CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter discusses the conceptual literature, related literature, synthesis, conceptual

framework, and conceptual paradigm of the study.

CONCEPTUAL LITERATURE

Concrete is the most used man- made material in the world since its invention.

Worldwide, about three tons of concrete are used annually per person. Concrete comprises

three major fractions, aggregates: binder and cement. The aggregate fraction in concrete is

about 75% of its volume and therefore it plays a vital role in the overall performance of concrete.

However, traditionally, more attention has been paid to develop novel binding phases of

concrete as it is widely thought that the innovation in binder materials can help to develop

innovative concrete materials. In fact, a significant improvement has been seen recently in this

field such as the development of ultra- high strength concrete and self- compacting concrete.

Concrete is a composite material composed of; aggregates, binder and water all mixed

together in specific proportions to form a homogenous material. Concrete is flexible and

therefore provide designers and constructors with capacity to create aesthetic and serviceable

buildings and structures.

Concrete has been the construction material used in the largest quantity for several

decades. The reason for its popularity can be found in the excellent technical properties of

concrete as well as in the economy of this material. It is also characteristics that the properties

of concrete ingredients have a major influence on the fresh as well as hardened concrete.

(Popovics, 1992)
 The quality of fresh concrete is determined by the ease and homogeneity with which it

can be mixed, transported, compacted, and finished. It has also beeb defined as the amount of

internal work necessary to produce full compaction.

Freshly mixed, hardened and cured concrete are regularly subjected to a number of test

to ensure that the specifications for that concrete have been achieved.

Workability indicates the ease with which the mass of plastic material maybe deposited

in its final resting place in the forms without segregation or honeycomb to produce a uniform,

homogenous mass. Thus, workability includes properties such ad flow ability, moldability,

cohesiveness, and compatibility. One of the main factors affecting workability is the water

content in the concrete mix. A harsh concrete becomes workable by the addition of water.

Workability ay also be improved by the addition of plasticizers and air entraining agents. The

factors that affect workability include quantities of paste and aggregates, plasticity of the cement

paste, maximum size and grading of the aggregates, and shape and surface characteristics of

the aggregate.

Although several methods have been suggested to determine workability, none is

capable of measuring this property directly. It is therefore usual to measure some type of

consistency as an index of workability. The most extensively used test is the slump test. This

method is described by ASTM C143. The slump test uses a frustum of acone 30 mm (12in.)

high. This cone is filled with concrete, the cone lifted slowly and the decrease in the height of

the center of the slumped concrete is measured. For structural concrete, a slump of 75- 100 mm

(3- 4 in) is sufficient for replacement in forms. (Beaudoin & Ramachandran, 2001)

Another aspect to be considered other than workability of concrete is proper curing.

Curing is the care and maintenance of the concrete from the finish of placing until the interior

temperature of the mass is stabilized. In order to develop its strength, concrete must be kept
continuously moist during the early stages of its curing. Properly cured concrete allows it to gain

its design strength and to do this, the right conditions must be made on the concrete to confirm

whether or not it has reached, or is reaching its design strength. (Antill & Ryan, 1982)

The chemically active substance in concrete mixture is the cement. It unites physically

and chemically with water, and upon hardening, bind the aggregates together to form a solid

mass resembling stone. (Parker, 1968)

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic

ingredient of concrete, mortar and plaster. It was not until 1824 that the first step was made in

producing the type of cement in use today. English masonry worker Joseph Aspdin produced a

powder made from calcined mixture of limestone and clay; it was named produced a powder

made from calcined mixture of limestone and clay; it was named because of its similarity in color

to Portland limestone, quarried from the English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London

architecture. (Andres & Smith, 1989)

According to ASTM C- 150, Portland cement ia hydraukic cement produced by

pulverizing clinker consisiting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or

more types of calcium sulfate, as an interground addition. The raw materials for the manufacture

of Portland cement contain, in suitable proportions, silica, aluminum oxide, calcium oxide, and

ferricoxide. (Beaudoin & Ramachandran, 2001)

Depending on the location of the cement manufacturing plant, available raw materials

are pulverized and mixed in proportions such that the resulting mixture will have the desire

chemical composition.

Normal Portland (Type 10 or ASTM Type 1) is used for general construction work when

the special properties of the other types are not required. It is normally used for reinforced-
concrete is not subject to special sulfate hazard or where the heat generated by the hydration of

cement is not objectionable. (Andres & Smith, 1989)

Aggregates, occupying 60-80% of the volume influence the unit weight, elastic modulus,

and dimensional stability of concrete and also its durability. Coarse aggregates are larger than

4.75 mm which includes crushed stone, gravel, slag, or other inert materials and fine

aggregates are smaller than 4.75 mm that consist of natural sand or inert materials with similar

characteristics having clean hard and durable grains. Typically, fine aggregates comprise

particles in the range of 75 µm to 4.75 mm whereas coarse aggregates are from 4.75 mm to 50

mm. In mass concrete, the coarse are much larger. Natural aggregates generally composed of

sand, gravel, and crushed rock. The synthetic aggregates, such as expanded clay/shale, slag,

and fly ash, are thermally processed materials and used in concrete. The crushed aggregates

are of sandstone, granite, diorite, gabbro and basalt. Natural silica is used extensively as a fine

aggregate. (Beaudoin & Ramachandran, 2001)

Aggregates are commonly thought of as inert filler having little effect on the finished

concrete properties. However, research has shown that aggregate in fact plays a substantial

role in determining workability, strength, dimensional stability, and durability of the concrete.

