Appendix

k-Space Formalism

Fourier Space or k-Space

An alternate way to understand MRI acquisition schemes is

through the concept of Fourier space, or k-space. Although the
concept of Fourier space is not intuitively easy to understand, it
provides a unified view of all data acquisition schemes used in
imaging. Some pulse sequence methods, such as echo-planar
imaging, are best understood by way of the concept of Fourier
space. The basic premise of the k-space formalism is that any
image can be entirely described by its content in spatial frequen-
cies: that is, how information varies across the image. Thus, for
any image there exists a complementary image containing the
spatial frequencies. Although the term "spatial frequencies" ap-
pears unintuitive, it can be understood by examining the sound
waveform analogy. Any sound waveform can be decomposed
into a sum of elementary frequencies having various amplitudes
and phases. One can reconstruct the waveform by appropriate
combination of the component frequencies.
Let us examine further the concept of spatial frequency as it
pertains to an image. Since images have two dimensions, spatial
frequencies must be separated in perpendicular directions, say x
and y. A spatial frequency may be seen as the number of times
the information in the image changes per unit length of the
image. For instance, let us consider an "infinite" image made of
points spaced every inch in the x direction and every 2 inches in
the y direction (Figure A.1). Therefore, the spatial frequency
along x is 1 per inch and the spatial frequency along y is 0.5 per
inch. One may exactly reconstruct the actual image from knowl-
edge of these spatial frequencies.
A more complicated image would require more than two
spatial frequencies, but the principles remain the same. And
conversely, the actual image can be exactly reconstructed from
knowledge of the spatial frequency components. The math-
ematical operation that is used to go from the Fourier space to
 Fourier Space or k-Space 155

o 0 0 0 0 0 0

o 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

E
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
--
0
LO
0

o 0 0 0 DOD

o 0 0 0 DOD

1 / cm
spatial
frequency
Figure A.l. The spatial frequencies of an image comprising a matrix of
dots.

the actual space or vice versa is called Fourier transformation

(Figure A.2). These frequencies are usually called kx and ky, with
the result that the Fourier space is also called k-space. In this
space, low frequencies correspond to slow variations across the
image and therefore contain information about contrast. High
spatial frequencies correspond to rapid variations in the image
and encode details. The resolution in the image is given by the
highest spatial frequencies that may be found in the image.
The Fourier space has certain interesting features that are also
found in holography, which is based on Fourier analysis. For
instance, a given point in the Fourier space does not correspond
to a given point in the actual image. A point in the Fourier space
is associated with a given set of two spatial frequencies, one
along x and the other along y. These frequencies contribute to the
entire image. Fourier imaging and Fourier transformation are
used in many disciplines of physics and engineering. With MRI,
156 Appendix 1 k-Space Formalism

Image K-space
Space

.. .
,
/

I I
!
/
I ...
::-.l \
• ,1

,
I I ,.

N :~ <J :>-
I
.. ' ,
:' 1 •

': / Fourier
\ ' I!~ ...
; 11J/1
Transfor
"1\ I
I ;·f~· \' ~ ;

. ,.I:
"\
I

" 'II
.\

Figure A.2. The one-to-one correspondence between image space and

k-space.

the link between Fourier space and images is direct, since data
are collected in the computer memory in terms of spatial
frequencies.

Phase Encoding
The k-space image is directly connected to the MRI image by the
Fourier transform operation. As described in Chapter 2,
the phase-encode technique provides an elegant way to encode
the position of spins by virtue of their phase frequencies. The k-
space formalism described below provides an alternate under-
standing of the process of phase encoding.
Using a constant gradient Gx, the precession frequency at loca-
tion x is:

(A.I)
(The relation to equation 2.3 will be noted; equation A.I, how-
ever, refers to the rotating frame, with the result that the static
field component is excluded.)
 Phase Encoding 157

