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Experiment-03: Study of Breadboard, DMM, CRO, DSO, and Function generator.

Breadboard:
What is a breadboard?

A breadboard is a rectangular plastic board with a bunch of tiny holes in it. These
holes let you easily insert electronic components to prototype (meaning to build
and test an early version of) an electronic circuit, like this one with a battery,
switch, resistor, and an LED (light-emitting diode). To learn more about individual
electronic components, see our Electronics Primer.

Are there different kinds of breadboards?

Modern breadboards are made from plastic, and come in all shapes, sizes, and
even different colors. While larger and smaller sizes are available, the most
common sizes you will probably see are "full-size," "half-size," and "mini"
breadboards. Most breadboards also come with tabs and notches on the sides
that allow you to snap multiple boards together. However, a single half-sized
breadboard is sufficient for many beginner-level projects.
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How are the holes connected?

Remember that the inside of the breadboard is made up of sets of five metal clips. This
means that each set of five holes forming a half-row (columns A–E or columns F–J) is
electrically connected. For example, that means hole A1 is electrically connected to holes
B1, C1, D1, and E1. It is not connected to hole A2, because that hole is in a different row,
with a separate set of metal clips. It is also not connected to holes F1, G1, H1, I1, or J1,
because they are on the other "half" of the breadboard—the clips are not connected across
the gap in the middle (to learn about the gap in the middle of the breadboard, see
the Advanced section). Unlike all the main breadboard rows, which are connected in sets
of five holes, the buses typically run the entire length of the breadboard (but there are
some exceptions). This image shows which holes are electrically connected in a typical
half-sized breadboard, highlighted in yellow lines.

Buses on opposite sides of the breadboard are not connected to each other. Typically, to
make power and ground available on both sides of the breadboard, you would connect the
buses with jumper wires, like this. Make sure to connect positive to positive and negative
to negative (see the section on buses if you need a reminder about which color is which).
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DMM:
Digital multimeters are measuring instruments that can measure quantities
such as voltage, current, and resistance. Measured values are shown on a
digital display, allowing them to be read easily and directly, even by first-time
users.
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What is a CRO?

The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument, it is used to obtain

waveforms when the different input signals are given. In the early days, it is called
as an Oscillograph. The oscilloscope observes the changes in the electrical signals
over time, thus the voltage and time describe a shape and it is continuously
graphed beside a scale. By seeing the waveform, we can analyze some properties
like amplitude, frequency, rise time, distortion, time interval, and etc.
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Block Diagram of CRO

The following block diagram shows the general-purpose CRO contraction. The CRO
recruits the cathode ray tube and acts as a heat of the oscilloscope. In an
oscilloscope, the CRT produces the electron beam which is accelerated to a high
velocity and brings to the focal point on a fluorescent screen.
Thus, the screen produces a visible spot where the electron beam strikes with it.
By detecting the beam above the screen in reply to the electrical signal, the
electrons can act as an electrical pencil of light which produces a light where it
strikes.

Working Principle

The CRO working principle depends on the electron ray movement because of
the electrostatic force. Once an electron ray hits a phosphor face, then it makes a
bright spot on it. A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope applies the electrostatic energy on
the electron ray from two vertical ways. The spot on the phosphor monitor turns
due to the effect of these two electrostatic forces which are mutually
perpendicular. It moves to make the necessary waveform of the input signal.

Construction of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The construction of CRO includes the following.

 Cathode Ray Tube

 Electronic Gun Assembly
 Deflecting Plate
 Fluorescent Screen For CRT
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 Glass Envelop
Cathode Ray Tube

The CRO is the vacuum tube and the main function of this device is to change the
signal from electrical to visual. This tube includes the electron gun as well as the
electrostatic deflection plates. The main function of this electron gun is used to generate
a focused electronic ray that speeds up to high frequency.

The vertical deflection plate will turn the ray up & down whereas the horizontal ray
moved the electrons beams from the left side to the right side. These actions are
autonomous from each other and thus the ray may be located anyplace on the monitor.

Electronic Gun Assembly

The main function of the electron gun is to emit the electrons to form them into a ray.
This gun mainly includes a heater, a grid, cathode, and anodes like accelerating, pre-
accelerating & focusing. At the cathode end, the strontium & barium layers are
deposited to obtain the high electrons emission of electrons at the moderate
temperature, the layers of barium, and are deposited at the end of the cathode.

Once the electrons are generated from the cathode grid, then it flows throughout the
control grid that is generally a nickel cylinder through a centrally situated co-axial by the
axis of CRT. So, it controls the strength of the generated electrons from the cathode.

