The Cell Cycle

Course Instructor
Dr. Anoop Kumar Gupta
Department of Chemical and
Biochemical Engineering
Email: anoopg@iitp.ac.in

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA

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 Background check: What is a Chromosome ?

 Chromosome is an organized (condensed) form of

DNA and associated proteins found in nucleus of cells.

 Transmits the hereditary information into daughter

cells.

 In nucleus, genetic material is found in form of thin

fibers called as Chromatin which is made up of long
chain of DNA molecules.

 These DNA molecules are supercoiled (folded) around

Histone proteins.

 During cell division, chromatin is converted into

chromosomes. 2
What is a Chromosome ?

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How Chromosomes are formed ?

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Structure of Chromosome (duplicated)

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 Homologues: a pair of chromosome
having same genes, but different
alleles one inherited from mother
and another from father.
 Sister chromatids: same genes,
same alleles.
 Alleles: two or more alternative
forms of a gene that arise by
mutation and are found at the same
place on a chromosome.

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 Microtubules are
made of Tubulin
protein.

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 Key facts about Chromosomes !!

 Total 23 pairs of chromosomes in a human

body cell (total 46 chromosomes). No. of
Eukaryotes
 These numbers may vary in Eukaryotes. chromosomes
 Out of 23 pairs, 22 pairs are autosomes Human 46
while one pair is the sex chromosome (XY
Monkey 42
in male and XX in female).
 Two complete sets of chromosomes, one Dogs 78
from each parent: diploid cells (2n) Frog 26
 Only single set of chromosomes (total 23 Potato 48
only): haploid cells (n)
Sun flower 34
 In humans, gametes (reproductive cells) are
haploid cells such as sperm and egg cells. Butterfly 380
 In Eukaryotes chromosomes are linear Onion 16
whereas in Bacteria it is circular.
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• (1-22) pairs of
chromosome:
autosome.

• Autosomes are
homologues.

• 23rd pair of
Chromosome:
sex chromosome

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 The Cell Cycle
 Billions of cells die and are generated daily.

 A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and
divides.

 Required during development, growth and repair/maintenance of

tissues/organs or during reproduction.

 Responsible for transfer of life from one cell to other.

 Three major steps are involved: cell growth, DNA replication (synthesis) and
cell division (Mitosis/Meiosis).

 Parent cell divide into daughter cells (2 daughter cells in Mitosis while 4
daughter cells in Meiosis).
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 Cell Cycle (in Eukaryotes)

 The complete cell cycle takes around 12-20 hrs.

 Two main phases:
1. Interphase (preparatory phase)
• Interphase = G1 + S + G2
• Cell prepares itself for division.
• DNA is replicated.
• Organelles are duplicated.
• Cell increases in size.

2. M phase (mitotic phase)

• Cell division takes place (except in heart, muscle and nerve cells).
• M phase = Mitosis + Cytokinesis
• Nucleus divides (Mitosis), Cytoplasm divides (Cytokinesis).
• New daughter cells are formed.
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 Cell Cycle
Note:
• Not always a cell divides.

• When it is not dividing, it

leaves the cycle and enters
into G0 phase which is
called as resting phase
(active but not dividing).
Example: Neurons (nerve
cells)

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 Interphase
 Cell growth and DNA replication takes place.
 Referred as “Preparatory phase”.
 Cells spend most of the time (~ 90%) in interphase.
 Consists of three phases:
1) G1 Phase (Gap 1: 1st growth stage)
• Cellular contents like organelles (excluding chromosomes) are
duplicated, proteins are produced, cells grow in size.
• G1/S check point ensures that everything is ready for DNA replication.
2) S Phase (Synthesis)
• DNA replication takes place and genetic material is duplicated (2 sister
chromatids are formed).
3) G2 Phase (Gap 2: 2nd growth stage)
• Preparation for M phase (cell division or Mitosis).
• Cell continues to grow, centrosome duplicates.
• G2/M check point ensures that everything is ready for cell division. 14
 M Phase (Mitotic phase or Cell division)

 Chromosome separation and cell division occurs to form genetically identical

cells.
 Relatively short period of cell cycle.
 Consists of two phases:
1) Mitosis phase (nuclear division)
Made up of four distinct phases:
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase
2) Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm)
• Cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane divide.
• Formation of two identical daughter cells having exact copies of
chromosomes.
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 Mitosis Cell Division (Karyokinesis)
 Discovered by German scientist Walther Flemming.
 Occurs in somatic cells only.
 Set of 4 phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase
and Telophase (known as PMAT).
1) Prophase:
• First stage of cell division in animal cells.
• Longest phase in Mitosis.
• Nucleolus disappears.
• Chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
• Movement of centrosomes (a pair of centrioles:
triplets of microtubules) towards the opposite
poles of the cell.
• Formation of mitotic spindle between
centrosomes using microtubule fibers. 16
 Mitosis (contd.)

2) Metaphase:
• Second phase of Mitosis.
• Lasts only for few minutes.
• Centrosomes are placed at the poles of the
cell.
• Chromosomes are aligned at the center of
the cell (at the equator).
• The plane of alignment of the chromosomes
is referred as metaphase plate.
• Spindle fibers are attached to the
chromosomes at the centromere (kinetochore
protein) and align them.
• Nuclear membrane completely disappears.
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 Mitosis (contd.)

