BASIC

LEARNING

HYDRAULICS ACTIVITY
PACKET

PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULIC
PRESSURE AND FLOW

TM

BB831-XA03XEN
 LEARNING ACTIVITY PACKET 3

PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULIC PRESSURE

AND FLOW

INTRODUCTION
Previous LAPs discussed the construction and operation of basic hydraulic circuits
and how they are represented using standard schematic symbols. It is important to
understand the principles that allow power to be transmitted by a pressurized liquid. A
good understanding of this LAP will help develop skills that are used in analyzing,
specifying, and troubleshooting hydraulic components.
This LAP will provide the foundation for understanding the theory of fluid power
with the principles of pressure and flow. It will explain Pascal’s Law and how it is used
to multiply and transmit forces, how to determine cylinder forces, and how fluid flows.

ITEMS NEEDED
Amatrol Supplied
1 85-BH Basic Hydraulic Training System
1 85-HPS Hydraulic Power Unit

School Supplied
1 Ruler
1 Adjustable Wrench
1 Flathead Screwdriver

FIRST EDITION, LAP 3, REV. A

Amatrol, AMNET, CIMSOFT, MCL, MINI-CIM, IST, ITC, VEST, and Technovate are trademarks or registered
trademarks of Amatrol, Inc. All other brand and product names are trademarks or registered trademarks of their
respective companies.
Copyright © 2009 by AMATROL, INC.
All rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, optical, mechanical, or magnetic, including but not limited to photographing, photocopying,
recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the copyright owner.
Amatrol,Inc., P.O. Box 2697, Jeffersonville, IN 47131 USA, Ph 812-288-8285, FAX 812-283-1584 www.amatrol.com

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

SEGMENT 1 PRESSURE VS. CYLINDER FORCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

OBJECTIVE 1 Describe how to calculate the force output of an extending cylinder
SKILL 1 Calculate the extension force of a cylinder given its size and pressure
SKILL 2 Measure the force output of an extending cylinder
OBJECTIVE 2 Describe how to calculate the force output of a hydraulic cylinder in retraction (pull)
SKILL 3 Calculate the retraction force of a cylinder given its size and pressure
SKILL 4 Measure the force output of a retracting cylinder

SEGMENT 2 HYDRAULIC LEVERAGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

OBJECTIVE 3 State Pascal’s Law and explain its significance in hydraulics
Activity 1 Verification of Pascal’s Law for hydraulics
OBJECTIVE 4 Explain how force is multiplied using Pascal’s Law
Activity 2 Demonstrate how distance is sacrificed to obtain force multiplication

SEGMENT 3 FLUID FRICTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

OBJECTIVE 5 Describe two types of resistance in a hydraulic system
OBJECTIVE 6 Explain how Delta P describes hydraulic resistance
SKILL 5 Measure Delta P across a hydraulic component
Activity 3 Effect of flow and orifice size on Delta P
OBJECTIVE 7 Explain how pressure is distributed in a hydraulic system
Activity 4 Characteristics of circuit pressure drops

SEGMENT 4 ABSOLUTE VS. GAUGE PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

OBJECTIVE 8 Describe two methods of representing hydraulic pressure
SKILL 6 Convert between absolute pressure and gauge hydraulic pressure
OBJECTIVE 9 Describe how oil flows on the suction side of the pump

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 SEGMENT 1
PRESSURE VS. CYLINDER FORCE

OBJECTIVE 1 DESCRIBE HOW TO CALCULATE THE FORCE OUTPUT

OF AN EXTENDING CYLINDER

In a hydraulic cylinder, the pressure will rise to a level that creates a

force which is equal and opposite to the force created by the load.
If a cylinder is trying to extend a load, as shown in figure 1, the
pressure developed in the oil is exerted over all the surfaces inside the
cap end of the cylinder. However, only on the area of the piston does this
pressure exert a force to move the load.
The amount of pressure required to move the load depends on the
area of the cylinder’s piston, as shown in figure 1.

LOAD
FORCE
LOAD

CROSS SECTION
OF PISTON

PISTON/ROD
FORCE D

FLUID
FORCE
FLUID
PRESSURE

Figure 1. Cylinder Extending a Load

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 The theoretical amount of force created by the cylinder can be
calculated by knowing the pressure and the area of the piston. Since the
piston is circular, the area can be obtained by using the formula for the
area of a circle: πr2, or 0.7854D2. Therefore, the formula for determining
force output of a cylinder during extension can be stated as follows:

FORMULA: FORCE OUTPUT OF CYLINDER DURING EXTENSION

F=P×A
U.S. Customary Units:

F = P×A
2
= P × D × 0.7854
S.I. Units:

F = P×A
2
= P × D × 0.07854
Where
F = Force output of cylinder rod extending (lbs or Newtons)
P = Pressure on piston (psi or kPa)
A = Area of piston (in2 or cm2)
D = Diameter of piston (in or cm)
Note: The 0.07854 in the S.I. units occurs in converting meters
and Pascals to centimeters and kPa.

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 SKILL 1 CALCULATE THE EXTENSION FORCE OF A CYLINDER
GIVEN ITS SIZE AND PRESSURE

Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will calculate the theoretical
force output of the cylinders used on the 850 Series trainer
for several pressures. In step 1, you will be given an
example to show how to do this.

❑ 1. Let’s assume you have a cylinder with a bore of 2.0 in/5.08 cm and
a pressure of 1000 psi/6900 kPa. The force output of the cylinder
would be calculated as follows:

U.S. Customary Units:

F = P × D 2 × .7854
= 1000 × (2) 2 × .7854
= 1000 × 4 × .7854
= 3,142 lbs.
S.I. Units:
F = P × D 2 × .07854
= 6900 × (5.08) 2 × .07854
= 6900 × 25.81 × .07854
= 13,987 N

❑ 2. Now calculate the theoretical force of extension of the two

cylinders used in the 850 Series hydraulic trainer for each of the
pressures shown in the table. Use the formula for the force output
of a cylinder during extension.
For the 850 Series hydraulic trainer, the piston diameter of the
large bore cylinder is 1.5 in (3.81 cm) and the piston diameter of
the small bore cylinder is 1.125 in. (2.86 cm).

THEORETICAL EXTENSION FORCE

PRESSURE
Large Cylinder Small Cylinder
(psi/kPa) (lbs/N) (lbs/N)

150/1035 / /
200/1380 / /
250/1725 / /
300/2070 / /

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 ❑ 3. Calculate the minimum bore diameter of a cylinder that will lift the
load shown in figure 2.
The maximum pressure available is 1000 psi/6900 kPa.

The minimum bore diameter required is________________(in/cm)

1767 LBS / 7,860 N

LOAD

P
BORE
DIAMETER

Figure 2. Cylinder Under Load

NOTE
This is a typical application of the F = P × A formula.

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 SKILL 2 MEASURE THE FORCE OUTPUT OF AN EXTENDING CYLINDER

Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will learn a simple method of
measuring the force output of the cylinder. This test will
verify that the formula you used in Skill 1 works.

❑ 1. Connect the circuit shown in figures 3 and 4.

In this circuit, the flow from the pump deadheads against the
cylinder’s piston. The fluid pressure at the cylinder’s piston can
then be adjusted by adjusting the pressure setting of the relief
valve.
In the steps that follow, you will verify that the cylinder force
calculation formula actually works by measuring the load on the
cylinder at different pressures. To do this, we will use a spring.

HYDRAULIC INSTRUMENTATION PANEL

FLOW
GAUGE A GAUGE B GAUGE C METER

SUPPLY
MANIFOLD

CYLINDER

FLOW FLOW
CONTROL CONTROL
#1 #2
A A

B B RETURN
MOTOR MANIFOLD

CYLINDER

HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR MODULE

Figure 3. Pictorial of Test Circuit for Measuring Force Output of a

Cylinder in Extension

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 RELIEF
GAUGE A
VALVE
PRESSURE
COMPRESSED
ROD SPRING
CAM LENGTH

L1
CYLINDER
(LARGE)

FORCE SPRING
RELIEF OF FORCE
VALVE CYLINDER
PRESSURE

Figure 4. Schematic of Circuit for Measuring Force Output of a Cylinder in Extension

❑ 2. If not already installed, perform the following substeps to mount

the load spring, as shown in figure 6.
A. Remove the clear plastic guard covering the load rod.
B. Then unscrew the load rod from the rod cam, as shown in figure 5.
The load rod has wrench flats on one end to help unscrew it.
C. Place the spring over the load rod and screw the rod cam back
into the load rod, as shown in figure 6.
D. Replace the clear plastic guard.

