SENSES 2.

Deep/Visceral Pain – diffuse; action potentials

 Ability to perceive stimuli are propagated more slowly

Sensation/Perception – conscious awareness of stimuli Local anesthesia – injected near a sensory

received receptor/nerve resulting in reduced pain

General anesthesia – loss of consciousness is produced;

G E N E R A L SENSES affects reticular formation
 Have receptors distributed over the body
 Senses for touch, pressure, pain, Gate control theory – inhibits action potentials carried
temp., vibration, itch, proprioception to the brain by the spinothalamic tract

1. Somatic Senses – provide sensory info about Referred Pain

the body and the environment  Originate in a region of the body that is not the source
of the pain stimulus
2. Visceral Senses – provide info about various  Clinically useful in diagnosing the actual cause of
internal organs (pain & pressure) the painful stimulus
 Occurs bcos the sensory neurons (from the
Transduction – a receptor absorbs energy from stimulus superficial area) to which the pain is referred,
and the neurons (from the deeper, visceral area)
Sensory Receptors – sensory nerve endings capable of where the pain stimulation originates, converge
responding to stimuli by developing action potentials onto the same ascending neurons in the spinal
cord; thus the brain can’t distinguish
1. Mechanoreceptors – mechanical stimuli

2. Chemoreceptors – chemicals (odor molecules) SPECIAL SENSES

 Localized to specific parts of the body
3. Photoreceptors – light  Smell, taste, sight, hearing, balance

4. Thermoreceptors – temperature changes

OLFACTION
5. Nociceptors – sensation of pain  Sense of smell
 Occurs in response to airborne molecules
6. Free nerve endings – simplest and most
common receptors Odorants – airborne molecules
 Cold receptors – decreasing temp.; stop
responding at below 12OC Olfactory neurons – bipolar neurons
 Warm receptors – increasing temp.; stop
responding above 47 OC Olfactory epithelium – lines the superior part of the
nasal cavity
7. Touch receptors – structurally more complex;
enclosed by capsules Neuronal Pathways for Olfaction
 Axons of the olfactory neurons form the
8. Merkel disks – light touch and superficial olfactory nerves, which enter the olfactory
pressure bulb. Olfactory tracts carry action potentials
from the olfactory bulbs to the olfactory cortex
9. Hair follicle receptors – light touch of the brain.
10. Meissner corpuscles – fine, discriminative Olfactory bulb – where olfactory neurons synapse with
touch; localizing tactile sensations interneurons
11. Ruffini corpuscles – continuous pressure in Olfactory tracts – relays action potentials to the brain
skin
Olfactory cortex – where each olfactory tract terminates
12. Pacinian corpuscles – deepest receptors; deep
pressure, vibration, position Adaptation – feedback + temporary decreased
sensitivity

Pain
 Unpleasant perceptual and TASTE
emotional experiences Taste buds – detect taste stimuli
Papillae – enlargements on the surfaced of the tongue
1. Superficial Pain – localized; rapidly conducted
action potentials
Taste cells – 40 specialized epithelial cells epithelium
Taste hairs – hair-like processes
Taste pore – tiny opening in the surrounding stratified Taste sensations
 1. Sour
 Medial rectus – turns eye inward
2. Salty
Oblique muscles – two muscles to the long axis;
3. Bitter superior and inferior
4. Sweet
 Superior oblique – rotates counterclock
5. Umami (savory)
 Inferior oblique – rotates clockwise
Neuronal Pathways for Taste
Anatomy of the Eye
1. Facial Nerve (7) – transmits taste sensations
from the anterior of the tongue Eyeball – hollow, fluid-filled sphere

2. Glossopharyngeal nerve (9) – carries taste Tunics – 3 layered wall of the eye
sensations from the posterior of the tongue Fibrous tunic – sclera + cornea
Sclera – firm, white, outer connective tissue;
3. Vagus nerve (10) – carries some taste maintains the shape of the eye
sensations form the root of the tongue Cornea – transparent, permits light to enter;
refracts the entering light; ‘window of
4. Gustatory portion of the brainstem nuclei the eye’