If G x is applied during a given time interval t, spins will have

precessed at an angle 0 determined by:
(A.2)
Since 0 must be between 0 and 1t radians, it appears that the
phase varies cyclically along x axis (gG)) per unit length. The
associated spatial frequency is thus
(A.3)
Similarly, for a gradient G y applied in the y direction, the
corresponding spatial frequency along y axis would be:
(A.4)

Hence, the spatial frequencies are proportional to the gradient

amplitude and the duration of the gradient used to phase-encode
spins. In as much as gradients may vary in time, spatial frequen-
cies are more exactly defined as the integral over time of the
gradient pulse shape (i.e., the area under the gradient pulses).
Basically, the k-space or Fourier space may be represented by
two axes, kx and kyo For technological reasons, sampling of k-
space must be discrete. An MRI acquisition may thus be seen as
a series of data collections that will provide the amplitude and
the phase of a given number of spatial frequencies. When the
amplitude and the phase of those selected spatial frequencies are
known, it is necessary to "reconstruct" the image by means of a
Fourier transformation in both x and y directions.
The number and the pattern of spatial frequencies needed for
the generation of an image depends on the features present (e.g.,
image resolution, field of view). The size of the k-space-that is,
the highest spatial frequency that will be analyzed-determines
the size of the smallest structure that can be seen in the image
(pixel) (i.e., the image resolution). The pixel size p is therefore:
1
Px,y =-k-- (A.S)
xy,max

Since the maximum value achievable for k directly depends on

the maximum gradient intensity available (equations A.3, A.4),
image resolution is limited by gradient hardware. One may also
increase the duration of the gradient, if this is not prevented by
sequence design and signal-to-noise ratio limitations. The small-
est step in Fourier space sampling or the distance between con-
secutive points, assuming all points are regularly spaced,
determines the lowest spatial frequency that can be recognized.
This frequency corresponds to the longest that can be seen in the
158 Appendix 1 k-Space Formalism

image (i.e., to the field of view). Thus along the x and y direc-
tions, FOV"y is

1
FOV"l/=-- (A.6)
- kxy,min

The number nx,y of k-space points to analyze in either direction

x or y is therefore:

n = kxy,max = FOVx,y (A. 7)

X,l/ k
xy,min Px,y

Thus nx,y is also the number of pixels in the actual image.

Therefore, one must obtain information on as many points in the
k-space as there are pixels in the actual image. Remember, how-
ever, that a point in the k-space does not correspond to a pixel in
the actual image but is linked to the whole image.

Ciassical2DFT Imaging
We now see how the concept of Fourier space applies to conven-
tional spin-echo imaging. In conventional spin-echo imaging,
spatial encoding is obtained through frequency and phase en-
coding as described in Chapter 2. During the pulse sequence, the
data points are recorded during the readout period, and data
acquisition is repeated for successive values of the phase-encode
gradient. These data points, which are acquired sequentially,
form the k-space image. This section describes the congruence of
the data points to that of the k-space.
At the beginning of the pulse sequence, the spatial frequency is
o in both x and y directions, corresponding to the center of the
k-space (point A in Figure A.3). Typically, a gradient pulse is
applied in the first half of the spin-echo sequence on the so-called
readout axis. Let us call this axis x. The amplitude and duration
of this pulse are fixed and determined, so that the corresponding
kx is kx,maJ2, which is determined by image resolution. Simulta-
neously, a gradient pulse of variable amplitude is applied on the
y axis for phase encoding, corresponding to a spatial frequency
kyo Therefore, after these two pulses we have traversed to posi-
tion B in Figure A.3 (at the extremity of a line in k-space). As long
as no other gradient pulse is applied either on x or y axis, the
spatial frequencies remain the same. The effect of the 180 0 RF
pulse is to invert the phase of the transverse magnetization,
which in k-space results in symmetric reflection with respect to
the center. We move now to position C in k-space. During the
echo, a gradient pulse is applied (readout gradient). Signal inten-
 Classical 2DFT Imaging 159

Ky
~.-~~~~~~~~~ C
c'

