophis julifera pods.

Xanthium strumarium - hook Cenchrus spp - stiff hair Tribulus terrestris - spines

Weed seed often is ingested and passed through the digestive tracts of animals. Animal
droppings provide an ideal nutrient and moisture environment for weed germination. While only
a small percentage of the seed remains viable after exposure to an animal's digestive enzymes.
The ingested weed seeds are passed in viable form with animal excreta (0.2% in chicks, 9.6% in
calves, 8.7% in horses and 6.4% in sheep), which is dropped wherever the animal moves. This
mechanism of weed dispersal in called endozoochory. Eg., Lantana seeds by birds. Loranthus
seeds stick on beaks of birds. Viable weed seeds are present in the dung of farm animals, which
forms part of the FYM. Besides, addition of mature weeds to compost pit as farm waste also act
as source.
(d) Dispersal by Man
Man disperses numerous weed seeds and fruits with raw agricultural produce. Weeds
mature at the same time and height along with crop, due to their similar size and shape as that of
crop seed man unknowingly harvest the weeds also, and aids in dispersal of weed seeds. Such
weeds are called “Satellite weeds” Eg. Avena fatua, Phalaris minor.

Avena fatua Phalaris minor

(e) Dispersal by machinery

Weed seeds often are dispersed by tillage and harvesting equipment. Seeds move from
field to field on the soil that sticks to tractor tires, and vegetative structures often travel on tillage
and cultivation equipment and latter dropping them in other fields to start new infestation. Disc-
type cultivation equipment is less likely to drag vegetative plant parts than are shovels or sweeps.

(f) Intercontinental movement of weeds:

Introduction of weeds from one continent to another through is through crop seed, feed
stock, packing material and nursery stock. Eg. Parthenium hysterophorus

(g) Crop mimicry dispersal

Weed seed adaptations to look like crop seed: plant body or seed same size, shape, and
morphology as crop. Eg: barnyard grass biotype looking like rice escapes hand weeding and is
dispersed with rice, nightshade fruit ("berries") same size, shape as dry beans, harvested and
dispersed with beans.

(h) As admixtures with crop seed, animal feed, hay, and straw
Weeds probably are spread more commonly during the seeding of a new crop or in animal feed
and bedding than by any other method. Seed labels often indicate a tiny percentage of weed
seed, but consider this example. If a legume seed contains 0.001 percent dodder (a parasitic
annual; Cuscuta campestris) seed by weight, there will be eight dodder seeds per 2 kg of legume
seed. If the legume seed is sown in a field despite an extremely low dodder seed percentage by
weight, the small size of the seed, combined with rapid early-season growth, could result in an
infested legume field within a single season.
Reproductive Strategy – Based on reproductive strategy weeds are classified as seed,
vegetative reproduction.
Reproduction by seed
Reproduction by seed is called sexual reproduction. It requires the fertilization of an egg
by sperm, usually in the form of pollen. Pollination of the egg in a flower results in seed that is
capable of producing a new plant. Seed production varies greatly among and within weed species
in part due to environmental variability between years, competition from neighboring plants, and
genetic variability.
Through sexual reproduction abundant and small seeds are produced. Annual and
biennial weeds depend on seed production, as the sole means of propagation and survival of
perennial weeds are less dependent on this mechanism. For example, while Canada thistle has
been observed to produce as few as 680 seeds per plant, curly dock often produces more than
30,000 seeds per plant.

The seed production capacity of some of the weeds is

Ontogeny Seeds/plant Name of weed/crop Seeds/plant

Perennials 16,629 Amaranthus retroflexus 1,96,405
Biennials 26,600 Solanum nigrum 1,78,000
Annuals 20,832 Chenopodium album 72,000
Trianthema portulacastrum 52,000
Wheat & Rice 90 to 100

A few weeds may produce seed through apomixis i.e without fertilization. Eg. Ferns
reproduce by spores.

Vegetative Reproduction
In vegetative (asexual) reproduction, a new plant develops from a vegetative organ such
as a stem, root, or leaf. Several modifications of these organs are common in perennial weeds,
such as underground stems (rhizomes), above-ground stems (stolons), bulbs, corms, and tubers.
Although vegetative structures generally do not survive as long in the soil as do seeds, very small
structures can result in a new plant. Vegetative reproduction can be as prolific as seed
production.

Weed Ecology
Weed ecology is the study of the interaction or relationship between a weed and its
environment (other living organisms as well as abiotic factors). Ecology is concerned with
growth characteristics and adaptations that enable weeds to survive the change in the
environment. Man plays an important role in changing the environment by altering the crop
husbandry practices and by maintaining weed free monocrop or multicrop culture. For effective
weed control, the study on both biology and ecology of a weed species are important.
The weed seed bank and seed dormancy
Not only can weed seed and vegetative tissue travel great distances to infest new fields,
but once in the soil, weed seed can remain viable for many years. In any given location, the weed
seedbank contains a vast library of weed species and ecotypes that are adapted to a great range of
environmental conditions and are ready to germinate given the proper signal. A study reported
that a square foot of soil, 6 inches deep, contained from 98 to 3,068 viable weed seeds. This
represents between 4.3 million and 133 million viable seeds per acre.
The amount of time that a seed is capable of producing a seedling, or its viability, varies
with weed species. In the extreme, lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) seeds found in a Manchurian
lakebed were viable after 1,000 years. More commonly, the annual plant jimsonweed (Datura
stramonium) has over a 90 percent germination rate after 40 years in the soil.
Additionally, many weed seeds remain dormant in the soil until the conditions for
germination and survival are appropriate for that particular seed. Dormancy is the seed's resting
stage and is the primary method of weed seed dispersal in time. Some weed seeds have seed
coats that are impermeable to water and/or oxygen or are mechanically resistant. Others contain
immature embryos or have a waiting period (called after-ripening) that must be completed before
the seed will germinate. Seed dormancy is affected by environmental conditions, including
temperature, light, oxygen, and the presence of chemical inhibitors.

Seed dormancy as survival mechanism

Weed seeds possess a variety of special germination mechanisms adapted to changes in
temperature, moisture, aeration, exposure to light, depth of burial of seeds etc., when conditions
are unfavourable for germination, they can remain dormant or delay germination.

Conditions favourable for weeds seed germination are

 Seeds of many weeds require an exposure to light for germination. This is regulated by
bluish-green protein pigment called phytochrome.
 Many weed seeds germinate under aerobic conditions while some require anaerobic
condition. Soil turnover during ploughing and other operations exposes the seeds to light
and induces germination.
 Periodicity of germination is another specialised germination mechanism. Amaranths spp
have a definite pattern of peaks of germination at regular intervals.
 Summer annuals favour higher temperature & winter annuals germinate at lower
temperatures some weeds germinate freely throughout the year.

Seed Dormancy: Dormancy is a state of seeds and buds in which they are alive but not
germinated. If all weed seeds were to germinate at one time, their seedlings could be destroyed.
Dormancy allows storage of millions of weed seeds in soil and enables them to grow in flushes
over years. In this context, the old gardeners saying “One year Seeding seven years Weeding” is
very appropriate. In fact, weed seeds have been found viable even after 20-80 years of burial in
soil. Weed seeds exhibit three types of dormancy.

(1) Enforced Dormancy : It is due to deep placement of weed seeds in soil during ploughing of
the field. Weed seeds germinate readily when they are restored to top 3 to 5 cm. Enforced
Dormancy is a non-specific character of seed. Cultivation encounters enforced dormancy by
bringing the weeds to surface where they are exposed to light besides better aeration. High soil
temperature and NO3 content of surface soil may further help in breaking seed dormancy.

(2) Innate dormancy: It is a genetically controlled character and it is a feature of specific weed
seeds which fail to germinate even if they are present in the top 3-5cm soil and adequate soil
moisture and temperature provided to them. The possible reasons are the presence of
(i) Hard seed coats e.g., Setaria, Ipomoea, Xanthium spp.
(ii) Immature embryos e.g., Polygonum
In certain weed seeds particularly of Xerophyttic origin, presence of inhibitors is
responsible for innate dormancy. It can be overcome with passage of time, or under the
influence of some climatic pressure.

(3) Induced Dormancy: Induced dormancy results from some sudden physiological change in
normally non-dormant weed seeds under the impact of marked rise in temperature and or CO 2
content of soil, low O2 pressure, water logging etc.
Wild oat (Avena fatua) seeds exhibit all three kinds of dormancy.

Persistence of weeds (Adaptation)

Persistence is an adaptive potential of a weed that enables it to grow in any environment.
In an agricultural situation, the cropping system with its (associated habitat) management
practices, determines the persistence of weed species. It is largely influenced by climatic,
edaphic (soil) and biotic factors, which affect its occurrence, abundance, range and distribution.

Factors Affecting Persistence

A. Climatic factors
The important climatic factors are light, temperature, rainfall, wind and humidity.
Light:
Light intensity, quality and duration are important in influencing the germination, growth,
reproduction and distribution of weeds. Photoperiod governs flowering time, seed setting and
maturation and on the evolution of various ecotypes within a weed species. Tolerance to shading
is a major adaptation that enables weeds to persist.
Temperature:
Temperature of atmosphere and soil affects the latitudinal and longitudinal distribution of
weeds. Soil temperature affects seed germination and dormancy, which is a major survival
mechanism of weeds.
Rainfall:
Rainfall has a significant effect on weed persistence and distribution. More rainfall or less
rainfall determines reproduction & survival.
Wind:
Wind is a principal factor in the dissemination of weeds.
Climate can effect variations in cuticle development, pubescence, vegetative growth,
vigour, competitiveness etc. Climate thus has a profound effect on the persistence of weeds
which can adapt to a wide variety of climates.
B. Soil factors:
Soil factors are soil water, aeration, temperature, pH and fertility level and cropping
system. Some weed species are characteristically alkali plants, known as basophilic (pH 8.5)
which can grow well in alkali soils and those grow in acidic soil is known as Acidophiles.
Basophiles Acidophiles Neutophiles
Alkaligrass – Puccinalia spp. Cynodon dactylon common weed
Quack grass – Agrophyron repens Digitaria sanguinalis
Several weed species of compositae family grow well in saline soils. A shift in soil pH,
towards acid side due to continuous use of Ammonium sulphate as a ‘N’ source could cause a
shift in the weed spectrum.
Many weeds can grow well in soils of low fertility level however, can adapt well to soils
of high fertility also. Weeds also has adaptation to moist soil, drought condition etc.

C. Biotic factors: In a cropping situation, the major effects on weeds are those exerted by the
crop as it competes for available resources. Once, a particular weed species is introduced, its
persistence is determined by the degree of competition offered by the crop and also the
agricultural practices associated with the growing of a crop may encourage or discourage
specific weeds.
Eg. Ponding of water – Cynodon dies
Repeated cultivation – discourage nut sedge.
Crops that serve as hosts to parasitic weeds, (Sorghum – Striga) crop-induced stimulants
are examples of other biotic factors.
Perennation
The process of living through a number of years as a perennial plant.
2)Perennation is also defined as the formation of resting stages to survive unfavorable
environmental conditions (e.g. overwintering or other environmental changes that cause a plant
to enter dormancy.) The second meaning is more close to question.
i) potato tuber , sweet potato tubers are the organs of perennation ;as they can help the plant to
tide over the unfavorable environmental conditions and then germinate / sprout to produce a
new plant /plants This is equivalent to dormancy or hibernation in some animals as frogs and
bears
Perennation is the process of living through a number of years (as a perennial plant).The ability
to survive past the four seasons of a year, usually where there is reduced activity in the organism
over the colder months.
Perennation is also defined as the formation of resting stages to survive unfavorable
environmental conditions (e.g. overwintering or other environmental changes that cause a plant
to enter dormancy.) .When a plant survives from season to season for an indefinite number of
years. perennating bud (perennating organ) The vegetative means
hereby biennial and perennial plants survive periods of unfavourable conditions. The aerial parts
die back to a minimum at the onset of unfavourable conditions, and food for the new shoots of
the next growing season is stored in underground organs (e.g.tubers, bulbs, rhizomes), or
in buds on the stems of woody plants. Seeds may also be considered perennating organs.
Perennation - The survival of an individual plant, or of a dormant plant organ, over successive
years or during unfavourable seasons.
 LECTURE 6.

CROP WEED INTERACTIONS, CRITICAL CROP WEED

COMPETITION,COMPETITIVE & ALLELOPATHIC EFFECTS OF WEEDS &
CROPS

CROP WEED ASSOCIATION

Weeds posseses many growth characteristics and adaptations which enable them to
exploit successfully the numerous ecological niches left unocccupied by crop cultures. Weeds
compete with themselves and with crop plant. Among the more important adoptations relevent to
competitive advantage are properly synchronized germination, rapid establishment and growth of
seedlings, tolerance to shading effects by the crop or by other weeds at the time of establishment,
quick response to available soil moisture and nutrients, adaptation to the most severe climatic
situations of the habitat, adaptations to the edaphic regime, relative immunity to post seeding soil
disturbance, practices and resistance to herbicides that are used. In the nitial stages of invasion
by weeds of exposed ecological niches, only a very limited competition for resources by the crop
and weed may occur, but as establishment of the crop-weed association is completed,
competition for the available reources is more obvious.
Plant competition is a natural force whereby crop and weed plants tend to attain a
maximum combined growth and yield, with the development of each species being to some
extent at the expense of the other. It occurs when the demands of the plants for moisture,
nutrients, light, and possibly carbon dioxide exceed the available supply. Competition may
develop between crop and weed plants and also between individual plants of each. The ultimate
outcome of competition usually results in the development of a characteristic crop-weed
association. Crop plants and weeds may grow and mature in the state of mutual supression that is
often found in crops where no suitable herbicide is available to control the weeds. The weed
suppresses the crop and result in reduction of yield. The crop also suppresses the weeds, a
condition often found in row crop cultures. This is a logical sequence in a crop habitat where
both cultural and herbicide methods provide effective control.
A principle of plant competition is that the first plants to occupy an area have an
advantage over latecomers. This principle is of foremost consideration in practical weed control,
where cropping practices are always directed to the establishment of the crop ahead of the weeds.
Competition and allelopathy are the main interactions, which are of importance between
crop and weed. Allelopathy is distinguished from competition because it depends on a chemical
compound being added to the environment while competition involves removal or reduction of
an essential factor or factors from the environment, which would have been otherwise utilized.

CROP WEED COMPETITION

Weeds appear much more adapted to agro-ecosystems than our crop plants. Without
interference by man, weeds would easily wipe out the crop plants. This is because of their
competition for nutrients, moisture, light and space which are the principle factors of production
of crop. Generally, an increase in on kilogram of weed growth will decrease one kilogram of
crop growth.
1. Competition for Nutrients
Weeds usually absorb mineral nutrients faster than many crop plants and accumulate
them in their tissues in relatively larger amounts.
 Amaranthus sp. accumulate over 3% N on dry weight basis and are termed as
“nitrophills”.
 Achyranths aspera, a ‘P’ accumulator with over 1.5% P2O5
 Chenopodium sp & Portulaca sp. are ‘K’ lovers with over 1.3% K2O in dry matter
Mineral composition of certain common weeds on dry matter basis

S.No Species N P2O5 K2O

1. Achyranthus aspera 2.21 1.63 1.32
2. Amaranthus viridis 3.16 0.06 4.51
3. Chenapodium album 2.59 0.37 4.34
4. Cynodon dactylan 1.72 0.25 1.75
5. Cyperus rotundus 2.17 0.26 2.73
Crop plants
1. Rice 1.13 0.34 1.10
2. Sugarcane 0.33 0.19 0.67
3. Wheat 1.33 0.59 1.44

 The associated weed is responsive to nitrogen and it utilizes more of the applied ‘N’ than
the crop. Eg. The ‘N’ uptake by Echinochloa crusgalli is more than rice.
 Nutrient removal by weeds leads to huge loss of nutrients in each crop season, which is
often twice that of crop plants. For instance at early stages of maize cultivation, the weeds
found to remove 9 times more of N, 10 times more of P and 7 times more of K.

2. Competition for moisture

 In general, for producing equal amounts of dry matter, weeds transpire more water than
do most of our crop plants. It becomes increasingly critical with increasing soil moisture
stress, as found in arid and semi-arid areas.
 As a rule, C4 plants utilize water more efficiently resulting in more biomass per unit of
water. Cynodon dactylon had almost twice as high transpiration rate as pearl millet.
 In weedy fields soil moisture may be exhausted by the time the crop reaches the fruiting
stage, i.e. the peak consumptive use period of the crop, causing significant loss in crop
yields.

3. Competition for light

 It may commence very early in the cop season if a dense weed growth smothers the crop
seedlings.
 It becomes important element of crop-weed competition when moisture and nutrients are
plentiful.
 In dry land agriculture in years of normal rainfall the crop-weed competition is limited to
nitrogen and light.
 Unlike competition for nutrients and moisture once weeds shade a crop plant, increased
light intensity cannot benefit it.
4. Competition for space (CO2)
Crop-weed competition for space is the requirement for CO2 and the competition may
occur under extremely crowded plant community condition. A more efficient utilization of CO 2
by C4 type weeds may contribute to their rapid growth over C3 type of crops.
Effect of weed competition on crop growth and yield
1. Crop growth and yield is affected
2. Crop suffers from nutritional deficiency
3. Leaf area development is reduced
4. Yield attributes will be lowered
5. Reduce the water use by the crop
6. Affect the dry matter production
7. Lowers the input response
8. Causes yield reduction
9. Pest and disease incidence will be more

Losses Caused by Weeds

A. Reduction in crop yield
Weeds compete with crop plants for nutrients, soil moisture, space and sunlight. In
general an increase in one kilogram weed growth corresponds to reduction in one kilogram of
crop growth. Depending on type of weed, intensity of infestation, period of infestation, the
ability of crop to compete and climatic conditions the loss varies. The table below depicts the
percentage range of yield loss due to weeds in some important field crops.
Among the pests weeds account for 45 % reduction in yield while the insects 30%,
diseases 20% and other pests 5%.
B. Loss in crop quality
If a crop contains weed seeds it is to be rejected, especially when the crop is grown for
seed. For example, the wild oat weed seeds are similar in size and shape of the crops like barley,
wheat, and its admixture may lead to rejection for seed purpose. Contamination by poisonous
weed seeds is unacceptable and increases costs of crop cleaning. The leafy vegetables much
suffers due to weed problem as the leafy weed mixture spoil the economic value.
C. Weeds as reservoirs of pests and diseases
Weeds form a part of community of organisms in a given area. Consequently, they are
food sources for some animals, and are themselves susceptible to many pests and diseases.
However, because of their close association with crop they may serve as important reservoirs or
alternate host of pests and diseases.
D. Interference in crop handling
Some weeds can make the operation of agricultural machinery more difficult, more costly
and even impossible. Heavy infestation of Cynadon dactylon causes poor ploughing
performance.

E. Reduction in land value

Heavy infestation by perennial weeds could make the land unsuitable are less suitable for
cultivation resulting in loss in its monetary value. Thousands of hectare of cultivable area in rice
growing regions of India have been abandoned or not being regularly cultivated due to severe
infestation of nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus) and other perennial grasses.
F. Limitation of crop choice
 When certain weeds are heavily infested, it will limit the growth of a particular crop. The
high infestation of parasitic weeds such as Striga lutea may limit the growing of sorghum or
sugarcane.
G. Loss of human efficiency
Weeds reduce human efficiency through physical discomfort caused by allergies and
poisoning. Weeds such as congress weed (Parthenium hysterophorus) causes itching. Thorny
weeds like Solanum spp. restrict moment of farm workers in carrying out farm practices such as
fertilizer application, insect and disease control measures, irrigation, harvesting etc.
H. Problems due to aquatic weeds
The aquatic weeds that grow along the irrigation canals, channels and streams restricts
the flow of water. Weed obstruction cause reduction in velocity of flow and increases stagnation
of water and may lead to high siltation and reduced carrying capacity. Aquatic weeds form
breeding grounds for obnoxious insects like mosquitoes. They reduce recreational value by
interfering with fishing, swimming, boating, hunting and navigation on streams and canals.
I. Other problems
Weeds are troublesome not only in crop plants but also in play grounds and road sides
etc. Alternanthera echinata and Tribulus terresstris occurs in many of the playgrounds causing
annoyance to players and spectators.

Factors affecting the competitive ability of crops against weeds

a. Density of weeds: Increase in density of weed decrease in yield is a normal phenomena.
However, it is not linear as few weeds do not affect the yields so much as other weed does and
hence, it is a sigmoidal relationship.

b. Crop density: Increase in plant population decreases weed growth and reduce competition
until they are self competitive. Crop density and rectangularity are very important in determining
the quantum and quality of crop environment available for the growth of weeds. Wide row
spacing with simultaneous high, intra-row crop plant population may induce dense weed growth.
In this respect, square planting of crops in which there are equal row and plant spacing should be
ideal in reducing intra-crop plant competition.

c. Type of weeds species: The type of weeds that occur in a particular crop influences the
competition. Occurrence of a particular species of weed greatly influences the competition
between the crop & weed. For eg. E. crusgalli in rice, Setaia viridis in corn and Xanthium sp. in
soybean affects the crop yield. Flavaria australasica offers more competition than the grasses

d. Type of crop species and their varieties: Crops and their varieties differ in their competing
ability with weeds e.g., the decreasing order of weed competing ability is as: barley, rye, wheat
and oat. High tolerance of barley to competition from weeds is assigned to its ability to develop
more roots that are extensive during initial three weeks growth period than the others.
 Fast canopy forming and tall crops suffer less from weed competition than the slow
growing and short stature & crops. Dwarf and semi-dwarf varieties of crops are usually more
susceptible to competition from weeds than the tall varieties became they grow slowly and initial
stage. In addition, their short stature covers the weeds less effectively. When we compare the
crop-weed competition between two varieties of groundnut TMV 2 (Bunch) and TMV 3
(Spreading), TMV 2 incurred a loss of over 30% pod yield under uncontrolled weed - crop
competition while TMV 3 lost only about 15% in its yield. The main reason is due to the
spreading nature of TMV 3, which smothered weeds. Longer duration cultivars of rice have been
found more competitive to weeds than the short duration ones.

e. Soil factors: Soil type, soil fertility, soil moisture and soil reaction influences the crop weed
competition. Elevated soil fertility usually stimulates weeds more than the crop, reducing thus
crop yields. Fertilizer application of weedy crop could increase crop yields to a much lower
level than the yield increase obtained when a weed free crop is applied with fertilizer.
Weeds are adapted to grow well and compete with crops, in both moisture stress and
ample moisture conditions. Removal of an intense moisture stress may thus benefit crops more
than the weeds leading to increased yields. If the weeds were already present at the time of
irrigation, they would grow so luxuriantly as to completely over power the crops. If the crop in
irrigated after it has grown 15 cm or more in a weed free environment irrigation could hasten
closing in of crop rows, thus suppressing weeds.
Abnormal soil reactions often aggravate weed competition. It is therefore specific weed
species suited to different soil reactions exist with us, our crops grow best only in a specified
range of soil pH. Weeds would offer more intense competition to crops on normal pH soils than
on normal pH soils.

f. Climate: Adverse weather condition, Eg. drought, excessive rains, extremes of temperature,
will favour weeds since most of our crop plants are susceptible to climatic stresses. It is further
intensified when crop cultivation is stratified over marginal lands. All such stresses weaken
crops inherent capacity to fight weeds.

g. Time of germination: In general, when the time of germination of crop coincides with the
emergence of first flush of weeds, it leads to intense Crop-Weed interference. Sugarcane takes
about one month to complete its germination phase while weeds require very less time to
complete its germination.
Weed seeds germinate most readily from 1.25 cm of soil and few weeds can germinate
even from 15cm depth. Therefore, planting method that dries the top 3 to 5 cm of soil rapidly
enough to deny weed seeds opportunity to absorb moisture for their germination usually
postpones weed emergence until the first irrigation. By this time the crop plants are well
established to compete with late germinating weeds.

h. Cropping practices: Cropping practices, such as method of planting crops, crop density and
geometry and crop species and varieties have pronounced effects on Crop-Weed interference.

i. Crop maturity: Maturity of the crop is yet another factor which affects competition between
weeds & crop. As the age of the crop increases, the competition for weeds decreases due to its
good establishment. Timely weeding in the early growth stages of the crop enhances the yield
significantly.

Critical period of weed competition

Critical period of weed competition is defined as the shortest time span during the crop
growth when weeding results in highest Economic returns.
The critical period of crop-weed competition is the period from the time of sowing up to,
which the crop is to be maintained in a weed free environment to get the highest economical
yield. The weed competition in crop field is invariably severe in early stages of crop than at later
stages. Generally in a crop of 100 days duration, the first 35 days after sowing should be
maintained in a weed free condition. There is no need to attempt for a weed free condition
throughout the life period of the crop, as it will entail unnecessary additional expenditure without
proportionate increase in yield.

