The document discusses various topics related to machine element design including fatigue failure, endurance limit, fatigue testing methods, low and high cycle fatigue, notch sensitivity, endurance limit estimation factors, design for finite and infinite life, cumulative damage theory, Goodman diagrams, fatigue design under combined loading, impact stresses, and factors of safety. It provides definitions, equations, examples, and diagrams to explain these fundamental mechanical design concepts.
The document discusses various topics related to machine element design including fatigue failure, endurance limit, fatigue testing methods, low and high cycle fatigue, notch sensitivity, endurance limit estimation factors, design for finite and infinite life, cumulative damage theory, Goodman diagrams, fatigue design under combined loading, impact stresses, and factors of safety. It provides definitions, equations, examples, and diagrams to explain these fundamental mechanical design concepts.
The document discusses various topics related to machine element design including fatigue failure, endurance limit, fatigue testing methods, low and high cycle fatigue, notch sensitivity, endurance limit estimation factors, design for finite and infinite life, cumulative damage theory, Goodman diagrams, fatigue design under combined loading, impact stresses, and factors of safety. It provides definitions, equations, examples, and diagrams to explain these fundamental mechanical design concepts.
The document discusses various topics related to machine element design including fatigue failure, endurance limit, fatigue testing methods, low and high cycle fatigue, notch sensitivity, endurance limit estimation factors, design for finite and infinite life, cumulative damage theory, Goodman diagrams, fatigue design under combined loading, impact stresses, and factors of safety. It provides definitions, equations, examples, and diagrams to explain these fundamental mechanical design concepts.
Nivish George Fluctuating Stresses Stress that arise due to the variation in magnitude of force with respect to time 1 𝜎𝑚 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 2 1 𝜎𝑎 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
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Fatigue Failure Failure < Ultimate tensile strength of the material Time delayed fracture under cyclic loading: Fatigue failure
Fatigue Failure Regions Fine fibrous Coarse granular
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Endurance limit Endurance limit is the maximum amplitude of completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without fatigue failure
Fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that
the standard specimen can complete during the test before the appearance of the first fatigue crack
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Fatigue Testing
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Low Cycle and High Cycle Fatigue
0 cycle 0-103 cycles 103 -108 cycles
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Low Cycle and High Cycle Fatigue
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Notch Sensitivity 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 𝐾𝑡𝑓 = 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛 Eqn 2.12(a) Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to succumb to the damaging effects of stress raising notches in fatigue loading. 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑞= 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Surface finish factor (𝐾𝑎 ) • 𝐾𝑎 : To account for the stress raisers due to the poor surface finish • They are derating factors • 𝐾𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝑏 (shigley and Mischke)
Coefficient values for steel
Surface finish a b Ground 1.58 -0.085 Machined or cold drawn 4.51 -0.265 Hot-rolled 57.7 -0.718 As forged 272 -0.995 Department of Mechanical Engineering 11 Size factor (𝐾𝑏 ) • 𝐾𝑏 : To account for the increase in size • For 2.79 mm ≤ d ≤ 51 mm • 𝐾𝑏 = 1.24 𝑑 −0.107 (shigley and Mischke) • For 51 mm ≤ d ≤ 254mm • 𝐾𝑏 = 0.859 − 0.000873𝑑
Values of size factor
Diameter (d) mm Kb d ≤ 7.5 1 7.5 ≤ d ≤ 50 0.85 d > 50 0.75 Department of Mechanical Engineering 12 Reliability Factor (𝐾𝑐 ) • 𝐾𝑐 : To account for the dispersion of data obtained from the experimental tests • Standard deviation of test is 8% of mean value • 𝐾𝑐 =1, Reliability =50% Reliability factor Reliability R (%) Kc 50 1.000 90 0.897 95 0.868 99 0.814 99.9 0.753 99.99 0.702 Department of Mechanical Engineering 13 Modifyng Factor accounting stress concentration (𝐾𝑑 )