Kx

Figure A.3. The trajectory of data acquired during. an spin-echo scan.

sity will be discretely sampled at regular intervals t. Each signal

pickup will therefore be associated with a different spatial fre-
quency along the x axis. Between two consecutive signal pick-
ups, spatial frequency will have increased by kx,min' which is
determined by the field of view:

1
kx,mm. r xt =
='~
L7
--
FOV (A.8)
x

In the k-space, the position of the data point being recorded

moves from point C along the kx direction, in steps of kx,min' since
ky does not change. At the center of the echo, we have sampled
nJ2 points in k-space, putting us at point D, which must be at
the center of the kx line. For this purpose, we must satisfy the
condition:

(A.9)

which means that the area of the gradient pulse applied on the
readout axis in the first period is identical to that of the readout
gradient pulse from its start to the top of the echo. From the top
of the echo, the signal is sampled symmetrically over nJ2
points, up to the end of the kx line (i.e., point E). Hence, the total
duration of the readout gradient pulse is ni. On each side of the
160 Appendix 1 k-Space Formalism

top of the echo, the signal drops according to T2*. One can see
how the gradient pulse intensity, its duration, and the sampiing
rate are tied to the image resolution and the field of view. Shorter
sampling times require stronger gradient pulses.
At this stage of the acquisition process, we have seen that the
sampling of one echo signal for a few milliseconds provides data
for a full line in k-space. To get data on all lines, we must repeat
the whole process again, line after line. To change lines, the
amplitude of the phase-encoding gradient is changed, where-
upon another value of ky is obtained, leading to another point B'
in k-space. Basically, the phase-encoding gradient amplitude is
changed, ensuring that the corresponding spatial frequencies
will vary between -ky,max /2 and +ky,max /2 by ny steps of ky,mix.
Dramatic reduction in scan time can be obtained by changing
the algorithm used to scan the k-space. As seen above, conven-
tional techniques as well as gradient-echo imaging techniques
require the ny lines of the k-space to be scanned individually.
There are, however, other acquisition schemes in which several
lines in the k-space are scanned during a single sequence cycle.
This is the approach used in the pulse sequences based on RARE
(rapid acquisition by refocused echo). Ultimately, the whole k-
space may be scanned in a single cycle, as with echo-planar
imaging (EPI).

Additional Reading
Twieg DB. The k-trajectory formulation of the imaging process with applica-
tions in analysis and synthesis of imaging methods. Med Phys 10:610 (1983).
 Index

A correcting, 108 Bolus-tracking technique,

Abdominal tissues, ghost, from motion, 107- for flow
relaxation times for, 112 measurement 123-
85 Gibbs, 153 124
Acetone, diffusion in phase encode Brain, imaging, 80
coefficient of, 51 gradient use, 149 angiogram, phase contrast
Alderman-Grant (AG) coil, motion, in volume method,119
37 imaging, 115 contrast in images of, 78-
Aliasing wraparound, preventing, 79
Nyquist, 35-36 77 coronal images, 57
in phase shift detection, See also Aliases metastatic disease
125-126 Atherosclerotic stenosis, detection, with
preventing effect on velocity of contrast agents, 71-73
in flow systems, 118-119 blood flow, 101 nuclear magnetic
oversampling for, 36 Attenuation, of fat, using an resonance spectra,
zebra stripe method of, inversion pulse, 64- 136
128 65 proton density weighted
See also Artifacts image of,41
Amplification, of a radio B spectroscopy of, 151
frequency pulse, for Bandwidth, of a 3D-time-of-flight
transmission, 33 radiofrequency pulse, technique for, 115
Analog-to-digital converter 16 Breast, imaging of, 91-94
(ADC), for generating Bernoulli's principle, 101 Breath-hold imaging, 113
information for Birdcage coil, 37 Brownian motion, effect on
computer storage, Blood flow imaging, 50-52
34-35 pulsatile, 111-112
Angiography, 100-129 velocity of C
cardiac, X-ray-based, 88- factors determining, Cardiac imaging,
89 100-102 gadolinium chelate
dark-blood, spin-echo mapping, 123-129 dosages used in, 73
imaging for, 63 in selected vessels, 102 Cardiac triggering, for
Aorta, imaging plane for Blood vessels motion artifact
observing, 89 enhancing the image of, correction, 108
Architecture, of an MRI 54 Carotid arteries, imaging of,
instrument, 25-26 flow velocity in, 102 117
Arthrography, gadolinium sequential-slice 2D, 113 Cartilage, hypointense
chelate dosages used Body imaging, 84-86 signal from, 41--42
in,73 Boltzmann equation, ratio of Central nervous system,
Artifacts, 85 spin populations diagnosing diseases
cardiac triggering, for determined from, 5 of,66
162 Index

