Tutorial On CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)
Working and Applications
The CRO stands for a cathode ray oscilloscope. It is typically divided into four sections which are display,
vertical controllers, horizontal controllers, and Triggers. Most of the oscilloscopes are used the probes and they
are used for the input of any instrument. We can analyze the waveform by plotting amplitude along with the x-
axis and y-axis. The applications of CRO’s mainly involve in the radio, TV receivers, also in laboratory work
involving research and design. In modern electronics, the CRO plays an important role in the electronic
circuits.
What is a CRO?
The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument, it is used to obtain waveforms
when the different input signals are given. In the early days, it is called as an Oscillograph. The oscilloscope
observes the changes in the electrical signals over time, thus the voltage and time describe a shape and it is
continuously graphed beside a scale. By seeing the waveform, we can analyze some properties like amplitude,
frequency, rise time, distortion, time interval and etc.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Block Diagram of CRO
The following block diagram shows the general purpose CRO contraction. The CRO recruit the
cathode ray tube and acts as a heat of the oscilloscope. In an oscilloscope, the CRT produces the electron beam
which is accelerated to a high velocity and brings to the focal point on a fluorescent screen. Thus, the screen
produces a visible spot where the electron beam strikes with it. By detecting the beam above the screen in reply
to the electrical signal, the electrons can act as an electrical pencil of light which produces a light where it strikes.
To complete this task we need various electrical signals and voltages. This provides the power supply
circuit of the oscilloscope. Here we will use high voltage and low voltage. The low voltage is used for the heater
of the electron gun to generate the electron beam. The high voltage is required for the cathode ray tube to speed
up the beam. The normal voltage supply is necessary for other control units of the oscilloscope.
The horizontal and vertical plates are placed between the electron gun and the screen, thus it can detect the
beam according to the input signal. Just before detecting the electron beam on the screen in the horizontal
direction which is in X-axis a constant time-dependent rate, a time base generator is given by the oscillator. The
signals are passed from the vertical deflection plate through the vertical amplifier. Thus, it can amplify the signal
to a level will be provided the deflection of the electron beam.
If the electron beam is detected in the X-axis and the Y- axis a trigger circuit is given for the synchronizing these
two types detections. Hence the horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input signal.
time-dependent rate, a time base generator is given by the oscillator. The signals are passed from the vertical
deflection plate through the vertical amplifier. Thus, it can amplify the signal to a level will be provided the
deflection of the electron beam.
If the electron beam is detected in the X-axis and the Y- axis a trigger circuit is given for the synchronizing these
two types detections. Hence the horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input signal.
Working of CRO
The following circuit diagram shows the basic circuit of a cathode ray oscilloscope. In this, we will
discuss important parts of the oscilloscope.
Working of CRO
Vertical Deflection System
The main function of this amplifier is to amplify the weak signal so that the amplified signal can produce the
desired signal. To examine the input signals are penetrated to the vertical deflection plates through the input
attenuator and number of amplifier stages.
Horizontal Deflection System
The vertical and horizontal system consists of horizontal amplifiers to amplify the weak input signals, but it is
different to the vertical deflection system. The horizontal deflection plates are penetrated by a sweep voltage that
gives a time base. By seeing the circuit diagram the sawtooth sweep generator is triggered by the synchronizing
amplifier while the sweep selector switches in the internal position. So the trigger saw tooth generator gives the
input to the horizontal amplifier by following the mechanism.Here we will discuss the four types of sweeps.
Recurrent Sweep
As the name, itself says that the saw tooth is respective that is a new sweep is started immodestly at the end of
the previous sweep.
Triggered Sweep
Sometimes the waveform should be observed that it may not be predicted, thus the desired that the sweep circuit
remains inoperative and the sweep should be initiated by the waveform under the examination. In these cases,
we will use the triggered sweep.
Driven Sweep
In general, the drive sweep is used when the sweep is a free running but it is a triggered by the signal under the
test.
Non-Saw Tooth Sweep
This sweep is used to find the difference between the two voltages. By using the non-sawtooth sweep we can
compare the frequency of the input voltages.
Synchronization
The synchronization is done to produce the stationary pattern. The synchronization is between the sweep and
the signal should measure. There are some sources of synchronization which can be selected by the
synchronization selector. Which are discussed below.
Internal
In this the signal is measured by the vertical amplifier and the trigger is abstained by the signal.
External
In the external trigger, the external trigger should be present.
Line
The line trigger is produced by the power supply.
Intensity Modulation
This modulation is produced by inserting the signal between the ground and cathode. This modulation
causes by brightening the display.
Positioning Control
By applying the small independent internal direct voltage source to the detecting plates through the potentiometer
the position can be controlled and also we can control the position of the signal.