5. Thalamus Vascular tunic – contains most of the blood vessels of

the eye
6. Taste area (Insula) Choroid – thin structure that consists of
melanin containing pigment cells
(causing black appearance); absorbs
VISION light so that it is not reflected inside
Ciliary body – responsible for
Orbits – bony cavities where the eyes are housed
accommodation; near objects = CM
contracts + lens become rounder; far
Accessory Structures of the Eye
objects = CM relaxes + lens become
 Protect, lubricate, and move the eye ovoid
Eyebrows – protect the eyes by preventing perspiration  Ciliary muscles – smooth muscles
from running down  Suspensory ligaments – attached
the perimeter of the lens
Eyelids – protect the eyes form foreign objects  Lens – flexible, biconvex,
Blinking – occurs about 20 times/min.; keeps the transparent disc
eyes lubricated o Cataract – opacity of lens
Iris – colored part of the eye; regulates
Conjunctiva – thin, transparent mucous membrane diameter of the pupil
covering the inner surface of the eyelids; lubricate the  Pupil – controls the amt. of light
surface of the eye entering the eyes
Conjunctivitis – inflammation of the conjunctiva o Parasympathetic – light
intensity increases; pupillary
Lacrimal Apparatus constriction
Lacrimal gland – produces tears o Sympathetic – light intensity
 Lacrimal canaliculi – small ducts where decreases; pupillary dilation
excess tears are collected
 Lacrimal duct – enlargement Nervous tunic – innermost tunic
of nasolacrimal duct Retina – covers the posterior 5/6 of the eye
Nasolacrimal duct – opens into the nasal cavity  Pigmented retina – keeps light from
reflecting back into the eye
Extrinsic Eye Muscles – 6 skeletal muscles that  Sensory retina – contains rods &
accomplish movement of each eyeball cones (photoreceptors) which
Rectus muscles respond to light
Superior rectus – rolls eye upwards a. Rods – can function in very dim
Inferior rectus – rolls eye downward light; doesn’t provide color
Lateral rectus – turns eye outward vision
o Rhodopsin – photosensitive
pigment; breaks down into:
 Opsin – colorless protein
Retinal –yellow pigment
o Night blindness – difficulty seeing in dims cone types
light; caused by vit. A deficiency Partial color blindness – lack of one cone type
b. Cones – require more light; provide color Retinal detachment – separation of sensory
vision retina from the pigmented retina
Red, Blue, Green – major types of color
sensitive opsin Regions of the Retina
Color blindness – caused by lack of three 1. Macula lutea – small, yellow spot near the center
 of the posterior retina  Optic tracts from the chiasm lead to the
Fovea centralis – region of sharpest vision; thalamus.
where light is most focused  Optic radiations extend from the thalamus to
2. Optic disc – white spot through which a no. of the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
blood vessels enter the eye;
Blind spot of the eye – contains no Optic nerve – leaves the eye and exits the orbit
photoreceptor cells and doesn’t respond
to light Optic chiams – where two optic nerves connect
Chambers of the Eye Optic tracts – the route of the ganglionic axons
Anteriorchamber
Posterior Optic radiations – formed by neurons from the
chamber thalamus
 Bet. the cornea and lens
Aqueous humor – watery fluid; helps Visual cortex – where vision is perceived
maintain pressure within the eye,
refracts light, provides nutrients Visual field – image seen by each eye
Glaucoma – increase in the intraocular
pressure due to blockage of AH flow HEARING & BALANCE
Vitreous chamber Anatomy and Function of the Ear
 Posterior to the lens 1. External Ear – outer part we see
Vitreous humor – transparent, jelly-like a. Auricle – fleshy part; collects sound
substance; helps maintain pressure waves & directs them toward the EAC
within the eye, holds the lens and b. External auditory canal – passageway
retina in place; does not circulate that leads to the eardrum
c. Ceruminous glands – lines the auditory
Functions of the Eye canal
1. Light Refraction  Cerumen/earwax – modified
Focal point – crossing point sebum; protects the lining of the
Focusing – causes light to converge canal
2. Focusing Images on the Retina d. Tympanic membrane/Eardrum – thin
Accommodation – causes greater refraction membrane that separates the external
of light; enables the eye to focus on from the middle ear; sound waves
images causes it to vibrate

