Heat and Mass Transfer

ME 324

By
Prof. P. Muthukumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Guwahati
 Course outline
Introduction: Review of Thermodynamics, Limitation of Thermodynamics, Heat transfer, Modes of Heat transfer

Conduction: 1‐D and 2‐D steady conduction; 1‐D unsteady conduction‐Lumped capacitance and analytical methods; Fins. 

Convection: Fundamentals, order of magnitude analysis of momentum and energy equations; hydrodynamic and thermal

boundary layers; dimensional analysis; free and forced convection; external and internal flows;

Heat transfer with phase change – Boiling‐Pool boiling, tube boiling; Condensation – Laminar film condensation

Heat exchangers: LMTD and NTU methods; heat transfer enhancement techniques.

Radiation: Stefan‐Boltzmann law; Planck’s law; emissivity and absorptivity; radiant exchange between black surfaces. 

Mass transfer: molecular diffusion; Fick’s law; analogy between heat and mass transfer; evaluation of mass transfer

coefficients by dimensional analysis.

Text Books: Grading Scheme
• [1] F. P. Incropera and D. P. Dewitt, Fundamentals Of Heat And Mass Transfer,  7th Ed., John Wiley and Sons, 2018. Quiz 1 and 2  ‐ 15 %
• [2] J. P. Holman, Heat Transfer, 9th Ed., McGraw Hill, 2007. Tutorial  ‐ 20 %
References: Mid Sem ‐ 25 %
• [1] A. Bejan, Convective Heat Transfer, 3rd Ed., John Wiley and Sons, 2004. End Sem ‐ 40 %
• [2] F. Kreith and M. S. Bohn, Principles of Heat Transfer, 6th Ed., Thomson,2007 
• [3] Y.A. Cengel and A.J. Ghajar, Heat and Mass Transfer, McGraw Hill Education(India), 4th Edi., 2011
What is heat transfer?
“Energy in transit due to temperature difference”

Objective
To determine the temperature distribution [T =T(x,y,z,t)] and rate of heat transfer within the object, subjected to known temperature
and/or heat flux conditions on the surface.

Physical principle
Conservation of energy; the first law of thermodynamics

Difference between Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states only, it can’t state the following,

• How (with what modes) heat is transferred

• Rate of heat transfer
• Temperature distribution within the body

That is where Heat Transfer comes into context

Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction
Transfer of heat occurring through intervening matter without
bulk motion of the matter. Occurs through mechanism of inter-
molecular interactions (due to movement of free electrons in
metals, random molecular motion in liquids and gas, lattice
vibration in crystals). Transfer of heat from the more energetic to
less energetic particles of a substance due to interactions
between the particles.

Convection
Heat transfer due to a flowing fluid. The heat is transferred
through bulk transfer of a non-uniform temperature fluid .
Combination of conduction (random molecular motion ) and
advection ( bulk motion or macroscopic motion)

Radiation
Essentially electromagnetic wave propagation. Transmission of
energy through space without the necessary presence of matter.
It can be important even in situations in which there is an
intervening medium. Not much influenced by temperature
difference.
Applications of Heat Transfer