contrast media for, 69-74 gradient, 31 nucleus, 2

Cerebrospinal fluid, Cysts, renal, 87 Ethanol
imaging, 81 Larmor frequencies of,
Chelated complexes, D 131
gadolinium, as Decay of xy components, resonances from, 132
contrast agents, 67 rate of, 40. See also Even-echo rephasing, 108-
Chemical shift (8), 131-132 Free Induction Decay 110
and artifacts, in fatty Decoupling, of separate Excitation profile
tissue, 85 transmit and receive from the Fourier
effect on, of chemical coils, 39 transform, 15
exchange, 138 Demodulation, of the rectangular, 16
values for common receiver signal, 34
metabolic Demyelination, T2-weighted F
compounds, 133 imaging of, 81 Fast rotating gradient
Chemical shift imaging Depth pulse sequence, 141- spectroscopy
(CSI), 143, 148-149 142 (FROGS), 144
Circular polarization, for Depth-resolved surface coil Fast-spin-echo sequences
spin excitation, 37-38 spectroscopy (FSE),62
Clinical applications, 76-99 (DRESS), 144 for brain scans, 78-79
Coils Design for breast scans, silicone
phased-array, for pelvic coil, 37 implant, 93-94
imaging, 96 magnet, key features of, for spine scans, 81
types of 26-29 Fat
for breast imaging, 92- Diffusion imaging, 50-53 appearance of, in T2-
94 Diffusion weighting, 51-52 weighted and FSE
and corresponding Dwell time, for signal images, 63
organs imaged, 39 sampling, 35 attenuation of signals
volume, types of, 37 from, using an
Concentration effect, image E inversion pulse, 64-
intensity resulting Echo-planar imaging (EPI), 65
from, 41-42 160 myocardial, spin-echo
Continuous wave nuclear Echo signal imaging, 89
magnetic resonance, defined, 9-11 Tl of, 45
124-125 formation of, in a flowing Fat suppression, 54
Contrast, in fast-spin-echo liquid, 103 in imaging the orbit, 79
sequences, 63 Echo time (TE), 9 inversion time for, 77
Contrast agents, 66-75 defined, 47 in joint imaging, 96
for angiography, 121-122 length of Field gradient echo, 20
for brain scans, 78 and Tl- or T2-weighted Field of view (FOV), 56
in clinical trial, list of, 74 image contrast, 77 in angiography, 122
for kidney imaging, 86-87 and T2-weighted image for breast imaging,
in laboratory trial, list of, contrast, 45 implants, 93
74-75 Eddy current, 31-32 and size of the transmit-
for spine scans, 81 from gradient switching, receive coil, 117
Contrast-to-noise ratio 118 for spine scans, 81
(CNR),56-58 Electronics, of radio Field vectors, canceling
Coordinate system, rotating, frequency systems, between coils, 30
5-7 32-39 Filters, to reduce aliasing, 36
Coupling, of free water and Energy, resonant absorption Flip angle, defined, 7
macromolecular of, 3 Flow effects, 100-129
framework proton Energy level Flowing media, signal from,
magnetization, 53-54 higher, transition to, 4 61
Current, magnitude of, for spin, separation in, 4 Flow rate, continuous wave
establishing a Energy state, preferred, of a nuclear magnetic
 Index 163