Neuronal Pathways for Vision 2. Middle Ear – air filled chamber

 Light passes through cornea, through the a. Oval and Round window – connects
aqueous humor, through the lens, through the the middle to the inner
vitreous humor, image forms on b. Auditory Ossicles – amplify vibrations
photoreceptors in retina, breakdown of i. Malleus (hammer) – medial surface
rhodopsin, signals bipolar cells. of the tympanic m.
 Axons pass though the optic nerves to the optic ii. Incus (anvil) – connects malleus to
chiasm, where some cross. Axons from the stapes
nasal retina cross, and those from the temporal iii. Stapes – its base is seated in the oval
retina do not. window
c. Auditory/Eustachian tube – enables
pressure to be equalized

3. Inner Ear – fluid filled chamber; for sound

waves, balance, equilibrium
a. Bony labyrinth – interconnecting
tunnels and chambers
i. Cochlea – hearing
ii. Vestibule – balance
iii. Semicircular canal – balance
b. Membranous labyrinth – smaller set of
membranous tunnels and chambers
 Endolymph – clear fluid
c. Perilymph – fluid bet. membranous and
bony labyrinths
Cochlea apex of the cochlea
 Contains receptors for hearing
 Snail shell shape Scala tympani – extends in parallel with the scala v. from
the apex
Spiral lamina – threads of the screw (base)
Vestibular membrane – wall of the ML that lines the
Scala vestibuli – extends from the oval window to the scala vestibuli
 Otolithic membrane – gelatinous mass
Basilar membrane – wall of the ML that lines the scala
tympani Otoliths – gravity detectors composed of protein and
calcium carbonate
Cochlear duct – space bet. the VM and the BM; filled
with endolymph Semicircular canals – involved in dynamic equilibrium;
enables a person to detect movements in any direction
Spiral organ/Organ of Corti – specialized structure; Ampulla – expanded base of each SC
contains hair cells Crista ampullaris – specialized epithelium formed
within each ampulla
Hair cells – specialized sensory cells; contain microvilli Cupula – curved, gelatinous mass contained in each
crista
Tectorial membrane – acellular gelatinous shelf
Motion sickness – caused by continuous stimulation of
Cochlear/Spiral ganglion – contains cell bodies of hair the SC; characterized by nausea & weakness
cells
Neuronal Pathways for Balance
Cochlear nerve – formed by axons of sensory neurons
 Axons in the vestibular portion of the
vestibulocochlear nerve project to the
Vestibulocochlear nerve (CN 8) – formed by cochlear vestibular nucleus and on to the cerebral
nerve + vestibular nerve cortex.
Glutamate – neurotransmitter for hearing
Vestibulocochlear nerve (8) – project to the vestibular
nucleus in the brainstem
Hearing
Higher pitches – causes max. distortion of the BM Balance – a complex sensation involving sensory input
Sound volume – function of sound wave amplitude Effects of Aging on the Senses
Presbyopia – lenses’ ability to change shape initially
Conduction deafness – results from declines and is eventually lost
mechanical deficiencies
Presbyacusis – age-related sensorineural hearing loss
Sensorineural hearing loss – caused by deficiencies in
the spiral organ/nerves

Neuronal Pathways for

Hearing
 Soundwaves enter
external auditory meatus,
causing the tympanic membrane to vibrate.
 Malleus, incus, stapes amplify the vibrations,
causing the oval window to vibrate.
 Vibrations are conducted through perilymph,
and transmitted to the endolymph, causing the
basilar membrane to vibrate.
 Hair cells in the organ of Corti are stimulated.
 From the vestibulocochlear nerve, action
potentials travel to the cochlear nucleus and on
the cerebral cortex.

Cochlear nucleus – where the cochlear nerve sends

axons
Inferior colliculus – where neurons in the cochlear
nucleus project to the other areas of the brainstem

Balance
Static equilibrium – vestibule; evaluating the position
of head relative to gravity

Dynamic equilibrium – semi-circular canals; evaluating

changes in the direction and rate of head movements

Vestibule
 Utricle
 Saccule

Maculae – specialized patches of epithelium