Human body temperature Condenser Coils- Microprocessor Cooling Gas turbine

maintenance Refrigerators

Glass wool insulation in Heat treatment Cooling towers Fire tube boilers
steam line
Conduction
 Heat and Sound
Heat and sound are all forms of energy. Heat can be transferred by radiation, conduction and convection and can be 
also transferred through vacuum. Sound is created by vibration and cannot travel through a vacuum
Heat Sound
Temperature describes the random motions of the  Sound are non‐random behaviours.  Behaviours between 
particles that comprise some object. Behaviours  particles are correlated, and these correlations don't dissipate 
between vibrating particles are not correlated nearly as quickly as they do with temperature. 
Temperature does not have ordered movements.  Sound consists of ordered movements, travelling through a 
medium as a wave (although it can also stand still, as in a 
standing wave). Sound eventually becomes random, as it is 
Sound is a form of energy that causes particles to vibrate back and forth
scattered around in many directions, and ultimately ends as 
heat
Thermal vibrations are random amplitude is very small  Sound frequencies are within audible range. 
(approx 10 ‐11 m) and the frequency very large (1012 Hz 
at room temperature though obviously it depends on  Sound carries high kinetic energy and can be used to producing 
the atomic mass). Human hearing extends to about 104 cooling and work. Even electricity also. 
Hz so there is no chance of "hearing" 1012 Hz
 Conduction Heat Transfer
x
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction (1-D)
𝒅𝑻
𝑸∝
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑻 T1
𝑸 𝒌𝑨
𝒅𝒙
𝑸 𝒅𝑻 W
𝒒 𝒌 A
𝑨 𝒅𝒙 m2 k
(negative sign denotes heat transfer in the direction of decreasing q
temperature) T2
Differential Form
Assumptions:
q = - kAdT/dx, W
• Steady state heat conduction
k = Thermal Conductivity, W/mK
• Isotropic and homogenous material
A = Cross-sectional Area, m2
L
• Constant thermal conductivity
T = Temperature, K or °C
• Linear temperature profile
x = Heat flow path, m
Thermal Conductivity
The thermal conductivity defined by Fourier’s Law is the intrinsic thermo-physical property of a material which relates its ability to
conduct heat.

The thermal conductivities of some materials at room temperature

Material k, W/m °C Material k, W/m °C Material k, W/m °C

Diamond 2300 Mercury (l) 8.54 Helium (g) 0.152
Silver 429 Glass 0.78 Soft rubber 0.13
Copper 401 Brick 0.72 Glass fiber 0.043
Gold 317 Water (l) 0.613 Air (g) 0.026
Aluminium 237 Human skin 0.37 Urethane, rigid foam 0.026
Iron 80.2 Wood (oak) 0.17 Asbestos 0.12

𝒅𝑻
𝑸/ 𝑨 𝒌
𝒅𝒙
Variation of thermal conductivity with temperature

Solids Liquids Gases

General Heat Conduction Equation
Objectives of conduction analysis

The primary objective is to determine the temperature field, T(x,y,z,t), in a body.

The secondary objective is to determine the heat transfer rate.

T(x,y,z,t) depends on:

• Material properties (k, cp, ρ)
• Boundary conditions
• Initial condition
• Geometry of the body (shape, size)

Why we need T (x, y, z, t)?

• To estimate heat flux at any location (using Fourier’s equation)
• Compute thermal stresses, expansion, deflection due to temp. etc.
• Design heat exchanger or any thermal device
Conduction Equation in Cartesian Coordinates
Consider the differential control volume shown below. Heat is assumed to flow through the element in the positive directions as
shown by the 6 heat flux vectors.

Assumptions:

• Material is homogeneous

• Material is isotropic

• Uniform heat generation

Applying the law of conservation of energy pertaining to this control volume, we get
The conduction heat rates perpendicular to each of the control surfaces at the x, y, and z coordinate locations are indicated by
the terms qx qy, and qz, respectively.

The conduction heat rates at the opposite surfaces can then be expressed as a Taylor series expansion where, neglecting
higher order terms, we get
𝜕𝑞
𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 𝑎
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑞
𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑦 𝑏
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑞
𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑧 𝑐
𝜕𝑧
An energy source term within the control volume associated is represented as,

• •
𝐸 𝑞 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑑
•
Where, 𝒒 is the rate at which energy is generated per unit volume of the medium (W/m3).

In addition, changes in the amount of the internal thermal energy stored within the control volume term may be expressed as,
• 𝜕𝑇
𝐸 𝜌𝑐 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑒
𝜕𝑡
 𝝏𝑻
Where, 𝝆𝒄𝒑 is the time rate of change of the sensible (thermal) energy of the medium per unit volume
𝝏𝒕

Now, expressing conservation of energy for the given control volume is expressed as,
• • • •
𝑬𝒊𝒏 𝑬𝒈 𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝑬𝒔𝒕 𝑓
• •
Hence, recognizing that the conduction rates constitute the energy inflow, 𝑬𝒊𝒏 , and outflow, 𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕 and substituting equations
(d) and (e), we obtain

𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑞 •
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑞 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜌𝑐 𝜕 𝑇⁄𝜕 𝑡 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝑔
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