Figure 5. Rod Cam Unscrewed from Load Rod

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 Figure 6. Load Spring Mounted for Extension

❑ 3. Perform the following checkout procedures before starting the

power unit.
A. Check the oil level. Fill if necessary.
B. Press the stop pushbutton on the motor starter to make sure the
starter is in the Off position.
C. Plug in the power cord to a wall outlet.
D. Reduce the relief valve to its minimum pressure setting by
turning CCW fully.
E. Make sure the shutoff valve is closed.

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 ❑ 4. Before starting the power unit, use a ruler to measure the
uncompressed length, L, of the spring, as shown in figure 7.
All lengths should be read to the nearest 1/32 inch (0.5 mm).
Record this length below.

Uncompressed Length (L) =_________________________(in/cm)

L
1 2 3 4

RULER

Figure 7. Measure Length of Spring

WARNING
Keep your hands and fingers away from the load spring while
the power unit is running. The load spring will compress during
operation. This will make it possible for you to pinch your fingers.
If the spring needs to be aligned while the power unit is running,
use a screwdriver, pencil, or pen to move the spring.

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 The principle you will be using to measure the force output is
called Hooke’s Law. It says that a spring compresses
proportionately to the force placed on it. Here, the force is from the
rod of the cylinder, as shown in figure 8.

SPRING L1
FROM
PUMP

=
FCYL FLS

Figure 8. Measuring Cylinder Force Output Using a Spring

The load spring reacts to a load by compressing to the distance

where the spring force balances the cylinder force. If the cylinder
force increases, the spring compresses further until the forces are
balanced. The force needed to compress a spring a given distance
is constant and is called the spring rate (K). This is also called
Hooke’s constant.
This characteristic of the spring allows us to calculate the actual
force output of the cylinder by measuring the distance of spring
compression and multiplying it by the spring rate. This is shown in
the following formula:

FORMULA: LOAD SPRING FORCE

FLS = (L - L1) × K
Where:
FLS = Force of load spring (lbs or Newtons)
FLS also equals the force of cylinder rod, FCYL
L = Uncompressed length of spring (in or cm)
L1 = Compressed length of spring (in or cm)
K = Spring rate (lbs / in or Newton / cm)

For the 850 trainer, the spring the rate is 294 lbs / in or
515 Newtons / cm

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 ❑ 5. Start the power unit and open the shutoff valve.
❑ 6. Increase the relief valve’s setting until the pressure at gauge A
reads 150 psi/1035 kPa.
As you do this, watch the cylinder’s rod and spring. You should
observe that the increase in pressure causes the cylinder piston to
extend forward until it compresses the spring enough that the
spring force balances the cylinder’s force.
❑ 7. Measure the new compressed spring length, L1, for the pressure of
150 psi/1035 kPa.

PRESSURE COMPRESSED
SPRING LENGTH (L1)
(psi/kPa) (in/cm)

150/1035 /
200/1380 /
250/1725 /
300/2070 /

❑ 8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for each of the other pressures listed in the
chart.
Each time you increase the pressure you should observe that the
spring compresses a little further. The more the spring is
compressed the greater its force output. Since the spring force is
equal to the force created by the fluid pressure on the piston this
also means the cylinder’s force output increases with pressure.
❑ 9. After you have completed the chart, experiment with your ability to
position the cylinder by changing the pressure with the relief valve.

WARNING
Do not exceed 400 psi/2760 kPa setting at the relief valve.
Above this pressure, the spring becomes completely
compressed and can no longer be used to calculate forces.

❑ 10. Reduce the relief valve’s setting to minimum and perform the
following substeps to allow the cylinder to fully retract.

NOTE
The spring force can only retract the cylinder to a point where
its force is balanced by the friction of the cylinder seals. These
substeps will completely retract the cylinder to allow easy
removal of the load spring in the next step.

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 A. Turn off the power unit.
B. Reverse the hose connections to the cylinder.
C. Start the power unit.
D. Turn the power unit back off and close the shutoff valve.
❑ 11. Perform the following substeps to remove the load spring.
A. Remove the clear plastic guard.
B. Unscrew the load rod from the rod cam.
C. Remove and store the load spring.
D. Re-attach the load rod to the rod cam.
E. Replace the clear plastic guard.
❑ 12. Calculate the spring length change and use the load spring force
formula to calculate the actual force output for each pressure listed
in the chart below.

PRESSURE SPRING LENGTH ACTUAL EXTENSION

CHANGE (L-L1) FORCE
(psi/kPa) (in/cm) (lbs/N)

150/1035 / /
200/1380 / /
250/1725 / /
300/2070 / /

❑ 13. Compare these forces with those obtained from the force formula
in Skill 1. The actual values obtained should be smaller than those
obtained by calculation.
The reason for this is that other forces that resist rod movement
have been omitted from the calculation. These include friction,
which always resists movement, and back pressure from fluid
leaving the backside of the cylinder.
Frictional forces occur in two areas. One area is between the piston
and cylinder body. The other area is between the rod and the rod
end cap.

NOTE
Designers always add at least 10% to their calculation of
pressure or cylinder size theoretical to account for these
frictional forces.

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 OBJECTIVE 2 DESCRIBE HOW TO CALCULATE THE FORCE OUTPUT OF
A HYDRAULIC CYLINDER IN RETRACTION (PULL)

When a cylinder retracts or pulls a load, the oil pressure is applied to

the rod end side of the piston, as shown in figure 9. In this case, the oil
pressure cannot act against the entire surface of the piston because of the
rod, it can only act against the “donut” or annular area, as shown in
figure 9. This means that the retracting force capability of a cylinder is
less than its extending force capability.

PISTON
FORCE CROSS SECTION
OF PISTON

FLUID
FORCE FLUID
PRESSURE ROD
GENERATED AREA
TO PULL
THE LOAD ANNULAR
AREA

LOAD
LOAD
FORCE

Figure 9. Cylinder Retracting a Load

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 The area used in the formula for calculating the cylinder force in
extension can be modified with the rod area to calculate the force in
retraction by using the following formula:

FORMULA: FORCE OUTPUT OF CYLINDER RETRACTING

F=P×A
U.S. Customary Units:
F = P × Aa
[ 2
= P × DP − DR
2
] × 0.7854
S.I. Units:

F = P × Aa
[2
= P × DP − DR
2
] × 0.07854
Where
F = Force output of cylinder rod retracting
(lbs or Newtons)
P = Pressure on piston (psi or kPa)
Aa = Annular area of piston (in 2 or cm 2)
DP = Diameter of piston (in or cm)
DR = Diameter of rod (in or cm)

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 SKILL 3 CALCULATE THE RETRACTION FORCE OF A CYLINDER GIVEN
ITS SIZE AND PRESSURE

Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will calculate the theoretical
retraction force for the two cylinders used in the 850 Series
trainer at several different pressures. In step 1, you will be
given an example.