Factors affecting crop weed competition/interference

Period of weed growth:
It is important to note that when the crop-weed competition is critical;when the weed
must be removed; when they may be allowed to grow without fear of any appreciable crop
damage. The weeds that germinate and grow at the same time as the crop seeds are most
successful competitors. If weeds are controlled at early period of crop growth, the optimum crop
yield could be harvested which may be quite close to the maximum. The critical weed free
period may, however, vary somewhat with the crop situation. Weeds should be removed at an
early stage or at younger stages otherwise they compete severely. A little delay in weeding
results in infestation of the crop for major parts of their critical growth periods. In situations,
where weeds germinate late (as in dry land wheat/sorghum), late stage weeding is more useful
than their early weeding. The same is also true for crops like grams and peas that are irrigated for
considerable period after planting. There is less competition when weeds are either removed
early or they germinate slowly because plant become sturdy and can tolerate competition. On
other hand, when the weeds germinate along with crops, the crop plants are usually smothered by
the weed completely. e.g. direct sown rice suffers severe competition from the weeds than the
transplanted crop of rice.
Intensity of weeds:
In general increasing the weed intensity results in reducing the growth and yield of crops.
There has to be some minimum amount of weed growth in terms of either population or yield in
the field to exert a minimum biological stress on the crop performance. Zero weed growth is too
costly and can not be achieved.
Weed species:
Different weeds differ in their ability to compete with crop at similar density levels. This
is primarily because of difference in their growth habits as well as due to the allelopathic affects
which they may exert on the germination and growth for the crop e.g. at early stage of growth,
Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is a better competitor of crops than many grass weeds
because it posess broad leaves that shade the ground heavily. In dry areas Canada thistle
(Cirsium arvense) and Field bind weed (Convolvulus arvensis) were more competitive than
annual weeds because of their deep roots and early heavy shoot growth.
Soil fertility:
 Since weeds compete with corps for mineral nutrients, particularly nitrogen. Addition of
fertilizers, manures and other amendments will lessen weed-stress on crop. Methods and time of
application of fertilizer to the crop fields are important in determining whether the added
fertilizers will suppress or increase weed growth in fields. Band application of fertilizer will also
decide the weed growth. Application of fertilizer early in the crop season when weed growth is
negligible was more beneficial to crop than the when weeds were already grown up. Weeds can
grossly alter the fertilizer response curves of the crops.
Soil moisture status:
Water supplied to weedy crop fields either through irrigation or through rainfall is
equally accessible to both the crop and weeds. Irrigation is expected to increase the yields of
both the crops and weed, if the fields are initially under stress. Increase in yield of the crop
(weedy and weed free) by rains or irrigation have been found to differ with the crop and weed
species, weed growth etc. Higher water use efficiency of the crops has been noted in weed free
plots than in the weedy plots because of higher level of crop yield in the weed free plots. Time of
rain or first irrigation after planting of the crops is an important factor determining the intensity
of the crop weed competition e.g. If a crop is irrigated when the plants are 15 cm tall it can
compete with weed that germinated with 1st irrigation or rain, whereas when fields irrigated
immediately after planting of crops it induces early flush of weed which is highly detrimental to
the crop growth. In water logged soils, many weeds survive much better than the most crop
plants and compete severely with them.

Soil Reaction:
Some of the weed spp. tolerates abnormal soil reactions much better than others. Some
weeds grow vigorously on abnormal pH soil, where majority of our crop plant will be stunted in
growth. Weed crop competition is more intense on high or low pH soils than on normal pH soils.
Addition of soil amendments to high or low the pH soils, therefore vigorate crop growth, tilting
the balance of weed crop competition in favour of the crops.
Climate influence:
Climate and seasonal variations are greatly responsible for inducing wide differences in
weed-crop competitions. Adverse weather conditions e.g. drought, excessive rain, continuous
rain, extreme of temperature intensify the weed crop interference, since most of our crop
varieties are highly susceptible to such climate influence where as the weeds are tolerant to these
stresses. Weeds germinate at different times at different places. Weed emergence in the fields
was more rapid in soils kept continuously wet by rainfall than those that dried three days after
planting. The differences in germination of weed are narrowed as the temperature increased
because the weed seeds absorbed enough moisture in the first three days wet period itself before
the soil dried.
Cropping practices:
1. Date and method of planting of crop
2. Crop density and rectangularity
3. Crop spp. and varieties.
Date and method of planting of crop:
Longer the period or interval between the emergence of crops and weeds lesser will be
the weed crop interference. Weed seeds germinate most readily from top 1.25 cm of soil or up to
2.5 cm depth. Only few weeds such as Barnyard grass and cocklebur may germinate even from
10 cm depth of soil. Therefore, a planting method that dries the top 3-5 cm of soil rapidly is
enough to deny weed seeds opportunity to absorb moisture for their germination usually post
poned weed emergence until 1st irrigation is given. By this time, the crop plants are well
established to compete with the late maturing weeds. In other cases, when the planting method
which leaves the top most soil wet, weed seeds absorb enough moisture to germinate which
induces severe weed crop competition.
Crop density and rectangularity:
In low plant population resulting from low seed rate, faulty germination or loss of crop
seedlings. Weed growth is dense and weed crop competition intense. Wide row spacing may also
induce dense weed growth. It can weaken the crop plants and intensify weed crop interference
further. Square planting should be ideal in reducing the intra plant competition in crops.
Competition among individuals of same spp. of plant is comparatively weaker than competition
among individual of different species.
Crop species and varieties:
Crops and varieties differ in their habitat that they often to weeds to grow as well as in
their ability to with stand weed competition. Such differences among crop spp. may result from
either their inherent morphological and physiological features or from differences in their
cultivation requirements. e.g. Barley is found more tolerant to interference by weeds than wheat
and wheat more tolerant than oats. Linseed is more sensitive to the presence of weed than to
other winter grains. High tolerance of barley to crop weed competition may be due to
development of extensive seminal and crown roots during its first three weeks after planting.
Fast canopy forming and tall crops suffer less from weed competition than slow growing or short
stature crop. Dwarf varieties of crops are more susceptible to weed crop competition than the tall
because initially they grow slowly.

ALLELOPATHY
Allelopathy is the detrimental effects of chemicals or exudates produced by one (living)
plant species on the germination, growth or development of another plant species (or even
microorganisms) sharing the same habitat.
Allelopathy does not form any aspect of crop-weed competition, rather, it causes Crop-
Weed interference, it includes competition as well as possible allelopathy.
Allelo chemicals are produced by plants as end products, by-products and metabolites
liberalised from the plants; they belong to phenolic acids, flavanoides, and other aromatic
compounds viz., terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids and organic cyanides.

Allelopathic Effect of Weeds on Crops

(1) Maize:
 Leaves & inflorescence of Parthenium sp. affect the germination and seedling growth
 Tubers of Cyperus esculentus affect the dry matter production
(2) Sorghum:
 Stem of Solanum affects germination and seedling growth
 Leaves and inflorescence of Parthenium affect germination and seedling growth
(3) Wheat:
 Seeds of wild oat affect germination and early seedling growth
 Leaves of Parthenium affects general growth
 Tubers of C. rotundus affect dry matter production
 Green and dried leaves of Argemone mexicana affect germination & seedling growth
(4) Sunflower:
 Seeds of Datura affect germination & growth

Allelopathic Effect of crop plants on weeds

(i) Root exudation of maize inhibits the growth of Chenopodium album
(ii) The cold water extracts of wheat straw when applied to weeds reduce germination and
growth of Abutilon sp.

Allelopathic effect of weeds on weeds

 Extract of leaf leachate of decaying leaves of Polygonum contains flavonoides which are
toxic to germination, root and hypocotyls growth of weeds like Amaranthus spinosus
 Inhibitor secreted by decaying rhizomes of Sorghum halepense affect the growth of Digitaria
sanguinalis and Amaranthus sp.

Factors influencing allelopathy

a. Plant factors
i. Plant density: Higher the crop density the lesser will be the allelo chemicals it
encounters
ii. Life cycle: If weed emerges later there will be less problem of allelochemicals
iii. Plant age: The release of allelochemicals occurs only at critical stage. For eg. in case
of Parthenium, allelopathy occurs during its rosette & flowering stage.
iv. Plant habit: The allelopathic interference is higher in perennial weeds.
v. Plant habitat: Cultivated soil has higher values of allelopathy than uncultivated soil.
b. Climatic factors: The soil & air temperature as well as soil moisture influence the allelo
chemicals potential
c. Soil factors: Physico-chemical and biological properties influence the presence of
allelochemicals.
d. Stress factors: Abiotic and Biotic stresses may also influence the activity of allelochemcals

Mechanism of action of allelochemicals

 Interfere with cell elongation
 Interfere with photosynthesis
 Interfere with respiration
 Interfere with mineral ion uptake
 Interfere with protein and nucleic acid metabolism

Use of Allelopathy in biological control of weeds:

1. Use of cover crop for biological control
2. Use of alleopathic chemicals as bio-herbicides

Factors affecting crop weed competition/interference

Period of weed growth:
It is important to note that when the crop-weed competition is critical;when the weed
must be removed; when they may be allowed to grow without fear of any appreciable crop
damage. The weeds that germinate and grow at the same time as the crop seeds are most
successful competitors. If weeds are controlled at early period of crop growth, the optimum crop
yield could be harvested which may be quite close to the maximum. The critical weed free
period may, however, vary somewhat with the crop situation. Weeds should be removed at an
early stage or at younger stages otherwise they compete severely. A little delay in weeding
results in infestation of the crop for major parts of their critical growth periods. In situations,
where weeds germinate late (as in dry land wheat/sorghum), late stage weeding is more useful
than their early weeding. The same is also true for crops like grams and peas that are irrigated for
considerable period after planting. There is less competition when weeds are either removed
early or they germinate slowly because plant become sturdy and can tolerate competition. On
other hand, when the weeds germinate along with crops, the crop plants are usually smothered by
the weed completely. e.g. direct sown rice suffers severe competition from the weeds than the
transplanted crop of rice.
Intensity of weeds:
In general increasing the weed intensity results in reducing the growth and yield of
crops. There has to be some minimum amount of weed growth in terms of either population or
yield in the field to exert a minimum biological stress on the crop performance. Zero weed
growth is too costly and can not be achieved.
Weed species:
Different weeds differ in their ability to compete with crop at similar density levels. This
is primarily because of difference in their growth habits as well as due to the allelopathic affects
which they may exert on the germination and growth for the crop e.g. at early stage of growth,
Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) is a better competitor of crops than many grass weeds
because it posess broad leaves that shade the ground heavily. In dry areas Canada thistle
(Cirsium arvense) and Field bind weed (Convolvulus arvensis) were more competitive than
annual weeds because of their deep roots and early heavy shoot growth.
Soil fertility:
Since weeds compete with corps for mineral nutrients, particularly nitrogen. Addition of
fertilizers, manures and other amendments will lessen weed-stress on crop. Methods and time of
application of fertilizer to the crop fields are important in determining whether the added
fertilizers will suppress or increase weed growth in fields. Band application of fertilizer will also
decide the weed growth. Application of fertilizer early in the crop season when weed growth is
negligible was more beneficial to crop than the when weeds were already grown up. Weeds can
grossly alter the fertilizer response curves of the crops.
Soil moisture status:
Water supplied to weedy crop fields either through irrigation or through rainfall is
equally accessible to both the crop and weeds. Irrigation is expected to increase the yields of
both the crops and weed, if the fields are initially under stress. Increase in yield of the crop
(weedy and weed free) by rains or irrigation have been found to differ with the crop and weed
species, weed growth etc. Higher water use efficiency of the crops has been noted in weed free
plots than in the weedy plots because of higher level of crop yield in the weed free plots. Time of
rain or first irrigation after planting of the crops is an important factor determining the intensity
of the crop weed competition e.g. If a crop is irrigated when the plants are 15 cm tall it can
compete with weed that germinated with 1st irrigation or rain, whereas when fields irrigated
immediately after planting of crops it induces early flush of weed which is highly detrimental to
the crop growth. In water logged soils, many weeds survive much better than the most crop
plants and compete severely with them.
Soil Reaction: Some of the weed spp. tolerates abnormal soil reactions much better than
others. Some weeds grow vigorously on abnormal pH soil, where majority of our crop plant will
be stunted in growth. Weed crop competition is more intense on high or low pH soils than on
normal pH soils. Addition of soil amendments to high or low the pH soils, therefore vigorate
crop growth, tilting the balance of weed crop competition in favour of the crops.

Climate influence: Climate and seasonal variations are greatly responsible for inducing wide
differences in weed-crop competitions. Adverse weather conditions e.g. drought, excessive rain,
continuous rain, extreme of temperature intensify the weed crop interference, since most of our
crop varieties arehighly susceptible to such climate influence where as the weeds are tolerant to
these stresses. Weeds germinate at different times at different places. Weed emergence in the
fields was more rapid in soils kept continuously wet by rainfall than those that dried three days
after planting. The differences in germination of weed are narrowed as the temperature increased
because the weed seeds absorbed enough moisture in the first three days wet period itself before
the soil dried.
Cropping practices: 1.Date and method of planting of crop 2.Crop density and rectangularity
Crop spp. and varieties.

Date and method of planting of crop: Longer the period or interval between the emergence of
crops and weeds lesser will be the weed crop interference. Weed seeds germinate most readily
from top 1.25 cm of soil or up to 2.5 cm depth. Only few weeds such as Barnyard grass and
cocklebur may germinate even from 10 cm depth of soil. Therefore, a planting method that dries
the top 3-5 cm of soil rapidly is enough to deny weed seeds opportunity to absorb moisture for
their germination usually post ponedweed emergence until 1st irrigation is given. By this time,
the crop plants are well established to compete with the late maturing weeds. In other cases,
when the planting method which leaves the top most soil wet, weed seeds absorb enough
moisture to germinate which induces severe weed crop competition.

Crop density and rectangularity: In low plant population resulting from low seed rate, faulty
germination or loss of crop seedlings. Weed growth is dense and weed crop competition intense.
Wide row spacing may also induce dense weed growth. It can weaken the crop plants and
intensify weed crop interference further. Square planting should be ideal in reducing the intra
plant competition in crops. Competition among individuals of same spp. of plant is
comparatively weaker than competition among individual of different species.

Crop species and varieties: Crops and varieties differ in their habitat that they often to weeds to
grow as well as in their ability to with stand weed competition. Such differences among crop spp.
may result from either their inherent morphological and physiological features or from
differences in their cultivation requirements. e.g. Barley is found more tolerant to interference by
weeds than wheat and wheat more tolerant than oats. Linseed is more sensitive to the presence of
weed than to other winter grains. High tolerance of barley to crop weed competition may be due
to development of extensive seminal and crown roots during its first three weeks after planting.
Fast canopy forming and tall crops suffer less from weed competition than slow growing or short
stature crop. Dwarf varieties of crops are more susceptible to weed crop competition than the tall
because initially they grow slowly.
 LECTURE 7

PRINCIPLES & METHODS OF WEED MANAGEMENT: PREVENTIVE,

CULTURAL & MECHANICAL

Weed control: Process of limiting weed infestation to grow crop profitably & carry
out their activities efficiently. Limiting weed growth depends on cost of weed control &
benefits anticipated. Practices used to control weeds are Prevention, Eradication and Control
Weed control: Weed control includes many techniques used to limit weed infestation
and minimize competition. Weed control techniques attempt to achieve a balance between cost
of control and crop yield loss, but weed control is used only after the problem exist.
Weed management: Weed management is the combination of techniques of
prevention, eradication and control to manage the weed in a crop/cropping system or
environment.
Prevention: It means methods and means to avoid the weeds to enter in the field.
Eradiation: Eradication is complete elimination of all live weeds, weed parts and weed seeds. It
can be defined as 100% and complete control.
I) Preventive Method: Prevention of introduction and spread of weeds in an entirely new locality
is termed as preventive method. For that matter, it is essential to know how weeds
disseminate. By taking following measures weeds spread can be prevented from entering into
a new locality.
i) Sowing of weed free clean seed
ii) Use of clean implements
iii) Removal of weed along canal and irrigation channel
iv) Care in transplanting of seedlings/plantlets
v) Use of well rotten manure
vi) Avoiding passing of cattle through weed infested area
vii) Crop management practices
viii) Enforcement of weed Laws
ix) Quarantine Laws
x) Use of pre-emergence herbicides
II) Eradication: Eradication means elimination of weeds after they have become established in an
area and control means methods which are adopted where prevention and eradication have
 failed, so control measure as a rule eradicate the weed and make it possible to raise the crops
in spite of their presence.

 Ideal weed control but rarely achieved

 Very difficult & high cost
 Can be attempted in small areas/high value areas
 Green/Poly Houses (Protected Cultivation), Ornamental Plant Beds,
Containers

III) Methods of weed control:
The method of controlling weeds are determined by the habit of weeds, their habitat and
distribution.
Habits- Concern its life cycle and methods of propagation. Habitats- Means place
where it thrives best
Distribution- Means the magnitude of the problem
1.Physical/Mechanical methods of weed control
A) Prevention from spread
B) Destruction of top growth
C) Destruction of underground parts
D) Destruction of weed seeds in the soil
A) Preventing from spread:
i) Use of clean seed
ii) Prevention of seed production contaminated by weeds in nearby waste areas
B) Destruction of top growth:
i) Hand pulling
ii) Hand hoeing
iii) Tillage
iv) Blind tillage
v) Ploughing
vi) Mowing
vii) Harrowing
viii) Disking
 ix) Spudding
x). Burning
xi). Pasturing and grazing
C) Destruction of underground parts
i) Hand digging
ii) Summer fallow
D) Destruction of weed seeds in the soil
i) Deep ploughing
ii) Harrowing and shallow cultivation
2. Cultural method:-
i) Optimum crop population & early seedling vigour
ii) Crop rotation
iii) Crop competition
iv) Mulching
v) Clean cultivation
vi) Proper application of fertilizer
vii) Proper method of planting
viii) Proper planting time
ix) Stale seed bed
x) Smother cropping
xi) Summer fallowing

3.Mechanical Weed Control

Employed ever since man began to grow crops.Tillage, hoeing, hand weeding,
digging, sickling, mowing, burning, flooding and mulching
a.Tillage: burial small annual weeeds in the soil by tillage tools detach weed from
soil & lead to death by desiccation injury to root & stem & reduce competitiveness &
regenerative capacity.
Oprations: Ploughing, discing, harrowing & levelling
Tillage implements
Plough: Country/mould board plough, disc plough
Harrow: disc harrow, blade harrow, spike tooth harrow, spring tooth harrow
Cultivator: rotary cultivator, shovel cultivator
 b. Hoeing: effective means of weed control. Hoe is one of the principle tools of
weed control. Most effective against weed seedlings, annual & binennial weeds. Effective on
creeping perennials with shallow root systems .
c.Hand weeding: physical removal/pulling of weeds
Weeding with weeders:
Long handled rotary weeders (wet & irrigated dry land)
d. Digging: useful for perennial weeds to remove underground propagating organs,
deep rooted weeds. Laborious & slow process, Confined areas
e. Cheeling: by cheel hoe (similar to spade) with long handle
Cuts & scrapes above ground weed Annual & biennial weeds
widely used in plantation especially in tea
Cono weeder, Peg/ star weeder, twin wheel hoe weeder, Wheel hoe weeder, cresent
hoe weeder, etc
f.Sickling: removal of top growth of weeds, prevent seed production & strave
undergrioung parts, useful in slopy areas to prevent soil erision
g.Mowing: cutting at uniform ht. of weed from entire area,limited value in weed
control,to reduce seed production , restrict unsightliness / excess weed growth,Useful in
meadows & pastures
h.Burning: economical & practical means, should be done with utmost care,
not practicable in cropped area,Used to dispose accumulated vegetation, destroy dry
tops of weeds, kill grass where other methods are impracticable , destroy weed seeds & other
propagating plant parts
I. Burning: Fire is used to burn in widely spaced crops which can resist flame
(Cotton, sugarcane, potato, etc) – Flame Cultivation,Controlled burning is done with hand
operated vapourising burners, flame tourches & flame throwers
j.Flooding: kill the weeds by suffocation , effective only when weeds are fully
submerged in water for sufficiently long time , Limited by soil type & available water , not for
all crops, Control of Cynodon dactylon by flooding
k. Mulching: smothering of weed by restricting photosynthesis & inhibiting top
growth. Effective for annual weeds & certain perennial weeds like Cynodon dactylon, Sorghum
halepense , no intercultivation is needed , useful in vegetable gardens & flower beds,
soil mulch, crop residue mulch, polythene mulch
l. Soil solarization: solar soil heating utilizing solar energy for dessicating weeds in
top 5 cm soil layer and effective for weeds from seeds, Covering soil with transparent polythene
film during the hottest part of summer month for 24 weeks
 Raise in temp will be 10 - 120C
Raise in temp due to prevention of back-radaition of solar, long wave
Polythene sheet of 20-25 mm thickness is ideal
One pre-filming irrigation auguments soil solarization effect
Weed seeds with hard seed coat & perennial weeds are tolerant

Pre plant control of weeds

Weeds are controlled either before preparation of soil bed or continued

suppression of weeds in the crop season. The objectives are achieved by proper pre plant tillage
in two stage first a primary tillage of the field with a suitable soil inverting plough/disc and
secondary tillage with light soil stirring implements like disc harrow, wooden ploughs,
cultivators, spike-tooth harrow, weed mulcher etc.
The primary tillage buries the weedy vegetation and exposes their roots/rhizomes at
the soil surface while the secondary tillage breaks the clods, exposes the vegetative propagules
of weeds further for their subsequent collection by hook plankers or by manual labour.
Corrugated rollers and other surface packing and smothering implements act against weed
seedlings.
 Lecture 8
PRINCIPLES & METHODS OF WEED MANAGEMENT: CHEMICAL &
BIOLOGICAL & ALTRENATIVE METHODS

Biological control
Use of living organism’s viz., insects, disease organisms, herbivorous fish, snails or even
competitive plants for the control of weeds is called biological control. In biological control
method, it is not possible to eradicate weeds but weed population can be reduced. This method is
not useful to control all types of weeds. Introduced weeds are best targets for biological control.
Qualities of bio-agent
1. The bio-agent must feed or affect only one host and not other useful plants
2. It must be free of predators or parasites.
3. It must readily adapt to environment conditions.
4. The bio-agent must be capable of seeking out itself to the host.
5. It must be able to kill the weed or atleast prevent its reproduction in some direct or indirect
way.
6. It must possess reproductive capacity sufficient to overtake the increase of its host species,
without too much delay.
Merits
1) Least harm to the environment
2) No residual effect
3) Relatively cheaper and comparatively long lasting effect
4) Will not affect non-targeted plants and safer in usage
Demerits
1) Multiplication is costlier
2) Control is very slow
3) Success of control is very limited
4) Very few host specific bio-agents are available at present
Mode of action
a. Differential growth habits, competitive ability of crops and varieties prevent weed
establishment Eg. Groundnut, cowpea fast growing and so good weed suppresser.
b. Insects kill the plants by exhausting plant food reserves, defoliation, boring and
weakening structure of the plant.
c. Pathogenic organisms damage the host plants through enzymatic degradation of cell
constituents, production of toxins, disturbance of harmone systems, obstruction in the
translocation of food materials and minerals and malfunctioning of physiological processes.

Outstanding and feasible examples of biological weed control

a. Larvae of Coctoblastis cactorum, a moth borer, control prickly pear Opuntia sp. The
larvae tunnel through the plants and destroy it. In India it is controlled by cochinial insects
Dactylopius indicus and D. tomentosus
b. Lantana camara is controlled by
larvae of Crocidosema lantana, a moth bores into
the flower, stems, eat flowers and fruits.
c. Cuscuta spp. is controlled by
Melanagromyza cuscutae
d. Cyperus rotundus - Bactra verutana
a moth borer
e. Ludiwigia parviflora is completely denuded by Altica cynanea (steel blue beetle)

f. H e r b i v o r o u s
mersed
aquatic
weeds.
It is

apparently due to uprooting of plants while in search of food. Snails prefer submersed weeds.