resonance for detection using, 81 with T2* contrast, 79

measuring, 124-125 Gradient-echo pulse Holography, 155
Flow-sensitive sequences, sequence,40 49- 50 Homogeneity
83-84 cine-mode, 91 Bo, and echo intensity, 49
Food and Drug flow-compensated, cine- of a magnetic field,
Administration, U.S., mode, 89 measuring, 29
field strengths in rapid imaging of Bj sensitivity of small
approved for clinical applications, 61-62 surface coils, 38-39
use, 26 Gradient moment nulling,
Foucault's currents, 31 110-112 I
Fourier space, 154-156 Gradient motion refocusing Image contrast, 40-65
Fourier transform, 11, 155- (GMR),110-112 defined,56
156 Gradient power supply, and spatial resolution, 54-
excitation profile from, 15 defined,31 58
for frequency encoding, Gradient pulse spin properties
21 bipolar, 110-111 responsible for, 40
for phase encoding, 22-24 for phase encoding data, Tl-weighted, 42-45
Fourier velocity imaging, 143 T2-weighted,45-48
128-129 Gradient recalled echo Image-selected in vivo
Free Induction Decay (FlO) (GRE), 49-50, 59 spectroscopy (ISIS),
defined,9 for breast imaging, 92-93 144-146
and field homogeneity, defined, 20 Imaging plane, flow of
133 flow imaging with, 113- liquid perpendicular
Fourier analysis of, to 115, 127 to, 102
distinguish chemical in-flow effect in, blood Implants, breast, evaluating
shifts; 131-132 flow patterns, 91 . the integrity of, 93
for phosphorus parameters in cardiac Indications, for brain
spectroscopic imaging, 91 scanning, 79
imaging, 149 spoiled,64 Inductor, 36-37
pulse sequence, 59 TR values used with, Intensity, of a nuclear
after a second short, 63 magnetic resonance
radiofrequency Gradient strength (G), signal,S
excitation, 43 defined, 13 Interleaved multislice
spectrum from, 142 Great vessels, imaging of, imaging, 118
Free precession 87-91 to avoid slice cross talk,
defined,9,18 Gyromagnetic ratio (y), 4 61-62
Frequency encoding, 20-21 Intermediate frequency (IF),
Fringe field, defined, 28 H output frequency
Hahn spin-echo (HSE), 147 corresponding to, 33
G defined, 9-10 Internal auditory canal
Gadolinium imaging sequence based (lAC), imaging of, 79
for body imaging, 85 on,59 Inversion delay time, 77
in contrast agents, 66-67 Hardware system Inversion pulse, for contrast
dosages of chelates, 74 components, 25-39 improvement, 64
Ghost images, 106, 107-112 Heart Inversion recovery (IR)
Gradient coils, imaging of, 87-91 magnetic resonance
characteristics of, 29- short and long axis angiography, 116
32 images, 90 and saturation of
Gradient-echo image Helium, liquid, in stationary spins, 117
effect of proton density superconducting In vivo localized volume
on intensity of, 41-42 systems, 28 spectroscopy, 140-
of kidneys, 86-87 Hemorrhage, detecting 142
loss of signal in, 48-50, 103 with fast-spin-echo Iron, in contrast agents, 66-
spinal, pathology sequence contrast, 81 67
164 Index