❑ 1. Let’s assume you have a cylinder with a bore of 2.0 in/5.08 cm, a
rod diameter of 1.0 in/2.54 cm. and a pressure of 1000 psi/6900
kPa. The force output of the cylinder in retraction would be
calculated as follows:

U.S. Customary Units:

F = P x [DP2 - DR2] x 0.7854
= 1000 x [(2.0) 2 - (1.0) 2] x 0.7854
= 1000 x [4 - 1] x 0.7854
= 1000 x [3] x 0.7854
= 2,356 lbs.
S.I. Units:
F = P x [DP2 - DR2] x 0.07854
= 6900 [ (5.08) 2 - (2.54)2] x 0.07854
= 6900 [25.8 - 6.5] x 0.07854
= 6900 x [19.3] x 0.07854
= 10,459 N

Compare this result with the calculation of the force in extension

in step 1 of skill 1. As you can see, the retraction force is less at the
same pressure.
❑ 2. Now, calculate the theoretical force of retraction of the two
cylinders for the pressures shown in the table.
For these calculations, you will be using the cylinders of the
hydraulic actuator module, the same as used in Skill 1. The large bore
cylinder has a piston diameter of 1.5 in. (3.81 cm) and a rod diameter
of 0.44 in. (1.12 cm). The small bore cylinder has a piston diameter
of 1.125 in. (2.86 cm) and a rod diameter of 0.31 in. (0.79 cm).

THEORETICAL RETRACTION FORCE

PRESSURE
Large Cylinder Small Cylinder
(psi/kPa) (lbs/N) (lbs/N)

150/1035 / /
200/1380 / /
250/1725 / /
300/2070 / /

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 ❑ 3. Calculate the minimum pressure needed to lift the load shown in
figure 10, given the following information:

Load = 5000 lbs / 22,241 Newtons

Cylinder Diameter = 3 in / 7.62 cm
Rod Diameter = 1 in / 2.54 cm

LOAD

Figure 10. Cylinder Retracting a Load

Minimum pressure _______________________________(psi/kPa)

NOTE
This is a typical design calculation. Designers must usually
calculate the load retracting as well as the load extending.

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 SKILL 4 MEASURE THE FORCE OUTPUT OF A RETRACTING CYLINDER

Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will measure the actual force
output in retraction of both cylinders on the 850 Series
trainer using the load spring. This will also show that a
cylinder’s actual force output in retraction is less than
extension and demonstrate that piston size has an effect
on the net force output.

❑ 1. Perform the following substeps to mount the load spring on the

other side of the rod cam of the large bore cylinder, as shown in
figure 11.

WARNING
Keep the relief valve setting at minimum during this step.
Installing the load spring for this procedure requires the hands
and fingers to be near pinch points. Use extreme care during this
step.

Figure 11. Load Spring Mounted for Retraction

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 A. Set up a cylinder reciprocation circuit, as shown in figure 12.

DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
VALVE
IN A

OUT B

CYLINDER

Figure 12. Cylinder Reciprocation Circuit

B. Perform the power unit checkout procedures and then turn on

the power unit.
C. Open the shutoff valve.
D. Retract the cylinder with the DCV. The minimum pressure
should move the cylinder with no load. If the cylinder will not
move, increase the relief valve setting just enough to move the
cylinder.
E. Reduce the pressure to minimum and shutoff the power unit.
F. Remove the clear plastic guard covering the load rod.

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 G. Remove the load rod from the cam and slide it to the right until
the threads are flush with the load block, as shown in figure 13.
H. Remove the cam from the cylinder, as shown in figure 13, and
set it aside.

STEP H: REMOVE CYLINDER CAM

LOAD
BLOCK

STEP G: REMOVE LOAD ROD.

SLIDE LOAD ROD TO THE RIGHT.

STOP WHEN THREADS ARE FLUSH HERE.

Figure 13. Removing the Load Rod and Cylinder CAM

I. Install the loose rod extender on the end of the cylinder rod and
slide the spring over the extender rod, as shown in figure 14.

ROD
EXTENDER

Figure 14. Extender Piece Attached to Rod

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 J. Turn on the power unit and verify that the relief valve is set at
minimum.
K. While holding the spring against the cylinder, use the DCV to
extend the rod until the threads are just beyond the spring, as
shown in figure 15.
L. Attach the cam to the extender rod, as shown in figure 15.
M. Slide the load rod to the left and attach it to the cam, as shown
in figure 15. Use the wrench flats at the end of the load rod if
necessary.

CAM
STEP L: ATTACH CAM TO
EXTENDER ROD

LOAD ROD
WRENCH FLAT

STEP K: HOLD SPRING AGAINST

CYLINDER. STEP M: SLIDE LOAD ROD
TO THE LEFT AND
EXTEND ROD JUST FAR ATTACH TO CAM.
ENOUGH TO ATTACH CAM.

Figure 15. Setup Diagram

N. Retract the cylinder until the spring is snug and centered.

O. Close the shutoff valve and turn off the power unit.
P. Replace the clear plastic guard.

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 ❑ 2. Set up the test circuit using the large bore cylinder shown in figure
16.

GAUGE A

SPRING

ROD
CAM
CYLINDER

L1

Figure 16. Test Circuit for Measuring the Force Output of a Cylinder in
Retraction

WARNING
Keep your hands and fingers away from the load spring while
the power unit is running. The load spring will be compressing
during operation. This will make it possible for you to pinch your
fingers. If the spring needs to be aligned while the power unit is
running, use a screwdriver, pencil, or pen to move the spring.

❑ 3. Turn on the power unit and open the shutoff valve.

❑ 4. Increase the relief valve setting until the pressure at Gauge A reads
150 psi/1035 kPa.
You should observe that the cylinder’s rod retracts and compresses
the spring slightly.
❑ 5. Measure the new compressed spring length, L1, for a pressure of
150 psi/1035 kPa. Measure the length to the nearest 1/32 inch (0.5
mm). Record it in the following chart.

LARGE BORE CYLINDER

PRESSURE COMPRESSED
SPRING LENGTH (L1)
(psi/kPa) (in/cm)

150/1035 /
200/1380 /
250/1725 /
300/2070 /

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 ❑ 6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for each of the other pressures listed in the
chart.
❑ 7. After you have completed the chart, experiment with your ability
to change the position of the cylinder by varying the relief valve’s
pressure setting.

WARNING
Do not exceed 400 psi/2760 kPa setting at the relief valve.
Above this pressure, the spring becomes completely
compressed and can no longer be used to calculate forces.

❑ 8. Reduce the relief valve’s pressure setting to minimum and turn off
the power unit.
❑ 9. Perform the following substeps to remove the load spring.
A. Remove the plastic guard, disconnect the load rod from the cam
and slide it to the right.
B. Remove the cam from the extender rod and set it aside.
C. Remove the load spring and extender rod.
D. Re-attach the cam to the cylinder rod.
E. Keep your fingers clear of the cylinder and start the power unit.
The cylinder should retract with the minimum relief valve
setting.
F. Turn off the power unit and close the shutoff valve.
G. Replace the plastic guard.
❑ 10. Calculate the spring length change and use the load spring formula
to calculate the actual force output for each pressure in the chart
below:

LARGE BORE CYLINDER

PRESSURE SPRING LENGTH ACTUAL EXTENSION

CHANGE (L-L1) FORCE
(psi/kPa) (in/cm) (lbs/N)

150/1035 / /
200/1380 / /
250/1725 / /
300/2070 / /

❑ 11. Compare these output forces with those obtained from the force
formula in Skill 3.
The actual values obtained should be smaller than those obtained
by calculation but they should be close.
❑ 12. Compare these retraction forces with those obtained during
extension in Skill 2. Retraction forces should be less at each
pressure because the annular area is smaller than the cap area.