Intensity Control
The intensity has a difference by changing the grid potential with respect to the cathode.
Applications of CRO
Voltage measurement
Current measurement
Examination of waveform
Measurement of phase and frequency
Uses of CRO
In laboratory, the CRO can be used as
It can display different types of waveforms
It can measure short time interval
In voltmeter, it can measure potential difference
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Definition: Cathode ray tube, CRT is the heart of CRO which generates images when electron beam from
the back of the tube strikes the fluorescent screen with sufficient energy. CRT technique was basically
employed in conventional TV and computer screens.
Constructional details of Cathode Ray Tube
CRT consist of the following parts:
1. Electron gun
2. Deflection plate assembly
3. Glass envelope
4. Fluorescent screen
5. Base, for connections
The diagram given below shows the internal structure of the CRT
A sharply focused beam is produced by the electron gun assembly. This high-velocity beam strikes the
fluorescent screen thus causing a luminous spot on the screen.
The two electrostatic deflection plates deflect the accelerated beam by the application of voltage. This applied
voltage enable the beam to move vertically up – down and horizontally from an end to other.
The two movements are not dependent on each other that causes the beam to be arranged anywhere on the
screen.
CRT parts are confined in a glass envelope in order to permit free movement of the electron from an end to the
other.
Working of Cathode Ray Tube
The main parts of CRT are responsible for the working of it that is explained below-
Electron gun
The electron gun is the originator of focused accelerated electron beam. It consists of a heater, a cathode,
pre-accelerating anode, accelerating anode which emits electrons and forms them into a beam. The cathode is
heated indirectly from which electrons are emitted. To obtain high emission of electrons at a moderate
temperature a layer of barium and strontium oxide is deposited at the end of the cathode.
An indirectly heated cathode requires current and voltage value 600 mA at 6.3 V. In the case of a highly
efficient system the value is 300 mA at 6.3 V.
The emitted electrons further pass through a small hole present in the control grid. The control grid is basically
a nickel cylinder of aperture 0.5. It is a low permeability steel material. The intensity by which beam of
electron moves depends entirely on the electron emitted from the cathode. The number of electrons emitted
from the cathode is controlled by the grid.
A positive high potential is applied at the pre-accelerating anode by which the beam gets accelerated. This
high positive potential is about 1500 V. Focusing anode helps in focusing the electron beam and is connected
with a lower adjustable voltage of about 500 V.
The highly focused beam moves towards vertical and horizontal deflection plates after which it reaches to
fluorescent screen.
Focusing of an electron beam is accomplished by two different methods- Electrostatic
focusing and Electromagnetic focusing.
Let us now discuss electrostatic focusing in detail
Electrostatic focusing
In the figure shown below, we can see an electron placed at rest in an electric field produced two parallel
plates.
Force on an electron is
Ꜫ = electric field intensity V/m
e = charge of electron
The negative sign indicates that the acting force is opposite to that of the field.
It is necessary that the field is of uniform intensity where the electron is placed. The lateral repulsion of electric
field lines causes spreading of spaces between the field lines which results in curved lines at the ends. This is
the reason why field intensity is less at the ends.
The force is in opposite direction to that of the field and an equipotential surface is perpendicular to the field
thus the force on the electron is in the normal direction to the equipotential surface.
Let us now consider the region of two sides of equipotential surface S as represented in the figure given below-
The potential on the left side of the surface is –V and on the right side is +V. Consider an electron is moving
from A to B enters on the left side of S. A force is experienced by this electron in the normal direction to the
surface S and thus it gets accelerated.
Now, let’s have a look at the functional diagram of the electrostatic focusing arrangement
The pre-accelerating anode and accelerating anode are connected to a high positive potential and focusing
anode is connected to a lower potential as we have discussed earlier. Due to this difference in
potential between focusing anode and accelerating anode a non-uniform field exists on each end of focusing
anode. Thus equipotential surface forms a “double concave lens”.
The beam that enters the field at angles other than normal will be deflected towards the normal and thus
causing the beam to be focused towards the centre.
Electrostatic Deflection
The figure below describes the basic arrangement for electrostatic deflection.
A potential is applied between two parallel plates. A uniform electrostatic field is produced by these plates
in the Y direction. Thus the entering electron will experience a force in the y-direction and will be accelerated
in that particular direction. There is no force in X and Z directions resulting in no acceleration in these two
directions.
After departing from the deflection plates, electrons move in a straight line and sometimes it is hard to deflect
a highly accelerated beam called “hard beam”.
Post deflection acceleration
After passing beyond the deflection plates, the electron may and may not experience additional acceleration.
