Chapter (4)

Curves
Vertical Curves
Vertical curves (VC) are used to connect intersecting gradients in the vertical
plane. Thus, in route design they are provided at all changes of gradient. They
should be of sufficiently large curvature to provide comfort to the driver, that is,
they should have a low ‘rate of change of grade’. In addition, they should afford
adequate ‘sight distances’ for safe stopping at a given design speed. The type of
curve generally used to connect the intersecting gradients g1 and g2 is the simple
parabola. Its use as a sag or crest curve is illustrated in the shown figure.

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 Chapter (4)

In vertical curve design the gradients are expressed as percentages, with a

negative for a downgrade and a positive for an upgrade,
e.g. A downgrade of 1 in 20 = 5 in 100 = −5 % = −g1%
An upgrade of 1 in 25 = 4 in 100 = +4 % = +g2%
The angle of deflection of the two intersecting gradients is called the grade angle
and equals A in the above figure. The grade angle simply represents the change of
grade through which the vertical curve deflects and is the algebraic difference of
the two gradients:
A% = (g1% − g2%)
In the above example A% = (−5% − 4%) = −9% (negative indicates a sag curve).
In the UK, civil engineering road design is carried out in an accordance with the
Highways Agency’s Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. However, practically
all the geometric design is in the Highways Agency’s TD 9/93. In T D 9/93 the
desirable maximum gradients for vertical curve design are:
Motorways 3%
Dual carriageways 4%
Single carriageways 6%
Rate of change of gradient (r) is the rate at which the curve passes from one
gradient (g1%) to the next (g2%) and is similar in concept to rate of change of
radial acceleration in horizontal transitions. When linked to design speed it is
termed rate of vertical acceleration and should never exceed 0.3m/s2.
Working from first principles;
If g1 = −2% and g2 = +4% (sag curve), then the change of grade from −2% to +4%
= 6% (A), the grade angle. Thus, to provide for a rate of change of grade of 1.5%,
one would require 400 m (L) of curve.
If the curve was a crest curve, then using 3% gives 200 m (L) of curve:
L = 100A/r
Now, expressing rate of change of grade as a single number we have
K = 100/r
L = KA.
Sight distance is a safety design factor which is intrinsically linked to rate of
change of grade, and hence to K-values.
Consider once again the hump-backed bridge. Drivers approaching from each side
of this particular vertical curve cannot see each other until they arrive,
simultaneously, almost on the crest; by which time it may be too late to prevent an
accident. Had the curve been longer and flatter, thus resulting in a low rate of
change of grade, the drivers would have had a longer sight distance and
consequently more time in which to take avoiding action.
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 Chapter (4)

Thus, sight distance, i.e. the length of road ahead that is visible to the driver, is a
safety factor, and it is obvious that the sight distance must be greater than the
stopping distance in which the vehicle can be brought to rest.
Stopping distance is dependent upon:
(1) Speed of the vehicle.
(2) Braking efficiency.
(3) Gradient.
(4) Coefficient of friction between tire and road.
(5) Road conditions.
(6) Driver’s reaction time.
In order to provide for all the above variables, the height of the driver’s eye above
the road surface is taken as being only 1.05 m; a height applicable to sports cars
whose braking efficiency is usually very high. Thus, other vehicles, such as lorries,
with a much greater eye height, would have a much longer sight distance in which
to stop.

Computations
In order to achieve a smooth change of direction when laying out vertical curves,
the grade must be brought up through a series of elevations. The surveyor
normally determines elevation for vertical curves for the beginning (point of
vertical curvature or PVC), the end (point of vertical tangency or PVT), and all full
stations. At times, the surveyor may desire additional points, but this will depend
on construction requirements.
1- Length of Curve

The elevations are vertical offsets to the tangent elevations. Grades g1 and g2 are
given as percentages of rise for 100 feet of horizontal distance. The surveyor
identifies grades as plus or minus, depending on whether they are ascending or
descending in the direction of the survey. The length of the vertical curve (L) is the
horizontal distance from PVC to PVT. Usually, the curve extends ½ L stations on
each side of the point of vertical intersection (PVI) and is most conveniently
divided into full station increments.
The surveyor can derive the curve data as follows:
Determine values of g1 and g2, the original grades.
To arrive at the minimum curve length (L) in stations, divide the algebraic
difference of g1 and g2 (A) by the rate of change (r), which is normally included in
the design criteria. When the rate of change (r) is not given, use the following
formulas to compute L:

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 Chapter (4)

For crest curve;

L=125ft *(g2-g1)/4
L=38.10m*(g2-g1)/4
For sag curve;
L=100ft *(g2-g1)/4
L=30.48m *(g2-g1)/4
If L does not come out to a whole number of stations from this formula, it is usually
extended to the nearest whole number. Note that this reduces the rate of change. Thus, L
= 4.8 stations would be extended to 5 stations, and the value of r computed from r =∆g /L
These formulas are for road design only. The surveyor must use different formulas for
railroad and airfield design.

Passing a curve through a point of known level

In order to ensure sufficient clearance at a specific point along the curve it may be
necessary to pass the curve through a point of known level. This technique will be
illustrated by the following example.
A downgrade of 4% meets a
rising grade of 5% in a sag
curve. At the start of the curve
the level is 123.06 m at
chainage 3420 m, whilst at
chainage 3620 m there is an
overpass with an underside
level of 127.06 m. If the
designed curve is to afford a
clearance of 5 m at this point,
calculate the required length.