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 ❑ 13. Disconnect the hoses from the large bore cylinder.
❑ 14. Now perform the following substeps to mount the load spring to
the small bore cylinder.
A. Set up a cylinder reciprocation circuit, as shown in figure 12.
B. Make sure the relief valve is set for minimum pressure (fully
CCW), then turn on the power unit.
C. Open the shutoff valve and extend the cylinder completely with
the DCV. If the cylinder will not move, increase the relief valve
setting just enough to move the cylinder.
D. Reduce the pressure to minimum and shut off the power unit.
E. Remove the rod cam and slide the spring over the cylinder rod.
F. Replace the rod cam.
G. Turn on the power unit.
H. While centering the spring against the cylinder, use the DCV to
retract the cylinder until the spring is snug.
I. Close the shutoff valve and turn off the power unit.
❑ 15. Connect the small bore cylinder in the test circuit shown in figure
16.
This circuit will allow you to measure the actual force output in
retraction of the small bore cylinder for comparison with the actual
force output in retraction of the large bore cylinder.
❑ 16. Turn on the power unit and open the shutoff valve.
❑ 17. Increase the relief valve setting until the pressure at Gauge A reads
150 psi/1035 kPa.
You should observe that the cylinder’s rod retracts and compresses
the spring slightly.
❑ 18. Measure the new compressed spring length, L1, for a pressure of
150 psi/1035 kPa. Measure the length to the nearest 1/32 in. (0.5
mm). Record it in the following chart:

SMALL BORE CYLINDER

PRESSURE COMPRESSED
SPRING LENGTH (L1)
(psi/kPa) (in/cm)

150/1035 /
200/1380 /
250/1725 /
300/2070 /

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 ❑ 19. Repeat steps 17 and 18 for each of the other pressures listed in the
chart. As you record your measurements, compare them to the
measurements in step 5. Notice whether the small bore cylinder
compresses the spring more or less at the same pressure.
❑ 20. Reduce the relief valve’s pressure to minimum and turn off power
unit.
❑ 21. Perform the following substeps to remove the load spring.
A. Remove the rod cam.
B. Remove the spring and then replace the rod cam.
C. Start the power unit.
The cylinder should retract with the minimum relief valve
setting.
D. Turn off the power unit and close the shutoff valve.
❑ 22. Calculate the spring length change and use the load spring formula
to calculate the actual force output for each pressure in the chart
below.

SMALL BORE CYLINDER

PRESSURE SPRING LENGTH ACTUAL EXTENSION

CHANGE (L-L1) FORCE
(psi/kPa) (in/cm) (lbs/N)

150/1035 / /
200/1380 / /
250/1725 / /
300/2070 / /

❑ 23. Compare these output forces with those obtained from the large
bore cylinder in step 10.
The forces obtained should be smaller because of the smaller
annular area with the small bore cylinder.
❑ 24. Disconnect the circuit and store the components.

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 SEGMENT 1
SELF REVIEW

1. For a double-acting cylinder operating at one pressure, the

force of extension will be ______________ than the force of
retraction.

2. The annular area of a cylinder is less than the cap (piston)

area because of the ___________________.

3. To move a cylinder rod, you must overcome the load, back

pressure, and _________________.

4. Using a load spring to measure forces provides

______________ force values.

5. A 4-inch diameter cylinder with a 2-inch diameter rod will

provide a theoretical push force of ______________ lbs at
500 psi.

6. The theoretical pull (retraction) force that the cylinder in

question 5 would provide is ___________ lbs.

7. A smaller cylinder rod in the example of question 5 would

provide a(n) _________________________________ force.

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 SEGMENT 2
HYDRAULIC LEVERAGE

OBJECTIVE 3 STATE PASCAL’S LAW AND EXPLAIN ITS SIGNIFICANCE

IN HYDRAULICS

LAPs 1 and 2 explained that the fluid pressure at an actuator can be

changed into mechanical force to perform work. The basis for this comes
from a concept known as Pascal’s Law. This law is named after the 17th
Century discoverer of this concept, Blaise Pascal.
Pascal’s Law states that fluid pressure in a confined vessel is
transmitted undiminished to every portion of the surface of the
containing vessel and acts at right angles to the surface.
The term “confined” in this application means the fluid cannot flow
anywhere because it is contained on all sides by the vessel. Fluid flowing
in a pipe, for example, is not confined because the pipe is not closed on
all sides.
The concept of Pascal’s Law is shown in figure 17. The weight
sitting on the stopper cork causes a force to be applied to the fluid. Since
the fluid is contained by the bottle, it compresses until the pressure of the
fluid exerts an equal force on the cork in the opposite direction to
support the weight. This same pressure exists throughout the entire
volume of fluid and acts perpendicular to all the surfaces of the bottle.

100 LOAD
POUNDS

BOTTLE
FLUID
PRESSURE

OIL

Figure 17. Fluid Pressure Generated by an External Force

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 One significance of Pascal’s Law is that it makes it possible for
hydraulic systems to generate very large forces to move heavy loads with
a small input force. This concept is called hydraulic leverage. More
about the details of hydraulic leverage will be covered later in this LAP.
Another significance of Pascal’s Law is a cylinder or motor will
generate full force output when it first starts to move because the
pressure at the actuator is at full pressure. This is a big advantage
because it usually takes more force to start a load than it does once the
load is moving.
Electric motors can provide a high output when started too, but if the
load is too great, the motor will burn up. Hydraulic systems can be
stalled indefinitely without damage to the components and will produce
full force at zero speed.

HEAVY LOAD

6900kPa
6900kPa

PUMP

RESERVOIR

Figure 18. Pascal’s Law Assures High Force to Move Loads from Rest

And finally, understanding Pascal’s Law is necessary in order to

correctly place pressure gauges in a circuit to measure pressure. This is
discussed in the next activity.

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 Activity 1. Verification of Pascal’s Law for Hydraulics

Procedure Overview
In this activity, you will verify Pascal’s Law by showing
that the pressure at two different points in a volume of fluid
is the same if the fluid is not flowing. This will be
accomplished by measuring the pressure at different
points in a hydraulic system. First, you will use a simple
circuit with pressure gauges and hoses. Then you will
demonstrate the same principle with a hydraulic cylinder.

❑ 1. Set up the hydraulic circuit shown in figures 19 and 20.

This circuit has two gauges (A and B) connected at the same point
in the circuit and another gauge (C) connected downstream. A
needle valve is used to stop and start the flow.

NOTE
Be sure to connect the loose tee directly onto the gauge block
A tee, as shown in figures 19 and 20.

HYDRAULIC INSTRUMENTATION PANEL

FLOW
GAUGE A GAUGE B GAUGE C METER

TEE
FITTING
SUPPLY
MANIFOLD

RELIEF \ SEQUENCE PRESSURE REDUCING

VALVE VALVE

1 1 SHUTOFF
VALVE
2 2
3 3

NEEDLE
VALVE
A B RETURN
MANIFOLD
D.C.V. IN
#1
CHECK VALVE #1
A B B A
CHECK VALVE #2
OUT
B A
BASIC HYDRAULIC VALVE MODULE

Figure 19. Pictorial of a Circuit for Demonstrating Pascal’s Law

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 GAUGE B
GAUGE A

GAUGE C

TEE

NEEDLE
VALVE

GAUGE

GAUGE
BLOCK TEE
TEE

Figure 20. Schematic of a Circuit for Demonstrating Pascal’s Law

❑ 2. Perform the power unit checkout procedures.

❑ 3. Close the needle valve fully.
❑ 4. Verify that the shutoff valve is closed.
❑ 5. Turn on the power unit.
❑ 6. Adjust the relief valve setting until the pressure at Gauge S reads
500 psi/3447 kPa.

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 ❑ 7. Open the shutoff valve and observe the pressure gauge readings.
Gauge A ______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge B ______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge C ______________________________________(psi/kPa)
You should notice that Gauges A, B, and C read the same (or very
close). This is because the closed needle valve creates a confined
fluid in the hoses. This is Pascal’s Law.

NOTE
You may observe that gauge readings differ as much as 40
psi from each other. This is not because the pressure isn’t the
same but because the gauges are not set accurately. To set the
gauges accurately, a procedure called calibration would be
required.

❑ 8. Now open the needle valve one full turn to allow the oil to flow
through the hoses. Observe the new pressure gauge readings.
Gauge A ______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge B ______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge C ______________________________________(psi/kPa)
You should observe that the pressure reading of Gauges A and B
are about the same but Gauge C is different. The reason is the fluid
between Gauges A and C is no longer confined. It is flowing.
Since pressure drops as it flows through the hose, the pressure is
lower at Gauge C than Gauge A. However, the fluid in the hose
connected between Gauges A and B is confined. It is not moving
and, therefore, the pressure is the same at both Gauges A and B.
This is Pascal’s Law.
This demonstrates an important point about the connection of
pressure gauges. The hose length from the pressure line to the
pressure gauge can be as long as you want it to be because the flow
is deadheaded at the gauge. This means you can locate a pressure
gauge on a panel that may not be close to the machine itself.
❑ 9. Reduce the relief valve setting to minimum.
❑ 10. Turn off the power unit and close the shutoff valve.