But this primarily depends on maximum frequency applied to CRT.
In the electrostatic deflection system, a low value of accelerating voltage must be used and this voltage usually
kept below 4 KV. This low value gives better sensitivity but leads to the reduction in brightness. If maximum
frequency to be displayed is below 10 MHz generally monoaccelerator tubes may be used.
When the displayed signal frequency is more than 10 MHz, post-deflection acceleration is necessary so as to
increase the brightness of the traces.
Deflection Plates
When the electron beam departs from the electron gun, it drifts through 2 pairs of deflection plates.
One pair of plates is mounted in the horizontal direction and produces an electric field in the vertical plane.
Thus it generates vertical deflection and is termed as vertical deflection plates or Y plates.
The other pair is mounted in the vertical direction and develops an electric field in the horizontal plane. Thus
producing horizontal deflection and is known as horizontal deflection plates or X plates.
The plates are flared so that the beam can pass through it without striking.
Screen for CRT
The front portion of the CRT is the faceplate. It is flat for small screen sizes to about 100mm Χ 100mm
dimension and is slightly curved in case of larger displays. Some faceplates are made entirely from fibre optics,
having special characteristics.
The inner surface of the faceplate is coated with a phosphor. The electrical energy gets transformed into light
energy by the action of phosphor. When an electron beam strikes the phosphor crystal, it raises their energy
level.
This is known as cathodoluminescence. During phosphor excitation, light is excited and this is
called fluorescence.
To have a flicker-free display, a phosphor must be refreshed by electron before the end of its decay time.
Phosphor having lower persistence requires more frequent refreshes. In case of use in radars, long
persistence is needed. It is even needed in storage types oscilloscopes. Electron beam on striking phosphor
gives off light and heat.
The luminance of phosphor is a measure of its brightness. It is determined by the luminance efficiency of
phosphor and by the beam energy.
Aquadag
The electron that strikes the screen, release secondary emission electrons. Aqueous graphite solution known
as Aquadag collects these secondary electrons. This aquadag is joined to the secondary anode. To maintain
the CRT in electrical equilibrium, it is necessary to collect the secondary electrons.
Types of oscilloscope probes
As a fault finding tool for electronics repair, oscilloscope permits users to view the waveforms on the different parts of a
circuit. To achieve this, an oscilloscope probe is needed to connect the oscilloscope to the required points.
There are two basic types of oscilloscope probes — the active probes and the passive probes. Aside from being cheaper,
passive probes are more preferred by oscilloscope users since they can also be used to take a vast variety of measurements.
Meanwhile, oscilloscope probes can also be classified in terms of the offered level of attenuation of the signal. Thus,
oscilloscope probes are also classified into 100X, 10X, and 1X.
The 1X oscilloscope probe is the most basic type. Unlike most probes, it does not attenuate incoming voltage. It also features
a length of coax connected to the probe itself and a connector, which is usually a BNC connector, to interface to the
oscilloscope.
Suitable for low frequency applications, the 1X probes generally offer similar input impedance of the oscilloscope, typically
one M ohm.
A 10X oscilloscope refers to a probe with an integrated attenuator that delivers an attenuation of 10. This allows the circuits’
impedance to be enhanced by a factor of 10. While the 10X probe is attenuating the signal, it can also reduce the signal
entering the oscilloscope.
To deliver a 10:1 attenuation, the 10X oscilloscope probe utilizes a series resistor paired with one M ohm input impedance.
This oscilloscope probe also compensates for existing frequency variations. Placing a small variable capacitor across the
series resistor enables it to equalize the frequency response. This quick adjustment can be easily achieved by connecting the
oscilloscope probe to the oscilloscope’s tiny square wave oscillator output.
Unlike 10X and 1X oscilloscope probes, 100X oscilloscope probes are rather rare. This type of oscilloscope probe is
generally used when monitoring high voltages and when high level of attenuation is required. Since it is uncommon, the
100X is considered a specialized oscilloscope probe. When utilized in normal applications, it delivers a small amount of
signal to the oscilloscope’s input that creates noise on the input amplifiers.
The choice of oscilloscope probe is often based on what is currently available on the lab. It has to be noted that, for most
applications, the 10X probe generally provides the best result. Probes that can switch from 1X to 10X also offer a good
alternative.
However, there are instances when 10X probes do not deliver all the performance required by some applications. To solve
this problem, users are advised to integrate an active electronic circuit on the oscilloscope’s remote end.
Active oscilloscope probes also preserve the signal during the transition, offering specially designed integrated circuits.
Although it features a fast rise time, a low signal level and high input impedance during sampling, active probes effectively
maintains the integrity of the signal and provide better level of performance.
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