Also, aggregates can have a significant effect on the cost of the concrete mixture. However,

there is a growing interest in substituting alternative aggregate materials, largely as a potential

use for recycled materials, While there is significant research on many different materials for

aggregate substitutes (such as granulated coal ash, blast furnace slag or various solid wastes

including fiberglass waste materials, granulated plastics, paper and wood products / wastes,

sintered sludge pellets and others), the only two that have been significantly applied are glass

cullet and crushed recycled concrete itself. (NAHB Research Center, 2011)

The compressive-strength of cylindrical concrete specimens is the most commonly

quality-control test in concrete. It is mechanical test measuring the maximum amount of

cube, prism, cylinder, is compressed between the platens of a compression-testing machine by

a gradually applied load. The test may be conducted for any time interval but generally are

based on 7 and 28 days curing periods. (Andres & Smith, 1989)

Ceramics is one of the most ancient industries on the planet. The word Ceramics from

the Greek word keramikos meaning "potters" clay. According to (Mustafa et al., 2008) the

particle shape analysis of ceramic waste coarse aggregate has diverse particles shape with the

crushed stone normal concrete. The important specification of coarse aggregate are its shape,

texture and the maximum size, as in further ceramic waste aggregate was found to be smoother

than that of ordinary crushed stone aggregate. Surface texture and mineralogy affect the binder

between the aggregates and the paste as well as the stress level at which micro cracking

begins, the aggregate strength becomes influential in the case of higher-strength concrete.

Ceramic wastes retain characteristics suitable for use as pozzolanic materials and thus are

suitable for use in the making of concrete. (Zimbili et al., 2014)

Ceramics can be defined as heat-resistant, nonmetallic, inorganic solids that are made

up of compounds formed from metallic and nonmetallic elements [Mohd Mustafa Al Bkri

Abdullah et al. (2006); Correia et al. (2006); and Senthamarai (2005)11, 12, 7].

Although different types of ceramics can have different properties, in general ceramics

are corrosion-resistant and hard but brittle nature. Most ceramics are good insulators, it can

withstand high temperatures and have a crystalline 24 structure. These properties have lead to

their use in virtually every aspect of modern life.

Two main categories according to the usage are traditional and advanced ceramics.

Traditional ceramics include objects made of clay and cements that have been hardened by

heating at high temperatures.

ceramics include carbides, such as silicon carbide, (SiC); oxides, such as aluminum oxide,

Al2O3; nitrides, such as silicon nitride, Si3 N4 and many other materials, including the mixed

oxide ceramics that can act as superconductors. Advanced ceramics require modern

processing techniques and the development of these techniques has led to advances in

engineering. Ceramics can be excellent insulators, semiconductors, super conductors and

magnets. Ceramic spark plug is one of the insulators, whose impact is large on the society. High

voltage insulators make it possible to safely carry the electricity in large houses and business

malls.

Ceramic waste is generated in two different categories according to the source

availability of raw materials. The first one is developed by the structural ceramic factories, in this

only red paste is supposed to use in manufacture their products such as bricks and roof tiles.

Second one is produced from stoneware ceramics such as wall tiles, floor tiles and sanitary

ware. Use of waste ceramic products in concrete composition has reduced the production cost

of concrete. (Cabral et al. (2009); Pacheco-Torgal et al. (2010); Hanifi Binici (2007)13, 14, 15)

Research Literature

The study of Kumar (2015) regarding the use of different mixes are adopted, waste tiles

are used to replace the coarse aggregate by 10% and 20% and tiles powder are also used to

replace the fine aggregates by 10% and 20%. Total 9 types of mixes of M25 grade are adopted.

A study on workability and compressive strength for 7 and 28 days of all 9 types of mixes has

been succeed and recorded that with rise the percentage of tiles powder the strength and

workability also increased of concrete. Compressive strength is increased for all mixes and

maximum compressive strength is obtained the mix having 10% of crushed tiles and 20% of

tiles powder. The best percentage of coarse aggregate that can be replaced by crushed tiles

with 10%.
 The study of Alves (2014) reused ceramic fine aggregates, obtained from crushed

sanitary and crushed bricks ware on the mechanical properties such as compressive, modulus

of elasticity, splitting tensile strength, and abrasion resistance of concrete. Seven concrete

mixes were used to test these tough properties and six concrete mixes with replacement ratios

of the 20%, 50% and 100% of natural fine aggregates by fine recycled brick aggregates or fine

recycled sanitary ware aggregates. Compressive and splitting tensile strength do not appear to

be affected by fine brick aggregates and these properties significantly reduced with the fusion of

recycled fine sanitary ware aggregates.