Bio-Herbicides/ Mycoherbicides
Defn: The use of plant pathogen which are expected to kill the targeted weeds.
These are native pathogen, cultured artificially and sprayed just like post-emergence herbicides
each season on target weed, particularly in crop areas. Fungal pathogens of weed have been
used to a larger extent than bacterial, viral or nematode pathogens, because, bacteria and virus
are unable to actively penetrate the host and require natural opening or vectors to initiate disease
in plants.
Here the specific fungal spores or their fermentation product is sprayed against the target
weed. Some registered mycoherbicides in western countries are tabulated below
No Product Content Target weed
1 Devine A liquid suspension of fungal spores of Strangle vine (Morrenia
Phytophthora palmivora causes root rot. odorata) in citrus
2 Collego Wettable powder containing fungal Joint vetch (Aeschyomone
spores of Colletotrichum virginica) in rice, soybean
gloeosporoides causes stem and leaf
blight
3 Bipolaris A suspension of fungal spores of Jhonson grass (Sorghum
Bipolaris sorghicola halepense)
4 Biolophos A microbial toxin produced as Non-specific, general
fermentation product of Steptomyces vegetation
 hygroscopicus

CHEMICAL CONTROL

Using chemicals, generally referred as herbicides, for the control of weeds is called
chemical weed control. In 1944 - discovery of 2,4-D Na salt as a land mark in herbicide usage.
Merits
1) Herbicide can be recommended for adverse soil and climatic conditions, as manual
weeding is highly impossible during monsoon season.
2) Herbicide can control weeds even before they emerge from the soil so that crops can
germinate and grow in completely weed-free environment at early stages. It is usually not
possible with physical weed comfort.
3) Weeds, which resemble like crop in vegetative phase, may escape in manual weeding.
However, these weeds are controlled by herbicides.
4) Herbicide is highly suitable for broadcasted and closely spaced crops.
5) Controls the weeds without any injury to the root system of the associated standing crop
especially in plantation crops like Tea and Coffee.
6) Reduces the need for pre planting tillage
7) Controls many perennial weed species
8) Herbicides control the weed in the field itself or insitu controlling where as mechanical
method may lead to dispersal of weed species through seed
9) It is profitable where labour is scarce and expensive
10) Suited for minimum tillage concept
11) Highly economical
Demerits
1) Pollutes the environment
2) Affects the soil microbes if the dose exceeds
3) Herbicide causes drift effect to the adjoining field
4) It requires certain amount of minimum technical knowledge for calibration
5) Leaves residual effects
6) Some herbicide is highly costlier
7) Suitable herbicides are not available for mixed and inter-cropping system.
Advantages of herbicides
On weed control
 They kill unwanted plants.
 They are easy to use
 Herbicides can be used on closely planted crops where other methods cannot be used.
 Most of the time one application of the herbicide is enough whereas other methods have
to be continually used.
 They work fast. They can be removed quickly in critical situations.
 Herbicides are relatively cheap, and most of the time cheaper than manual weeding.

On crop growth
 They can destroy plants bearing diseases.
  They help the crops grow by destroying the weed that causes harmful effects which
include competition for water, nutrients and light; interference of weeds with crop growth
by the release of toxins; modification of soil and air temperatures and the harbouring of
pests.
 They can be safely used as the manual and mechanical removing of weeds can destroy
the crop.

Others
 They are relatively safe on lands which may erode.
 Non-selective herbicides can effectively clear fields, where houses and roads can then be
built.
Disadvantages of herbicides
Effects of Herbicides on environment
Herbicides vary greatly in chemical composition and in the degree of threat they pose to
the environment. Many of the herbicides are highly persistant. It is widely recognised that the
main reason accounting for residues of certain herbicides like simazine and other triazines in
ground and surface water was the widespread use of these herbicides at high doses on hard
surfaces.
 Soil: Some herbicides are non-biodegradable and are harmful for a long period of time. Heavy
dose of herbicides affect microbial population of the soil. With herbicides targeting amino acid
synthesis in both plants and microbes, there is a possibility that N2 fixation may be inhibited by
the application of certain herbicides.
 Water: The improper use of pesticides and herbicides may also cause the storm water infiltration
into groundwater. When these pesticides and herbicides contaminants dissolve in storm water
they infiltrate the groundwater and then the surface waters, such as ponds, streams, rivers and
lakes. These chemicals may also find their way into the soil and deeper groundwater units
polluting them.
 Living organisms: Most herbicides are specifically plant poisons, and are not very toxic to
animals. However, by changing the vegetation of treated sites, herbicide use also changes the
habitat of birds, mammals, insects, and other animals through changes in the nature of their
habitat. Herbivores may eat the plants treated with herbicides and then carnivores eat the
herbivores. The toxic herbicide would be passed up the food chain increasing in concentration
each time resulting in cancers and even deaths.
Anxiety about chemical residues in the environment has increased greatly in the last
decade. These fears and concern about possible litigation have led many land managers to
reappraise their weed control strategies. Change has also been forced on them by the decrease in
the number of approved herbicides as a result of the high cost of registration. In addition,
approval has been withdrawn from more toxic and persistent herbicides.
Effects of Herbicides on Humans
Among the many effects of pesticides and herbicides, perhaps the most alarming is the
danger they pose to human health. People are directly affected by toxicity of some herbicides,
during the course of their occupation (i.e., when spraying pesticides
), or indirectly affected when exposed through drift or residues on food, and wildlife.
 Pesticides and herbicides can cause a number of health problems such as heart
congestion, lung and kidney damage, low blood pressure, muscle damage, weight loss and
adrenal glands damage.
 Arbitrary and indiscriminate usage of herbicides and pesticides can result in
endometriosis, a common cause of infertility in women.
 Herbicides and pesticides have been suspected by the National Cancer Research Institute
as a probable cause of certain cancers (i.e., cancers of the brain, prostrate, stomach and lip, as
well as leukemia, skin melanomas, etc.) especially among farmers.
 The National Academy of Sciences reported that infants and children, because of their
developing physiology, are susceptible to the negative effects of herbicides and pesticides in
comparison to adults.

Effect of herbicides on crop plant

An important problem with broadcast applications is that they are non-selective. They are
toxic to a wide variety of plant species, and not just the weeds. If herbicides are not used
properly, damage may be caused to crop plants, especially if too large dose is used, or if spraying
occurs during a time when the crop species is sensitive to the herbicide. Unintended but
economically important damage to crop plants is sometimes a consequence of the inappropriate
use of herbicides.

Build-up of resistant biotypes

Apart from their effect on the environment, another major problem with herbicides has
been the build-up of herbicide-resistant biotypes where the same herbicide has been used
repeatedly for a number of years. This problem was not clearly foreseen at the start of the
herbicide revolution but, since the early 1980s, triazine resistance has developed in most
countries where these herbicides have been used. The usefulness of a number of other herbicides,
including paraquat, dichlofopmethyl and sulfonylurea types has been affected by the
development of resistant biotypes.
Methods of dealing with this problem include prevention of weed seed shedding, crop
rotation, herbicide rotation, control of weed escapes and tillage practices. Crop rotation is not
relevant in an amenity situation where the ‘crops’ are usually perennial but other control
measures may be appropriate in certain situations. If weeds are prevented from setting seed,
resistant biotypes cannot develop.
This could be achieved if land managers were made more aware of the threat of resistant
biotypes and made greater efforts in intensively managed areas to prevent weeds from shedding
seeds by the use of a rotation of herbicides supplemented by physical means such as mulching,
hand hoeing and hand weeding.
Modern, intensively managed agricultural and forestry systems have an intrinsic reliance
on the use of herbicides and other pesticides. Unfortunately, the use of herbicides and other
pesticides carries risks to humans through exposure to these potentially toxic chemicals, and to
ecosystems through direct toxicity caused to non-target species, and through changes in habitat.
Nevertheless, until newer and more pest-specific solutions to weed-management problems are
developed, there will be a continued reliance on herbicides in agriculture, forestry, and for other
purposes, such as lawn care.

Principles of chemical weed control

 The selectivity exhibited by certain chemicals to cultivated crops in controlling its
associated weeds without affecting the crops forms basis for the chemical weed control. Such
selectivity may be due to differences in the morphology, differential absorption, differential
translocation, differential deactivation etc.

Lecture 9 : Mid Semester Exam.

LECTURE 10
CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTIC OF HERBICIDE AND HERBICIDE
FORMULATIONS – HISTORY & DEVELOPMENT

1) Based on Method of application

i) Soil applied herbicides: Herbicide act through root and other underground parts of
weeds. Eg. Fluchloralin
ii) Foliage applied herbicides: Herbicide primarily active on the plant foliage
Eg.Glyphosate, Paraquat

2) Based on Mode of action

i) Selective herbicide: A herbicide is considered as selective when in a mixed growth of
plant species, it kills some species without injuring the others. Eg. Atrazine
ii) Non-selective herbicide: It destroys majority of treated vegetation Eg. Paraquat

3 Based on mobility
i) Contact herbicide: A contact herbicide kills those plant parts with which it comes in
direct contact Eg. Paraquat
ii) Translocated herbicide: Herbicide which tends to move from treated part to untreated
areas through xylem / phloem depending on the nature of its molecule. Eg. Glyphosate

4) Based on Time of application

i) Pre - plant application (PPI)
Application of herbicides before the crop is planted or sown. Soil application as well
as foliar application is done here. For example, fluchloralin can be applied to soil and
incorporated before sowing rainfed groundnut while glyphosate can be applied on the
foliage of perennial weeds like Cyperus rotundus before planting of any crop.

W W
ii) Pre – emergence
e e
Application of herbicides before a crop or weed has emerged. In case of annual
e e of weeds
crops application is done after the sowing of the crop but before the emergence
and this is referred
d as pre-emergence to the crop while in the case perennial crops it can
d

s
e
 d

be said as pre-emergence to weeds. For example soil application by spraying of atrazine

on 3rd DAT to sugarcane can be termed as pre-emergence to cane crop while soil
application by spraying the same immediately after a rain to control a new flush of weeds
in a inter-cultivated orchard can be specified as pre-emergence to weed. Eg. Atrazine,
Pendimethalin, Butachlor, Thiobencarb, Pretilachlor

iii) Post – emergence

C
Herbicide application after the emergence of crop or weed is referred as post-
emergence application.
Wr When the weeds grow before the crop plants have emerged W
through the soil and are killed with a herbicide then it is called as early post-emergence.
Cr
ee
e o 2,4-D Na salt to control parasitic weed striga in sugarcane is called
For example spraying
as post-emergence dop
e p while spraying of paraquat to control emerged weeds after 10-15 days
after planting potato can be called as early post-emergence. Eg. Glyphosate, Paraquat, se
2,4-D Na Salt. d
ed
s
se
ee
W ed W

iv) Early posteeemergence

d : Another application Cro of herbicide in the slow growing cropse
like potato, sugarcane,
d 2-3 week after sowingpis classified as early post emergence. e
5) Based on molecular structure
Inorganic
se compounds see d
Organic compounds dlin
ed
FORMULATIONS
Herbicides in their natural state may be solid, g liquid, volatile, non-volatile, soluble or
insoluble. Hence these have to be made in forms suitable and safe for their field use. An
herbicide formulation is prepared by the manufacturer by blending the active ingredient with
substances like solvents, inert carriers, surfactants, stickers, stabilizers etc.
Objectives in herbicide formulations are;
 Ease of handling
 High controlled activity on the target plants
Need for preparing herbicide formulation
 To have a product with physical properties suitable for use in a variety of types of
application equipment and conditions.
 To prepare a product which is effective and economically feasible to use
 To prepare a product which is suitable for storage under local conditions?

Types of formulation
I. Emulsifiable concentrates (EC): A concentrated herbicide formulation containing organic
solvent and adjuvants to facilitate emulsification with water eg., Butachlor
ii. Wettable powders (WP): A herbicide is absorbed by an inert carrier together with an added
surface acting agent. The material is finely ground so that it may form a suspension when
agitated with a required volume of water eg., Atrazine
iii. Granules (G): The inert material (carrier) is given a granular shape and the herbicide (active
ingredient) is mixed with sand, clay, vermiculite, finely ground plant parts (ground corn cobs)
as carrier material. eg. Alachlor granules.
iv. Water soluble concentrates (WSC): eg. paraquat

LECTURE 11

HERBICIDE USE EFFICIENCY, ADJUVANTS, HERBICIDE PROTECTANTS &

ANTODOTS, HERBICIDE & HERBICIDE MIXTURES IN INDIA & INTERACTION
WITH MOISTURE, FERTILIZER & OTHER AGRO-CHEMICALS

Herbicide Use Efficiency

Is the effective control of diversified weed flora without harming the crop and achieving higher
productivity.
HUE depends on
Methods of Herbicide Application
Target site application
Time of application
Quantity of application
Spraying equipment used

METHODS OF HERBICIDE APPLICATION

1. Spraying
2. Broadcasting
3. Fumigation
4. Herbigation
Factors influencing the methods of application are
a. Weed-crop situation
b. Type of herbicides
c. Mode of action and selectivity
d. Environmental factors
e. Cost and convenience of application
Depending on the target site, the herbicides are classified in to
a. Soil applied herbicides
b. Foliage applied or foliar herbicides
Different methods by which these herbicides are applied is tabulated below
Soil application Foliar application
a. Surface i. Blanket spray
b. Sub surface ii. Directed spray
c. Band iii. Protected spray
d. Fumigation iv. Spot treatment
 e. Herbigation

Soil appication of herbicides

a. Surface application
Soil active herbicides are applied uniformly on the surface of the soil either by spraying
or by broadcasting. The applied herbicides are either left undisturbed or incorporated in to the
soil. Incorporation is done to prevent the volatilization and photo-decomposition of the
herbicides.
Eg. Fluchoralin – Left undisturbed under irrigated condition
- Incorporated under rainfed condition
b. Subsurface application
It is the application of herbicides in a concentrated band, about 7-10 cm below the soil
surface for controlling perennial weeds. For this special type of nozzle is introduced below the
soil under the cover of a sweep hood.
Eg. Carbamate herbicides to control Cyperus rotundus
Nitralin herbicides to control Convolvulus arvensis
c. Band application
Application to a restricted band along the crop rows leaving an untreated band in the
inter-rows. Later inter-rows are cultivated to remove the weeds. Saving in cost is possible here.
For example when a 30 cm wide band of a herbicide applied over a croprows that were spaced
90 cm apart, then two-third cost is saved.
d. Fumigation
Application of volatile chemicals in to confined spaces or in to the soil to produce gas
that will destroy weed seeds is called fumigation. Herbicides used for fumigation are called as
fumigants. These are good for killing perennial weeds and as well for eliminating weed seeds.
Eg. Methyl bromide, Metham
f. Herbigation
It is the application of herbicides with irigation water both by surface and sprinkler
systems. In India farmers apply fluchloralin for chillies and tomato, while in western countries
application of EPTC with sprinkler irrigation water is very common in Lucerne.
Foliar application
i. Blanket spray
It is the uniform application of herbicides to standing crops without considering the
location of the crop. Only highly selective herbicides are used here. Eg. Spraying 2,4-Ethyl Ester
to rice three weeks after transplanting
ii. Directed spray
It is the application of herbicides on weeds in between rows of crops by directing the
spray only on weeds avoiding the crop. This could be possible by use of protective shield or
hood. For example, spraying glyphosate in between rows of tapioca using hood to control
Cyperus rotundus.
iii. Protected spray
It is a method of applying non-selective herbicides on weeds by covering the crops which
are wide spaced with polyethylene covers etc. This is expensive and laborious. However, farmers
are using this technique for spraying glyphosate to control weeds in jasmine, cassava, banana.
iv. Spot treatment
 It is usually done on small areas having serious weed infestation to kill it and to prevent
its spread. Rope wick applicator and Herbicide glove are useful here.
Quantity of herbicide
Depends on
Crop
Stage of the crop
Time of application
Herbicide used
Recommended quantity at right stage of the crop should be applied.
Spraying equipment
Right type of spraying equipment fitted with right type of nozzle should be chosen for uniform
coverage of spraying on the targeted site of spray.
ANTIDOTES
Chemicals which are used to inactivate the applied herbicides are called as antidotes. Eg.
Paraquat spray can be inactivated by spraying 1% ferric chloride
SAFENERS / PROTECTANTS
Substances used for protecting crop plants, which are otherwise susceptible or less
tolerant to some herbicides at doses required for good weed control.
eg., Naphthalic anhydride (NA) – 0.5g / kg of seed for rice to protect against molinate and
alachlor
Mode of Action: Safeners enter the target plants and compete there with herbicide molecules
for a binding site on some native enzyme.
ADJUVANTS
Adjuvants are chemicals employed to improve the herbicidal effects, sometimes making a
difference between satisfactory and unsatisfactory weed control.
Mode of Action: Adjuvants aid the herbicide availability at the action site in plants. Some
important kinds of adjuvants are
Improve herbicide selectivity
Render herbicide safer for use
Prolong shelf-life
Reduce herbicide drift hazard

1. Surfactant ( Surface active agents)

(a) Aid in wetting the waxy leaf surface with aqueous herbicide sprays (wetting agents)
(b) In spreading the hydrophilic herbicides uniformly over the foliage (spreaders)
(c) In the penetration of herbicide into the target leaves and stems (penetrates)
A water drop is held as a ball on a waxy leaf surface. (Take water in a beaker, if you dip a
leaf of Cynodon dactylon and pull it back, you can see the leaf without wetting. But if you add a
drop of surfactant you can readily wet the foliage.). With the addition of surfactant, the water
drop flattens down to wet the leaf surface and let the herbicide act properly.
Example
Non-ionic
Surfactant WK – Dodecyl ether of polyoxyethylene glycol
Anionic
SDS – Sodium dodecysulphate
Cationic
Quaternary-O – Alkylimidazolinium chloride
2. Stabilizing agents:
These include
(i) Emulsifiers: A substance which stabilizes (reduces the tendency to separate) a
suspension of droplets of one liquid which otherwise would not mix with the first one. It
substitutes for constant agitation of spray liquids during field operation.
Ex.: 15-S-3, 15-S-9, Solvaid
(ii) Dispersing agents: They stabilize suspensions. They keep fine parricides of wettable
powder in suspension in water even after initial vigorous agitation has been withdrawn.
They act by increasing the hydration of fine particles of WP laden with the herbicides.
Eg. Multifilm, Tryad, Biofilm
3. Coupling agents (Solvents and co-solvents)
Chemical that is used to solubalize a herbicide in a concentrated form; the resulting
solution is soluble with water in all proportions. Eg., 2,4-D is insoluble in water, but it can be
dissolved in polyethylene glycol to make it water soluble.
Common solvents: Benzene, acetone, petroleum ether, carbon tetrachloride
4. Humicants (Hygroscopic agents)
Humicants prevent rapid drying of herbicide sprays on the foliage, thus providing an
extended opportunity of herbicide absorption Eg. glycerol.
5. Deposit builders (Stickers or filming agents)
Chemicals added to herbicide concentrates to hold the toxicant in intimate contact with
the plant surface. They also reduce washing off of the toxicant from the treated foliage by rain.
Eg., Several petroleum oils, Du pont spreader sticker, Citowett.
6. Compatibility agents
Used to intimately mix fertilizers and pesticides in spray liquids Eg. Compex
7. Activators (Synergists)
These are the chemicals having cooperative action with herbicides. The resultant
phytotoxicity is more than the effect of the two working independently.
Eg., Paraffinic oils, Ammonium thiocyanate, Urea and Ammonium chloride to enhance 2,4 –D
phytotoxicity
8. Drift control agents
Herbicide spray drifts may pose serious hazards to non-target plants. Eg., 2,4-D on
cotton. Solution is to spray herbicide liquids in large droplets.
Thickening agents eg., (Decagin, Sodium alginate)
i. Thicking agents: It is a large molecules organic compound which in aqueous systems
behaves like a gel making the spray liquid viscous. The thickened sprays produce large sized
drops that are less susceptible to spray drifts than the usual aqueous sprays e.g. Sodium
alginate, hydroxyethyl cellulose and dacagin.
ii. Particulating agent: Comprise particles of a lightly cross linked swell able polymer. It
imbibes liquids both water and oil to form a particulate aqueous and particulate oils e.g.
Norbak.
iii. Foams: Foams are liquid interphase surrounding small packets of gases usually air in
herbicide spray. Low expansion foams are under trial as drift control agents.

List of herbicides with their common name and chemical name

S.No Common Name Trade Name Chemical Name

Aliphatic carboxylic
1 Acrolein Aqualin 2-propenal
2 Allyl alcohol Allyl alcohol 2-propen-1-ol
3 TCA TCA
4 Dalapon Dalapon, Dowpan
Phenoxy Carboxylic
1 2,4,D 2,4,D; Fernoxone 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
2 2,4,5 T Weedar; Weedone 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid
Phenyl acetic acid
1 Fenac Fenac 2,3,6-trichlorophenyl acetic acid
Benzoic acid
1 Dicamba Banvel 2-methoxy - 3,6-dichloro benzoic acid
2 2,3,6 - TBA Trysben; Benzac 2,3,6-trichlorobenzoic acid
Phthalic acid
1 Naptalam Alanap; Peach thin N-1-naphthylphthalamic acid
322
2 Endothol Aquathal;
Hydrothal
Phenol
1 PCP Premerge; DNBP Pentachlorophenol
2 Dinoseb Basanite 2-sec-butyl-4,6-dinitrophenol
Dinitroaniline
1 Fluchloralin Basalin N-propyl -N(2-chloroethyl)- 4-
(trifluoromethyl) - 2,6 dinitro-aniline
2 Isopropalin Paarlon N,N-dipropyl- 4-isopropyl -2,6-dinitro
aniline
3 Pendimethalin Prowl; Herbadex; N-(1-ethylpropyl)-3,4-dimethyl-2,6-
Stomp dinitroaniline
4 Trifluralin Treflan N,N-dipropyl-4-(trifluoromethyl) - 2,6-
dinitroaniline
Benzonitrile
1 Dichlobenil Casoron 2,6, - dinitrobenzonitrile
2 Bromoxynil Brominol; Butril 3,5-dibromo-4-hydroxybenzonitrile
Triazines
1 Atrazine Aatres; Gesprim 2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-
isopropylamino-S -triazine
2 Simazine Princep; gesatop; 2-chloro-4,6-bis(ethylamino) -S
Tapazine -triazine
Urea
1 Diuron Karmex 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-
dimethylurea
2 Monuron Telvar 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea
 3 Isoproturon Tolkan; Arelon 3-(4-isopropylphenyl)-1,1-
dimethylurea
Phenyl Carbamate
1 Phenmedipham Betanol 3-(methoxycarbonyl)amino]phenyl (3-
methylphenyl)carbamate
2 Propham Chem -hoe Isopropyl phenylcarbamate
Thiocarbamate
1 Butylate Bolero; Saturn S-ethyl diisobutyl thiocarbamate
2 Thiobencarb Odram; Saturn S-4-chlorobenzyl
diethyl(thiocarbamate)
3 Metham Vepam; VPM Sodium methyl dithiocarbomate
Acid amide
1 Alachlor Lasso 2-chloro-2′,6′-diethyl-N-
methoxymethylacetanilide
2 Butachlor Machete; Delchlor N-butoxymethyl-2-chloro-2′,6′-
diethylacetanilide
Organic arsenical
1 Cacodylic acid Phyto 138; Eras Dimethyl arsonic acid
2 MAA Ansar Methane arsonic acid
Uracil
1 Bromacil Hyvar-X; Krovar 5-bromo-3-sec-butyl-6-methyluracil
-1
Diphenyl ether
1 Nitrofen TOK E 25 2,4-dichlorophenyl p-nitrophenyl ether
2 Oxyfluoren Goal 2- choloro – 1-(3-ethoxy-
4nitrophenoxy) -4-(trifluoro methyl)
benzene
Bipyridilium
1 Diquat Reglone 6,7-dihydrodipyrido[1,2-a:2′,1′-
a]pyrazinediium
2 Paraquat Gramaxone 1,1′-dimethyl-4,4′-bipyridinium
Unclassified
1 Glyphosate Round up; Glycel N-(phosphanomethyl) glycine
2 Picloram Tordon 4-amino 3,5,6 –trichloro picolinic acid
Inorganic herbicides
1 Ammoniumsulphamate
2 Sodium arsenite

HERBICIDE MIXTURES
It involves mixing of two or more herbicides used for effective and economical weed
control.

