VARIABLE LOADS AND

VARIABLE STRESSES
• Our previous discussions were focused on the stresses due to
static loading only.
• But only a few machine parts are subjected to static loading;
and many of the machine parts (such as axles, shafts,
crankshafts, connecting rods, springs, pinion teeth etc.) are
subjected to variable or alternating loads (also known as
fluctuating or fatigue loads).
Types of Variable Loads
1. Reversed Load (completely reversed load): a load that varies from
a minimum value to a maximum value whose magnitudes are equal but
opposite in direction (if minimum is tension, maximum is compression
and vice-versa)
where : S max  max. induced stress due
max. load applied
Fmax Tmax r M max c
S max  or or
A J I
S min  min. induced stress due
min. load applied
F T r M c
S min  min or min or min
A J I
S a  alternating stress S m  average or mean stress
S max  S min S max  S min
Sa   S max Sm  0
2 2
2. Repeated Load: a load that varies from zero to a certain maximum.

S max  S min
Sm 
2
S min .  0
S max
Sm 
2
S max  S min
Sa 
2
S max
Sa 
2
3. Varying Load: a load that varies from a certain minimum value to a
certain maximum value with same direction of application.

S max  S min
Sm 
2
S max  S min
Sa 
2
4. Fluctuating Load: a load that varies from a certain minimum to a
certain maximum having different magnitudes between limits and with
different directions of application.

S max  S min
Sm 
2
S max  S min
Sa 
2
Design Criteria for Variable Loads
complete reversal

1. For steady load, max. stress reached before failure happens:

S y  for ductile materials
Su  for brittle materials
2. For a load of complete reversal, max. stress reached before failure happens
when load is applied for a number of repetitions (from 104 to 108 ):
S n  endurance strength of the material
Endurance strength may be defined as the max. safe stress which can be applied
to a machine member under variable conditions.
 1 Sm Sa Soderberg
For ductile materials   Equation
N S y Sn

Soderberg Equation for Shear

1 S ms S a s
 
N S y s S ns
where : S ys  0.6S y
N=factor of safety based on
Soderberg criterion (1<N≤2.0)
Sy=yield strength
Soderberg Line or Line of Failure: Sn=endurance strength
straight line joining Sn and Sy. Sm=mean stress induced
Line of Safe Stress: line parallel to Sa=alternating stress induced
line of failure and is formed by joining
Sn /N and Sy/N where N is the factor
of safety.
For brittle materials
Goodman Equation
1 Sm Sa
 
N Su S n

Goodman Equation for Shear

1 S ms S a s
 
N S u s S ns
where : Su s  0.75Su
Gerber Equation
• Can also be used in dealing with variable stresses
• But, Soderberg and Goodman are usually preferred in designing
machine parts.

Gerber Equation
2
1  Sm  Sa
   N 
N  Su  Sn
 Endurance Strength, Sn
Su.F .  factor for the surface
S n  L.F .Si.F .Su.F .S n ' of material
L.F .  load factor (refer to AF5, textbook)
L.F .  1.0for bending  S n '  endurance limit of
 0.8for axial load  the material
 0.6for torsion  Sn '
 endurance ratio
Si.F .  size factor Su
Si.F .  1.0d  0.3"  0.23 to 0.65 (for steel)
 0.850.3"  d  2" If no complete description of
 0.75d  2" material is given, use
where d  smallest cross sectional Sn '
 0.5 or S n '  0.5Su
dimension of the member Su
Surface Factor, Su. F.
The figure in AF5 of our text is similar to the one shown below.
Sample Problem 1
• A shaft, machined from AISI 1020, as rolled steel with a yield strength
of 48 ksi, is to be subjected to a torque that varies from (-1000) in-lbs.
to 4000 in-lbs. For a Soderberg’s factor of safety of 1.8 and surface
factor of 0.9, determine the diameter of the shaft.
Since material is ductile(steel)
and for shear stress :
1 S ms S a s
 