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 ❑ 11. Set up the hydraulic circuit shown in figure 21.
This circuit uses a directional control valve to reciprocate a
cylinder. In the next few steps, you will demonstrate that Pascal’s
law affects the operation of any hydraulic circuit.

GAUGE C DIRECTIONAL GAUGE A

CONTROL
VALVE

IN A

OUT B

GAUGE B

LARGE BORE
CYLINDER

Figure 21. Schematic of a Cylinder Circuit for Demonstrating Pascal’s

Law

❑ 12. Turn on the power unit.

❑ 13. Increase the relief valve setting until the pressure at Gauge S reads
500 psi/3447 kPa.
❑ 14. Open the shutoff valve.
❑ 15. Now push in on the lever of the directional control valve (DCV) to
extend the cylinder and observe the pressure at Gauges A and C
while the cylinder is extending.
Gauge A _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge C _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
When the cylinder is extending, the pressure will be lower in both
gauges because there is no load on the cylinder.

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 ❑ 16. When the cylinder fully extends, continue to hold the lever of the
DCV shifted and observe the readings of Gauges A and C.
Gauge A _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge C _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Since fluid is no longer flowing between Gauges A and C, they
should be at the same pressure according to Pascal’s Law.
This means that you have the full force output of the cylinder
generated while the cylinder is stopped. This fact enables hydraulic
systems to move heavy loads from rest.
❑ 17. Now pull out on the lever to retract the cylinder and observe the
pressure at Gauges B and C while the cylinder is retracting.
Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge C _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
You should observe that the pressure is lower when the cylinder is
retracting because there is no load on the cylinder. The only
pressure created is caused by the frictional resistance in the lines
and at the cylinder.
❑ 18. When the cylinder fully retracts, continue to hold the lever of the
DCV shifted and observe the readings of Gauges B and C.
Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge C _______________________________________(psi/kPa)
Fluid no longer flows between Gauges B and C, so they should be
at the same pressure.
❑ 19. Release the lever.
❑ 20. Repeat steps 15 through 19 to verify your readings.
❑ 21. Reduce the relief valve setting to minimum, turn off the power
unit, cycle the DCV to relieve any pressure remaining in the
gauges, and close the shutoff valve.

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 OBJECTIVE 4 EXPLAIN HOW FORCE IS MULTIPLIED USING PASCAL’S LAW

One of the most important features of a hydraulic system is its ability

to generate a very large force output with a very small force input. This
principle is called force multiplication or hydraulic leverage. The
principle of force multiplication is based on the force/pressure
relationship in a fluid system and Pascal’s Law. An example is shown in
figure 22.
In this example, an outside force of 10 pounds is applied over a
small piston with a 1-in2 area. This creates 10 psi pressure in the
confined fluid. Pascal’s Law says this 10 psi is the same throughout the
fluid. This means that 10 psi acts against the larger 10-square-inch
piston. This 10 psi causes an output force of 100 pounds because of the
piston’s larger area. So, for the 10-pound input force in the example, we
increased the force from 10 to 100 pounds. This is hydraulic leverage.

10 LBS/4.5Kg 2
AREA = 10 IN
2 (64.51 CM2) 100 LBS/45.4Kg
AREA = 1 IN
(6.45 CM2)

10 PSI
10
PSI

CONFINED FLUID

Figure 22. Force Multiplication or Hydraulic Leverage

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 A practical example of hydraulic leverage or force multiplication, is
the automotive brake system. A small input force applied across a small
cylinder (master cylinder) creates a high output force at the larger
cylinder (brake cylinder).

BRAKE OPERATOR'S BRAKE

PEDAL FOOT CYLINDER

SPRING

BRAKE
OIL DRUM

BRAKE
PISTON SHOE
BRAKE LINE

Figure 23. Hydraulic Brake System

In an industrial-type hydraulic system, a pump and electric motor

replace the piston in the valve system, but the principle of hydraulic
leverage still applies. In this case, it means that a very small electric
motor and pump could generate a very high force output at the cylinder
by using a cylinder with a very large area.
This ability to multiply the force output is a major advantage of
hydraulics and is the reason why hydraulics is used in many other
applications.
Unfortunately, hydraulic leverage or force multiplication is not free.
Just like the mechanical lever, distance is sacrificed. In our example of
figure 22, to move the 100-pound load (force) 1 inch, the 10-pound input
load would need to be moved 10 inches.
In industrial-type hydraulic systems where a small pump is used with
a large area cylinder to multiply force, the tradeoff, therefore, is the
speed of the cylinder. It would be slower with a larger piston area.

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 Activity 2. Demonstrate How Distance is Sacrificed to Obtain
Force Multiplication

Procedure Overview
In this activity, you will connect two cylinders of
different sizes together and measure the distance each
cylinder moves for a certain amount of oil volume input.

❑ 1. Before connecting the two cylinders together, position them about

mid-stroke using the following substeps:
A. Set up the large bore cylinder in the cylinder reciprocation
circuit shown in figure 24.

DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
VALVE
IN A

OUT B

LARGE BORE
CYLINDER

Figure 24. Cylinder Reciprocation Circuit

B. Perform the power unit checkout procedures.

C. Turn on the power unit.
D. Increase the relief valve setting until the pressure at Gauge S
reads 100 psi / 690 kPa. Open the shutoff valve.
E. Extend and retract the cylinder by moving the lever on the
directional control valve back and forth to remove any air from
the system.
F. Use the lever of the DCV to position the cylinder rod
approximately mid-stroke (half-way).
G. Reduce the relief valve setting to minimum, turn off the power
unit, and close the shutoff valve.
H. Cycle the DCV by pushing in and pulling out on the handle.
This will remove any remaining pressure in the circuit.

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 I. Disconnect the hoses at the large bore cylinder and reconnect
them to the small bore cylinder located at the top of the
hydraulic actuator module.
J. Repeat steps C through H for the small bore cylinder.
❑ 2. Connect the cylinders together, as shown in figure 25.

SMALL BORE
CYLINDER

RETURN
MANIFOLD
LARGE BORE
CYLINDER

Figure 25. Schematic of Cylinders Connected Together

❑ 3. Set a ruler next to each cylinder rod and mark the starting points so
that the movement of each rod can be measured.
❑ 4. Now, use your hand to push the rod of the small bore cylinder in
about 1.25 inches and hold for about 30 seconds before releasing.
❑ 5. Measure the final distance each rod has moved.
Small bore cylinder rod movement____________________(in/cm)

Large bore cylinder rod movement____________________(in/cm)

The large bore cylinder rod should have moved about half the
distance of the small bore cylinder rod showing that distance is
sacrificed to obtain force multiplication.
❑ 6. Disconnect the circuit and store the components.

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 SEGMENT 2
SELF REVIEW

1. Pascal’s Law states that pressure on a(n) __________ fluid

is transmitted undiminished to every portion of a container.

2. When using hydraulic leverage, ____________ is multiplied.

3. To increase the force out of an actuator, increase the

pressure over the _______________.

4. When using hydraulic leverage, ________________ is lost.

5. 1000 psi acting across an area of five square inches produces

________________ lbs of force.

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 SEGMENT 3
FLUID FRICTION

OBJECTIVE 5 DESCRIBE TWO TYPES OF RESISTANCE

IN A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

As you know, hydraulic pumps do not produce pressure, they

produce flow. The pressure at the pump is caused by the resistance in the
system to the flow produced by the pump. In fact, if there were no
resistance, a hydraulic system could pump oil into the system at zero
pressure, as shown in figure 26.
Unfortunately, we always have some type of resistance caused by
either:
• Fluid friction
• Load resistance
The pressure at the pump is equal to the load resistance plus the fluid
friction resistance.