3) Anaphase:
• Third phase of Mitosis.

• Spindle fibers shorten and pull

chromosomes apart towards the opposite
poles.

• Sister chromatids separate at the centromere.

• Half of each chromosome (called as

chromatids) moves the opposite ends of the
cell.

• Cell elongates towards the poles.

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 Mitosis (contd.)

4) Telophase:
• Last phase of Mitosis.

• Reformation of nuclear membrane around

separated chromosomes.

• Chromosomes unfold back into chromatids.

• Spindle fibers disappear.

• Nucleolus reappear.

• Cell continues to elongate.

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 Cytokinesis

 Takes place after telophase. Cleavage furrow in animal cells

 Final stage of cell cycle, different in animals
and plants.
 Cytoplasm divides into two parts.
 Organelles distribute into two parts.
 Cell contract at the center and two new
diploid cells are formed each having one
nucleus.
 New cells are identical (clone) to the parent
cell and have the number of chromosomes.
 Size of the daughter cell may vary (may
differ in cellular content but same in nuclear
content).

Note: In Prokaryotes, cell division takes place by binary fission (~ 25 min) NOT by Mitosis. 20
 Cytokinesis in plant cells

In plant cells, during cytokinesis, a cell plate is formed which divided the cell into two parts.
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 Complete Cell Cycle

(G1/S restriction)

(G2/M restriction)

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 Meiosis (sex cell formation: gametes)

 A process where a single parent cell divides twice to produce four

daughter cells containing half the original amount of genetic material.

 These cells are our sex cells (gametes) – sperm in males, eggs in
females.

 One diploid cell produces 4 haploid cells.

 Number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is halved, i.e., in

humans gametes (haploid) have 23 chromosomes only [while somatic
cells (diploid) have 46 chromosome].

 Used in sexual reproduction.

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 Meiosis “shuffles” the genes (genetic cross over in some part of the
chromatids) so that the an individual’s gametes are genetically different from
one another.
 This crossover happens in Prophase-I.

Chromosome crossover in Prophase-I

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 Meiosis (contd.)
 Until Interphase, both Mitosis and
Meiosis are same.

 After Interphase, a cell goes

through M phase twice, i.e.,
Interphase ⟶
followed by
Prophase-I ⟶ Metaphase-I ⟶
Anaphase-I ⟶ Telophase-I ⟶
Cytokinesis-I ⟶
followed by
Prophase-II ⟶ Metaphase-II ⟶
Anaphase-II ⟶ Telophase-II ⟶
Cytokinesis-II
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Meiosis-I (separates homologous chromosomes)

Prophase–I involves:
 Synapsis: Pairing
of homologous
chromosomes
forming tetrads.

 Crossing-over:
Exchange of
genes between
non-sister
chromatids at
points of contact
(Chiasma).
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Meiosis-II (separates sister chromatids)

 4 haploid
daughter cells
are obtained
after Meiosis-
II.
 Each daughter
cell has 23
chromosomes

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 Meiosis
Cell-Division
Cycle

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Mitosis vs. Meiosis
at a glance in
humans:
# of Chromosomes

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 Mitosis Meiosis
• Diploids (2n) are produced from diploids (2n). • Haploids (n) are produced from diploids (2n).
In humans: n = 23
• 2 daughter cells are generated. • 4 daughter cells are generated.

• Number of chromosomes remain the same in • Number of chromosomes is halved in each

daughter cells (total 46). daughter cell (23 only).
• Occurs during cellular reproduction for growth • Occurs during sexual reproduction. Only
and repair. Takes place in all somatic cells reproductive/germ cells participate (eggs,
except nerve cells, RBCs. sperms).
• Daughter cells are genetically identical to each • Genetic variation may happen in daughter cells
other and to parent cell. (due to crossing over).
• Only one cell division (4 phases: PMAT). • Two cell division one after another (8 phases:
PMAT+PMAT).
• Synapsis of homologous chromosomes does not • During Metaphase-I, homologous chromosomes
occur. pair up along their length forming tetrads (group
of 4 chromatids), crossing over b/w non-sister
chromatids occurs. 32
Some useful information:

 RBCs are not produced by Mitosis/Meiosis as they don’t have nucleus or

mitochondria.

 RBCs are produced from stem cells in bone marrow after losing nucleus
and other organelles.

 Uncontrolled division of cells (Mitosis) causes cancer (tumor cells).

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 Sexual reproduction

 Fusion (fertilization) of two gametes (n) to produce a single zygote (2n).

 Fertilization of a sperm and an egg results in a unique offspring.

 A special feature called as Genetic shuffling occurs in Meiosis:

• Crossing over in Prophase-I (creates new combination of genes on each
chromosome, results in mixing of genes inherited from parents)

• Independent assortment in Metaphase-I (random

alignment/arrangement of homologous chromosomes results in several
possible combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes, 2n = 223 =
~ 8 million possible combinations).

 1 sperm (1 of 8 million possible chromosome combinations) x 1 egg (1 of 8

million possible chromosome combinations) = 64 trillion diploid
combinations. 35
2n = 22 = 4
possible
combinations
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Videos to watch
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P6cAYs-bijA

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=whbKW7dZAgo

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwAFZb8juMQ

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xsrH050wnIA

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5hA0WCv1lg

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