Advantages of Mixture
1. A mixture will broaden the spectrum of herbicidal action and kill a variety of weeds
2. It may increase the effectiveness;
3. In a mixture one herbicide may prevent rapid degradation of the other and increase its efficacy
4. A mixture offers the possibility of reducing the dose of each of the herbicide necessary for weed
control leading to low residue
Two types of mixtures
1. Tank mixtures made with the desired herbicides and rates before application eg., Anilophos +
2,4-D EE – rice
2. Ready mix – formulated by the manufacturer. Ready mix available in the world market eg., 2,4-
D+Glyphosate, Paraquat+2,4,-D, Atrazine+metolachlor, paraquat+oxyfluorfen, Chlorimuron
ethyl+ Metsulfuron methyl (Almix)
Interaction with water
Adequate soil moisture induce uniform germination of weeds before effectively killed by herbicides.
In soil applied herbicides, soil misture initiates herbicide absorption by germinating weeds
In post-emergence herbicides induces thick weeed growth which can be killed by single application
Soil applied herbicides fail when there is dry spell of 10 – 15 days after application due to photo-
decompostion, volatilization, Efficacy of these herbicides can be improved by incorporation
Optimum soil moisture is desirable to activate soil applied herbicides. Excess of it leach the
herbicide to crop seed & root zone & injure the crop & poor weed control.
Heavy shwer wash down the foliage applied herbicide from the treated foliage before it is absorbed
intp plamalemma. Use of filming agent & invert emulsion spray liquid reduce this effect.
Cotinuous wet weather induce herbicide injury in certain crops by turning them over succulent.
Maize plant normally tolerant to atrazine becomes susceptible in wet weather coupled with low
temperature.
Quality of water used for spraying herbicides also determine herbicide action. Dusty water reduces
action of paraquat & diquat. Cacl2 rich water reduces glyphoste phyto-toxicity.
Interaction with Fertilizers
Herbicides interact with fertilizers in field. When fast growing weeds get ample N from fertilizer
show greater susceptiabilty to 2,4-D, glyphosate, dalapon than the slow growing weeds on poor
fertility lands.
High rates of atrazine are more toxic to soybean, maize, sorghum when applied with high rates of
P.Activity of diuron, simazine increase with high rates of P. N fertilizers invigorate meristematic
activity in crop 7 make them susceptible to herbicides. Winter grain is more susceptible to 2,4-D in
high fertility soil esp with N than in ave, fertility condition.
Interaction with agrochemicals
Herbicides have both synergistic & antagonistic effect with other agrochemicals.
Synergistic: Combination of diuron with phorate cotton seedling injury. Loss of selectivity of
propanil to rice when applied with malathion, carbaryl, azinophos methyl.Herbicide- insecticide
interaction noted even when they are applied separately at 14 days interval. Chlorinated insecticide
interact up to seven days before or after application of propanil. Cabofuron seed treatment enhance
phytotoxicity of alachlor in barley. Carbaryl tank-mixed with linuron injure carrot. Cotton growth is
affected by the combination of trifluralin & PNCB (fungicide)
Antagonistic: malathion protect wheat & maize against trifluralin.Dexon (fungicide) reduces atrazine
injury to cucumber 7 soybean.Disulfoton decreases phytotoxicity of fluometuron to cotton &
metribuzin to soybean.
Interaction between two herbicides: Antagonistic to reduce weed kill e.g. dichlofop with 2,4-D
against wild oat.
Synergistic to improve crop selectivity, e.g. pre-plant fluchloralin protect snapbean against pre-
emergence metobromuron

LECTURE 12
SELECTIVITY AND MODE OF ACTION OF HERBICIDE

Selective herbicides have been used extensively since the introduction of 2,4-D in the late
'40s. They have been one of the miracles of modem agriculture, releasing thousands of people
from the drudgery of hand weeding. A selective herbicide is one that kills or retards the growth
of an unwanted plant or "weed" while causing little or no injury to desirable species. 2,4-D used
in turf will kill many of the broadleaf weeds that infest turf while not significantly injuring the
turfgrass. But selectivity is a fickle, dynamic process. Excessive rates of 2,4-D applied to
stressed turfgrass may injure the turf. Selectivity has always depended on proper herbicide
application. Normally herbicides work selectively within a given rate of application. Too little
herbicide and no weed control, too much and crop injury may occur. But selectivity is more
complex than this. It is a dynamic process that involves the interaction of the plant, the herbicide,
and the environment.

I. The Plant
Factors that involve plant response include: genetic inheritance, age, growth rate, morphology,
physiology, and biochemistry. The genetic make-up of a plant determines how that plant
responds to herbicides and its environment. The age of the plant often determines how well an
herbicide works, older plants are generally much more difficult to control than seedlings.
Pre-emergence herbicides often work only on plants during the germination process and
will have little effect on older plants. Plants which are growing rapidly are usually more
susceptible to herbicides. The morphology of a plant can help to determine its susceptibility to
herbicides. Annual weeds in a deep rooted crop can be controlled because the herbicide is
concentrated in the first inch of soil where the weeds and weed seeds are. Weeds with exposed
growing points may be killed by contact sprays, while grasses with protected growing points
may be burned back, but escape permanent injury. Certain leaf properties can allow better spray
retention and thus better kill (broadleaf species vs. grasses or hairy vs. smooth leaves). Sprays
tend to be retained on pigweed and mustard leaves and bounce off of onion or grass species.

The physiology of a plant can determine how much of an herbicide will be absorbed onto
the plant and the speed with which it is transported to its site of action. Plants with thick waxy
cuticles or hairy leaf surfaces may not absorb sufficient herbicide to be injured. Wetting agents in
herbicide formulations are used to combat these leaf characteristics and increase absorption. The
transport rate of herbicides in plants varies. Usually susceptible plants transport herbicide more
readily than resistant ones. Some plants can adsorb herbicides along the transport pathway,
preventing them from reaching their site of action.
Biochemical reactions also account for selectivity. Most herbicides have a biochemical
reaction within susceptible plants which accounts for their herbicidal activity. They may bind to
critical enzymes within susceptible plants and block important metabolic processes (glyphosate),
they may block photosynthesis (diuron) or respiration, or they may affect cell division
(trifluralin). Herbicides may be absorbed as relatively innocuous chemicals (2,4-DB) and
activated to deadly compounds (2,4-D) within susceptible plants. Other herbicides (atrazine) may
be detoxified within some plants (com) while killing weeds which fail to metabolize the
herbicide.

II. The Herbicide

Herbicides are quite specific in their structures as to whether or not herbicidal activity is
possible. Slight changes in conformation or structure will alter herbicidal activity. Trifluralin and
benefin differ in only a methyl group moved from one side of the molecule to the other, yet
trifluralin is about twice as active as benefin. Esters of phenoxy (MCPP etc.) acids are usually
much more active than are amines. The manner of formulation of an herbicide can affect its
selectivity. The most extreme case of this might be granular formulations which bounce off
desirable plants to reach the soil where they then limit germinating weeds. Other substances
known as adjuvants or surfactants are often added to improve the application properties of a
liquid formulation and increase activity. The manner in which an herbicide is applied can affect
its selectivity.
When a broad-spectrum postemergence herbicide like glyphosate is applied as a shielded,
directed, or wicked application within a susceptible crop, susceptible foliage is avoided and
selectivity is achieved with this normally non-selective herbicide. Herbicides can be grouped into
families based on the type of action that they have within affected plants (their mode of action).

III. The Environment

There are many ways that the environment interacts with herbicide selectivity. The soil
determines how much of soil applied herbicides are available for activity. Sandy soils, with low
organic content, are much more active and conversely less selective than clay soils with high
organic content at a given rate of herbicide application.
Irrigation or rainfall amount and timing influence the depth to which herbicides may move in the
soil and plant growth and stress, all of which can increase or decrease herbicide selectivity.
Temperature affects the rate of herbicide transport, the rate of biochemical reactions, plant
growth, plant stress, and ultimately herbicide selectivity. Wind, relative humidity, insects, plant p
athogens, and nutritional status also affect plant growth and stress which can increase or decrease
herbicide selectivity.

MODE OF ACTION
The term mode of action refers to the sequence of events from absorption into plants to plant
death. The mode of action of the herbicide influences how the herbicide is applied. For example,
contact herbicides that disrupt cell membranes, such as acifluorfen (Blazer) or paraquat
(Gramoxone Extra), need to be applied postemergence to leaf tissue in order to be effective.
Seedling growth inhibitors, such as trifluralin (Treflan) and alachlor (Lasso), need to be applied
to the soil to effectively control newly germinated seedlings.
 To be effective, herbicides must 1) adequately contact plants; 2) be absorbed by plants; 3) move
within the plants to the site of action, without being deactivated; and 4) reach toxic levels at the
site of action. The application method used, whether preplant incorporated, preemergence, or
postemergence, determines whether the herbicide will contact germinating seedlings, roots,
shoots, or leaves of plants.
The herbicide families listed below are grouped on the basis of how they affect plants
(THEIR MODE OF ACTION)
1. The Growth Regulator Herbicides (2,4-D, MCPP, dicamba, and triclopyr). These are mostly
foliar applied herbicides which are systemic and translocate in both the xylem and phloem of the
plant. They mimic natural plant auxins, causing abnormal growth and disruption of the
conductive tissues of the plant. The injury from this family of herbicides consists of twisted,
malformed leaves and stems.

2. The inhibitors of amino acid synthesis (glyphosate, halosulfuron, imazethapyr, and

sulfometuron). Both foliar and soil applied herbicides are in this family. Glyphosate translocates
in the phloem with photosynthate produced in the leaves. Others in this family move readily after
root or foliar absorption. These herbicides inhibit certain enzymes critical to the production of
amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Once protein production stops,
growth stops. Symptoms are stunting and symptoms associated with lack of critical proteins.

3. Cell membrane disrupters - with soil activity (oxyfluorfen, lactofen, and acifluorfen). Soil
and foliar applied with limited movement in soil. These herbicides enter the plant through leaves,
stems, and roots, but are limited in their movement once they enter the plant. Membrane damage
is due to lipid peroxidation. Symptoms are necrosis of leaves and stem.

4. Lipid biosynthesis inhibitors (diclofop, fluazifop, sethoxydim, and clethodim). Foliar applied
Diclofop has both soil and foliar activity. Herbicides in this family move in both the xylem and
phloem of the plant and inhibit enzymes critical in the production of lipids. Lipids are necessary
to form plant membranes which are essential to growth and metabolic processes. Symptoms
include stunting and death of tissue within the growing points of plants.

5. Pigment inhibitors (norflurazon, fluridone, and amitrol). Soil applied and move in the xylem
except amitrol, which moves in both phloem and xylem. These herbicides inhibit carotinoid
biosyntehsis, leaving chlorophyll unprotected from photooxidation. This results in foliage which
lacks color. Symptoms include albino or bleached appearance of foliage.

6. Growth inhibitors of shoots (thiocarbamate herbicides including: EPTC, cycloate, pebulate,

and molinate). Soil applied and somewhat volatile, requiring incorporation. Enter the plant
through the roots and translocated through the xylem with the transpiration stream to the growing
points in the shoot. Mode of action is unclear, but affects developing leaves in growing points of
susceptible plants. Symptoms include stunting and distortion of seedling leaves.

7. Herbicides which disrupt cell division (trifluralin, DCPA, dithiopyr, oryzalin, pronamide,
pendimethalin, and napropamide). All are soil applied, with limited movement in the soil.
Absorbed through roots or emerging shoot tips. Once absorption takes place, movement is
limited (site of action is near the site of absorption). These herbicides inhibit cell division or
mitosis, except pronamide and napropamide which stop cell division before mitosis. Symptoms
include stunting and swollen root tips.

8. Cell membrane disrupters - no soil activity (paraquat, diquat, glufosinate, acids, oils, soaps).
These herbicides are foliar applied with no soil activity. They enter the plant through the leaves
and stems and do not move significantly within the plant once absorbed. These herbicides either
act directly on cell membranes (acids, soaps. oils) or react with a plant process to form
destructive compounds which result in membrane damage. Symptoms include rapid necrosis of
the leaves and stem.

9. Inhibitors of photosynthesis (atrazine, simazine, metribuzin, cyanazine, prometryn, diuron,

linuron, tebuthiuron, and bromacil). These are soil applied herbicides, however, all except
simazine also have foliar activity. They move readily in the plant in the xylem with the
transpiration stream where they concentrate in the leaves at the site of photosynthesis. Once there
they block the electron transport system of photosynthesis, causing a build up of destructive high
energy products which destroy chlorophyll and ultimately the leaf tissues. Symptoms include
chlorotic (yellowed ) leaves which become necrotic.

Selective herbicides have been used extensively since the introduction of 2,4-D in the late
'40s. They have been one of the miracles of modem agriculture, releasing thousands of people
from the drudgery of hand weeding. A selective herbicide is one that kills or retards the growth
of an unwanted plant or "weed" while causing little or no injury to desirable species. 2,4-D used
in turf will kill many of the broadleaf weeds that infest turf while not significantly injuring the
turfgrass. But selectivity is a fickle, dynamic process. Excessive rates of 2,4-D applied to
stressed turfgrass may injure the turf. Selectivity has always depended on proper herbicide
application. Normally herbicides work selectively within a given rate of application. Too little
herbicide and no weed control, too much and crop injury may occur. But selectivity is more
complex than this. It is a dynamic process that involves the interaction of the plant, the herbicide,
and the environment.

.
 LECTURE 13
HERBICIDE PERSISITANCE AND DEGRADATION IN PLANTS AND SOIL
&HERBICIDE RESIDUE AND MANAGEMENT

Agrochemical usage becomes inevitable in the present day intensive agricultural system to obtain
large and quality harvests. Agrochemicals are classified and used according to the target
organisms intended to be controlled. Of all the target organisms, weeds cause by far the greatest
economic loss due to their interference in crop production. Hence the herbicides are the most
common class of agrochemicals used in the world and occupy 48% of the total expenditure.
Europe, Asia, and the United States are the largest consumers of agrochemicals
Many herbicides used on crops decompose quickly enough that they pose no hazard to
succeeding crops. However, several herbicides commonly persist in the soil long enough to
injure subsequent crops. In addition, misapplication, crop failures, late applications and adverse
weather conditions can result in carryover (residual) of herbicides that normally decompose
fairly rapidly. Herbicide residue and persistence in soils is considerable because they may,
1. Injure sensitive crop plants in a cropping system
2. Be absorbed by immediate and succeeding crops resulting in the accumulation of
residues within the plant produce.
3. Build up of herbicide residues increase their rate of dissipation due to the repeated
application of them.
4. Inhibit the growth of beneficial micro-organisms.
1. FATE OF HERBICIDE IN SOIL
The prediction of herbicide movement and fate in soils (Figure 1) represents an important
strategy in limiting their environmental impact. Physical, chemical, and biological processes
regulate herbicide mobility and degradation in soil: rainfall and irrigation water can move
herbicides along the soil profile; sites negatively charged of clay mineral surfaces and/or organic
matter can adsorb herbicides in their cationic form at soil pH; microbial activity can promote
herbicide transformation.
Fig 1. Dissipation of Herbicide applied to the soil
1.1. Pathways of Herbicide Dissipation
As soon as a herbicide is applied to its target, a number of processes immediately begin to
remove the compound from the original site of application.  This removal is the process of
environmental fate.  For the herbicide which is intercepted by plants, the chemical may be taken
up by the plant itself, may be washed off of the foliage by precipitation or irrigation onto the soil,
may undergo photo degradation on plant surfaces, or may volatilize back into the air.  The
herbicide that falls directly upon the soil or is washed onto the soil can also undergo a number of
processes (Figure 1).
There are two ways by which herbicides dissipate from the root zone of the soils. These are (I).
Degradation and (II). Transport processes. 
Different degradation and transfer processes which control the movement and the fate of
pesticides in the environment are reported in the Table 1. Each process can be a combination of
more fundamental processes including adsorption, convection, and diffusion. Hence the factors
affecting herbicide dissipation in the soil (Figure 1) include:
1. Microbial decomposition, 2. Chemical decomposition, 3. Soil adsorption 4. Volatilization, 5.
Photodecomposition, 6. Plant uptake and metabolism
7. Leaching and 8. Surface runoff
The degree to which each mechanism will contribute to the overall loss of the herbicide is in turn
dependent on the physicochemical properties of the herbicide (e.g., water solubility, sorptive
affinity), characteristics of the soil (e.g., pH, organic content, biomass, redox status),
environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, moisture), and management practices (e.g.,
application rate, formulation type).
Table. 1. Movement and Degradation of herbicides in environment
Process Consequences Factors
Movement
Physical drift Movement due to Wind speed, drop
wind action sizes
Volatilization Loss due to Vapour pressure,
evaporation from wind speed,
soils, plants and temperature
waters
Adsorption Removal due to Clay content,
interaction with organic matter,
soils, plants and moisture
sediments
Absorption Uptake by plant Cell membrane
roots or animal transport, contact
ingestion time
Leaching Horizontal and Water content, soil
vertical texture, clay and
movement organic matter
downward content
through the soil
Erosion Wind and water Rain fall, wind
action speed, sizes of clay
and organic matter
Degradation
Photochemical Absorption of Chemical structure,
sunlight (eg. UV intensity and
radiation) duration of exposure
Microbial Degradation by Environmental
microorganisms factors (pH,
moisture,
temperature),
organic matter
content
Chemical Hydrolysis and pH conditions, same
redox reactions as microbial
degradation
Metabolism Adsorption by Adsorption capacity,
plants or animals metabolism,
interaction with
microorganisms
 2. FACTORS OF HERBICIDE FATE IN SOIL
2.1. Degradation / decomposition
Decomposition of herbicides involves changes in their moiety by their molecular
disintegration to non phytotoxic constituents. This is a permanent source of herbicide dissipation
and is therefore, considered more important than the transfer of herbicides.
2.1.1. Microbial decomposition
Microbial decomposition is one of the most important methods by which herbicides
are decomposed in soil. Microorganisms in the soil metabolize organic herbicides either
aerobically (with oxygen) or anaerobically (without oxygen). In most cases, the microorganisms
consume the herbicide molecules and utilize them as a source of energy and nutrients for growth
and reproduction. Microbes can also degrade herbicides by a process called co metabolism,
which occurs when the organic herbicide is not used by the microorganism for growth but is
metabolized in conjunction with another substrate used for growth. Some herbicides are
decomposed easily by microorganisms while others are not. Herbicides having polar groups like
- CH, -COO, -NH2 and NO2 succumb easily to their microbial decomposition, eg. 2,4-D,
diuron, EPTC, atrazine ETC. Specific microbes have now been identified which biodegrade
particular herbicides. Repeated applications of a herbicdes to the same soil help in building up
their population, which in turn biodegrades thee subsequent doses of the herbicide in question,
much faster. Biodegradation of herbicides is characterized by its initial slow rate. During this
phase, called the lag phase (Figure 2), the specific microbial population builds up itself. After
this, there is a rapid increase in the activity of herbicide degradation till there is lack of the
substrate. After the herbicide is degraded, the microbial population may return to the original
level, or it may stabilize at a level greater than before application (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Effect of herbicide on microbial populations over

a period of time. (a) shows microbial populations returning to original level after
 herbicide is decomposed; (b) shows microbial population stabilizing at a level
greater than before herbicide application
2,4-D, diuron and dalapon are typical examples of biodegradable herbicides. For eg. 2,4-D,
biodegraded in soils by 14 species of bacteria, 2 sps of actinomycetes and one fungus
(Aspergillus Niger). The products of its sequential degradation are CO2, Cl and H2O (Figure 3).
The ester formulations of 2,4-D take longer time for their biodegradation than its amine and
sodium salts. Diuron and the like substituted Urea herbicides are attacked by several species of
bacteria and at least, two fungi and CO2, Cl and NH3 are the end products.

Figure 3 Degradation pathway of 2, 4-D by soil bacteria.

2.1.2. Chemical decomposition
Decomposition of herbicides in the soil purely by chemical (non biological)
processes is common for some herbicides. In variance with their microbial decomposition, the
chemical decomposition of herbicides starts immediately and continues at a steady rate till the
availability of the reactant. Decomposition may occur as the result of processes such as
oxidation-reduction and hydrolysis.
Oxidation-reduction reactions involve the transfer of electrons (negatively charged
particles) from one substrate to another. A variety of compounds exist within the organic matter
matrix that has the potential to receive electrons from or donate electrons to herbicide molecules.
These reactions are not well understood but apparently occur in soil, resulting in reduced
herbicidal activity.
Hydrolysis is a process in which the herbicide molecules react with water. Usually,
chemical bonds in the herbicide molecule are broken and one or more atoms or groups of atoms
in the herbicide molecule are replaced by hydroxyl ions (OH-) from water. This change in
molecular structure may inactivate the herbicide (Figure 4).
 Figure 4. Chemical hydrolysis of atrazine.
Even very dry field soil has enough moisture for some hydrolysis to occur.
Hydrolysis is the major method by which sulfonylurea herbicides such as Ally Classic, and
Glean are degraded in soils. The major hydrolytic pathway in soil for the sulfonylurea herbicides
is the cleavage of the sulfonylurea bridge, resulting in sulfonamide and heterocyclic amine
molecules (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Breakdown of Glean (chlorsulfuron) in soil by chemical hydrolysis.

Cleavage by hydrolysis is pH sensitive. As the soil pH increases, the rate of chemical hydrolysis
in the soil decreases. Therefore, sulfonylurea herbicides degrade more rapidly at a lower soil pH
than at a higher soil pH. For this reason, there is more potential for Classic or Glean herbicide
carryover in higher pH soils than in lower pH soils. In addition, chemical hydrolysis of
sulfonylurea herbicides is faster during the summer when soil temperatures are warm than in the
fall and winter when soils are cool.
2.1.3. Photodecomposition
Photodecomposition is the degradation of herbicides to specific non – phytotoxic components by
sunlight (solar energy). This process is also referred as photolysis. In the photodecomposition
process, the herbicide molecule absorbs energy from sunlight, causing chemical reactions that
result in herbicide inactivation. Certain dinitroaniline herbicides, for example trifluralin, nitralin
and fluchloralin, are readily degraded by sunlight if left on the soil surface. Soil incorporation
will reduce or eliminate photodecomposition. So such herbicides are usually incorporated in the
soil immediately after their application to save their photolysis losses. Photolysis reactions can
be grouped as direct or indirect.
 Direct photolysis:  The herbicide itself absorbs light energy and then
reacts.  The rate of photolytic reaction is directly correlated to the overlap of the absorption
spectrum of the herbicide and the spectral distribution of sunlight.
 Indirect photolysis:  Occurs when a chemical species other than the
compound of interest absorbs light energy and initiates a series of reactions that eventually
degrades the herbicide.  These other chemical species are known as photosensitizers and can
include naturally occurring organic and inorganic species, including humic materials, clay
minerals, ozone, and various free radicals produced by the interaction of sunlight with air and
water.
2.2. Transport Processes
   The transfer of herbicides is their induced absence in active form
from the root zone of the crop, without change in their molecular moiety. The description of
transport can be broken down into a series of fundamental processes, all interacting closely and
often simultaneously.  
2.2.1. Soil adsorption
Adsorption is an important factor that makes herbicides unavailable for uptake by plants.
Adsorption is the attraction or adhesion of molecules or ions to the surface of soil particles
(colloids). Almost all soil-applied herbicides are adsorbed to some extent. Weed control is
inversely proportional to how much herbicide is adsorbed to the soil. Normally, the adsorption of
herbicides occurs on both the clay and humus fractions. In general, small increases in the organic
matter content of a soil greatly increase its ability to adsorb herbicides. A soil high in organic
matter content will generally require a higher herbicide rate than a soil with less organic matter.
Adsorbed herbicide molecules are unavailable for biological, physical, and chemical processes
until released from the soil into the soil solution or vapor phase. Herbicides generally are more
tightly adsorbed in dry soils than in wet soils. Water molecules compete and displace herbicide
molecules from adsorption sites, making the herbicides available for plant uptake.
2.2.2. Volatilization
Volatilization of herbicides is the vaporization of an herbicide to a gaseous form.
Herbicides vary widely in volatility and loss to the atmosphere as a gas. Herbicide volatilization
increases as the temperature rises. Usually, very little volatilization occurs once the herbicide is
mixed into the soil either by mechanical incorporation or rainfall. Volatility loss is greater when
herbicides are applied to a moist soil surface than a dry soil surface.
2.2.3. Leaching and Surface runoff
Leaching is the movement of herbicides through soil by water. Leaching may occur
in any direction (down, up, sideways), depending on water movement, but usually refers to the
downward movement of a herbicide as water percolates down through the soil following
precipitation or irrigation. The movement of a herbicide by leaching is important to weed control
effectiveness, herbicide carryover, and the potential for environmental problems. When a
herbicide is leached downward, the concentration of herbicide near the soil surface is reduced,
lessening the chances for herbicide carryover problems.
Leaching is greater in coarse textured soils (sandy loams, etc.) than in finer-textured soils (clay
loams, etc.), and is limited by lack of rainfall and by compaction layers. The tendency of an
herbicide to leach is determined by its solubility in water and its soil adsorption tendencies. The
dinitroanalines, for example, have very low water solubility and moderate soil adsorption, and
thus have a low leaching potential. Herbicides that are strongly adsorbed to soil particles, like
glyphosate and paraquat, cannot be leached unless the soil particles are moved by the water. Soil
pH can play a major role in how tightly a herbicide is adsorbed to soil particles. Intact herbicide
molecules may be carried by surface water flow. They may be adsorbed to soil particles that
move, dissolved in surface runoff water, or carried intact by surface runoff water.
2.2.4. Plant uptake and metabolism
Plant roots may absorb (take up) herbicides from soils and plant foliage may
intercept foliar-applied chemicals. Crops and plants tolerant to a herbicide often metabolize the
chemical into non-toxic substances. Differential metabolism is often the basis for herbicide
selectivity. For example, corn and sorghum absorb and metabolize (detoxify) atrazine, Plants
susceptible to these herbicides are incapable of metabolizing and detoxifying the chemical
rapidly enough to escape the herbicidal activity. These factors result in herbicide breakdown or
deactivation; however, herbicide concentrations in soils are also affected by the movement of
intact herbicide molecules via leaching and surface runoff.