N S y s S ns
where : S ys  0.6 S y

N  1.8
Properties of AISI 1020 as rolled
S y  48000 psi
S ys  0.648000   28800 psi
Load is fluctuating
 S max s  S min s
S ms 
2
Tmax r 16Tmax
S max s  
J d 3
Tmin r 16Tmin
S min s  
J d 3
16Tmax  Tmin  164000   1000  161500 
S ms   
2d 3
2d 3
d 3

S max s  S min s
S as 
2
16Tmax  Tmin  164000   1000  162500 
S as   
2d 3
2d 3
d 3
S ns  L.F .Si.F .Su.F .S n '
For load factor : L.F .  0.6for torsion  1 S ms S a s
 
For size factor : Say : d  0.3" N S y s S ns
Si.F .  1.0d  0.3" 161500  162500 
Su.F .  0.9  given  1  
3 3
 d  d
S n '  0.5Su  0.565000   32500 psi 1 .8 28800 17550
d  1.21 in.  0.3";
S ns  0.61.0 0.9 32500  17550 psi
the assumption is incorrect.

Say Si.F .  0.850.3"  d  2"

S ns  0.60.850.9 32500  14917.5 psi
161500  162500 
Then :
1
  d 3
 d 3
 d  1.26 in.0.3"  d  2"
1.8 28800 14917.5
d 13 "
8
Sample Problem 2
• A thin-walled cylindrical vessel, which is made of AISI C1020, as
rolled steel has a diameter of 2 ft. and a length of 3 ft. The joint
efficiency of the vessel is 80%. Internal pressure of the gas inside the
vessel varies continuously from 200 psi to 400 psi. If for a Factor of
Safety of 1.75 based on Soderberg criterion and the surface factor is
1.0, find the minimum safe thickness of the vessel. Take yield strength
of AISI C1020 as 48000 psi

1 Sm Sa
   Soderberg Eq.
N S y Sn
N  1.75
For AISI 1020 as rolled,
L  3 ft.  36in. S y  48000 psi
D  2 ft.  24in
t ?
 S max  S min
Sm 
2
Fmax pmax D 400 psi 24in  6000
S max    
A 2t j 2t 0.8 t
Fmin pmin D 200 psi 24in  3000
S min    
A 2t j 2t 0.8 t
6000 3000

Sm  t t  4500
2 t
6000 3000

S max  S min t  1500
Sa   t
2 2 t
S n  L.F .Si.F .Su.F .S n '
L.F .  0.8axial load 
Si.F .  1.0assume t  0.3"
From AF5,
Su.F .  1.0  given 
S n '  0.5Su  0.565000   32500 psi
S n  0.81.0 0.94 32500  24440 psi

1 Sm Sa
Thus,  
N S y Sn
4500 1500
1
 t  t
1.75 48000 24440
t  0.27"  0.3" , assumed Si.F. is correct.
 t  0.27"  5 "
16
STRESS
CONCENTRATION
Stress Concentration
• The irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt
changes of form is called stress concentration.
• The abrupt changes include any discontinuity or change in
cross-section of a machine member, such as scratches, holes,
notches, bends, grooves, fillets, keyways, splines, surface
roughness, etc.
• These are stress raisers which result in a concentration of
stress or “localized stress” that is greater than the average or
nominal stress.
• Comparison of stress distribution for machine members
with and without a stress raiser.

Tension(axial stress)

with stress raiser (notch)

without stress raiser Sind  S max  S o K t 
F
Sind  S 0   S max F
th S max  K t  
 th 
K t  theoretical stress
concentration factor
Bending or Flexure

with stress raiser (notch)

without stress raiser Sind  S max  S o K t 
Mc
Sind  S 0   S max  Mc 
I S max  K t  
 I 
K t  theoretical stress
concentration factor
Torsion
without stress raiser
Tr
Sind  S 0   S max
J

with stress raiser (groove)

Sind  S max  S o K t 
 Tr 
S max  K t  
 J 
K t  theoretical stress
concentration factor