• 𝐾𝑑 : To account for the stress concentration
1 • 𝐾𝑑 = 𝐾𝑓
Axial loading to rotating beam bending
𝑆𝑒 𝑎 = 0.8 𝑆𝑒
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Design for finite and infinite life (Fully reversed cycle) Case 1: Design for infinite life Endurance limit becomes the failure criterion 𝑆𝑒 𝑆𝑠𝑒 𝜎𝑎 = 𝜏𝑎 = 𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠
Case 2: Design for finite life
A straight line AB drawn from (0.9 Sut) at 103 cycle to (Se) at 106 cycles on a log-log paper • Locate point A and B • Join AB • Depending on life N obtain Sf
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Problem 2.1 A plate made of steel 20C8 (Sut=440 N/mm2) is hot rolled and normalised condition is shown in Figure. It is subjected to a completely reversed axial load of 30 kN. The notch sensitivity factor q can be taken as 0.8 and the expected reliability is 90%. The size facto is 0.85. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the plate thickness for infinite life
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Cumulative damage in fatigue
First set of cycle = n1
Stress in the first cycle = S1 Fatigue life with n1 cycle = N1
Second set of cycle = n2
Stress in the second cycle = S2 Fatigue life with n2 cycle = N2
xth set of cycle = nx
Stress in the xth set = Sx Miners equation Fatigue life with nx cycle = Nx 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛𝑥 + + …….+ =1 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁𝑥 Department of Mechanical Engineering 17 Soderberg, Goodman and Gerber line
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Soderberg, Goodman and Gerber line
Gerber line: A parabolic curve joining Se on the ordinate to Sut
on the abscissa 2 𝑆𝑎 𝑆𝑚 + =1 𝑆𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑡
Soderberg line: A straight line joining Se on the ordinate to Syt
on the abscissa 𝑆𝑚 𝑆𝑎 + =1 𝑆𝑦𝑡 𝑆𝑒 Goodman line: A straight line joining Se on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa 𝑆𝑚 𝑆𝑎 + =1 𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑒 Department of Mechanical Engineering 19 Modified Goodman Diagrams: Pure Bending or Tensile
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Modified Goodman Diagrams: Pure Torsional Load
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Fatigue Design Under Combined Loading Most general equation of distortion energy theory 1 2 2 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 2 2 + 𝜏2 + 𝜏2 + 6 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑥 2
2 2 𝜎𝑎 = 𝜎𝑥𝑎 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑎 Department of Mechanical Engineering 22 Problem
A transmission shaft carries a pulley midway between the two
bearings. The bending moment at the pulley varies from 200 N-m to 600 N-m, as the torsional moment in the shaft varies from 70 N-m to 200 N-m. The frequencies of variation of bending and torsional moments are equal to the shaft speed: The shaft is made of steel FeE400 (Sut = 540 N/mm2 and Syt = 400 N/mm2). The corrected endurance limit of the shaft is 200 N/mm2. Determine the diameter of the shaft using a factor of safety of 2.
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Impact Stresses
Defined as a collision of one component in motion with a
second component, which may be either in motion or at rest
Load which is applied rapidly to the machine component
Department of Mechanical Engineering 26 Factor of safety: Magnitude Selection
• Effect of failure • Type of load • Material of component • Degree of accuracy in force analysis • Reliability of the component • Cost of the component • Testing of machine element • Service conditions • Quality of manufacture
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Stress state
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Mohr’s Circle
Principal Stress Principal shear stress????
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Theories of Elastic failure • Maximum principal stress theory • (Rankine’s theory) • Maximum shear stress theory • (Coulumb, Tresca and Guest’s theory) Simple Complex • Distortion energy theory stress stress • (Huber von mises and Hencky’s state state theory) • Maximum strain theory • (St. Venant’s theory) • Maximum total strain energy theory • (Haigh’s theory) Department of Mechanical Engineering 30 Maximum principal stress theory (Rankine’s theory) The failure of mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when the maximum principal stress reaches the yield or ultimate strength of the material.