3. PERSISTENCE OF HERBICIDES IN SOILS

Herbicides are applied to soil for the control of certain weeds under different situations. For
effective control of weeds, herbicides must remain in soil in an active and available form until
the purpose is accomplished. However, the longer persistence poses a hazard to subsequent
land use and is undesirable. The length of time that an herbicide remains active in the soil is
called persistence or soil residual life. The soil persistence of an herbicide is often stated as
“half-life,” which is the amount/ length of time it takes to decompose 50 percent of the applied
chemical to a herbicidally inactive form. The quantity of herbicide that remains in soil after its
mission is accomplished is referred to as residue. Herbicide carryover is a term used to describe
the presence of an herbicide in soil after its weed control mission has been accomplished.
Why herbicides persist in soil?
(i) The persistence of herbicides in soils poses a hazard when, Highly persistence herbicides
are used
(ii) Crop failure necessitates replanting
(iii) A susceptible crop follow a short term crop which received a persistent herbicide
(iv) Decomposition of the applied herbicide proceeds very slow.
The relative persistence of some common herbicides in soil when applied at
recommended rates for weed control are given in the table below.

Table 4. Relative persistence of some common herbicides in soil

Less than 3 3 - 6 months > 6 months
months

Aminotriazole Isoproturon Atrazine

Dalapon Pyrazon Diuron

Metoxuron Linuron Methazde

Propachlor Diallate Simazine

Terbutryn Fluchloralin Trifluralin

Pendimethalin

Butachlor
Majority of the herbicides have relatively short life in the soil. Under warm and moist
conditions 2,4-D persists for only 2 – 3 weeks, and MCPA for 6 – 8 weeks. In all the cases
microbial break down takes place by the degradation of side chain to the phenol ring,
hydroxylation and cleavage and subsequent degradation to succinate and other naturally
occurring organic acids (Loss, 1975). Among other herbicides which break down readily in the
soil are CDAA and propachlor (3- 5 weeks), alachlor (6 – 10 weeks) glyphosate and endothall (a
few weeks) and aminotriazole (4 – 6 weeks).
Paraquat and diquat may persist in soils for a number of years, break down being
hindered by their adsorption on to soil colloids. Simazine, or atrazine applied at less than 2 kg
ha-1 may carry over into the next year and high rates (10 – 20 kg ha -1) may leave residues in soil
for more than three years.

4. FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSISTENCE OF HERBICIDE IN SOIL

4.1. Concentration and rate of application
 At the recommended dosage of herbicide the problem may not arise and they
selectively kill the weeds. But when the dose is more than the recommended rates which occur
through indiscriminate usage and improper method of application, there is possibility of residual
hazards in soil.
4.2. Leaching
The principal factors influencing leaching of herbicides in soil are soil texture,
soil permeability, adsorption by soil colloids and their water solubility. Some of the considerable
attributes of leaching include
a) Crop injury (of susceptible crop plants)
b) Accumulation in toxic amounts especially in tolerant crop plants.
4.3. Soil type
Generally persistence is more in clay soils than other types of soil.
4.4. Herbicide adsorption
Soil and less in organic matter content have more herbicide available and cause more problems
of persistence.
4.5. Soil pH
Herbicides are strongly adsorbed in acid soil and less in alkaline soils. However, the
chlorsulfuron application to neutral and alkaline soil low in organic matter and oxides may lead
to ground water pollution, unless application was strictly controlled.
4.6. Microbial decomposition
The microorganisms are capable of breaking the organic herbicide molecule resulting in
deactivation of the compound. If the herbicides are resistant to degradation by microorganisms,
then the herbicides degrade slowly in soil with increase in their persistence posing residual
hazards.
4.7. Repeated application
Repeated application of the same herbicide in a mono crop sequence may cause accumulation of
residues in soil which inturn will affect the sensitive crops.
4.8. Climatic conditions
The climatic variables involved in herbicide degradation are moisture, temperature and
sunlight. Herbicide degradation rates generally increase with increased temperature and soil
moisture. Degradation is accelerated on very sunny days. This sensitivity to light and loss by
volatility are primary reasons for soil incorporation.
 5. MANAGEMENT OF HERBICIDE RESIDUES IN SOIL
Various management techniques available to minimize the residue hazards in soil
and runoff water are grouped under three categories as follows.
1. Cultural and Mechanical management practices
2. Deactivation of herbicides
3. Reducing the availability in soil by different application techniques
5. 1. Cultural and Mechanical management practices
5.1.1. Integrated weed management
Integrated weed management (IWM) involves the application of a variety of management
practices to control weeds. Herbicides are used only when weed populations exceed an economic
threshold level that justifies their application. Field scouting is required to monitor weed
populations. Nonchemical weed control methods, such as crop rotation, cultivation, competitive
hybrids, rotary hoeing and altered planting dates, are emphasized as management practices that
can reduce the need for herbicides
5.1.2. Ploughing / cultivating the land
Tillage operations help in bringing deep present herbicide residues to soil surface
which would aid in decontamination by volatilization. Ploughing with disc plough or inter-
cultivators reduce the herbicide toxicology, as the applied herbicide is mixed to a large volume
of soil and get diluted. Olson et al., (1998) state that the atrazine loss was low in the chisel-disk
system with incorporation compared to no till and ridge till systems.
5.1.3. Incorporation of herbicides
Because most herbicide loss is in the solution or water phase and not with soil particles,
mechanical incorporation of herbicide will help reduce herbicide runoff by placing it below the
mixing zone eg., Atrazine. Increased availability of field cultivators that can retain residue on
the soil surface makes incorporation compatible with minimum tillage.
5.1.4. Crop rotation
Soil can be decontaminated of herbicide residues by deliberately including crop
plants that are resistant to the particular herbicide. Crop rotation spreads the planting and
herbicide application season, reducing the risk of encountering widespread herbicide runoff
during a single runoff event.
5.1.5. Growing herbicide tolerant crops
Certain herbicide tolerant crops can reduce herbicide residues in a soil by
absorbing and deactivating these in their tissues. Maize and millets, for instance, are very good
consumers of triazine herbicides. Vetiver was not affected by exposure to the herbicides, atrazine
and diuron, at concentrations as high as 2,000 mg L-1 levels which are likely to be encountered in
the environment only in situations of accidental spillage, or direct application to waterways (Cull
et al. 2000)

5.1.6. Light irrigation after application

 Continuous moist soils often result in more rapid breakdown of herbicides due to creation
of favorable conditions for microbial activity. While controlled irrigations enhance all modes of
deactivation, heavy irrigations leach herbicides out of the root zone of the crop.
5.2. Deactivation of herbicides
5.2.1. Addition of organic matter
Pesticides are inactivated by plant residues or organic matter incorporated into soil.
The organic matter acts in two ways. Primarily application of FYM adsorbs the herbicide
molecular in their colloidal fraction and makes them. Unavailable for crops and weeds and after
a lag phase microbial population thriving on organic matter starts decomposing the herbicide
residues at a faster rate due to moisture holding capacity of high organic matter soils.
5.2.2. Use of non phytotoxic oil, adjuvants and surfactants
They reduce the residual hazard besides enhancing the weed killing potency. An
adjuvant is defined as a substance without significant pesticide properties, added to an
agricultural chemical to aid or modify the activity of this chemical. Adjuvants function as
spreaders, stickers, antifoamers, compatibility agents or activators of pesticidal formulations and
are often known to improve the efficacy of post emergence herbicides (McWhorter,1982 and
Chandran & Singh, 1999). Adjuvants modify certain physical characteristics of the spray
solution like surface tension and wetting ability, which may modify the spray solution’s response
to move in the soil (Walker 1980, Roberts 1992, Singh and Tan 1996).
One of the beneficial effects of adjuvants especially surfactants is a reduction in the amount of
water available for evaporation from the soil surface (Bayer and Foy, 1982). Addition of Olejan
to the trifluralin applications causes a significant increase of the herbicide degradation rate, both
in laboratory and pot-field experiments (Swarcewicz 1998). Application of cationic
adjuvants may have led to the formation of neutral species by binding to certain anionic
molecules in the soil system. The resultant complex may have dissolved the herbicide rendering
it less mobile in soil (Chandran and Singh, 1999).
Surfactants are important small group of chemicals among adjuvants. They are
added to the already formulated products to aid in manufacturing process and to improve the
application. They act as emulsifiers as well as wetters and spreaders (Hall et al., 1993). They can
cause variable effects on herbicide movement based on soil type, concentration of herbicide and
surfactants, and pre leaching conditions (Foy 1992).
5.2.3. Use of absorbents, protectants and antidotes
They are applied to the soil, crop seed or transplanted to protect the crop from
herbicide injury. The mode of action may be due either to deactivation or adsorption of the
herbicide, preventing its absorption and translocation by the crop.
Inactivation of herbicide residues by adsorption on colloidal particles is an
important method of decontamination. Activated charcoal has a high adsorptive capacity
because of its extremely large surface area and may either be broadcasted or applied as narrow
band over the seed at the time of planting. Yelverton et al. (1992) reported that the application of
activated carbon @ 8 and 18 kg /ha to the tobacco along with imazaquin and chlorimuron
reduced the phytotoxicity besides increasing the yield to two to four fold.
5.2.4. Use of safeners
 Herbicide safeners are a group of structurally diverse synthetic chemicals with the
unique ability to protect crop plants from injury by certain herbicides (Farago et al., 1994). They
are used commercially to improve herbicide selectivity between crops and weed species and can
be either as a mixture with the herbicide (Table 4) or as a seed treatment to the crop seed prior to
sowing.
5.3. Reducing the availability in soil by different application techniques
5.3.1. Use of optimum and reduced dose of herbicide
The indiscriminate use of herbicides leaves behind residues in food and produce.
Hence, the hazards of herbicide residues can be minimized by the application of chemicals at the
latest dosage by which the desired weed control is achieved. Applying herbicides in bands rather
as broadcast will reduce the total amount of herbicide to be applied. This will be practicable in
line sown crops or crops raised along ridges, such as cotton, sugarcane, sorghum, maize etc.
Table 4. Commonly used herbicide safeners
Safner Crop Herbicide Applicati
on
method
Benoxacor Maize Metolachlor Spray as
mixture
with
herbicide
Cloquintoc Wheat Clodinafop- Spray as
et-mexyl progaryl mixture
with
herbicide
Cyometrin Sorgh Metolachlor Seed
il um treatment
Dichlormi Maize EPTC, Pre-plant
d butylate, incorporat
vernolate ed with
herbicide
Fenclorim Rice Pretilachlor Spray as
mixture
with
herbicide
Flurazole Sorgh Alachlor Seed
um treatment
Fluxofeni Sorgh Metolachlor Seed
m um treatment
Furilazole Cereal Halosulfuron Spray as
s methyl mixture
 with
herbicide
Mefenpyr- Wheat Fenoxaprop- Spray as
diethyl , rye, ethyl mixture
tritical with
e, herbicide
barley
MG 191 Maize Thiocarbama Spray as
tes mixture
with
herbicide
Naphthalic Maize EPTC, Seed
anhydride butylate, treatment
vernolate
Oxabetrini Sorgh Metolachlor Seed
l um treatment

5.3.2. Use of herbicides in combinations and in split doses

Use of herbicides in combinations can reduced the rates of application of highly
persistence molecules in soil and in turn reduced their concentration. For example combining
atrazine with other herbicides will reduce the atrazine application rates compared to atrazine
alone. Pre emergence mixes often contain atrazine plus a herbicide for grasses and small-seed
broad leaves. Post emergence applications usually include atrazine plus another broadleaf
herbicide.
Applying herbicide in splits will reduce the amount of herbicide available to runoff
at any one given time. An advantage to a split application is the early application is made at a
time where there is less potential for herbicide runoff.
5.3.3. Method and time of application
Band application is the process by which herbicide is applied is a narrow band
varying in width. In area in-between the treated bands weed control is maintained through
mechanical cultivation (Hansen et al., 2000). Applying atrazine in a narrow band in crop rows is
an effective method of reducing the total amount of atrazine applied. One or more well-timed
cultivations are necessary to prevent inter-row weeds from establishing and competing with the
crop. Both pre emergence and post emergence herbicides may be banded.
5.3.4. Alternative use of herbicides
Avoid repeated use of herbicides with similar modes of action to reduce the
potential development of herbicide resistance. For eg. Atrazine, mainly a broadleaf herbicide,
can be replaced either partially or totally in some cropping systems.

5.3.5. Match rates to weed infestation levels

 In many fields most weeds are clustered, with as much as 70-90 percent of the land
having very few weeds. At harvest it is possible to map these areas so herbicide can be applied
only where needed. Rate and site specific technology, although in the developmental stages, will
enable adjustment of herbicide rates according to soil organic matter, soil pH, soil texture, and
weed type and location within a field.
6. Conclusion
Herbicides have been identified as indispensable part of crop production
programme. However, to the sustainability of environment, the repeated and indiscriminate use o
herbicides should be avoided. While using herbicides all the management aspects should be kept
in mind for effective crop production as well as protection.
 LECTURE 14
HERBICIDE RESISTANT WEEDS & THEIR IMPACT ON WEED MANAGEMENT

Herbicide tolerance and resistance

Herbicide Resistance: Naturally occurring inheritable ability of some weed biotypes within a
population to survive a herbicide treatment that would, under conditions of use effectively
control the weed population (Rubin, 1991)
 Senecio vulgaris resistance to triazine group of herbicide was noticed during 1970
 World wide 183 weeds have developed resistance to herbicides till 1997
 In India the most common example is Philaris minor
 The highest resistance in 61 weed species was recorded for atrazine
 USA alone found to have 49 herbicide resistant weeds, the highest in the world

Tolerance: The term tolerance refers to the partial resistance and presently the usage of the term
is discouraged due to inconsistency in quantifying the degree of tolerance.

Gross Resistance: When a weed biotype exhibits resistant to two or more herbicides due to the
presence of a single herbicide mechanism.

Multiple resistance: It is a situation where resistant plants posses two or more distinct resistant
mechanism to a single herbicide or groups of herbicides.

Basic principles of herbicide resistance

1. Time, dose and method of application of herbicide variation
2. Variation in phenotypes of a population
3. Genetic variation by mutation or activation of pre existing genes

Conditions favourable for development of Herbicide resistance

a. Repeated use of same herbicide or use of herbicide with
same mode of action due to the practices of monoculture
b. Areas where minimum/zero tillage is followed
c. Fields where farmers rely on only herbicides for high
degree/level of weed control including nurseries, orchards
d. Non-crop situations like road sides, railway tracks etc.
where herbicides are repeated used may be at higher doses than cropped situation
Resistance was exhibited in crop is due to
 Herbicide metabolism by crops making them
inactive
 Absence of certain metabolic process in crops
compared to weeds and thus tolerating
the herbicides
 Crops couples the herbicide molecule

HERBICIDE RESISTANT WEEDS – WORLD STATUS

317 Resistant Biotypes with 183 Species (110 dicots and 73 monocots)
 First case of HR (to 2,4-D) - Hilton (1957). HR weeds began to receive recognition - Simazine
resistance in Senecio vulgaris - Ryan (1970). Pioneer Studies -Ryan (1970) and Radosevich &
Apple (1973). Population were not only resistant to simazine, but also were resistant to other
triazines (cross resistance).
In India, Phlaris minor - most troublesome winter-season grass weed of wheat. In early 1990s P.
minor - reported as resistant biotype against isoproturon in Haryana. One million ha were
infested with resistant biotypes in two states (Punjab & Haryana). Echinocloa colonum is
resistant against propanil in rice.
Herbicide resisitance is due to
I. By Weed
a) Average Number of Seed Produced per Plant
b) Resistant Weeds Increasing rate
c) Weed biology/ecology
II. By Herbicides
a) Herbicide Characteristics that influence Weed Resistance
b) Multiple Herbicide Resistance
Herbicide resisitance can be susupected when
Other causes of herbicide failure have been ruled out.
The same herbicide or herbicides with the same mode of action have been used year after
year.
One weed that is normally controlled is not controlled while other weeds are.
Healthy weeds are mixed with controlled weeds (same species)
A patch of uncontrolled weed is spreading.

Herbicide Resistance is not due to mutation caused by herbicides; rather it arises from the
selection of natural mutation or small pre-existing population of resistant plants.
Mechanisms of herbicide resistance
Exclusionary resistance:
(a) Differential herbicide uptake
(b) Differential translocation
(c) Compertmentation
(d) Metabolic detoxification
2. Site of action resistance
 Altered site of action
 Site of action overproduction

Management of Herbicide Resistant Weeds

When planning a herbicide program to prevent resistance, do not use herbicides from the same
group more than once within three years.
selection pressure is the driving force for resistance evolution wherein highly effective herbicides
persistently impose a high selection pressure.
Repeated herbicide application in the same cropping season increases selection pressure, when a
weed germinates and emerges in different flushes and completes more than one generation per
season.
Ex.: propanil resistance in E. colonam.
 Managing weed populations already resistant to herbicides
Soil Preparation
Crop Rotation
Crop Competitive advantage
Integrated Approach
Managing weed populations already resistant to herbicides
Switch to a different herbicide still active on the weed population
Adequate knowledge of the biology and ecology of the weed and of the herbicide and
resistance mechanism.
Prevent seed setting and shedding
Stubble-burning or incorporation destroy weed seeds or prevent seed production of weeds
that are still maturing at crop harvest.
Soil Preparation
Soil preparation affects weed seed dynamics and seedling densities at planting and thus can
contribute to manage herbicide resistant populations
Tillage systems affect weed emergence by modifying the composition, vertical distribution
and density of weed seed banks.
Crop rotation modifies the species composition of weed communities
monoculture system brings high weed competition, these weeds are very competitive and
hard to kill
Crop rotations help to disrupt regeneration niches of weed species and prevents the buildup
of those highly adapted
Crop Competitive advantage
Reducing the impact of the weeds associated with crop and decreasing the need for chemical
control
breeding and identifying crop varieties with ability to suppress weeds, especially in grain
crops (wheat and rice)
intercropping and cover crops influence weed flora composition and herbicide load
Integrated Approach
Even the most troublesome herbicide-resistance problems can be prevented by an appropriate
integrated weed management strategy
Strategies for managing and preventing herbicide resistant weeds
a) Rotation of herbicides with different mode of action
b) Use of herbicide mixtures
c) Use of herbicides when only necessary
d) Control of weed escapes and sanitation of equipment to prevent spread of resistant weeds
e) Use of herbicides with short residual life
f) Scout the fields for resistant weeds
Adopt integrated weed control practices
 LECTURE 15
SUCCESS OF HERBICIDE RESISTANCE CROPS (HRC) IN INDIAN AND
WORLD AGRICULTURE

Excessive weed growth forces the crops to compete for sunlight & nutrients leading to
yield losses & herbicides do not differentiate between plants. Conventional agricultural use
“selective herbicides” wherein herbicides do not harm the crop but are not effective at removing
all types of weeds. In Herbicide resistance crops (HRC) ‘non-selective' herbicides can be used to
remove all weeds in a single & quick application. Less spraying & lower operating costs.

Herbicide Tolerant Crops can be produced either by insertion of foreign gene

from another organism into the crop or by regenerating herbicide tolerant mutants from existing
crop germplasm. First process produces Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) and the second
process produce non-GMO variety or hybrid. GMO herbicide tolerant crops include canola,
soybean varieties, corn hybrids tolerant to glyphosate and gulfosinate herbicides. Non-GMO
herbicide tolerant crops include sulfonylurea-tolerant soybean, Clearfield corn and wheat.

2012 marks the 17th anniversary of the commercialization, 1996-2012, of

biotech crops (genetically modified (GM) or transgenic crops). The experience of the first 16
years of commercialization, 1996 to 2011, has confirmed that the early promise of crop
biotechnology has been fulfilled. Biotech crops have delivered substantial agronomic,
environmental, economic, health and social benefits to farmers and, increasingly, to society at
large. The rapid adoption of biotech crops reflect the substantial multiple benefits realized by
both large and small farmers in industrial and developing countries, which have grown biotech
crops commercially. Between 1996 and 2011, developing and industrial countries contributed to
a record 80-fold increase in the global area of biotech crops from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to
160 million hectares in 2011.
 Adoption rates for biotech crops are unprecedented and, by recent agricultural industry
standards, they represent the highest adoption rates for improved crops, for example, higher
than the adoption of hybrid maize in its heyday in the mid-west of the USA. High adoption rates
reflect farmer satisfaction with the products that offer substantial benefits ranging from more
convenient and flexible crop management, lower cost of production, higher productivity and/or
net returns per hectare, health and social benefits, and a cleaner environment through decreased
use of conventional pesticides, which collectively contribute to a more sustainable agriculture.
There is a growing body of consistent evidence across years, countries, crops and traits
generated by public sector institutions that clearly demonstrate the benefits from biotech crops.
These benefits include improved weed and insect pest control with biotech herbicide tolerant
and insect resistant Bt crops, that also benefit from lower input and production costs; biotech
crops also offer substantial economic advantages to farmers compared with corresponding
conventional crops. The severity of weeds, insect pests and diseases varies from year-to-year
and country to country, and hence will directly impact pest control costs and the economic
advantages of biotech crops in any given time or place.

Despite the continuing debate on biotech crops, particularly in

countries of the European Union (EU), millions of large and small farmers in both industrial and
developing countries have continued to increase their plantings of biotech crops by double-digit
adoption growth rates almost every year since 1996, because of the significant multiple benefits
that biotech crops offer. This high rate of adoption is a strong vote of confidence in biotech
crops, reflecting farmer satisfaction in both industrial and developing countries. About 14 million
farmers in 25 countries grew biotech crops in 2009 and derived multiple benefits that included
significant agronomic, environmental, health, social and economic advantages. International
Service for the Acquisi tion of Agri-biotech Applications (ISAAA) 2009 Global Review (James,
2009) predicted that the number of farmers planting biotech crops, as well as the global area of
biotech crops, would continue to grow in 2010. Global population was approximately 6.5 billion
in 2006 and is expected to reach approximately 9.2 billion by 2050, when around 90% of the
global population will reside in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In 2009, for the first time ever,
over 1 billion people in the developing countries suffered from hunger and malnutrition and
more than 1 billion were afflicted by poverty.

A record 170.3 million hectares of biotech crops were grown globally in 2012, at an
annual growth rate of 6%, up 10.3 million from 160 million hectares in 2011. 2012 marked an
unprecedented 100-fold increase in biotech crop hectarage from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to
170 million hectares in 2012 – this makes biotech crops the fastest adopted crop technology in
recent history – the reason – they deliver benefits. In the period 1996 to 2012, millions of
farmers in ~30 countries worldwide, made more than 100 million independent decisions to plant
an accumulated hectarage of more than 1.5 billion hectares – 50% more than the land mass of the
US or China; this demonstrates the trust and confidence of millions of risk-averse farmers in
biotech crops which deliver sustainable and substantial, socioeconomic and environmental
benefits. Two new countries, Sudan (Bt cotton) and Cuba (Bt maize) planted for the first time in
2012. Germany and Sweden could not plant the potato “Amflora” because it ceased to be
marketed; Poland discontinued planting Bt maize because of regulation constraints.