For values of K t , see appendix figures of textbook,

AF 8 to AF 14
Sample Problem 3
Given : stepped shaft
Required : Maximum induced
stress on shaft if load is
a. Tension, F  1000 lbs.
F
b. Torsion, T  3000 in - lbs. a. Sind  St  K t
A
c. Bending, M  3000 in - lbs.
A  d2
d. Compression, F  1000 lbs. 4
From AF 12 : D  1.5  1.5
d 1
r  0.25  0.25
d 1
K t SCF   1.48
 1000 
Sind  S max  1.48 
  12 
 4 
 1884.39 psi
 T  3000in  lbs. D  1.5" Tr 16T
b. Sind  S max  K t  Kt 3
d  1" r  0.25" J d
From AF 12 : at D  1.5,
d
r  0.25, and curve for torsion :
d
K t SCF   1.18
 163000  
c. Sind  S max  K t
Mc Sind  S max  1.18 
  1 
3
I
From AF 12 : at D  1.5,  18029 .07 psi
d
r  0.25, and curve for bending :
d
K t SCF   1.34

Sind  S max  1.34

 
 3000  1
2
  14 
 64 
 40947.4 psi
 F
d. Sind  S c  K t
A
A  d2
4
K t SCF   1.0For compression 
 1000 
Sind  S max  1.0 
  12 
 4 
 1273.24 psi
Variable Stresses on Members with Stress
Raisers

Modified Soderberg Equation

Modified Goodman Equation
for ductile materials :
for brittle materials :
1 Sm K f Sa
  1 Sm K f Sa
N Sy Sn  
N Su Sn
for shear :
for shear :
1 S ms K f S a s
  1 S ms K f S a s
N S ys S ns  
N Sus S ns
where : S ys  0.6 S y
where : Su s  0.75Su
K f  fatigue - strength reduction factor
K f  1  q ( K t  1)
K t  theoretical SCF AF8 - AF14
q  notch sensitivity factor
If q is not given, use the general equation
1
for q : q 
a
1
r
where : r  notch radius, hole radius, fillet radius, radius of curvature, etc.
a  constant for the material used
For steel :
a  0.005  Su  93ksi
a  0.0005  Su  180ksi
Note :
log a  Su
To get a, given Su  152ksi, For keyways and threads,
log 0.005 Su  93ksi use AT 13 and AT 12
log a Su  152ksi for values of K f
log 0.0005 Su  180ksi
Interpolate :
log a  log 0.005 152  93

log 0.0005  log 0.005 180  93
 152  93log 0.0005  log 0.005 
log a  log 0.005   
 180  93 
 152 93 log 0.0005 log 0.005  
log 0.005  
180 93
a  10  
 0.001049
Sample Problem 4
• Find the diameter of a shaft to transmit twisting moments
varying from 800 N-m to 1600 N-m. The ultimate tensile
strength for the material is 600 MPa and yield stress is
450 MPa. Assume the stress concentration factor = 1.2,
notch sensitivity factor=0.98, surface finish factor = 0.8,
size factor = 0.85 and factor of safety=1.5.

Given :
N
Tmax  1600000 N  mm; Tmin  800000 N  mm; Su  600 2
;
mm
N
S y  450 2
; K t  1.2; q  0.98; Su.F  0.8; Si.F  0.85
mm
 16Tmax 161600000 25600000
S max   
d 3
d 3
d 3
16Tmax 16800000 12800000
S min   
d 3
d 3
d 3
S  S min 25600000  12800000 19200000
S m  max  
2 2d 3
d 3
S max  S min 25600000  12800000 6400000
Sa   
2 2d 3
d 3
S n  L.F .Si.F .Su.F .S n '
L.F .  load factor
L.F .  1.0for bending 
 0.8for axial load 
 0.6for torsion 
L.F .  0.6

S  0.5Su  0.5600   300

' N
n
mm 2
S n  0.60.850.8300   122.4
N
mm 2
K f  fatigue - strength reduction factor
K f  1  q ( K t  1)  1  0.981.2  1  1.196
Modified Soderberg Equation for ductile materials :
1 S ms K f S a s
  ; S ys  0.6 S y  0.6450   270 MPa
N S ys S ns
19200000 1.196 6400000 
 
1 d 3
 d 3

 
1.5 270 122.4
d  39.96mm  40mm