When electrons flow throughout the control grid then it accelerates with the help of a
high positive potential which is applied to the pre-accelerating or accelerating nodes.
The electron ray is concentrated on electrodes to flow throughout the deflection plates
like horizontal and vertical & supplies on to the fluorescent lamp.

The anodes like accelerating & pre-accelerating are connected to 1500v & the focusing
electrode can be connected to 500v. The electron ray can be focused on using two
techniques like Electrostatic & Electromagnetic focusing. Here, a cathode ray
oscilloscope utilizes an electrostatic focusing tube.

Deflecting Plate

Once the electron ray leaves the electron gun then this ray will pass throughout the two
sets of the deflecting plate. This set will generate the vertical deflection that is known as
Y plate’s otherwise vertical deflecting plate. The set of the plate is used for a horizontal
deflection which is known as X plate’s otherwise horizontal deflection.

Fluorescent Screen of CRT

In the CRT, the front face is known as the faceplate, For the CRT screen, it is flat and its
size is about 100mm×100mm. The CRT screen is somewhat bent for bigger displays
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and the formation of faceplate can be done by pressing the molten glass into a form &
after that heating it.

The inner face of the faceplate is covered by using phosphor crystal to change the
energy from electrical to light. Once an electronics ray hits phosphor crystal, the energy
level can be enhanced & thus light is generated throughout phosphorous crystallization,
so this occurrence is known as fluorescence.

Glass Envelope

It is an extremely evacuated conical form of construction. The inside faces of the CRT
among the neck as well as the display are covered through the aquadag. This is a
conducting material that acts like a high-voltage electrode. The surface of the coating is
connected electrically toward the accelerating anode to help the electron to be the
center.

Working of CRO

The following circuit diagram shows the basic circuit of a cathode ray oscilloscope. In
this, we will discuss important parts of the oscilloscope.

Working of
CRO
Vertical Deflection System

The main function of this amplifier is to amplify the weak signal so that the amplified
signal can produce the desired signal. To examine the input signals are penetrated
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to the vertical deflection plates through the input attenuator and the number of
amplifier stages.

Horizontal Deflection System

The vertical and horizontal system consists of horizontal amplifiers to amplify the
weak input signals, but it is different from the vertical deflection system. The
horizontal deflection plates are penetrated by a sweep voltage that gives a time
base. By seeing the circuit diagram the sawtooth sweep generator is triggered by
the synchronizing amplifier while the sweep selector switches in the internal
position. So the trigger saw tooth generator gives the input to the horizontal
amplifier by following the mechanism. Here we will discuss the four types of
sweeps.

Recurrent Sweep

As the name, itself says that the sawtooth is respective that is a new sweep is
started immodestly at the end of the previous sweep.

Triggered Sweep

Sometimes the waveform should be observed that it may not be predicted thus,
the desired that the sweep circuit remains inoperative and the sweep should be
initiated by the waveform under the examination. In these cases, we will use the
triggered sweep.

Driven Sweep

In general, the drive sweep is used when the sweep is free-running but it is
triggered by the signal under the test.

Non-Saw Tooth Sweep

This sweep is used to find the difference between the two voltages. By using the
non-sawtooth sweep we can compare the frequency of the input voltages.

Synchronization

The synchronization is done to produce a stationary pattern. The synchronization

is between the sweep and the signal should measure. There are some sources of
synchronization that can be selected by the synchronization selector. Which are
discussed below.
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Internal

In this, the signal is measured by the vertical amplifier and the trigger is abstained
by the signal.

External

In the external trigger, the external trigger should be present.

Line

The line trigger is produced by the power supply.

Intensity Modulation

This modulation is produced by inserting the signal between the ground and
cathode. This modulation causes by brightening the display.
Positioning Control

By applying the small independent internal direct voltage source to the detecting
plates through the potentiometer the position can be controlled and also we can
control the position of the signal.

Intensity Control

The intensity has a difference by changing the grid potential with respect to the
cathode.
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DSO:
Definition: The digital storage oscilloscope is an instrument which gives the storage of a
digital waveform or the digital copy of the waveform. It allows us to store the signal or the
waveform in the digital format, and in the digital memory also it allows us to do the digital
signal processing techniques over that signal. The maximum frequency measured on the
digital signal oscilloscope depends upon two things they are: sampling rate of the scope
and the nature of the converter. The traces in DSO are bright, highly defined, and
displayed within seconds.