0 kPa

PUMP

RESERVOIR

Figure 26. Hydraulic Pump Produces Flow, Not Pressure

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 Fluid Friction
As fluid flows to the actuator, the internal surfaces of the
components in the hydraulic system create a frictional resistance to flow.
No matter how smooth the surfaces, there is always some frictional
resistance. This resistance causes the fluid upstream of each component
to have a higher pressure in order to push its way through the
component. Even the conductors create a resistance, as shown in figure
27.

PUMP
PRESSURE
200 kPa

PUMP

RESERVOIR

Figure 27. Fluid Pressure Drop Due to Frictional Resistance in a Pipe

The amount of resistance of each component depends on the

characteristics of the component such as the size, shape, and roughness
of the inside surfaces. The resistance is also affected by characteristics of
the fluid including fluid viscosity (thickness) and flow rate.
Normally, the frictional resistance should be as low as possible
because the energy used to overcome this resistance is lost as heat.
Friction can be minimized by sizing the components properly. The larger
the component, the less friction it will create.

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 Load Resistance
The load on the actuator also contributes to the pump pressure. If the
actuator is a cylinder, this pressure is equal to the load divided by the
area of the cylinder (P = F ÷ Α).
The load pressure, as shown in figure 28, is 7000 kPa. The frictional
pressure is 60 kPa. This is the sum of the difference between A and B
plus the difference between C and D. This makes the total pump pressure
7060 kPa. [(7060 - 7020) + (20 - 0) = (40 + 20) = 60 kPa]

B = 7020 kPa

LOAD
A = 7060 kPa 7000 kPa

C = 20 kPa

PUMP

D = 0 kPa

RESERVOIR

Figure 28. Pump Pressure Created by a Load and Frictional Resistance

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 OBJECTIVE 6 EXPLAIN HOW DELTA P DESCRIBES
HYDRAULIC RESISTANCE

The term delta P (∆P) is often used to describe resistance in a

hydraulic system or component. Delta P is the difference in pressure
between one point and another point in the system. For example, in
figure 29, the ∆P between Gauge A (pump outlet) and Gauge B (needle
valve inlet) is 20 kPa. This is the difference between the pressure at
Gauges A and B (540-520=20).
For a component, the ∆P is the difference in pressure between the
inlet and the outlet. For example, in figure 29, the ∆P across the needle
valve is 500 kPa, the pressure difference between Gauges B and C
(520-20= 500).
The ∆P can be caused by either load resistance (i.e. a cylinder) or
frictional resistance. For the needle valve and the conductors shown in
figure 29, the ∆P is caused by frictional resistance.

520 kPa B
C 20kPa

PA-B = 20kPa
PB-C = 500kPa
540 kPa A PC-D = 20kPa

PUMP
D 0 kPa

RESERVOIR

Figure 29. Delta P Is Caused by Various Components

Delta P is used to describe each individual resistance because the

pressure downstream of the component may not be zero. The ∆P allows
you to describe the component resistance no matter what the downstream
pressure is.
As an example, figure 29 shows that the downstream pressure of the
needle valve is 20 kPa. This pressure is caused only by components that
are further downstream from the needle valve, which in this case is the
hose resistance. It is not affected by the needle valve. Instead, the needle
valve causes a pressure resistance upstream that adds to the total pump
pressure and reduces the pressure downstream. This difference between
upstream and downstream pressure is the ∆P. In figure 29, the ∆P of the
needle valve is 500 kPa.

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 Understanding ∆P is important when designing a hydraulic system,
because components are sized by looking at curves that show how the ∆P
varies with flow rate.
Another situation where you need to understand ∆P is when you
troubleshoot a system. If a component is partially clogged, its ∆P will be
higher than normal.

SKILL 5 MEASURE DELTA P ACROSS A HYDRAULIC COMPONENT

Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will demonstrate that components
in a hydraulic system exert a frictional resistance to fluid flow.
To do this, you will measure the pressure drop across the
following hydraulic components: hoses with fittings, needle
valve, and directional control valve.

❑ 1. Set up the test circuit shown in figure 30.

This circuit will be used to measure the pressure drop caused by
two hoses and a tee fitting.
In this circuit, the oil flows between the supply and return
manifolds through two hoses and a tee. Gauge A measures the
pressure at the supply manifold and Gauge B measures the
pressure at the return manifold. The difference between these two
readings is the pressure drop (∆P) caused by the resistance to the
pump’s flow of the two hoses and fittings.

GAUGE
A

INSERT T FITTING
EXACTLY AS SHOWN

DIRECTION
GAUGE OF FLOW
B

Figure 30. Schematic of Circuit for Measuring Pressure Drop Across Two
Hoses and a Tee Fitting

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 ❑ 2. Perform the power unit checkout procedures.
❑ 3. Verify that the shutoff valve is closed.
❑ 4. Turn on the power unit and adjust the relief valve’s setting until
Gauge S reads 500 psi/3447 kPa.
❑ 5. Open the shutoff valve and record below the readings of Gauge A
and Gauge B. Also, calculate the pressure drop (∆P).
Full pump flow should now be flowing through the hoses and tee
connected between the two manifolds. The frictional resistance of
these components will cause a pressure difference between Gauges
A and B.
Two Hoses and Tee Fitting:

Gauge A _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Delta P ________________________________________(psi/kPa)
(Delta P = Gauge A - Gauge B)
A typical pressure drop for this measurement is 70 psi/483 kPa.
However, your data will vary according to the oil you are using
and other factors.
As you can see, the pressure is fairly high. The reason for this is
the valves inside the quick-connect fittings and the small
cross-sectional areas of the fittings restrict flow. For this reason,
you should use quick-connect fittings in industry only when
absolutely necessary.
❑ 6. Now turn off the hydraulic power unit.

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 ❑ 7. Replace the tee with a needle valve, as shown in figure 31.

GAUGE
A
NEEDLE
VALVE

A B

GAUGE
B

Figure 31. Schematic of Circuit for Measuring Drop Across Two Hoses
and a Needle Valve

❑ 8. Open the needle valve completely (turn CCW fully).

❑ 9. Turn on the power unit.
❑ 10. Record below the readings of Gauges A and B. Also, calculate the
pressure drop.
The oil is now flowing through the hoses and the wide-open needle
valve. You should observe that the two hoses and needle valve will
cause a resistance which will make the pressure drop greater than
with just two hoses and a tee in the circuit.
Two Hoses and Needle Valve:

Gauge A _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Delta P ________________________________________(psi/kPa)
(Delta P = Gauge A - Gauge B)
A typical pressure drop for this circuit is 115 psi/794 kPa. Your
data will vary. However, it should be higher than the drop
measured in step 5 because the needle valve has a higher resistance
than the tee.
❑ 11. Turn off the power unit.

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 ❑ 12. Replace the needle valve with a directional control valve, as shown
in figure 32.

GAUGE
A DIRECTIONAL
CONTROL
VALVE
IN A
OUT B

GAUGE
B

Figure 32. Schematic of a Circuit to Measure the Delta P Across Two

Hoses and a Directional Control Valve

❑ 13. Push and hold the lever of the directional control valve in so that
the oil will flow through the valve from the P port to the A port.
❑ 14. Turn on the power unit.
❑ 15. With the lever held pushed in, record below the readings of gauge
A and B. Then calculate the pressure drop.
Two hoses and directional control valve:

Gauge A _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Delta P ________________________________________(psi/kPa)
(Delta P = Gauge A - Gauge B)
A typical pressure drop for this circuit is 75 psi / 518 kPa. Your
data will vary but the drop through the DCV should be less than
the needle valve because this particular DCV’s internal flow path
is larger. This is not always the case because DCVs and needle
valves are available in many different sizes. The key point to
understand is that all components create a pressure drop no matter
what their size.
❑ 16. Release the lever.
❑ 17. Reduce the relief valve’s pressure setting to minimum (turn CCW
fully).
❑ 18. Close the shutoff valve and turn off the power unit.

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 Activity 3. Effect of Flow and Orifice Size on Delta P

Procedure Overview
In this activity, you will demonstrate that the pressure
drop across a component increases when the flow is
increased or the orifice size is decreased. For this
demonstration, you will use a needle valve because it has
a variable orifice. The pressure drop across the valve will
be measured at a number of flow rates for a given orifice
size. The pressure drop will then be measured at different
orifice sizes for a given flow.