Iron oxide, resonance spectra of, Muscle

superparamagnetic, 142 spectroscopy of, 150-151
effect on T2 pathologies of, signal Tl of,45
weighting, 47 behavior, 85 Musculoskeletal imaging,
Isochromats, 106-107, 141- transverse images, 86 94-96
142 Liver spectroscopy, 151-153 Myocardial spin tagging, 88
moving, phase evolution Lumbar region Myocardium, motion in, 108
of,110-111 slice prescription for
transverse imaging N
J of,83 Navigator echo method, in
J-coupling Tl-weighted image, 82 cardiac imaging, 108
factors affecting, 138 Niobium-titanium alloy, for
in spin-echo pulse M superconducting
sequences, 48-50 Magnet, structure and magnets,27
Joints, shoulder and wrist, characteristics of, 25- Nitrogen, liquid, in
95-96 29 superconducting
Magnetic field systems, 28
K homogeneity of, Nuclear magnetic resonance
Kidneys measuring, 28 (NMR), phenomena
gadolinium chelate along the z axis (8z), 13 involved in, 1-11
dosages used in, 73 Magnetic field gradient Nucleus, sodium, energy
scan protocols in imaging, pulse, 12-24 states of, 3
86-87 Magnetic moment, defined, Nyquist criterion/Nyquist
k-space, 60, 154-160 2 frequency, 35
Magnetic resonance
L angiography (MRA), 0
Larmor equation, 4, 130, 131 112-122 Occupational safety,
Larmor frequencies, 4, 5-6, Magnetization, recovery of, exposure to fringe
34,49-50 7-9 fields, 28
change with magnetic Magnetization transfer (MT) Off-resonance
field gradient, 14-16 contrast, 53-54 magnetization, 58
and frequency of a Magnitude contrast Orbit, imaging of, 79
rotating frame, 18 magnetic resonance Orthophosphoric acid,
and magnetic field imaging, 120-121 exchange rate in
gradient pulses, 19 Manganese, for contrast tissue, 139
and molecular exchange, media, 66-67 Oscillating magnetic field
138 Metabolic disorders, vector (B 1), 3
of moving spins versus phosphorus Oversampling, to avoid
stationary spins, 109- spectroscopy in, 151 aliasing, 36
110 Misregistration, in slice
output frequency selection, 143 P
corresponding to, 33 Molecular exchange, effect Pancreas
tuning of resonators to, 36 of, on nuclear lesions of, detecting, 87
Lesions, preoperative magnetic resonance normal, water excitation
localization of, 79 spectra, 138-143 for imaging, 88
Line width Molecular structure, Paramagnetic metals, 66
effect on, of molecular determination of, Paramagnetic nuclei,
exchange, 138 using NMR, 1 detecting
of spectrum peaks, Motion compensation,107- spectroscopically, 130
nuclear magnetic 112 Pelvic imaging, 96-99
resonance Multiplanar reconstruction pH
spectroscopy, 136-137 (MPR), 81, 83 change during exercise,
Liver Multiplets, number of, in 150-151
nuclear magnetic spin coupling, 138 in tissue, chemical shift of
 Index 165