If, 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 𝜎3
𝜎1 = 𝑆𝑦𝑡 or 𝜎1 = 𝑆𝑢𝑡
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Maximum shear stress theory (Guest’s theory) The failure of mechanical component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when the maximum shear stress at any point in the component becomes equal to the maximum shear stress in the standard specimen of the tension test, when yielding starts 𝜎1 𝑆𝑦𝑡 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 2 2
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 𝑆𝑦𝑡 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = ±𝑆𝑦𝑡 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 = 𝑆𝑦𝑡 𝜎2 = ±𝑆𝑦𝑡 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 = 𝑆𝑦𝑡 𝜎1 = ±𝑆𝑦𝑡 Department of Mechanical Engineering 34 Distortion energy theory (Von Mises and Hencky’s) The theory states that the failure of mechanical component subjected to bi-axial and tri-axial stresses occurs when the strain energy of distortion per unit volume at any point in the component, becomes equal to the strain energy of distortion per unit volume in the standard specimen of tension-test, when yielding starts.
Total strain energy of the cube, U
1 1 1 𝑈 = 𝜎1 𝜖1 + 𝜎2 𝜖2 + 𝜎3 𝜖3 2 2 2 1 𝑈= (𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 ) − 2𝜇(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 𝜎1 ) 2𝐸 Department of Mechanical Engineering 35 Distortion energy theory (Von Mises and Hencky’s)
2 𝑆𝑦𝑡 = 𝜎12 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎22 𝑎2 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2
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Comparison
Ductile materials Von Mises and Guest’s theory Brittle materials Rankine’s theory Von Mises Precise determination on all quadrants Close limit determination Guest theory is on conservative side Rankine sometimes unsafe
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Maximum Principal Strain theory (St. Venant’s theory)
The theory states that failure or yielding occurs at point in a
member when maximum principal (or normal) strain in a bi- axial or tri-axial stress system reaches the limiting value of strain as determined from simple tension test 𝜎1 𝜎2 𝑆𝑦𝑡 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −𝜇 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝑆𝑦𝑡 = 𝜎1 − 𝜇𝜎2
*Not commonly used
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Maximum Strain Energy theory (Haigh’s theory)
The theory states that failure or yielding occurs at point in a
member when the strain energy per unit volume in a bi-axial or tri-axial stress system reaches the limiting strain energy as determined from simple tension test 1 2 2 1 𝑈1 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 − 2𝜇𝜎1 𝜎2 𝑈2 = 𝑆𝑦𝑡 2 2𝐸 2𝐸
𝜎1 2 + 𝜎2 2 − 2𝜇𝜎1 𝜎2 = 𝑆𝑦𝑡 2
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Problem 2.2 A wall bracket with a rectangular cross section is shown in Figure. The depth of the cross section is twice of the width. The force P acting on the bracket at 600 to the vertical is 5 kN. The material of the bracket is grey cast iron FG 200 and the factor of safety is 3.5. Determine the dimensions of the cross-section of the bracket. Assume maximum normal stress theory.
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Problem 2.3 The shaft of an overhang crank subjected to a force P of 1 kN is shown in Figure. The shaft is made of plain carbon steel 45C8 and the tensile yield strength is 380 N/mm2. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the diameter of the shaft using the maximum shear stress theory.
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Creep
Creep Strength of the material is defined as the
maximum stress that the material can withstand for a specified length of time without excessive deformation
Creep rupture strength of the material is the maximum
stress that the material can withstand for a specified length of time without rupture
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Creep AB: Strain hardens D BC: highly C mobile dislocations B counteract the strain hardening A CD: formation of voids along grain O boundaries
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Thermal Stresses Stress that arise due to the variation in temperature
For a rod, 𝜎 = −α𝐸∆𝑇
−α𝐸∆𝑇 For a plate (2D) 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 1−𝜇 −α𝐸∆𝑇 For a box (3D) 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 = 1 − 2𝜇 Department of Mechanical Engineering 44