❑ 1. Set up the circuit shown in figure 33.

In this circuit, oil flows through the needle valve. Gauges A and B
will show the pressure drop across the needle valve. You will use
the shutoff valve to change the flow rate to the needle valve. The
flowmeter will indicate this flow.

GAUGE A GAUGE B

IN OUT A B
FLOW NEEDLE
METER VALVE

Figure 33. Schematic of Circuit for Measuring Pressure Drop

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 ❑ 2. Perform the power unit checkout procedures.
❑ 3. Verify that the shutoff valve is closed.
❑ 4. Turn on the power unit. Then increase the setting of the relief
valve until Gauge S reads 500 psi/3447 kPa.
❑ 5. Close the needle valve completely. Then open it one complete
turn.
❑ 6. Now open the shutoff valve until the flowmeter reads 1.0 gpm/3.8
lpm.
Fluid will now be flowing through the needle valve and there
should be a pressure difference between Gauges A and B. This is
caused by the frictional resistance of the needle valve.
Observe the readings of Gauges A and B. Then calculate and
record the pressure drop.

FLOW GAUGE A GAUGE B PRESSURE DROP

[DELTA P (PA - PB)]
(gpm/lpm) (psi/kPa) (psi/kPa) (psi/kPa)

1.0/3.8 / / /
1.25/4.8 / / /
1.5/5.7 / / /
2.0/7.6 / / /

❑ 7. Repeat step 6 for each of the other flow rates listed in the chart
above.
You should observe that the ∆P increases as flow through the
needle valve increases. This is why components must be sized for
the flow rate they will handle. If the component is too small for a
given flow rate, you will have a high pressure drop and a lot of
wasted energy.
❑ 8. Now open the shutoff and needle valves completely.
In the remaining steps of this activity, you will measure the effect
orifice size has on pressure drop.

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 ❑ 9. Observe the current readings of the flowmeter and Gauges A and
B for an orifice size of “wide open.” Also, calculate the pressure
drop (∆P).

ORIFICE FLOW PRESSURE PRESSURE DELTA P

SIZE RATE GAUGE A GAUGE B (GAUGE A -
GAUGE B)
(no. of turns) (gpm/lpm) (psi/kPa) (psi/kPa) (psi/kPa)

Wide open
5-1/2
5-3/4
6
6-1/4
6-1/2
6-3/4
7

❑ 10. Turn the needle valve 5-1/2 turns CW to reduce the orifice size and
observe the readings of the flowmeter and Gauges A and B. Then
calculate the pressure drop.
❑ 11. Repeat step 10 for each of the other orifice sizes listed in the chart.
You should find that the pressure drop becomes greater as the
resistance caused by a smaller orifice size becomes greater.
This is the feature that allows needle valves to control flow rate in
the hydraulic system. To reduce flow to the actuator, you will
reduce the orifice size of the needle valve to create a high enough
pressure drop to cause the relief valve to partially open.
❑ 12. Reduce the relief valve’s pressure setting to minimum, turn off the
power unit and close the shutoff valve.

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 OBJECTIVE 7 EXPLAIN HOW PRESSURE IS DISTRIBUTED
IN A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

The operating pressure or system pressure of a hydraulic system are

terms commonly used in hydraulic system analysis. However, it is
important to understand that these terms do not refer to the pressure
everywhere in the system. They refer to the pressure at the pump’s outlet
during operation. The pressure at other points in the system will be
between this pressure and zero.
With few exceptions, the highest pressure occurs at the pump’s
outlet. As oil is pumped through the system, it drops in pressure due to
frictional resistance and actuator load. Eventually the oil flows to the
reservoir through the return line. Once it reaches the reservoir, it has
reached the lowest pressure which is 0 psi/0 kPa. The pressure at any
point in the system is equal to the sum of all the pressure drops
downstream of that point and is only affected by components located
downstream.
As an example, consider the hydraulic circuit shown in figure 34. In
this circuit, the directional control valve has been shifted to extend the
cylinder. As the cylinder extends, the fluid flows through the system.
The pressure at the pump is 1000 psi. It represents the total resistance of
the components downstream through which the fluid flows. The pressure
drops caused by each component are as follows:

COMPONENT APPLICABLE GAUGE GAUGE READING DELTA P

Hose #1 Gauge S - Gauge A = 1000 - 980 = 20 psi
Directional
Control Valve Gauge A - Gauge B = 980 - 940 = 40 psi
(P→A)
Hose #2 Gauge B - Gauge C = 940 - 920 = 20 psi
Cylinder Load and Gauge C - Gauge D =
Friction 920 - 80 = 840 psi

Hose #3 Gauge D - Gauge E = 80 - 60 = 20 psi

Directional
Control Valve Gauge E - Gauge F = 60 - 20 = 40 psi
(B→T)
Hose #4 Gauge F - Gauge R = 20 - 0 = 20 psi

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 The pressure drops of all the components except the cylinder load
are caused by frictional resistance. The pressure at any point in the
system is equal to the sum of the pressure drops downstream of that
point. For example, the system pressure is caused by resistances of all
the components (i.e. 20 + 40 + 20 + 840 + 20 + 40 + 20 = 1000 psi).

GAUGE A GAUGE B

980 940
SYSTEM
PRESSURE HOSE #1 P A

T B

HOSE #2
HOSE #3
GAUGE S 20 60
1100
1000 PSI GAUGE F GAUGE E
GAUGE
C
HOSE #4

GAUGE
80 920
D

GAUGE R
LOAD
0

EXTENDING

Figure 34. Pressure Distribution in a Hydraulic System

When the cylinder in the circuit of figure 34 fully extends, the flow
from the pump deadheads in the cap end of the cylinder and has nowhere
to flow. Since the pump continues to pump oil , the oil pressure builds to
1100 psi. The relief valve, set at 1100 psi, then opens and allows the oil
from the pump to flow through it back to the reservoir. This condition is
shown in figure 35.

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 When the flow is stopped or deadheaded in a hydraulic system, the
pressure distribution is not affected by the frictional resistance of the
components because fluid is no longer flowing. Instead, Pascal’s Law
says if the oil is not flowing between two points in a contained fluid, the
pressure is the same at the two points. This concept is shown in figure 35
by the fact that Gauges S, A, B and C are all at the same pressure. These
gauges all read the pressure of the same volume of fluid. Since the
cylinder is extended and the fluid is not flowing between Gauge S and
the other three gauges, they are all at the same pressure.
Also, notice that Gauges R, F, D, and E all read the same pressure:
zero. These gauges do not read the same pressure as the other gauges
because they are reading a different volume of fluid separated by the
cylinder’s piston.

GAUGE A GAUGE B

1100 1100

GAUGE S 0 0

1100 GAUGE F GAUGE E

GAUGE
C

GAUGE D 0 1100

GAUGE R
LOAD
0

Figure 35. Pressure Distribution Where the Cylinder Becomes Extended

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 Activity 4. Characteristics of Circuit Pressure Drops

Procedure Overview
In this activity, you will demonstrate that fluid flowing
through multiple components connected in series causes
pressure drops across each component which add
together to create a higher pressure at the pump’s outlet.

❑ 1. Set up the circuit shown in figure 36.

NOTE
Connect the tees directly onto the gauge block tees.

Gauge A will indicate the total pressure drop of all components

placed downstream between it and the reservoir.

GAUGE A

TEE
GAUGE

GAUGE
FLOW BLOCK TEE
METER TEE

OUT IN

Figure 36. Schematic of the Base Circuit for Obtaining Hose Pressure
Drops

❑ 2. Perform the power unit checkout procedures.

❑ 3. Turn on the power unit and set the relief valve’s pressure setting to
500 psi/3447 kPa.