inorganic phosphate spectroscopy, 144 146

for measuring, 139 in proton spectroscopy, shielding an MRI magnet
Phase 148 from external sources
and flow characteristics, to select tissue for spectral of,25-26
103-107 analysis using, 142 Radio frequency field vector
vector, defined, 18-19 Pressure difference, and (B 1), effect on the
Phase contrast magnetic blood flow, 100-101 spin magnetization
resonance imaging Prostate gland, T2-weighted vector, 5-7
angiography using, 117 image, 98 Rapid acquisition by
pulse sequence for, 118 Proton refocused echo
Phase dispersion, 17 energy states of, 2-3 (RARE),160
during the echo time, 51 exchange effects on Rapid acquisition with
and signal loss, 104-105 nuclear magnetic relaxation
Phase-encode (PE) gradient resonance, 138 enhancement
pulse, 59, 63 gyromagnetic ratio of, 4 (RARE), 62-63
Phase encoding, 21-24, 156- Larmor frequencies of, 4 Rate constants, for spin
158 localized spectroscopy of relaxation, 7-9
techniques for, 148-149 brain examination, 151 Readout (RO) gradient
Phase shift with a spin-echo pulse channel, 59-60
due to differing sequence, 149, 151 Receiver (REC) window,
precessional with stimulated echo 60
frequencies, 19-20 acquisition mode, 148 characteristics of, 33-34
and flow velocity, 125 spin density N(H), 41-42 Reference molecules, for
in stationary spins, 105 water measuring chemical
Phosphocreatine, reference enhancing the shift, 132-133
molecule, 132 relaxation rate of, 67 Region of interest, selection
Phosphorus spectroscopy role in magnetic of, after spectroscopic
image-selected in vivo resonance imaging, 7 data is acquired, 149
spectroscopy for, 146 Pulsatility, phase changes Relaxation, 8-9, 77
of muscle, 150-151 due to, 106 for macromolecular
Pixel, 55-56 Pulsed field gradient, for protons, 53-54
Polarization, linear, 37-38 selective study of a Relaxation time
Popliteal vessels region, 142 for flowing spins, 102
contrast agent use in Pulse sequen!2e generator in heart imaging, 91
imaging, 122 (PSG), defined, 31 and residual x-y
flow in, 129 Pulse sequences, 59-65 magnetization, 63-64
rephase-dephase method printout showing primary Relaxivity, of contrast
for imaging, 121 parameters, 77 agents, 67
Positron emission Renal imaging, gadolinium
tomography (PET), Q chelate dosages used
130 Quadrature phase sensitive in,73
Postprocessing methods, 81, detector (QPD), 34 Repetition time (TR),
83 radiofrequency pulse,
Preamplifier, receiver, 34 R 42-45
Precession Radio frequency (RF) Rephase-dephase method,
frequency of, 156 adiabatic pulse, 141 120-121
of a spinning magnetic excitation during a Resistive magnets versus
moment, 2, 3-4 magnetic field superconductive
Preemphasis, to correct gradient pulse, 14-17 magnets, 26-27
eddy currents, 31-32 off-resonance pulse Resolution, and spatial
Presaturation and contrast, 58 frequency, 155
to attenuate stationary and spin saturation, 53- Resonance effect, 1-3
spin signals, 129 54 in terms of spin
in fast rotating gradient preinversion pulse, 145- excitation, 3-4
166 Index

Resonance frequency, Sine pulses, 15, 16 resonance

dependence on Single-sideband modulator spectroscopy, 136-
magnetic field and (SSB),33 137
gyromagnetic ratio, Single-slice imaging, in parameters for cardiac
14-15 angiography, 102 imaging, 91
Resonators, for signal Slice cross talk, 62 in phase shift detection,
detection, 36-37 Slice-select (55) gradient 125-126
Respiration, as a source of pulse, 59 pure T1 or T2 contrast
artifacts, 107-108 Slice selection, 142-143 from, 61-62
Respiratory gating, for defined, 16 signal loss in, flowing
motion artifact and gradient strength, 30 liquid, 103
reduction, 108 Spatial encoding, of nuclear vector evolution during,
Retrospective gating, in magnetic resonance 49-50
cardiac imaging, 108 signals, 12-24 Spin ensemble
Rotating frame Spatial frequencies, 154-156 magnetization vector,
zeugmatography, Spatial modification of 4-5
142-143 magnetization Spin-lattice relaxation time
(SPAMM),88 (Tl),7-9
S Spatial resolution modification with contrast
Saddle coil, 37 and image contrast, 54-58 agents, 66-70
Scalar coupling, effect in for pelvic imaging, 96 Spin magnetization vector
nuclear magnetic Spatial tagging (STAG), 88 (Mo)
resonance Spectroscopic imaging (51), defined, 5
spectroscopy, 136- 148 dynamics of, 11
137 Spectroscopy, 130-153 effect on frequency field
Scan protocols, 76-78 localized methods, 144- vector (B 1), 5-7
Scout images 146 free precession of, 18
defined, 78 Spectrum, nuclear magnetic Spin-phase effect, 104
shoulder, 95-96 resonance, defined, Spin properties, 40-41
Self-diffusion coefficient, 131-132 Spin relaxation, defined, 7
50-52 Spinal cord stenosis, 84 Spin-spin relaxation, 7-9
Sensitivity, 37 Spin angular momentum, modification with contrast
hardware, effect on defined, 2 agents, 66
signal-to-noise ratio, Spin density (N), 41-42 Spin-spin splitting, 137
55 image weighted by, 77 Spleen
Shielding, to reduce fringe Spine, imaging of lesions of, detecting, 87
fields, 28-29 coils for, 78-79 signal from, 87
Shielding factor (P), 131 for diagnosing pathology, Stability, of a static
Shim coils / shimming 79,81-87 magnetic field, 27
defined, 28 effect of contrast agent Steady state/free precession
in nuclear magnetic use on, 73 (SSFP) technique, 64
resonance effect of T2 weighting on, Steady state sequence
spectroscopy, 133- 48 breast images from, 93-94
134 Spin-echo sequence, 9-11, during the detection
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 32,85 period, 100
34-35 effect on, of a field Stimulated echo acquisition
factors determining, 55-59 gradient pulse, 51 mode (STEAM), 147-
improving with use of an fat-suppressed, 87 148
adiabatic pulse, 141 Fourier space application Stroke, early detection of, 53
intrinsic, and coil to, 158-160 Superconductive magnets
dimension, 38-39 for joint visualization, 96 versus resistive
Silicone implants, inversion multislice, for cardiac magnets, 26-27
time for suppressing imaging, 89 Superparamagnetic iron
the image from, 77 in nuclear magnetic oxide particles, effect
 Index 167