To find the offset distance CE:

From chainage horizontal distanceT1E= 200 m at −4%
∴ Level at E = 123.06 − 8 = 115.06 m
Level at C = 127.06 − 5 = 122.06 m
∴ Offset CE = 7 m
From offset equation;
CE / T2B = (T1E)2 / (T1B)2
but T2B = the vertical divergence = A L / (100 * 2), where A = 9
∴ CE = (AL* 2002)/(200 *L2 )= 1800 / L
L = 257 m
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 Chapter (4)

To find the chainage of highest or lowest point on the curve

The position and level of the highest or lowest point on the curve is frequently
required for drainage design. If one considers the curve as a series of straight lines,
then at T1 the grade of the line is −g1 gradually changing throughout the length of
the curve until at T2 it is + g2. There has thus been a change of grade of A% in
distance L. At the lowest point the grade will be horizontal, having just passed
through − g1 from T1. Therefore, the chainage of the lowest point from the start of
the curve is, by simple proportion,
D = (L / A)* g1
Vertical curve radius
Due to the very shallow gradients involved in vertical curve (VC) design, the
parabola may be approximated to a circular curve. In this way vertical
accelerations (V2/R) may be easily assessed. In circular curves the main chord from
T1 to T2 = 2R sin ∆/2, where ∆ is the deflection angle of the two straights. In
vertical curves, the main chord may be approximated to the length (L) of the VC
and the angle ∆ to the grade angle A, i.e.
∆ ≈ A%
∴ sin ∆ /2 ≈ ∆/2 rads ≈ A/200
L ≈ 2RA/200 = AR/100
and as
K = L/A = R/100, then:
R = 100L/A = 100K
It is important to note that the reduced levels of vertical curve must always be
computed. Scaling levels from a longitudinal section, usually having a vertical
scale different from the horizontal, will produce a curve that is neither parabolic
nor circular.

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 Chapter (4)

Ex (1):
Two straights AB and BC falling to the right at gradients 10% and 5%,
respectively, are to be connected by a parabolic curve 200 m long. Design the
vertical curve for chainage and reduce level of B as 2527.00 m and 56.46 m,
respectively. Take peg interval as 20 m.
Also calculate the sight distance for a car having headlights 0.60 m above the road
level, and the headlight beams inclined upwards at an angle of 1.2°.

The total number of stations at 20 m interval

= 2n =L / 20 = 200 / 20 = 10 m
or
n = 10 / 2 = 5
Fall per chord length;
e1 = g1 / 100 * 20 = -10 / 100 * 20 = -2 m
e2 = g2 / 100 * 20 = -5 / 100 * 20 = -1 m.
Elevation of the beginning of the curve at A0
= Elevation of B – ne1
= 56.46 – 5 × (– 2) = 66.46 m.
Elevation of the end of the curve at C0
= Elevation of B + ne2
= 56.46 – 5 × (–1) = 51.46 m.
Tangent correction with respect to the first tangent;
h = kn2
where; k = (e1 - e2) / 4 n
k = (-2 –(-1))/”(4*5)= – 0.05
Reduced levels (R.L.) of the points on the curve
= Tangential elevation – tangent correction
=H–h

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 Chapter (4)

where H is the tangential elevation of a point.

R.L. on the n' th point on the curve = R.L. of A0 + n′ e1 – kn′ 2
R.L. of point 1 (A0) = 66.46 + 1 × (–2) – (– 0.05) × 12 = 64.51 m
R.L. of point 2 = 6.46 + 2 × (– 2) – (– 0.05) × 22 = 62.66 m
R.L. of point 3 = 6.46 + 3 × (– 2) – (– 0.05) × 32 = 60.91 m
R.L. of point 4 = 66.46 + 4 × (– 2) – (– 0.05) × 42 = 59.26 m
R.L. of point 5 = 66.46 + 5 × (– 2) – (– 0.05) × 52 = 57.71 m
R.L. of point 6 = 66.46 + 6 × (– 2) – (– 0.05) × 62 = 56.26 m
R.L. of point 7 = 66.46 + 7 × (– 2) – (– 0.05) × 72 = 54.91 m
R.L. of point 8 = 66.46 + 8 × (– 2) – (– 0.05) × 82 = 53.66 m
R.L. of point 9 = 66.46 + 9 × (– 2) – (– 0.05) × 92 = 52.51 m
R.L. of point 10 (C0) = 66.46 + 10 × (– 2) – (– 0.05) × 102 = 51.46 m …….(Ok.).
Chainage of the intersection point B = 2527.00 m
Chainage of A0 = Chainage of B – 20n
= 2527.00 – 20 × 5 = 2427.00 m.
Chainage of C0 = Chainage of B + 20n
= 2527.00 + 20 × 5 = 2627.00 m.

The chainage of the points and the reduced levels of the corresponding points
on the curve are tabulated in following table:

Point Chainage(m) R.L. of points on curve (m) Remarks

0 2427.00 66.46 A0 (P.C.)
1 2447.00 64.51
2 2467.00 62.66
3 2487.00 60.91
4 2507.00 59.26
5 2527.00 57.71 Apex
6 2547.00 56.26
7 2567.00 54.91
8 2587.00 53.66
9 2607.00 52.51
10 2627.00 51.46 C0 (P.T.)

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 Chapter (4)

With the car at tangent point A0, the headlight beams will strike the curved
road surface at a point where the offset y from the tangent at A0 is:
(0.60 + x tan 1.2°)
Where; x being the distance from A0.
The offset y at a distance x from A0 is given by:
y =((g1 - g2) / 400 l)*x2
Where; l is half of the total length of the curve = 200/2 = 100 m. Thus
y = (-2+1 /400*100) x2 = 40000 x2 ……….ignoring the sign
0.60 + x tan 1.2° = 40000 x2
x2 – 837.88x – 24000 = 0
Sight distance x = 865.61 m.