Of the 28 countries which planted biotech crops in 2012, 20 were developing and 8 were
industrial countries; this compares with 19 developing and 10 industrial in 2011. In 2012, a
record 17.3 million farmers, up 0.6 million from 2011, grew biotech crops – remarkably over
90%, or over 15 million, were small resource-poor farmers in developing countries. Farmers are
the masters of risk aversion and in 2012, a record 7.2 million small farmers in China and another
7.2 million in India, elected to plant almost 15 million hectares of Bt cotton, because of the
significant benefits it offers. For the first time, developing countries grew more, 52%, of global
biotech crops in 2012 than industrial countries at 48%. In 2012, growth rate for biotech crops
was at least three times as fast, and five times as large in developing countries, at 11% or 8.7
million hectares, versus 3% or 1.6 million hectares in industrial countries. Stacked traits are an
important feature – 13 countries planted biotech crops with two or more traits in 2012, and
encouragingly, 10 of the 13 were developing countries – 43.7 million hectares, or more than a
quarter, of the 170 million hectares were stacked in 2012.
 Brazil, for the fourth consecutive year, was the engine of growth globally, increasing its
hectarage of biotech crops more than any other country – an impressive record increase of 6.3
million hectares, up 21% from 2011, reaching 36.6 million hectares. The US continued to be the
lead country with 69.5 million hectares, with an average 90% adoption across all crops. Impact
of the US 2012 drought for maize was 21% loss in productivity and in soybean,12%. Canada had
a record 8.4 million hectares of canola at a record 97.5% adoption. India grew a record 10.8
million hectares of Bt cotton with an adoption rate of 93%, whilst 7.2 million small resource-
poor farmers in China grew 4.0 million hectares of Bt cotton with an adoption rate of 80%,
cultivating on average 0.5 hectare per farmer. India enhanced farm income from Bt cotton by
US$12.6 billion in the period 2002 to 2011 and US$3.2 billion in 2011 alone. Africa continued
to make progress with South Africa increasing its biotech area by a record 0.6 million hectares to
reach 2.9 million hectares; Sudan joined South Africa, Burkina Faso and Egypt, to bring the total
number of African biotech countries to four. Five EU countries planted a record 129,071 hectares
of biotech Bt maize, up 13% from 2011. Spain led the EU with 116,307 hectares of Bt maize, up
20% from 2011.

Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops 2012 (Top 10 countries)

Country Area under GM Crops
Crop (m ha)
USA 69.5 Maize, Soybean,
Cotton, Canola,
Sugarbeet,
Alfaalfa
Canada 11.6 Maize, Soybean,
Canola,
Sugarbeet
India 10.8 Cotton
Brazil 36.6 Maize, Soybean,
Cotton
Argentina 23.9 Maize, Soybean,
Cotton
China 4.0 Cotton, Papaya,
Tomato,Sweet
Pepper,
Paraguay 3.4 Maize, Soybean,
Cotton
South Africa 2.9 Maize, Soybean,
Cotton
Pakistan 2.8 Cotton
Uruguay 1.4 Soybean, maize

Biotech crops represent promising technologies that can make a vital contribution,
but are not a panacea, to global food, feed and fiber security. Biotech crops can also make a
critically important contribution to the alleviation of poverty, the most formidable challenge
facing global society which has made the commitment to the Millennium Development Goals
(MDG) to cut poverty, hunger and malnutrition by half by 2015; this is also the year that marks
the completion of the second decade of commercialization of biotech crops, 2006-2015.

Dominant Biotech Crop in 2012

Herbicide tolerant soybean continued to be the dominant biotech crop in 2012, occupying
80.7 million hectares or 47% of global biotech area (Table). It was grown commercially in the
USA, Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Canada, Uruguay, Bolivia, South Africa, Mexico, Chile, and
Costa Rica. The second most dominant crop was biotech maize with stacked traits, which
occupied 39.9 million hectares or 23% of the global biotech area. It was grown commercially in
10 countries including the USA, Brazil, Argentina, South Africa, and Canada, the Philippines,
Uruguay, Honduras, Chile, and Paraguay. Bt cotton was the third most dominant crop grown in
2012. Bt cotton was planted in more than 18.8 million hectares in 13 countries: India, China,
Pakistan, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Brazil, USA, Argentina, Australia, Colombia, Sudan,
Paraguay, and Costa Rica. This is equivalent to 11% of the global biotech area.

Global Adoption of Biotech Soybean, Maize, Cotton, and Canola

Another way to provide a global perspective of the status of biotech crops is to characterize the
global adoption rates as a percentage of the respective global areas of the four principal crops –
soybean, cotton, maize and canola, in which biotechnology is utilized. In 2012, 81% (80.7
million hectares) of the 100 million hectares of the soybean planted globally were biotech
(Figure 3). Biotech cotton was planted to 24.3 million hectares, which is 81% of the 30 million
hectares of global cotton. Of the 159 million hectares of global maize planted in 2012, 35% or
55.1 million hectares were biotech maize. Finally, herbicide tolerant biotech canola was
 planted in 9.2 million hectares or 30% of the 31 million hectares of canola grown globally in
2012. If the global areas (conventional and biotech) of these four crops are aggregated, the total
area is 320 million hectares, of which 53% or 170.3 million hectares were biotech, up from
50% in 2011. Two-thirds of these 320 million hectares are in developing countries farmed
mainly by small, resource-poor farmers.

The Global Value of Biotech Crops

In 2012, the global market value of biotech crops was US$14.84 billion
representing 23% of the US$64.62 billion global crop protection market in 2012, and 35% of
the ~US$34 billion global commercial seed market. Of the US$14.84 billion biotech crop
market, US$11.4 billion (77%) was in the industrial countries and US$3.4 billion (23%) was in
the developing countries. The market value of the global biotech crop market is based on the
sale price of biotech seeds plus any technology fees that apply. The accumulated global value of
biotech crops since 1996 is estimated at US$102,241 billion.

Why Biotech crops?

The most compelling case for biotechnology, and more specifically biotech crops, is their
capability to contribute to:

increasing crop productivity, and thus contribute to global food, feed, and fiber
security, with benefits for producers, consumers and society at large alike; contribute to more
affordable food as a result of coincidentally increasing productivity significantly and reducing
production costs substantially;

self-sufficiency which is optimizing productivity and production on a nations own

arable land, whereas food security is “food for all” without specific reference to source – self
sufficiency and food security are not mutually exclusive, currently there is an increased emphasis
on self-sufficiency by both national programs and donors conserving biodiversity – as a land-
saving technology capable of higher productivity on the current ~1.5 billion hectares of arable
land, biotech crops can help preclude deforestation and protect biodiversity in forests and in
other in-situ biodiversity sanctuaries reducing the environmental footprint of agriculture by
contributing to more efficient use of external inputs, thereby contributing to a safer environment
and more sustainable agriculture systems; special attention to more efficient use of water in crop
production and development of drought tolerant biotech crops mitigating some of the challenges
associated with climate change (increased frequency and severity of droughts, floods, changes in
temperature, rising sea levels exacerbating salinity and changes in temperature) and reducing
greenhouse gases by using biotech applications for “speeding the breeding” in crop improvement
programs to expedite the development of well adapted germplasm for rapidly changing climatic
conditions and optimize the sequestration of CO 2 increasing stability of productivity and
production to lessen suffering during famines due to biotic and abiotic stresses, particularly
drought, which is the major constraint to increased productivity on the ~1.5 billion hectares of
arable land in the world the improvement of economic, health and social benefits, food, feed, and
fiber security, and the alleviation of abject poverty, hunger and malnutrition for the rural
population dependent on agriculture in developing countries who represent 70% of the world’s
poor; thus, provide significant and important multiple and mutual benefits to producers,
consumers and global society.

The most promising technological option for increasing global

food, feed and fiber production is to combine the best of the old and the best of the
new by integrating the best of conventional technology (adapted germplasm) and the
best of biotechnology applications, including molecular breeding and the
incorporation of transgenic novel traits. The improved crop products, resulting from
the synergy of combining the best of the old with the best of the new must then be
incorporated as the innovative technology component in a global food, feed and fiber
security strategy that must also address other critical issues, including population
control and
improved food, feed and fiber distribution. Adoption of such a
holistic strategy will allow society to continue to benefit from the vital contribution
that both conventional and modern innovative plant breeding offers global society.

Benefits of herbicide tolerant crops

Broad spectrum of weed control Reduced crop injury
Reduced herbicide carry over
Use of herbicides that are more environmental friendly
New mode of action for resistance management
Crop management flexibility and simplicity
From 1996 to 2011, biotech crops contributed to Food Security, Sustainability and Climate
Change by:
1 increasing crop production valued at US$98.2 billion;
2 providing a better environment, by saving 473 million kg a.i. of pesticides;
3 in 2011 alone reducing CO2 emissions by 23.1 billion kg, equivalent to taking 10.2
million cars off the road; conserving biodiversity by saving 108.7 million hectares of
land; and
0 helping alleviate poverty by helping >15.0 million small farmers and their families
totalling >50 million people, who are some of the poorest people in the world.
Concerns with herbicide tolerant crops
Yield performance
Single selection pressure and weed resistance
Shift in weed species
Gene escape
Gene flow and contamination of organic crops
Drift and non target movement

Further, Biotech crops are essential but are not a panacea and adherence to good farming
practices such as rotations and resistance management, are a must for biotech crops as they are
for conventional crops. The lack of appropriate, science-based and cost/time-effective regulatory
systems continue to be the major constraint to adoption. Responsible, rigorous but not onerous,
regulation is needed for small and poor developing countries. Global value of biotech seed alone
was valued at ~US$15 billion in 2012.

Future Prospects
The future of biotech crops looks encouraging. A number of developing countries
are expected to plant biotech crops before 2015, especially the Asian countries. Some African
countries may also contribute in the biotech crop hectarage in the near future, with the first
drought tolerant maize planned for release in Africa in 2017. The same biotech crop is expected
to be released in North America in 2013; the first stacked soybean (with herbicide tolerance and
insect resistance traits) will be planted in Brazil in 2013; vitamin-A enriched Golden Rice could
be released in the Philippines in 2013 or 2014; drought tolerant sugarcane in Indonesia; and
biotech maize in China. Biotech crops is not a panacea; but they have the potential to make a
substantial contribution to the 2015 MDG goal of cutting poverty by half, by optimizing crop
productivity, which can be achieved by public-private sector partnerships.
 LECTURE 16
INTEGRATED WEED MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURAL AND
HORTICULTURAL CROPS
An integrated weed management may be defined as the combination of two or more
weed-control methods at low input levels to reduce weed competition in a given cropping system
below the economical threshold level. It has proved to be a valuable concept in a few cases,
though much is still to be done to extend it to the small farmers’ level. 
Integrated Weed Management (IWM) approach aims at minimizing the residue problem
in plant, soil, air and water. An IWM involves the utilization of a combination of mechanical,
chemical and cultural practices of weed management in a planned sequence, so designed as not
to affect the ecosystem. The nature and intensity of the species to be controlled, the sequence of
crops that are raised in the rotation, the standard of crop husbandry, and the ready and timely
availability of any method and the economics of different weed-management techniques are
some of the potent considerations that determine the success for the exploitation of the IWM
approach.
Why IWM
1. One method of weed control may be effective and economical in a situation and it may not
be so in other situation.
2. No single herbicide is effective in controlling wide range of weed flora
3. Continuous use of same herbicide creates resistance in escaped weed flora or causes shift in
the flora.
4. Continuous use of only one practice may result in some undesirable effects. Eg. Rice
- wheat cropping system - Philaris minor
5. Only one method of weed control may lead to increase in population of particular weed.
6. Indiscriminate herbicide use and its effects on the environment and human health.
Concept
 Uses a variety of technologies in a single weed management with the objective to
produce optimum crop yield at a minimum cost taking in to consideration ecological and socio-
economic constraints under a given agro-ecosystem.
 A system in which two or more methods are used to control a weed. These methods may
include cultural practices, natural enemies and selective herbicides.
FAO Definition
It is a method whereby all economically, ecologically and toxicologically justifiable
methods are employed to keep the harmful organisms below the threshold level of economic
damage, keeping in the foreground the conscious employment of natural limiting factors.
IWM is the rational use of direct and indirect control methods to provide cost-effective
weed control. Such an approach is the most attractive alternative from agronomic, economic and
ecological point of view.
Among the commonly suggested indirect methods are land preparation, water
management, plant spacing, seed rate, cultivar use, and fertilizer application. Direct methods
include manual, cultural, mechanical and chemical methods of weed control.
The essential factor in any IWM programme is the number of indirect and direct methods
that can be combined economically in a given situation. For example, increased frequency of
ploughing and harrowing does not eliminate the need for direct weed control. It is, therefore,
more cost-effective to use fewer pre-planting harrowing and combine them with direct weed
control methods.
 There is experimental evidence that illustrates that better weed control is achieved if
different weed control practices are used in combination rather than if they are applied
separately.
Good IWM should be
a. Flexible enough to incorporate innovations and practical experiences of local farmers.
b. Developed for the whole farm and not for just one or two fields and hence it should be
extended to irrigation channels, road sides and other non-crop surroundings on the farm from
where most weeds find their way in to the crop fields.
c. Economically viable and practically feasible.
Advantages of IWM
 It shifts the crop-weed competition in favour of crop
 Prevents weed shift towards perennial nature
 Prevents resistance in weeds to herbicides
 No danger of herbicide residue in soil or plant
 No environmental pollution
 Gives higher net return
 Suitable for high cropping intensity
RICE
Nursery
Apply any one of the Pre-emergence herbicides viz., Butachlor 2 l/ha, Thiobencarb 2/ha,
Pendimethalin 2.5 l/ha, Anilofos 1.25 l/ha on 8th day after sowing to control weeds in the lowland
nursery. Keep a thin film of water and allow it to disappear. Avoid drainage of water. This will
control germinating weeds.
Transplanted
Pre-emergence
a) Use Butachlor 2.5 l/ha or Thiobencarb 2.5 l/ha or Fluchoralin 2 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3 l/ha
or Anilofos 1.25 l/ha as pre-emergence application. Alternatively, pre-emergence application of
herbicide mixture viz., Butachlor 1.2 l + 2,4-DEE 1.5 l/ha or Thiobencarb 1.2 l + 2,4-DEE 1.5
l/ha or Fluchoralin 1.0 l + 2,4-DEE 1.5 l/ha or Pendimethalin 1.5 l + 2,4-DEE 1.5 l/ha or
Anilofos + 2,4-DEE ready mix at 1.25 l/ha followed by one hand weeding on 30-35 days after
transplanting will have a broad spectrum of weed control in transplanted rice.
b) Any herbicide has to be mixed with 50 kg of sand on the day of application (3-4 days after
transplanting) and applied uniformly to the field in 2.5 cm depth of water. Water should not be
drained for 2 days from the field or fresh irrigation should not be given.
c) Wherever there is possibility of heavy weed infestation, herbicides can also be applied with
neem coated urea which could serve as carrier, three to four days after transplanting instead basal
application of N at last puddling.
Post-emergence
If pre-emergence herbicides are not used, hand weed on 15 th day after transplanting. 2,4-
D sodium salt (Fernoxone 80% WP) 1250 g dissolved in 625 l/ha of water is sprayed with a high
volume sprayer, three weeks after transplanting or when the weeds are in 3-4 leaf stage.
Late hand weeding
Hand weed a second time, 80-85 days after transplanting, if necessary.
Wet seeded rice
In wet seeded rice apply Thiobencarb at 2.5 l/ha or Pretilachlor 0.9 l/ha on
4DAS/6DAS/8DAS followed by one hand weeding for effecrtive control of weeds OR Pre-
emergence application of Pretilachlor + safener at 0.6 l/ha on 4DAS followed by one hand
weeding on 40 DAS effectively control weeds.
Rainfed rice
1. First weeding should be done between 15 th and 20th day and second weeding may be done 45
days after first weeding. or
2. Use Thiobencarb 2.5 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3 l/ha 8 days after sowing if adequate moisture is
available, followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 days after sowing.
Direct seeded rice
Thiobencarb/Butachlor at 2.5 l/ha as pre-emergence application one day after wetting /
soaking can be applied and it should be followed by hand weeding on 30 th day. Sufficient soil
moisture should be available for herbicidal use
Semi dry rice
Use Thiobencarb 3 l/ha or Pendimethalin 4 l/ha on 8 th day after sowing as sand mix if
adequate moisture is available, followed by one hand weeding on 30-35 days after sowing.
Or
Pre-emergence application of pretilachlor 0.6 l/ha followed by post emergence application of
2,4-D Na salt 1.25 kg/ha + one hand weeding on 45DAS.
SORGHUM
1. Apply the pre-emergence herbicide Atrazine 50% WP 500 g/ha on 3 days after sowing as
spray on the soil surface, using Backpack/knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with a flat fan nozzle
using 900 lit of water/ha
2. Sorghum is slow growing in early stages and is adversely affected by weed competition.
Therefore keep the field free of weeds upto 45days. For this, after pre-emergence herbicide
application, one hand weeding on 30-35 days after sowing may be given.
3. If pulse crop is to be raised as an intercrop in sorghum do not use Atrazine.
4. Hoe and hand weed on the 10 th day of transplanting if herbicides are not used. Hoe and
weed between 30-35 days after transplanting and between 35-40 days for direct sown crop, if
necessary.

Ratoon sorghum
1. Remove the weeds immediately after harvest of the main crop
2. Hoe and weed twice on 15th and 30th day after cutting
Rainfed sorghum
Keep sorghum field free of weeds from second week after germination till 5 th week. If
sufficient moisture is available spray Atrazine @ 500 g/ha as pre-emergence application within
3 days after the soaking rainfall for sole sorghum while for sorghum based inter-cropping system
with pulses, use Pendimethalin 3 l/ha.
CUMBU
Transplanted crop
Spray Atrazine 50 WP 500 g/ha on 3rd day of sowing. Then, one hand weeding on 30-35
days after transplanting may be given. If herbicide is not used, hand weed on 15 th day and again
between 30-35 days after transplanting.
Direct sown crop
1. Apply the pre-emergence herbicide Atrazine at 500 g/ha, 3 days after sowing as spray on
the soil surface using Back-pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with flat type nozzle using 900
lit of water/ha.
2. Apply herbicide when there is sufficient moisture in the soil.
3. Hand weed on 30-35 days after sowing if pre-emergence herbicide is applied.
4. If pre-emergence herbicide is not applied hand weed twice on 15 and 30 days after
sowing.
RAGI
1. Apply Butachlor 2.5 l/ha or Fluchloralin 2 l/ha or Pendimethalin 2.5 l/ha, using Back-
pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with flat fan type of nozzle with 900 lit of water/ha.
2. Apply herbicide when there is sufficient moisture in the soil or irrigate immediately after
the application of herbicide.
3. If pre-emergence herbicide is not applied hand weed twice on 10th and 20th day after
transplanting.
4. For rainfed direct seeded crop, apply post emergence herbicide; 2,4-DEE or 2,4-D Na salt
at 0.5kg/ha on 10th day after sowing depending on the moisture availability.

MAIZE
1. Apply the pre-emergence herbicide Atrazine 50 at 500 g/ha (900 lit of water), 3 days after
sowing as spray on the soil surface using Back-pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with flat fan
or deflector type nozzle followed by one hand weeding 40-45 days after sowing. For maize +
Soybean intercropping system, apply pre-emergence Alachlor at 4.0 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3
l/ha on 3rd after sowing as spray.
2. Apply herbicide when there is sufficient moisture in the soil
3. Do not disturb the soil after the herbicide application
4. Hoe and Hand weed on 17th or 18th day of sowing if herbicide is not applied.
Note: If pulse crop is to be raised as intercrop, do not use Atrazine.
WHEAT
1. Spray Isoproturon 800 g/ha as pre-emergence spraying 3 days after sowing followed by
on hand weeding on 35th day after sowing.
2. If herbicide is not applied, give two hand weeding on 20th and 35th day after sowing.
REDGRAM, BLACKGRAM, GREENGRAM, COWPEA, BENGALGRAM
1. Spray Fluchloralin 1.5 l/ha or Pendimethalin 2 l/ha 3 days after sowing mixed with 900 l
of water using Back-pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with flat fan type nozzle. Then irrigate
the field. Following this one hand weeding may be given 30-35 days after sowing.
2. If herbicide is not given, give two hand weeding on 15 and 35 days after sowing.
SOYBEAN
1. Fluchloralin may be applied to the irrigated crop at 2.0 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha
after sowing followed by one hand weeding 30 days after sowing.
2. If herbicide is not used, give two hand weeding on 20 and 35 days after sowing.
3. Pre-emergence application of Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha or Alachlor 4.0 l/ha may be used in
soybean wherever labour availability for timely weeding is restricted.
Soybean - Rainfed
1. If sufficient moisture is available, spray Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha as pre-emergence within
3 days after sowing.
2. If herbicide is not given, give two hand weeding on 20 and 35 days after sowing.

GROUNDNUT
1. Pre-sowing: Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha may be applied and incorporated.
2. Pre-emergence: Fluchloralin 2.0 l/ha applied through flat fan nozzle with 900 lit of
water/ha followed by irrigation. After 35-40 days one hand weeding may be given.
3. Pre-emergence application of metolachlor (2.0 l/ha) plus one hand weeding on 30 days
after sowing is more profitable.
4. In case no herbicide is applied two hand hoeing and weeding are given 20 th and 40th day
after sowing.
GINGELLY
Weed and hoe on the 15th and 35th day of sowing. Apply Alachlor at 2.5 l/ha on 3 days
after sowing and irrigate the crop immediately.
SUNFLOWER
1. Apply Fluchloralin at 2.0 l/ha before sowing and incorporate or apply as pre-emergence
spray on 3 days after sowing followed by irrigation or apply Pendimethalin (3.0 l/ha) as pre-
emergence spray on 3 days after sowing. The spray of these herbicides has to be accomplished
with Back-pack/Knapsack/Rocker sprayer fitted with flat fan nozzle using 900 lit of water/ha as
spray fluid. All the herbicide application is to be followed by one late hand weeding 30-35 days
after sowing
2. Hoe and hand weed on the 15th and 30th day of sowing and remove the weeds. Allow the
weeds to dry for 2-3 days in the case of irrigated crop and then give irrigation
COTTON
1. Apply pre-emergence herbicides Fluchloralin 2.2 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha three
days after sowing, using a hand operated sprayer fitted with deflecting or fan type nozzle.
Sufficient moisture should be present in the soil at the time of herbicide application or irrigate
immediately after application. Then hand weed on 35-40 days after sowing.
Note : Do not use Diuron (Karmex) in sandy soil. Heavy rains after application of Karmex may
adversely affect germination of cotton seeds.
2. Hoe and hand weed between 18th to 20th day of sowing, if herbicide is not applied at the
time of sowing followed by second hand weeding on 35 to 45 DAS.
Rice fallow Cotton
1. Pre-emergence application of Fluchloralin 2.2 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha ensures
weed free condition for 40-45 days. This should be followed by one hand weeding and earthing
up during 40-45 days. Fluchloralin need incorporation.
2. Take up hoeing and weeding 20 days after sowing.
3. Take up this operation when the top soil dries up comes to proper condition.
Rainfed cotton
1. Application of Fluchloralin 2.0 l/ha or Pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha or Thiobencarb 3.0 l/ha
followed by hand weeding 40 days after crop emergence. At the time of herbicide application
sufficient soil moisture must be there. Fluchloralin needs soil incorporation.
2. If sufficient soil moisture is not available for applying herbicides hand weeding may be
given at 15-20 days after crop emergence.
SUGARCANE - Pure crop
1. Spray Atrazine 2 kg or Oxyfluurofen 750 ml/ha mixed in 900 lit of water as pre-
emergence herbicide on 3rd day of planting, using deflector or fan type nozzle.
2. If pre-emergence spray is not carried out, go for post-emergence spray of gramaxone
2.5lit + 2,4-d sodium salt 2.5 kg/ha in 900 lit of water on 21 st day of planting or apply 10%
Ammonium sulphate on 45th, 75th and 105th day after planting as directed spray.
3. If the parasitic weed Striga is a problem, Post-emergence application of 2,4-D sodium
salt 1.75 kg/ha in 650 lit of water/ha has to be sprayed. 2,4-D spraying should be avoided when
neighbouring crop is cotton or bhendi or apply 20% urea for the control of Striga as directed
spray.
4. If herbicide is not applied work the Junior-hoe along the ridges 25, 55, and 85 days after
planting for removal of weeds and proper stirring. Remove the weeds along the furrows with
hand hoe.
Sugarcane - intercrop
Pre-emergence application of Thiobencarb 2.5 l/ha under cropping system in sugarcane
with soybean, black gram or ground nut gives effective weed control. Raising intercrops is not
found to affect the cane yield and quality.
TOBACCO
First hand weeding taken up three weeks after planting. A spade digging is followed on
45 DAT which makes the ridges flat and then reformed one week later to have good weed
control.
Control of Orobanche:
Remove as and when the shoot appears above the ground level before flowering and seed
set. The removed shoots are to be buried or burnt. Trap cropping of greengram or gingelly or
sorghum reduces the infestation.
Chemical weed control of Orobanche:
Pre-emergence application of Fluchloralin at 1.0 lit/ha or Oxyfluorfen at 0.5 lit/ha one
week prior to planting controls most of the weeds.
WEED MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
Traditional vegetable-growing areas are usually situated adjacent to waterways, flood
plains, river deltas, marsh zones, and, if herbicides are used, their environmental impact and
usage conditions must be taken into account. Another aspect related to the complexity of
herbicide use is its soil persistence that can seriously affect the next crops in the rotation as a
result of soil residues or carryover. Vegetable rotations are very fast and intensive in many
places, and herbicide toxicity can affect the next crop if the cycle of the previous crop is short
enough.
We have to consider all these aspects, as well as consumer concerns on the probable
presence of pesticide residues in fruit, leaves and roots of these crops and the strict limitations
for marketing and export that can invalidate the hard labour and endurance of many workers.
Therefore, a careful use of herbicide is compulsory, and good field practices must be followed,
especially when recognition of a labelled production is desired. There is a great interest in the
integration of tilling practices with chemical control because of the reduction of the herbicide
impact and the cost of hand-labour.