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 ❑ 4. Open the shutoff valve and observe the flow rate and Gauge A
reading.
Gauge A _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Flow_________________________________________(gpm/lpm)
You should observe that for this flow rate, the pressure at Gauge A
is substantial because of the back pressure caused by the hoses,
quick-connects, and the flow meter.
❑ 5. Turn off the power unit.
❑ 6. Insert Gauge B, tee and hose A in the circuit, as shown in figure
37. Connect the tee at Gauge B directly to the gauge block as you
did with Gauge A in step 1.
This adds a length of hose, quick-connects, and a tee in series with
the base circuit.

GAUGE B GAUGE A
FLOW
METER

TEE TEE IN OUT

HOSE A

Figure 37. Schematic of a Circuit for Obtaining a Hose and the Pressure
Drop

❑ 7. Turn on the power unit.

❑ 8. Record the flow rate and pressure gauge readings.
Gauge A _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Flow_________________________________________(gpm/lpm)
You should observe that Gauge B pressure is higher than Gauge A
with the added resistance of hose A and a tee. Gauge A should
read the same as it did in step 4 because its downstream resistance
is still the same.
❑ 9. Turn off the power unit.

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 ❑ 10. Insert Gauge C, tee and hose B in the circuit, as shown in figure 38.
Connect the tee at Gauge C directly to the gauge block as you did
with Gauge A in step 1.

NOTE
For hose B, use the same length of hose as used for hose A.
This adds another resistance in series. This resistance is the
same size as added in step 6.

GAUGE C GAUGE B GAUGE A

TEE TEE TEE

HOSE B HOSE A
FLOW
METER

OUT IN

Figure 38. Schematic of a Circuit for Measuring Pressure Drop in a

Series Circuit

❑ 11. Turn on the hydraulic power unit.

❑ 12. Record the pressure gauge readings and flow rate.
Gauge A _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge B _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Gauge C _______________________________________(psi/kPa)

Flow_________________________________________(gpm/lpm)
You should observe that Gauge C pressure is higher than Gauge B
with the added resistance of hose B and a tee. Gauges A and B
should read the same as they did in step 8 because their
downstream resistance has not changed.
❑ 13. Now calculate the pressure drops across each of the hoses and tees.
Then, calculate the total pressure drop across both in series.
Delta P Hose A (Gauge B - Gauge A) = ______________(psi/kPa)

Delta P Hose B (Gauge C - Gauge B) =_______________(psi/kPa)

Delta P Total (Gauge C - Gauge A) = ________________(psi/kPa)

This shows that pressure drops in series are additive. It also shows
that for hoses of the same size and length, their ∆P is the same.
❑ 14. Decrease the relief valve setting to minimum, turn off the power
unit, and close the shutoff valve.
❑ 15. Disconnect the circuit and store the components.

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 SEGMENT 3
SELF REVIEW

1. _______________ is caused by the resistance to flow.

2. Fluid blocked in a circuit will exert pressure in accordance

with ________________________.

3. ______________ resistance to fluid flow can never be

completely eliminated.

4. Fluid resistances in series create pressure drops which

_____________ together.

5. Decreasing the upstream pressure of a needle valve,

____________ flow rate through it.

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 SEGMENT 4
ABSOLUTE VS. GAUGE PRESSURE

OBJECTIVE 8 DESCRIBE TWO METHODS OF

REPRESENTING HYDRAULIC PRESSURE

Hydraulic pressure can be stated in two ways:

• Absolute pressure
• Gauge pressure

Absolute Pressure
As shown in figure 39, the atmosphere exerts a pressure at sea level
that is equal to 14.7 psi or 101 kPa. This is also referred to as 14.7 psia
or 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute pressure.

0 PSI/0 kPa AIR

AT 50 MILES/80.5 KM

14.7 PSI/101 kPa

SEA LEVEL

Figure 39. Absolute Air Pressure at Sea Level and at Altitude

If we used an absolute pressure gauge to measure the pressure at a
point in space above the atmosphere, the gauge would read 0 psi/0 kPa.
This value represents a perfect vacuum because there is no air pressure
exerting a force on the pressure gauge. At sea level, this same gauge
would read 14.7 psi/101 kPa.
The units you should use to represent absolute pressure are psia or
kPa (absolute).

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 Gauge Pressure
Gauge pressure indicates the amount of pressure above atmospheric
pressure.
Gauge pressure is the pressure that you have been reading in the
procedures and activities contained in these LAPs. Almost all pressure
gauges used in hydraulics are designed to indicate gauge pressure. They
are adjusted to read 0 psi/0 kPa when exposed to atmospheric pressure at
sea level.
When indicating gauge pressure, we use psig or just psi. In the S.I.
system, the units of kPa are used for both absolute and gauge pressures.
Gauge pressures are easily converted to absolute pressures using the
following formula.
It is important to understand the difference between gauge and

GAUGE/ABSOLUTE PRESSURE FORMULA:

Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
Where:
Pabs = Absolute Pressure (psia/kPa absolute)
Pgauge = Gauge Pressure (psig/kPa)
Patm = Atmospheric Pressure (psia/kPa absolute)
(at sea level atmospheric is 14.7 psi/101 kPa)

NOTE
The exact value of atmospheric pressure shown in the above
formula is for sea level. This value will differ according to the
elevation.

absolute pressure for several reasons:

• Many design calculations require you to convert between absolute
and gauge.
• Pressure gauges must be specified as gauge or absolute when you
use them.
• The absolute pressure range from 0 to atmospheric is used to
measure the pressure at the inlet of the pump when atmospheric
pressure is being used to fill the inlet from the reservoir.

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 SKILL 6 CONVERT BETWEEN ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
AND GAUGE HYDRAULIC PRESSURE

Procedure Overview
In this procedure, you will use the formula just
introduced to practice your ability to convert between
gauge and absolute pressure. This is a skill you will do
often in industry if you are an engineer.

❑ 1. Convert the gauge pressures below to absolute pressures.

PRESSURES
Gauge Absolute
22.5 psig
315 kPa
560 psig
10 kPa

❑ 2. Convert the absolute pressures to gauge pressures.

PRESSURES
Absolute Gauge
40 psia
6900 kPa
280 psia
1000 kPa

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 OBJECTIVE 9 DESCRIBE HOW OIL FLOWS ON THE SUCTION SIDE
OF THE PUMP

Although many people think pumps create a pulling force to suction

oil from the reservoir into their inlets, this really is not true. The oil is
actually pushed into the inlet by atmospheric pressure.
To understand this concept, it is important to understand that fluid
flows between two connected points whenever there is a pressure
difference between the two points. A pump by its rotation, uses this
principle by creating a pressure differential between its inlet and
atmospheric pressure.
As shown in the drawing of figure 40, when the pump shaft is
rotated, the pump elements open the space at the inlet causing the
pressure to drop below atmospheric. Because atmospheric pressure at the
surface of the oil in the reservoir is higher, it pushes the oil from the
reservoir through the suction line and into the pump.

PARTIAL PUMP PRESSURE

VACUUM 10
LINE
AT PUMP psia
INLET
TO SYSTEM
INLET OUTLET

ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE SUCTION
14.7 psia LINE

P TO FLOW = 14.7 psia-10 psia = 4.7 psi

RESERVOIR

Figure 40. A Pump Being Filled from a Vented Reservoir

This operating feature of a pump means that the inlet line must be
kept clear. If the filter is dirty or the inlet too small or too long, the
atmospheric pressure will not be able to push the oil quickly enough into
the pump. This causes the pump to be starved and the pump will quickly
be damaged.
Another problem that has to be considered when using hydraulic
systems is the altitude of the location. As your altitude increases, the
atmospheric pressure decreases. This means that the amount of absolute
pressure available to push the oil into the pump is less. It is possible that
a hydraulic power unit built in Seattle, Washington might not work
properly in Denver, Colorado and could be damaged.

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 SEGMENT 4
SELF REVIEW

1. Oil is forced into a hydraulic pump by atmospheric pressure

when a(n) ______________ is used.

2. The absolute pressure at sea level is ________ psi /

________ kPa.

3. To convert gauge pressures to absolute, add _________

pressure to the gauge pressure.

4. Gauge pressures can be stated as ________ or _______.

5. To have flow between two points, a(n) _________________

must exist.

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