The study of Medina (2012) deliberated on consumption of ceramic waste as recycled

coarse aggregate. Crushed sanitary ware was used in it and its shape curve of recycled ceramic

aggregate was similar to the natural coarse aggregate. Uneven shape of aggregate was offered

in the ceramic waste, resulted that superior surface area and improved bonding was observed

in investigation.

The study Sekar (2011) dealt with different industrial waste such as glass waste

aggregates, ceramic tile waste aggregates, ceramic insulator waste aggregate with 100%

replacement was studied. It was found that the concrete made with ceramic tile waste gives

similar strength (split tensile, Compression, flexural) as conventional concrete. On the other

hand, concrete with ceramic insulator and glass waste give lesser strength than traditional

concrete.

The study of Pacheco (2010) concluded that concrete with ceramic waste residue has a

minor strength loss have risen durability production because of its pozzolanic belongings. As for

replacement of coarse aggregate with ceramic coarse aggregate, the outcomes are better but

underachieved somewhat in water absorption and in the water permeability meaning that the

replacement of sand by the ceramic sand is a superior choice.

of ceramic scrap as 18.2 and 24.7% respectively. These values were within the permissible

limits according to IS 383-1970, hence it was safe to use as a coarse aggregate in concrete

composition.

The study of Paulo Cachim (2009) studied on usage of ceramic aggregate, collected

from ceramic industrial waste. Water absorption of waste from two different sources was 15.81

and 18.91% respectively. The higher water absorption of ceramic aggregates influenced the

workability of concrete. It was observed that in first 2 minutes, 75% of total absorption observed

and after 5 min at least 91% of total absorption occurred.

The study of Mashitah (2008) it was concluded on recycling of similar ceramic tiles used

in the preparation of concrete cubes. The surface of ceramic tile aggregate was found as

angular shaped and smooth, sharpen edges as compared with traditional coarse aggregate.

Flatter particles consumed extra amount of cement paste to make better inter facial transition

zone.

The study of Senthamarai (2005) observed that ceramic tile scrap can be successfully

used as aggregates in concrete production, on the basis of strength of ceramic waste

aggregate. The abrasion values, crushing value, impact value for ceramic scrap were 28, 21

and 21% correspondingly and for natural coarse aggregate 20, 17 and 24% respectively.

Ceramic waste does not have much difference with respect to the traditional natural aggregates.

The study of Marcio (2004) experimented on compressed stress, water absorption and

modulus of elasticity of concrete made with ceramic aggregate. Crushed ceramic blocks were

used as coarse aggregate in concrete fabrication. Specific density of aggregate was 2630 to

2310 kg/m3 for 0 to 100% replacement. Up to the replacement of 20%, Compression resistance

and modulus of elasticity was equivalent with conventional concrete.

and replacing natural sand by stone dust in concrete composition. Compressive strength was

arrived based on IS 516-1959. Compressive strength of conventional concrete was 33.93MPa

and by replacing ingredients in different percentages, compressive strength of concrete declined

gradually from 34.52MPa to 32.59MPa. Similar results were observed in split tensile strength

also, in case of conventional; it was 3.25MPa and gradually reduced to 2.83MPa with respect to

replacement percentages. 10 to 20% Replacement of coarse aggregate with ceramic scrap was

the best option in concrete composition without affecting the strength values

The study of Mohd Mustafa Al Bkri et al. (2006)11 experimented on ceramic waste

concrete slabs. Ceramic waste was collected from industries such as flower pots, tiles and

sanitary ware. Compressive strength of ceramic concrete waste slab varied from 15 to 30MPa,

which was Poorer than the conventional one. Mohd Mustafa Al Bakri et al. (2005)95 studied on

concrete made with ceramic waste and quarry dust aggregate. Experimentation focused on

strength of concrete with ceramic waste as coarse aggregate and quarry dust as fine aggregate.

The compressive strength of ceramic waste aggregate concrete rages from 15-30MPa and

these values were lower than conventional concrete.

Synthesis

The study of Kumar (2015) is related to the present study because they used waste tiles

as a partial substitute to aggregates. His study replaced the aggregate by 10% and 20% while

the present study replaced the aggregates by 10%, 20% and 30%. And the maximum

compressive strength is obtained the mix having 10%.

The study of Medina (2012) is also related to the present study because it utilized

ceramic waste as recycled coarse aggregate. It was produced by crushing of sanitary ware and

its shape curve of recycled ceramic aggregate was similar to the natural coarse aggregate.
Irregular shape of aggregate was presented in the ceramic waste, resulted that superior surface

area and better bonding was observed in experimentation.

The study of Seka (2011) is also related to the present study because it dealt with the

used of ceramic tile waste aggregates as a partial substitute to aggregate. However, the

difference between this study and the precent study is that it used different proportions.

The study of Senthamarai (2005) is related because it observed that ceramic tile scrap

can be successfully used as aggregates in concrete production, on the basis of strength of

ceramic waste aggregate.

Furthermore, the studies cited in the research literature, similar to the present study,

recognizes the important of utilizing lightweight aggregates in concretes mixtures and studying

its effect by using different proportions.

The cited literatures served as guides to the researchers in the conduct of their study.