SEED BEDS
Many vegetables are grown in seed beds to develop suitable seedlings for transplanting in
the field. Soils dedicated to seed beds are usually light, with good tilth, and fertilized to obtain a
good plant emergence. Seed beds are usually flood-irrigated and plastic-protected. Here we add
some possibilities for weed management.
Stale seed beds
Stale (‘false’) seed beds are sometimes used for vegetables when other selective weed-
control practices are limited or unavailable. Basically, this technique consists of the following:
1. Preparation of a seedbed 2-3 weeks before planting to achieve maximum weed-seed
germination near the soil surface.
2. Planting the crop with minimum soil disturbance to avoid exposing new weed seed to
favourable germination conditions.
3. Treating the field with a non-residual herbicide to kill all germinated weeds just before or
after planting, but before crop emergence.
Solarization
Soil solarization is a broad-spectrum control method, simple, economically feasible and
environmentally friendly. It is an effective method for the control of many weeds. It does not
affect soil properties and usually produces higher yields (Campiglia et al. 2000). There are also
some disadvantages in its implementation. For example, previous irrigation is a requirement, (or
frequent and abundant rain) and the soil must be kept solarized (non-producing) for a period of at
least one month. Results are often variable, depending on weather conditions. Cold (high
latitude) or cloudy places are usually not suitable for implementing solarization. Some species
can tolerate solarization (e.g. deep rooted perennials: Sorghum halepense, Cyperus rotundus,
Equisetum spp. and also some big weed seeds such as legumes).
The soil must be clean, surface-levelled and wet, previously to being covered with a thin
(0,1-0,2 mm) transparent plastic sheet and very well sealed. The soil must be kept covered during
the warmer and sunnier months (30-45 days). Soil temperatures must reach above 40° C to exert
a good effect on weed seeds.
After solarization the plastic must be recovered, and the use of deep or mouldboard
tillage must be avoided. This system is more suitable for small areas of vegetables, but it has
been mechanized for extensive areas of tomatoes. Soil solarization is widely used under plastic
greenhouse conditions.
Chemical control in seed beds
There are even less registered herbicides for seed beds than for planting crops. Herbicide
treatments under plastic cover are always hazardous and careful application should be carried
out. Under plastic, high levels of moisture and elevated temperature are common and plants grow
very gently. Selectivity could be easily lost and phytotoxicity symptoms may occur, while
sometimes they are just temporary. The effects are often erratic. The best way to deal with it is to
be prudent and make some trials before a general treatment.
Selective pre-emergence and early post-emergence herbicides for vegetable seedbeds:
a) Pre-emergence
Herbicide Dose (kg a.i./ ha) Crop
Clomazone 0.18 - 0.27 Pepper, cucumber
DCPA 6.0 - 7.5 Onion, cole crops, lettuce
Metribuzin 0.15 - 0.5 Tomato
Napropamide 1.0 - 2.0 Tomato, pepper, eggplant
Pendimethalin 1.0 - 1.6 1.0 - 2.5 Onion, garlic Lettuce
Propachlor 5.2 - 6.5 Onion, cole crops
b) Post-emergence (crops with at least 3 leaves)
Clomazone 0.27 -0.36 Pepper
Ioxinil 0.36 Onion, garlic, leek
 Linuron 0.5 - 1.0 Asparagus, carrots
Metribuzin 0.075 - 0.150 Tomato
Oxifluorfen 0.18 - 0.24 Onion, garlic
Rimsulfuron 0.0075 -0.015 Tomato
DIRECT-SEEDED AND TRANSPLANTED CROPS
Weed identification
Dicotyledons (most broad-leaf weeds) and monocotyledons (e.g. grasses) are the two
main plant types. Weed grouping has a significant impact on the potential for management. The
more closely related a weed is to the host crop, the harder it will be to manage.
Weed and crop family groupings (monocotyledons - 'M')

Chenopodiaceae
Family FatWeed
hen (Chenopodium
examples spp.) beetroot
Related crops
Convulvulaceae
Apiaceae bellslender
vine (Ipomoea plebia) sweetpotato
celery celery, carrot, parsley
bindweed (Convolvulus erubescens)
(Ciclospermum leptophyllum)
Euphorbiaceae Australian
caster oil plant carrot (Daucus
(Riccinus glochidiatus)cassava
communis)
Amaranthaceae caustic creeper (Euphorbia drummondii)
amaranths (Amaranthus spp.) Chinese amaranthus
Fabaceae
Asteraceae rattlepod (Crotalaria
billygoat spp.)
weed (Ageratum spp.) peas, beans artichokes
lettuce,
vetch (Vicia monantha)
sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus)
medics (Medicago
cobbler's spp.) pilosa)
pegs (Bidens
Liliaceae (M) onionfleabanes (Conyza spp.) gracile)
weed (Nothoscordum onion, garlic
Malvaceae parthenium (Parthenium
small-flowered mallow hysterophorus)
(Malva okra, rosella, cotton
potato weed (Galinsoga parviflora)
parviflora)
Brassicaceae sidawild
(Sidaturnip
spp.)(Brassica tournefortii) cabbage, cauliflower,
wildketmia
bladder radish (Hibiscus
(Raphanustrionum)
raphanistrum) broccoli, brussels
turnip weed (Rapistrum
anoda weed (Anoda cristata) rugosum) sprouts, Chinese
Solanaceae appleshepherd's purse physalodes)
of Peru (Nicandra (Capsella bursa-tomato,
cabbage potato,
pastoris)
nightshades (Solanum spp.) capsicum, eggplant
peppercress
thornapples (Lepidium
(Datura spp.) spp.)
lesser swinecress (Coronopus didymus)

Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the programmed succession of different crops during a period of time in
the same plot or field. It is a key control method to reduce weed infestation in vegetables. Crop
rotation was considered for a long time to be a basic practice for obtaining healthy crops and
good yields. At present, however, crop rotation is gaining interest and is of value in the context
of integrated crop management. Classically, crop rotations are applied as follows:
 Alternating crops with a different type of vegetation: leaf crops (lettuce, spinach, cole),
root crops (carrots, potatoes, radish), bulb crops (leeks, onion, garlic), fruit crops (squash,
pepper, melon).
 Alternating grass and dicots, such as maize and vegetables.
 Alternating different crop cycles: winter cereals and summer vegetables.
 Avoiding succeeding crops of the same family: Apiaceae (celery, carrots), Solanaceae
(potato, tomato).
 Alternating poor- (carrot, onion) and high-weed competitors (maize, potato).
 Avoiding problematic weeds in specific crops (e.g. Malvaceae in celery or carrots,
parasitic and perennials in general).
Examples of crop rotations are as follow (Zaragoza et al. 1994):
In temperate regions: Pepper - onion - winter cereal
Melon - beans - spinach - tomato
Tomato - cereal - fallow
Lettuce - tomato - cauliflower
Potato - beans - cole - tomato- carrots
Melon - artichoke (x 2) - beans - red beet - wheat - cole
In tropical regions: Tomato - okra - green bean
Sweet potato - maize - mung bean
Introducing a fallow in the rotation is essential for the control difficult weeds (e.g. perennials),
cleaning the field with appropriate tillage or using a broad-spectrum herbicide. It is also
important to avoid the emission of weed seeds or other propagules.
Mixed cropping
Growing two or more crops at the same time and adjacent to one another is called mixed
cropping, or intercropping. The advantages are a better use of space, light and other resources, a
physical protection, a favourable thermal balance, better plant defence against some pests and
fewer weed problems because the soil is better covered. Sometimes the results are less
productive than cultivating just one crop alone. Some examples are:
In temperate regions:
 lettuce + carrots;
 cole crops + leeks, onion, celery, tomato;
 maize + beans, soya.
In tropical regions: this technique is very well adapted to the traditional agricultural system:
 maize + beans + squash,
 tomato + pigeon pea,
 sugar cane + onion, tomato.

Preventive measures
It is necessary to avoid the invasion of new species through the use of clean planting
material and to prevent seed dispersal on the irrigation water, implements and machines. A
written record of the weed situation in the fields is very useful. Another aspect is to impede
perennial weed dispersal (or parasitic weeds) through the opportune use of treatments and tillage
and the use of drainage tillage to prevent propagation of some species that need high moisture
levels. (Phragmites spp., Equisetum spp., Juncus spp.) It is also necessary to scout the field
edges to prevent invasions.

Land preparation and tillage

Suitable land preparation depends on a good knowledge of the weed species prevalent in
the field. When annual weeds are predominant (Crucifers, Solanum, grass weeds) the objectives
are unearthing and fragmentation. This must be achieved through shallow cultivation. If weeds
have no dormant seeds (Bromus spp.), deep ploughing to bury the seeds will be advisable. If the
seeds produced are dormant, this is not a good practice, because they will be viable again when
they return to the soil surface after further cultivation.
When perennial weeds are present, adequate tools will depend on the types of rooting.
Pivot roots (Rumex spp.) or bourgeon roots (Cirsium spp.) require fragmentation and this can be
achieved by using a rotovator or cultivator. Fragile rhizomes (Sorghum halepense) require
dragging and exposure at the soil surface for their depletion, but flexible rhizomes (Cynodon
dactylon) require dragging and removal from the field. This can be done with a cultivator or
harrow.
Tubers (Cyperus rotundus) or bulbs (Oxalis spp.) require cutting when rhizomes are
present and need to be dug up for exposure to adverse conditions (frost or drought). This can
done with mouldboard or disk ploughing. Chisel ploughing is useful for draining wet fields and
reducing the infestation of deep-rooted hygrophilous perennials (Phragmites, Equisetum,
Juncus).
Mulching material
The use of plastic mulching is very popular in many vegetable-growing areas. A non-
transparent plastic is used to impede the transmission of photosynthetic radiation through the
plastic to the weeds so that the development of weeds is then arrested.
Chemical weed control
The best approach to minimize inputs and to avoid any environmental problems is to
apply herbicides in the crop row to a width of 10-30 cm. Many herbicides are effective in the
control of perennial weeds. Sometimes a combination of two herbicides having a different weed-
control spectrum may be used. Mixtures of different herbicide are possible to achieve better
efficacy, but previous trials are necessary. Their foliar activity is enhanced by adding a non-ionic
surfactant or adjuvant. The use of any herbicide in vegetables requires previous tests to verify its
effectiveness in local conditions and selectivity to available crop cultivars.
In general pendimethalin 3.3 l/ha or Fluchloralin at 2 lit/ha or metolachlor 2 l/ha as pre-
emergence herbicide is recommended for most of the vegetable crops, followed by one hand
weeding 30 days after transplanting.

Selective herbicides for weed control in vegetable crops:

Herbicide Dose Treatment moment Crops
kg a.i./ha
Alachlor 2.4 Post emergence Brassica crops, onion
Ethalfluralin 0.8-1.7 Pre Plantation Tomato, pepper, beans, squash
Linuron 0.50-1.25 Pre emergence Carrot, artichoke, asparagus, faba bean
Metribuzin 0.10-0.35 Pre/Post emergence D.s. tomato, carrots, peas
Oxifluorfen 0.36-0.48 Pre/Post emergence Onion, garlic, cole crops
Oxifluorfen 0.24-0.48 Pre Plantation Tomato, pepper
Pendimethalin 1.32-1.65 Pre Plantation / pre- Artichoke, cole, lettuce, leek, pepper,
plant incorporated tomato, onion, green peas
Rimsulfuron 7.5-15(g) Post emergence Tomato
Trifluralin 0.59-1.44 pre-plant incorporated Beans, carrots, celery, cole crops,
artichoke, onion, pepper, tomato
Hand weeding
Apart from chemical weeding, one hand weeding is done 30 days after
transplanting.
Biological control
 Myco-herbicides are a preparation containing pathogenic spores applied as a spray with
standard herbicide application equipment. Eg: a weevil for the aquatic weed salvinia, rust for
skeleton weed, and a caterpillar (Cactoblastis sp.) to control prickly pear.

WEED MANAGEMENT IN FRUIT CROPS

Tropical and Subtropical fruit crops:
I. Mango: Mango (Magifera indica L.) occupies major area under fruits in the country. It is
adaptable to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions provided severe and recurring frosts in
winter do not endanger the young trees (Anon., 1980). There are numbers of varieties grown in
India and some are of export quality. Veneer grafting and stone grafting are found to be the best
method for mango propagation. The major monocot weeds that occur in mango orchards are
Cynodon dactylon and Cyperus rotundus and dicot weeds are Bidens pilosa, Tridax procumbens
and Phyllanthus maderaspatensis.
Control:
1.Hand weeding:
Usually, manual method of weed control is adopted at this time due to young nature of
mango plants by employing women labour. They use small hand tools (khoorpi) for removing
weeds in basins and between rows of plants.
2. Mechanical method:
When the orchards comes of age, i.e., between 8 and 10 years, mechanical method of
weeding by using bullock drawn implements or motor un tractors and tillers with special
weeding tools attachments are employed for effective weed control. The type and nature
of tools used in mechanical method depend upon the row spacing adopted for orchard. And in an
average type of mango orchard, three to four ploughing (machine or bullock drawn) are enough
in a year.
3. Cover cropping: Cover cropping is another practice followed in mango orchard to suppress the
growth of weeds, to bring additional income to the grower until the trees begin to bear and
improve the health of trees if the intercrops grown are of right type. The recommended intercrops
in mango orchards for summer season are bottle gourd, bitter gourd, onion, chilies, cowpea,
black gram and green gram. For winter season, the intercrops suggested are peas, turnip,
cauliflower, carrot, radish and gram.
4. Chemical control: Herbicides have been used to some extent in mango to control weeds.
Application of paraquat (3.0kg a.i./ha) give good control of weeds in mango or diuron as pre
emergent treatment at 6.67 and 8.9 kg/ha. Or Bromacil and dalapon were also effective for
controlling dicot and monocot weeds respectively. One spray of atrazin or diuron at 2.0 kg a.i./ha
as pre emergent treatment to soil and one spray of paraquat as post –emergent spray on weeds at
3.0kg a.i./ha effective for controlling both monocot and dicot weeds in one to five years old
mango orchard.

II. Banana: The banana crop is sensitive to grasses especially in the early stages of their growth
compare to herbaceous dicot weeds. The major monocot weeds of banana fields are Cyperus
rotundus, Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria marginata, and Eleusine aegyptium, and the dicot weed
are Euphorbia spp, Polygonum plebejum, Portulaca oleracea, and Mimosa pudica.
Control:
 Banana crop has superficial root system and thus heavy machinery for its cultivation must be
avoided. It therefore, becomes imperative to think other methods of weed control for this
crop.
1. Hand weeding: Manual method of weed control by women labour using hand operated tools is
the common method of weed control.
2. Mulching: Mulching appear to be another effective method of weed control. Generally, organic
mulches like dried leaves and inorganic mulches like black polythene are used.
3. Cover cropping: Growing cover crops to suppress weeds is also another way of controlling
weeds in this crop. Inter cropping with ginger, cowpea, colocasia and tapioca in various varieties
of banana have been reported.
4. Chemical method: Herbicide have been used to weed control in banana. In banana good
control of both grassy and broad leaf weeds for 4-5 months with there pre-emergent spray of
diuron at 2.0 kg a.i./ha. Paraquat at 1.8 kg a.i. /ha was used as a post emergence spray on 6-9
inches tall weeds in banana and control them for two months. Herbicide application was found to
be more economical than hand weeding (6 hand weeding per year were necessary in banana
crop.
III. Pineapple: The structure of pineapple plants with radical leaves allows much of the sunshine to
fall underneath and around the plants resulting in the growth of sun loving perennial grassy weed
espeally in the first 6 months from the date of planting. The predominant weeds during this time
are Cyperus spp. Cynodon dectylon and Digitaria marginata among monocots, and Lagasca
mollis, Portulaca oleracea and Mollugo pentaphylla among dicots.
Control:
1. Hand weeding: Due to thorny nature of pineapple leaves, manual weeding is extremely difficult.
The spaces between inter-rows and plants are weeded by mans and women labours using hand
operated implements like khurpi (Hand hoe) and cutlasses. But weed control is not satisfactory in
this method.
2. Mechanical weed control: The mechanical weed control using spade is done by men labours
when earthing up operation is done to cover the shallow expose pineapple plant after 2-3 months
of planting, especially in the hill grown pineapple. Even in plains, earthing up becomes
necessary as pineapple plants need irrigation once a week or 10 days.
3. Cultural method: Mulching with black polythene is a very effective method of weed control
especially in Hawaii Islands. In our own country, this method is limited to very small areas.
Growing intercrops in between rows of pineapple is not popular.
4. Chemical method: chemical weed control using herbicides holds promise in pineapple crop.
Excellent control of both monocot and dicot weeds in pineapple var. kew with a combination of
bromacil and diuron at 2.0 + 2.0 kg a.i./ha when given as pre-emergent treatment. The frequency
of application this combination treatment had to be increased to three to four times under such
conditions to get year round control of weeds. Herbicides treatment increased the yield in
pineapple compared to hand weeded plots. Bromacil at 3.0 kg/ha as pre-emergent spray, fifteen
days after planting of pineapple, to be effective for controlling weeds up to 90 days. Very good
control can be achieved with wide spectrum of weed flora in pine apple plots treated with
diouron at 2.0 kg a.i. /ha.
Application of glyphosate at 1.5 kg/ha followed by 1.0 kg/ ha along with one hand
weeding was most effective control of predominant weeds such as Digitaria marginata, and
Eleusine indica among monocots, and Galinsoga parviflora, Ageratum cozyzoides and Biden
pilosa among dicots.
IV. Grape: Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) vine is grown in West and South india especially in
Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, to a great extent. The varieties gown are Anab-e- Shahi and
Thomson Seedless. The grapes are grown on different training systems depending upon the
varieties and the purpose for which they are grown. These different systems allow the growth of
various types of weeds. In Bower system, soon after pruning of grapes, there is lot of sunshine
underneath which allows the growth of cyperus rotundus and Oxalis corniculata? After
sometime, the vegetative growth of grape increases and shades the underneath space with result
Polygon plebejum, Euphorbia geniculata, Amaranthus viridis, Portiulaca oleracea, Oxalis sp.
And Mullugo pentaphylla among dicots and Digitaria marginata, Eleusine indica, and Setaria
glauca among monocots come up. In Trellis system of training, plenty of sunshine is available
for weeds to grow around and Cynodon dactylon is the major weed.