on T2, 47 unspoiled gradient V

Surface coil volume recalled echo, 64 Vascular tissue versus
localization, 140-141 hemorrhage detection stationary tissue,
Switching time, for a using, 79 contrast-to-noise ratio
gradient field, 31 Temperature, measuring of,58
Synovial fluid, detection of, changes in, with Vector quantities, defined, 2
96 diffusion imaging, 53 Velocity mapping, 123-129
Tetramethyl silane (TMS), Venous flow, portal,
T reference molecule, evaluating with bolus
T1 weighting 132 tagging, 124-125
for brain scans, 78-79 Thermal energy transfer, Viscosity, and velocity of
defined,43 and spin relaxation, blood flow, 100-101
effect of, on contrast, 58 8-9 Volume data, gradient
for generating images, Time evolution, of recalled echo
with spoiled gradient magnetization sequences for
recalled echo vectors, 20 acquiring, 63
sequences, 64 Time-of-flight (TOF) Voxel,56
for joint visualization, 96 methods, flow signal
in nuclear magnetic enhancement using, W
resonance 112-113, 127 Wash-in effect, in
spectroscopy, 133 Tissue angiography, 102
spin-echo, for kidney perfusion of, affecting Washout effect, in
imaging, 86-87 phase dispersion and angiography, 102-103
for spine imaging, 81 diffusion weighting, Water
in time-of-flight 52 bound and free, effects on
applications, 113 properties affecting the images, 41-42
T2 weighting signal-to-noise ratio, diffusion coefficient of, 51
for brain pathology 55 exchange reactions, in
visualization, 78 Toxicity, of gadolinium tissue, 139
for breast pathology chelates, 69-70 protons of
visualization, 93-94 Transmission, amplification enhancing the
defined,45 of a radio frequency relaxation rate of, 67
effect of, on contrast, 58 pulse for, 33 role in magnetic
for joint visualization, 96 Two-dimensional Fourier resonance imaging, 7
in nuclear magnetic transformation Wraparound effects, in flow
resonance (2DFT) imaging, 23- encoding, 129
spectroscopy, 133 24
for spine pathology classical, 158-160 Z
visualization, 81 Zebra stripe method, 127-
with two echoes, 77 U 128
T2* effect, 48-50, 133 Uterus, T2-weighted image, +z vector, characteristic rate
generation from an 98 of recovery of, 40