Block Diagram of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

The block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope consists of an amplifier, digitizer,
memory, analyzer circuitry. Waveform reconstruction, vertical plates, horizontal plates,
cathode ray tube (CRT), horizontal amplifier, time base circuitry, trigger, and clock. The
block diagram of the digital storage oscilloscope is shown in the below figure.
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Function Generator:
Function generators are a form of test instrument that can generate waveforms with
common shapes: sine, square, pulse, triangular, sawtooth, etc

A function generator is a specific form of signal generator that is able to generate waveforms with
common shapes. Unlike RF generators and some others that only create sine waves, the function
generator is able to create repetitive waveforms with a number of common shapes.

In particular it can be made to become a sine wave generator, square wave generator, and triangular
wave generator.

Also a function generator may be able to vary the characteristics of the waveforms, changing the
length of the pulse, i.e. the mark space ratio, or the ramps of the different edges of triangular or
sawtooth waveforms, but it is only be able to create the waveforms that are built in to the function
generator. It cannot be programmed to create additional waveforms - an arbitrary waveform generator,
AWG is required for this.

Apart from just generating the waveforms themselves, this type of test instrument has the capability
to add a DC offset to the signal. This can be very useful in a number of testing applications.

Typically function generators are only able to operate at relatively low frequencies, some only
operating to frequencies of around 100kHz, although more costly test instruments can operate at
higher frequencies, up to 20 or 30MHz.

Typically function generators are only able to operate at relatively low frequencies, some only
operating to frequencies of around 100kHz, although more costly test instruments can operate at
higher frequencies, up to 20 or 30MHz.
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Function generator capabilities

Function generators are capable of producing a variety of repetitive waveforms, generally from the list
below:

 Sine wave: A function generator will normally be able to act as a sine wave generator. This is the
standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with a standard sinusoidal shape. Using the
function generator as a sine wave generator is one of the more commonly used applications. Sine
waves are widely used in testing applications.

 Square wave: Another very widely used waveform is the square wave. It consists of a signal
moving directly between high and low levels. Used as a square wave generator, this test instrument
provides a very useful source of a basic digital waveform.

 Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator. It is
effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to 1:1. This form
of waveform is again often used within digital applications.
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 Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly moves between
a high and low point. This form of waveform is often generated using an operational amplifier acting
as an integrator. The triangular waveform generator typically also has a square wave output as
well, and it is used as the basis for generating all the waveforms in a function generator test
instrument.

The triangular waveform is often used in testing amplifiers - it is far easier to see distortion and
clipping on a triangular waveform than it is on a sine waveform.

 Sawtooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the waveform
faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a sawtooth. It is generated by the
same circuit as the triangular waveform, but with the different rise and fall times created by
changing the charge rate for the rise and fall elements of the integrator.

These are the basic waveforms that are produced within a function generator test instrument. These
waveforms satisfy most of the needs for testing a number of items. Where specialised waveforms are
required, then an arbitrary waveform generator is required.

Function generator controls

In addition to a selection of the basic waveforms that are available, other controls on the function
generator may include:

 Frequency: As would be expected, this control alters the basic frequency at which the waveform
repeats. It is independent of the waveform type.
 Waveform type : This enables the different basic waveform types to be selected:

 Sine wave
 Square wave
 Triangular wave
 DC offset: This alters the average voltage of a signal relative to 0V or ground.
 Duty cycle: This control on the function generator changes the ratio of high voltage to low voltage
time in a square wave signal, i.e. changing the waveform from a square wave with a 1:1 duty cycle
to a pulse waveform, or a triangular waveform with equal rise and fall times to a sawtooth.
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Types of function generator

There are several forms that the function generator can take. With modern digital technology there are
many formats for this type of test equipment.

 Bench top test instrument: The most widely used form of function generator in the test
laboratory is the test instrument contained within a box that sits on the laboratory bench. This test
instrument contains the power supply, controls, display and of course the output connector.
 Rack based test instrument: Another format that this type of test equipment can take is a module
within a rack system like PXI. Based on PCI, the PXI rack system has been developed specifically
for test applications and includes a slot for either a controller or link to a computer. Test instrument
cards slot into the chassis, enabling a test system to be created to meet the needs of the particular
test application required. The test instrument cards can include any type of test instrument including
volt meters, oscilloscopes, and of course a function generator
 USB function generator: A number of small function generators are available as USB based test
instruments. They contain the core oft he function generator within the module that connects to a
computer via a USB connection. This approach means that the power and control interfaces can
use the PC rather than having the expense and space required to provide these within a larger box
for the test instrument.
 Computer based function generator: A different approach is to use software based within a
computer to provide the required waveforms and then use a digital card of the computer's audio
output for the signal. Whilst very cheap, this may not have the output capability and accuracy of
other types of test instrument. Also if the output is damaged as a result of the testing and a possible
misconnection, etc it can result in costly repairs.