Control:
Control of weeds in grape is very important to maintain the yield and quality levels
as it is a commercially important crop.
1. Hand weeding: Euphorbia geniculata and E. hirta, which appear as major weeds, carry fungal
and insect pests and act as alternative hosts. The usual method of weed control in manual by
employing women labour. They use khurpi, a small hand operated implement, to remove the
weeds.
2. Mechanical method: In mechanical method of weed control by using bullock drawn implement
is very common in Maharashtra. In scientific orchard management, motor run tractors and power
trillers are used to cultivate the inter rows of grape. But in young orchards, the root system of
grape being shallow, mechanical methods using machinery becomes difficult. In such cases,
usage of spade for hoeing is preferred.
3. Mulching: mulching with inorganic materials like black polythene film and organic materials
like sarkanda, wheat and rice straw, sugar cane trash, dried leaves and saw dust have been
advocated for conserving soil moisture and fostering rapid growth of plants. Sarkanda was found
to be the best mulch for grape in Punjab and black polythene in Tamil Nadu.
4. Cover cropping: The general cover crops grown in grape orchards are cowpea, French beans,
cucurbits, sun hemp and mung.
5. Chemical weed control: Chemical weed control using herbicides has been tried in grape by
several workers. These worker have used either simazine, atrazine, diuron, dalapon,
oxyfluronfen, paraquat, or glyphosate. Except paraquat and glyphosate, which were used as post-
emergent sprays, all other herbicides were used pre-emergent to weeds. One spray of atrazine or
simazine or diuron at 2.0 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergent spray followed after six months by two post-
emergent spraysof parquet at 2.0 kg a.i./ha at three monthly intervals for grape cv. Banglore
Blue. Oxyflurofen at 1.0 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergent sprayand glyphosate at 3.0 kg a.i./has post-
emergent spray proved veryb effective for controlling weeds for four and six months respectively
in grape cv. Anab-e-Shahi. Herbicides in mulched vineyards have also been tried successfully.
V. Papaya: The important monocot weeds that occur in papaya field are Cynodon dactylon,
Cyperus rotundus, Eleusine indica, Chloris barbata and Digitaria marginata. The dicot weeds
are Parthenium hysterophorus, Lagasca mollis, Croton bonplandianum, Euphorbia geniculata,
Phyllanthus niruri and Evolvus alsinoides.
1. Hand weeding: The main method of weed control practiced in papaya is by employing women
labour to remove the weeds manually by using khurpi.
 2. Mechanical method: As papaya has shallow root system, use of heavy machinery to plough the
interspaces to reduce the intensity of weeds in not safe. Thus, spades are used for hoeing in the
basins. Even shallow ploughing by bullock drawn implements can be done.
3. Mulching: The old dried leaves and other organic materials are used for mulching in the basins
of papaya.
4. Cover cropping : growing cover crops in papaya orchards is another way of controlling weeds.
When papaya grown as a main crop, low growing vegetables like chillies, onion and tomatoes
can be grow as intercrops for about six months with advantage. Afterwards, the tree grows
bigger and shades the underneath ground and makes it impossible to grow any vegetables.
5. Chemical control: Use of herbicides to control weeds in papaya is not so common the
fluchloralin or alachlor or butachlor at 2.0 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergent treatment soon after
transplanting of papaya seedlings, controlled all weeds including Cynodon dactylon and Cyperus
rotundus for a period of four months under sandy loam soil conditions. Chemical weeding was
found economical than the convetional hand weeding. For good control of monocot and dicot
weeds ith diuron and ametryn (2.0 and 4.0 kg a.i./ha respectively) applied 3 months after
planting of papaya followed by repeat application of the same every two months.
VI. Citrus: The predominant weeds of citrus fields are Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus spp., Digitaria
marginata, Eleusine indica, Setaria spp., Imperata cylindra among monocots and Amaranthus
caturus, Biden pilosa, Lagasca mollis, Acanthospermum hispidium, Euphorbia Spp., Borreria
articularis and Evolulus alsinoides among dicots. `
Control: Weeding at regular interval to reduce the competition of weeds with trees and to avoid
harbouring of dangerous fungal and insect pests, to which the citrus trees are highly prone,
should be carried out.
1. Hand weeding: Various methods of weed control are practiced in India in citrus orchards. In
young citrus orchards, manual method of weed control using hand operated implements like
khurpi and cutlasses is very popular with growers. Both women and men labours are employed
for this purpose.
2. Mechanical method: In established orchards, cultivation and hoeing helps in eradication of
weeds and conservation of soil moisture. In closely planted orchards, ploughing by bullock
drawn or motor run implements becomes difficult. In such cases, cultivation in done by hoeing
with the spade. Three to four ploughing in a year in closely planted orchards are enough for an
average type of citrus plantation. Heavy machinery like tractor and power tillers must be avoided
for ploughing in citrus orchards because of their shallow root system which can damage during
the ploughing operation.
3. Mulching: Mulching the citrus basins with organic and inorganic materials is another common
method of controlling weeds.
4. Cover cropping/ intercropping: Growing cover crops to reduce the density of weeds in the
inter-rows of citrus plants is also popular with growers in our country. Intercropping also brings
more money to the grower and improves the health of the trees if the intercrops grown are of
right type. For summer season, vegetables like tinda, bottle gourd, onion, chillies, mung, cowpea
and cotton are recommended for growing in 3 to 4 years old citrus orchards. In winter season,
vegetables like pea, turnip, cauliflower, carrot, radish, and gram are grown. Wheat and maize as
intercrops in citrus orchards. Intercropped citrus with green manure crops and observed that they
were helpful in maintaining organic matter content and moisture in soil besides improving N
content to a great extent.
 5. Chemical weed control: Chemical weed control using herbicides has been successfully tried in
citrus. Bromacil and diuron combination at 2.0 kg a.i./ha each to be superior to single spray and
got weed control upto 4 months. Gesatop application at the rate of 5.0 kg/ha and casagard at 4.0
kg/ha controlled both monocot and dicot weeds very effectively. Pre-emergence herbicides such
as monouron and diuron at 1.5 and 2.5 kg/acre respectively cotrolled the weeds effectively in
sweet orange orchards. Pre-emergent application of diuron at 6.67 and 8.90 kg/ha can control all
weeds in citrus.
VII. Sapota: The predominant weeds of sapota fields are Setaria glauca, Digitaria marginata,
Andropogn sp., Heterogon contortus and Cymbopogon caesius among monocots and Oxalis
corniculata among dicots.
Control: The removal of weeds in young sapota orchards is done manually by labours using
small hand operated implements.
1. Mechanical control: In established orchards, with enough space in between plants, the removal
of weeds and the loosening of the soil is done by ploughing or harrowing once or twice a year
either by bullock drawn implements or by motor run tractors or tillers.
2. Inter –cropping: Inter-cropping of vegetables, viz., cowpea, French beans and peas in inter-
rows and ginger in basins may also be taken up for the first six to ten years.
3. Chemical control: Bromacil and diuron combination at 2.0 kg a.i./ha to be very effective for
controlling weeds in established sapota orchards for a period of 4-5 months.
VIII. Guava: The problematic weeds of guava fields are Cynodon dactylon and Cyperus rotundus
among monocots and Bidens pilosa, Tridax procumbens, Acanthospermum hispidum and
Lagasca mollis among dicots. As reported earlier, Cynodon dactylon caused 50 per cent
reduction in plant height of guava.
Control:
1. Hand weeding: The young guava orchards are weeded manually by women labour using hand
operated implements.
2. Mulching: In established orchards, mulching with in organic and organic materials have been
tried. The dried leaves are usually mulched into the soil in the basins soon after one or two rains.
The growing of green manure crop during the rest of the year are recommended.
3. Chemical control: 2,4-D alone at 3.0 kg/ha or 2,4-D(2.0 kg/ha) in combination with gramoxone
(1.5 l/ha) to be the most effective herbicides for controlling weeds in established guava orchards.
IX. Litchi: Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) orchards need atleasts 3 to 4 cultivation in a year to keep
them weed-free. As litchi trees have shallow roots, deep tillage must be avoided. The growing
intercrops like legumes during pre-bearing stage of litchi would income to the grower besides
improving the health of trees. But the roots of intercrops should not be allowed to compete with
the main crop for nutrients.
Temperate Fruit Crops
I. Apple: Apple (Malus domestica Borkh) grow mostly in the temperate regions of Jammu &
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhandand to small extent in Nilgiris Hills of Tamil Nadu.
Rosa moschata, Rosa eglantaria, Rubus spp. and Berberis spp. are some of the predominant
weeds of apple orchards.
Control:
1. Mulching: In newly established trees, the need for weed control is greater and that use of black
polythene mulch proved just as effective as good chemical treatments. Increase in yield upto 40
per cent was also realized in apple under this treatment.
 2. Intercrops: Growsing intercrops in rows between the trees and in the basins of apple trees to
suppress weed and to supplement the income is very common in India. The intercrops grown are
mustard (oil yielding), wheat, oat and, to some extent, barley. Mulching with black polythene
and oat leaves in apple basins indicated that oak leaves were the best for suppressing weeds.
3. Chemical control: Rosa rubignosa and Berberis sp. Can be controlled with the spray
gramoxone at 500 ppm + Ansar 529 at 1000 ppm when applied as post-emergent spray.
Gramoxone (3.75 kg/ha) was found to be the most efficient post- emergent herbicides out of a
number of herbicides tested in apple orchards. And also in apple orchards, found that an
application of aminotriazole (5.0 kg/ha) and simazine (5.0 kg/ha) as pre-emergent spray resulted
in the elimination of broad leaf weeds and increases in the density of grasses. The diuron at 2.0
kg/ha and nitrofen at 5.0 kg/ha to be highly effective and economical in controlling Oxalis
latifolia. Simazine at 1.0-2.0 kg, nitrofen at 0.5-1.0 kg and diuron 0.8 kg/ha to be very effective
for controlling weeds in apple nursery which resulted in increased number of saleable grafts.
Weed control in non-bearing apple orchards with diuron at 5.0 kg/ha applied as pre-emergent
treatment or dalapon at 8.0 kg/ha applied as pre-emergent treatment.
II. Peach: A peach orchard should not be deeper than 10 cm, is generally done in winter. A
suitable cover or green manure cop may be sown in rainy season after the fruits are picked and
ploughed–under during winter. Peach trees growing in straw mulched strips, 3 m wide, grew at a
faster rate than the control under permanent pasture and produced twice as many fruits of larger
size in their fourth and fifth seasons.
Control
1. Mechanical methods: Ploughing of whole orchard with bullock drawn implement or motor run
implements are also to be the best for controlling weeds in peach orchards.
2. Intercropping: Intercropping peach orchards with mung, pea and onion reduced the dnsity of
weeds both in basins and inter-rows.
3. Chemical control: Gramoxone at 500 ppm, mixture of 2,4,5-T at 100 ppmand gramoxone at 500
ppm controlled the shrubby weeds of Rosa moschata, Rubus sp. and Berberis sp. effectively.
Weed control in peach orchards with the combination of dalapon at 10 kg/ha and 2,4-D at 1.0
kg/ha when applied in two split doses. The residues brought about significant suppression of
weeds in the next season also reported. Weed control and crop growth with terbacil at 3.0 and 4.0
kg/ha. Commelina nudifera, Ageratum conyzoides and Euphorbia hirta were controlled well by
5.0 kg/ha simzine and 3-5 kg/ha atrazine.
III. Apricot: Cultivation by bullock drawn implements or motor run implements and cover cropping
the inter-rows with mustard and wheat to reduce the density of weed population is very common.
Control:
1. Chemical control: In apricot chemical weed control, found that simazine of diuron at 2.0, 4.0
and 6.0 kg/ha checked the emergence of grasses and broad leaf weeds for 90 days. Best control
was achieved with 4.0 and 6.0 kg/ha simazine.
IV. Plum: Chemical weed control provides an excellent opportunity in keeping the plum plantations
free from undesirable vegetation and improving the health of of trees resulting in higher
productivity. Hand weeding is to be superior to herbicides application. Simazine, diuron and
bromacil singly at 5.0-7.5 kg/ha and terbacil at 3.0-4.0 kg/ha got effective weed control in old
trees of plums. Excellent control of weeds can be achieved in plum orchards with simazine at 5.0
kg/ha.
V. Pear: Herbicides in pear orchards that krenite (fosamine) at 15-30 l/ha with 5-10 per cent
regrowth after one year comparable that on plots treated with 2, 4, 5-T at 1.0 litre in 400 litres of
water per hectare. Fosamine affected much more than 2, 4, 5-T.
VI. Strawberry, raspberry and blue berry: The cultivated varieties of strawberry (Fragaria spp.)
grown in India are all imported. The land is prepared by ploughing deep followed by harrowing.
Bulky organic manures are added. The weeds are controlled by light hoeing as land when the
runners form. When plants blossom in spring, straw is used to bed the plantation to keep the
fruits off the soil. After fruiting, straw and weeds are removed, and all runners are cut off.
Hoeing is continued. Strawberry is rotated with vegetables every three years to reduce the
density of weeds. Opaque plastic mulch suppressed weeds, conserved soil moisture, increased
soil temperature in cool weather and reduced them in warm weather and increased the yields the
yields in strawberry. Black polythene mulch controlled annual weeds well but not perennial
weeds like Agropyron repens and Oxalis spp. Annual weeds germinating after planting
strawberry in late March had no effect on crop growth if removed by late May. Dence weed
cover thereafter severely inhibited stolon growth, virtually eliminating it if allowed to remain
beyond mid august. 8.0 lb/acre DCPA with 4.0 lb/acre chloroxuron or 4.0 lb/acre diphenamid
effectively controlled important weeds like Cyperus compressus, Digitaria ciliaris and Eleusine
indica in strawberry.

The physiology of a plant can determine how much of an herbicide will be absorbed onto
the plant and the speed with which it is transported to its site of action. Plants with thick waxy
cuticles or hairy leaf surfaces may not absorb sufficient herbicide to be injured. Wetting agents in
herbicide formulations are used to combat these leaf characteristics and increase absorption. The
transport rate of herbicides in plants varies. Usually susceptible plants transport herbicide more
readily than resistant ones. Some plants can adsorb herbicides along the transport pathway,
preventing them from reaching their site of action.
Biochemical reactions also account for selectivity. Most herbicides have a biochemical
reaction within susceptible plants which accounts for their herbicidal activity. They may bind to
critical enzymes within susceptible plants and block important metabolic processes (glyphosate),
they may block photosynthesis (diuron) or respiration, or they may affect cell division
(trifluralin). Herbicides may be absorbed as relatively innocuous chemicals (2,4-DB) and
activated to deadly compounds (2,4-D) within susceptible plants. Other herbicides (atrazine) may
be detoxified within some plants (com) while killing weeds which fail to metabolize the
herbicide.

II. The Herbicide

Herbicides are quite specific in their structures as to whether or not herbicidal activity is
possible. Slight changes in conformation or structure will alter herbicidal activity. Trifluralin and
benefin differ in only a methyl group moved from one side of the molecule to the other, yet
trifluralin is about twice as active as benefin. Esters of phenoxy (MCPP etc.) acids are usually
much more active than are amines. The manner of formulation of an herbicide can affect its
selectivity. The most extreme case of this might be granular formulations which bounce off
desirable plants to reach the soil where they then limit germinating weeds. Other substances
known as adjuvants or surfactants are often added to improve the application properties of a
liquid formulation and increase activity. The manner in which an herbicide is applied can affect
its selectivity.
When a broad-spectrum postemergence herbicide like glyphosate is applied as a shielded,
directed, or wicked application within a susceptible crop, susceptible foliage is avoided and
selectivity is achieved with this normally non-selective herbicide. Herbicides can be grouped into
families based on the type of action that they have within affected plants (their mode of action).

III. The Environment

There are many ways that the environment interacts with herbicide selectivity. The soil
determines how much of soil applied herbicides are available for activity. Sandy soils, with low
organic content, are much more active and conversely less selective than clay soils with high
organic content at a given rate of herbicide application.
Irrigation or rainfall amount and timing influence the depth to which herbicides may move in the
soil and plant growth and stress, all of which can increase or decrease herbicide selectivity.
Temperature affects the rate of herbicide transport, the rate of biochemical reactions, plant
growth, plant stress, and ultimately herbicide selectivity. Wind, relative humidity, insects, plant p
athogens, and nutritional status also affect plant growth and stress which can increase or decrease
herbicide selectivity.

MODE OF ACTION
The term mode of action refers to the sequence of events from absorption into plants to plant
death. The mode of action of the herbicide influences how the herbicide is applied. For example,
contact herbicides that disrupt cell membranes, such as acifluorfen (Blazer) or paraquat
(Gramoxone Extra), need to be applied postemergence to leaf tissue in order to be effective.
Seedling growth inhibitors, such as trifluralin (Treflan) and alachlor (Lasso), need to be applied
to the soil to effectively control newly germinated seedlings.
To be effective, herbicides must 1) adequately contact plants; 2) be absorbed by plants; 3) move
within the plants to the site of action, without being deactivated; and 4) reach toxic levels at the
site of action. The application method used, whether preplant incorporated, preemergence, or
postemergence, determines whether the herbicide will contact germinating seedlings, roots,
shoots, or leaves of plants.
The herbicide families listed below are grouped on the basis of how they affect plants
(THEIR MODE OF ACTION)
1. The Growth Regulator Herbicides (2,4-D, MCPP, dicamba, and triclopyr). These are mostly
foliar applied herbicides which are systemic and translocate in both the xylem and phloem of the
plant. They mimic natural plant auxins, causing abnormal growth and disruption of the
conductive tissues of the plant. The injury from this family of herbicides consists of twisted,
malformed leaves and stems.

2. The inhibitors of amino acid synthesis (glyphosate, halosulfuron, imazethapyr, and

sulfometuron). Both foliar and soil applied herbicides are in this family. Glyphosate translocates
in the phloem with photosynthate produced in the leaves. Others in this family move readily after
root or foliar absorption. These herbicides inhibit certain enzymes critical to the production of
amino acids. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Once protein production stops,
growth stops. Symptoms are stunting and symptoms associated with lack of critical proteins.
3. Cell membrane disrupters - with soil activity (oxyfluorfen, lactofen, and acifluorfen). Soil
and foliar applied with limited movement in soil. These herbicides enter the plant through leaves,
stems, and roots, but are limited in their movement once they enter the plant. Membrane damage
is due to lipid peroxidation. Symptoms are necrosis of leaves and stem.

4. Lipid biosynthesis inhibitors (diclofop, fluazifop, sethoxydim, and clethodim). Foliar applied
Diclofop has both soil and foliar activity. Herbicides in this family move in both the xylem and
phloem of the plant and inhibit enzymes critical in the production of lipids. Lipids are necessary
to form plant membranes which are essential to growth and metabolic processes. Symptoms
include stunting and death of tissue within the growing points of plants.

5. Pigment inhibitors (norflurazon, fluridone, and amitrol). Soil applied and move in the xylem
except amitrol, which moves in both phloem and xylem. These herbicides inhibit carotinoid
biosyntehsis, leaving chlorophyll unprotected from photooxidation. This results in foliage which
lacks color. Symptoms include albino or bleached appearance of foliage.

6. Growth inhibitors of shoots (thiocarbamate herbicides including: EPTC, cycloate, pebulate,

and molinate). Soil applied and somewhat volatile, requiring incorporation. Enter the plant
through the roots and translocated through the xylem with the transpiration stream to the growing
points in the shoot. Mode of action is unclear, but affects developing leaves in growing points of
susceptible plants. Symptoms include stunting and distortion of seedling leaves.

7. Herbicides which disrupt cell division (trifluralin, DCPA, dithiopyr, oryzalin, pronamide,
pendimethalin, and napropamide). All are soil applied, with limited movement in the soil.
Absorbed through roots or emerging shoot tips. Once absorption takes place, movement is
limited (site of action is near the site of absorption). These herbicides inhibit cell division or
mitosis, except pronamide and napropamide which stop cell division before mitosis. Symptoms
include stunting and swollen root tips.

8. Cell membrane disrupters - no soil activity (paraquat, diquat, glufosinate, acids, oils, soaps).
These herbicides are foliar applied with no soil activity. They enter the plant through the leaves
and stems and do not move significantly within the plant once absorbed. These herbicides either
act directly on cell membranes (acids, soaps. oils) or react with a plant process to form
destructive compounds which result in membrane damage. Symptoms include rapid necrosis of
the leaves and stem.

8. Inhibitors of photosynthesis (atrazine, simazine, metribuzin, cyanazine, prometryn,

diuron, linuron, tebuthiuron, and bromacil). These are soil applied herbicides, however, all
except simazine also have foliar activity. They move readily in the plant in the xylem with
the transpiration stream where they concentrate in the leaves at the site of photosynthesis.
Once there they block the electron transport system of photosynthesis, causing a build up of
destructive high energy products which destroy chlorophyll and ultimately the leaf tissues.
Symptoms include chlorotic (yellowed ) leaves which become necrotic.
 LECTURE 17
WEED SHIFT; CAUSES AND MANAGEMENT OPTIONS FOR WEED
SHIFT IN CROP PRODUCTION
Shifts or changes in the abundance and types of weeds within agricultural
systems are common. These shifts can occur for a number of reasons and may result from
cultural, mechanical, or chemical weed management strategies. The right combination of weeds
and relying too heavily on any one practice is often the most common cause. Some of the
concepts associated with weed species shifts are discussed below.
A weed shift is the change in the composition or relative frequencies of
weeds in a weed population (all individuals of a single species in a defined area) or community
(all plant populations in a defined area) in response to natural or human-made environmental
changes in an agricultural system. Weed shifts occur when weed management practices do not
control an entire weed community or population. Some species or biotypes are killed by (or
susceptible to) the weed management practice, others are not affected by the management
practice (tolerant or resistant), and still others do not encounter the management practice
(dormant at application). Those species that are not controlled can grow, reproduce, and increase
in the community; resulting in a weed shift. Any cultural, physiological, biological, or chemical
practice that modifies the growing environment without controlling all species equally can result
in a weed shift.
Weed shift may be due to introduction of new species or change in relative
proportion of members of the existing community. Latter is the most common.
A. Species shift: change in density of one or more species in field
B. Biotype shift: change in density of biotypes within a species. These shifts
often go unnoticed since biotypes typically are similar in appearance. Herbicide resistant
biotypes are the most frequently studied.
Causes – Each member of the weed community has different optimum
growing conditions and responds differently to control practices. The community within a field is
a direct result of current and past environment and management practices. The community is in
constant flux as management practices change.
Weed management programs have the biggest impact on weed communities.
Since no control tactic is equally effective against all members of a weed community, individuals
(species/biotypes) that are best adapted to survive current tactics will increase, those less adapted
will decrease – survival of the fittest.
Examples of weed shifts to various management practices
A. No-till: Increase in weeds with perennial and winter annual life cycles
B. Vegetable crops: Weeds with short life cycles (purslane, hairy galinsoga)
C. Low mowing height: Weeds that can survive with prostrate habit - large
crabgrass, annual bluegrass, dandelion
D. Grazing:Thistles (grazers avoid them due to spines), toxic plants
E. Hand weeding: Crop mimicry –In rice fields barnyardgrass biotypes with
identical vegetative characteristics of rice, so weeders couldn’t distinguish the weeds from the
crop
Documented Weed Shifts
Weed shifts have occurred throughout history as people have modified
cropping systems and the environment for the production of desired crops. These shifts can be
immediate or short-term fluctuations in response to transient changes in production systems, or
they may represent long-term changes. Shifts occur within weed populations, weed communities,
or concurrently within both, in response to single or multiple changes in agricultural systems.
Weed shifts have occurred in response to changes in tillage, irrigation, fertility, crop rotation, and
herbicide use practices. Examples of weed shifts that have occurred in recent history include the
following:
Weed shift due to Alien invasive weeds: Alien invasive weeds which are
non native to the eco system cause harm to ecological, economic & human health. These plants
are implicated in the decline of threatened & endangered species because they alter ecosystem
processes, changes community structure & displace native species. About 18% of the Indian
flora constitutes adventive aliens. Chromolaena odorata, Lantana camara, Parthenium
hysterophorus & Prosophis Julifera among terrestrial exotics have posed serious threat to the
native flora.
Community shift in response to herbicide use. In the Corn Belt and winter
wheat areas of the western United States, changes in weed communities were noted within 10
years of the introduction of 2,4-D for the control of broadleaf weeds. In corn, summer annual
grass species increased as broadleaf species were controlled. In wheat, winter annual grass
species replaced broadleaf species as the predominant troublesome species. Continuous use of
isoproturon for weed cotrol in rice - wheats system has led to weed shifts from grassy to broad
leaved weeds like Rumex dentatus and Malva parviflora. Due to continuous use of grass killers
in rice, the weed flora is shifting to sedges like Cyperus sp., Scripus sp., Fimbristylis sp.,
Elecaris sp.,. With the continuous use of butachlor in rice, some tolerant weeds like Ischaemum
rugosum, Caesulia sp., Sphenoclea sp. etc. have become dominated in rice fields. Similarly
continuous use of butachlor 0.75 kg + 2, 4 - d EE 0.4 kg /ha (3 DAP) both during kharif and
summer paved way for dominance of sedges (particularly C. difformis and F. miliacea) and
grasses (E. glabrascens) during fourth summer crop of rice - rice system. Phalaris minor was the
most predomiannt grassy weed in wheat crop. Clodinafop and sulfosulfuron were most common
herbicides adopted for weed control. As these herbicides do not control Poa annua, its intensity is
on the increase. Medicago denticulata, Melilotus spp. and Lathyrus aphaca in wheat fields are
increasing due to continuous use of grassy weed killers like isoproturon. Solanum nigrum is not
being controlled by the herbicides like sulfosulfuron, 2, 4 - D or metsulfuron methyl. Polypogon
monspeliensis was seen in high denstiy in wheat crop having excess moisture content in the soil.
Community shift in response to tillage change. Changes from conventional
to reduced tillage systems often cause weed community shifts that include increases in summer
annual grasses and small-seeded summer annual broadleaves, winter annual, biennial, and
perennial species, and decreases in large-seeded summer annual species. In maize – sunflower
cropping system, when zero tillage is practiced for both the systems continuously, there was a
shift in weed flora from broad - leaved weeds to grasses.
Community shift as a result of new localized or long-distance
introductions. Common lambsquarters, a weed believed to be native to Europe and Asia, is now
found throughout much of the United States. In much of Pennsylvania, common lambsquarters
has become predominant in the weed community. The shift occurred because the species grows
aggressively, is difficult to control, and is a prolific seed producer. Long-distance dispersal has
also resulted in the introduction of many noxious weeds to the United States, some of which
have caused weed community shifts (including field bindweed in the western plains, leafy spurge
in rangeland, and multiflora rose in pasture).
Population of biotype shifts in response to herbicide use (herbicide-
resistant populations). In the mid-west, in many populations of common waterhemp (pigweed
species), biotypes differed in susceptibility to ALS-inhibiting herbicides. With recurrent spraying
of ALS-inhibiting herbicides, populations shifted from susceptible to highly resistant biotypes.
(Note: A concurrent shift in many weed communities also occurred. Other species were
controlled with these highly effective herbicides, and the waterhemp numbers increased as a
proportion of the entire weed community). Other ALS-resistant pigweed species have also
developed in several areas of the United States, including the northeast. Most recently,
glyphosate resistant weeds such as horseweed (marestail) and pigweed species are a problem in
different regions of the U.S. as a direct result of glyphosate use in herbicide resistant crops.
 Production Practices That Influence Shifts
Effectiveness of weed management program. The effectiveness of the overall weed
management program will be the single most important factor affecting weed shifts. If the
program is not managing all weed species, species that are not effectively controlled will
increase. Farmer diligence and ability to make adjustments in a weed management program will
directly influence the occurrence of weed shifts.
Speed of weed shift occurrence. The speed at which weed shifts occur will depend on various
factors. The ability to prevent the introduction of new weeds to an area, the buffering capacity of
the soil seed bank, weed characteristics described previously, and the farmer’s ability to quickly
adjust a weed management strategy when a shift is first observed will all influence the speed at
which a shift occurs—or if a shift occurs at all. With poor management, a field could shift
predominant weed species very quickly. For instance, a single application of Roundup early in a
field with late-emerging large or smooth crabgrass could result in a severe problem with these
annual grasses or other similar late-emerging weeds.
Interface areas. A cropped field will likely include places where no herbicide is applied (skips)
or where reduced rates are applied (field edges, places with a lack of overlap). These areas may
or may not influence weed shifts. In some cases, these areas may allow genotypes that were not
subjected to the selection pressure to survive and reproduce. However, these areas may be so
small that they have a negligible effect on overall field effects.
Management of weed shift:
• Use herbicides only when necessary
• Use mixtures or sequential treatments of herbicides that each control the weeds in question,
but have a different site of action.
Scout fields after application to detect weed escapes or shifts. If a potentially resistant weed or
weed population has been detected, use available control methods to avoid seed
deposition in the field.
• Rotate herbicides (sites or modes of action) so you make no more than two
consecutive applications with the same site of action against the same weed unless you use other
effective control practices
• Rotate crops, particularly those with different life cycles (for example, winter
annuals such as winter wheat, perennials such as alfalfa, summer annuals such as corn or
soybeans)
• Clean equipment before leaving fields infested with or suspected to have resistant
weeds
• In herbicide resisistant crops, there should not be more than two consecutive
application of herbicide with same site of action. It should be altered with other practices or
herbicide with different site of action
• Integrated weed management approach should be resorted to
• Emphasis on intensive monitoring for changes.
In Summary –
Weed species shifts, whether it is to a resistant weed, or a new biotype,
complicate weed management decisions. The best solution is to develop integrated
weed management systems that prevent the problem from occurring.