The conduction heat rates may be evaluated from Fourier’s law

𝜕𝑇
𝑞 𝑘𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 ℎ
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑇
𝑞 𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 𝑖
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑇
𝑞 𝑘𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑗
𝜕𝑧
Substituting equations (h,i,j) into Equation (g) and dividing out the dimensions of the control volume (dxdydz), we obtain the
general 3-D conduction equation in Cartesian Coordinate.
𝝏 𝛛𝑻 𝛛 𝛛𝑻 𝛛 𝛛𝑻 • 𝛛𝑻
𝒌 𝒌 𝒌 𝒒 𝝆𝒄𝒑 𝑘
𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒚 𝛛𝒚 𝛛𝒛 𝛛𝒛 𝛛𝒕

It is often possible to work with simplified versions of Equation (k) For example, if the thermal conductivity is constant, the heat
equation is
•
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

Where, α is the thermal diffusivity.

Where, k= thermal conductivity (W/m-K), Cp = specific heat capacity (J/kg-K) and ρ = density (kg/m3)

thermal conductivity ability to conduct heat

Thermal Diffusivity  α
heat storage capacity ability to store heat

Thermal Diffusivity of the material and represents how fast heat propagates through a material.
Higher the thermal diffusivity, lesser then time taken for diffusion of heat.
Steady State Heat Conduction
•
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝑞
0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑘
This is the Poisson equation of heat conduction.
Steady state Heat Conduction without heat generation
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇
0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
This is the Laplace equation of heat conduction.
Unsteady state Heat Conduction without heat generation
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

One Dimensional steady state heat conduction

𝑑 𝑑𝑇 •
𝑘 𝑞 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1-D steady state heat conduction without heat generation

𝑑 𝑑𝑇
𝑘 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Heat conduction: Cylindrical Coordinate

The general form of the heat flux vector, as given by

Fourier’s law, is

𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑞 𝑘 ;𝑞 ;𝑞 𝑘
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧

Applying an energy balance to the differential control

volume, the following general form of the heat
equation is obtained

•
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
𝑟
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡

Figure: Heat conduction in cylindrical coordinate

Heat conduction: Spherical Coordinate

The general form of the heat flux vector, as given by

Fourier’s law, is

𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕𝑇 𝑘 𝜕𝑇
𝑞 𝑘 ;𝑞 ;𝑞
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟sin𝜃 𝜕𝜙

Applying an energy balance to the differential control

volume ,the following general form of the heat equation is
obtained

Figure: Heat conduction in spherical coordinate

•
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝑞 1 𝜕𝑇
𝑟 𝑘sin𝜃
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 sin𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑘 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
Boundary and Initial Conditions
We have set up a differential equation, with T as the dependent variable. The solution will give us T(x,y,z,t).
Solution depends on boundary conditions (BC) and initial conditions (IC).

How many BC’s and IC’s ?

Heat equation is second order in space. Hence, 2 BC’s are needed for each coordinate.

- 1D problem: 2 BC in x-direction
- 2D problem: 2 BC in x-direction, 2 in y-direction
- 3D problem: 2 in x-dir., 2 in y-dir., and 2 in z-dir.

Heat equation is first order in time. Hence one IC needed

Types of Boundary Conditions

Dirichlet condition: The value of the dependent variable (temperature) is specified at the boundary.

Neumann condition: The value of gradient of dependent variable (heat flux) is specified at the boundary.

Mixed condition or Robin BC: The solution is a linear combination of Dirichlet and a Neumann boundary condition.
Boundary conditions for the heat conduction equation at the surface
(x = 0)
Constant surface temperature condition

(Dirichlet condition) 𝑇 0, 𝑡 𝑇

Constant surface heat flux condition

𝜕𝑇
(Neumann condition) 𝑘 | 𝑞
𝜕𝑥

Insulated/Adiabatic surface condition

| 0 O Neumann condition)

Convective surface condition Figure: Different boundary conditions encountered in heat transfer

𝑘 | ℎ𝑇 𝑇 0, 𝑡 (Robin BC)
One Dimensional Steady State Heat  
Conduction
 𝝏 𝛛𝑻 𝛛 𝛛𝑻 𝛛 𝛛𝑻 • 𝛛𝑻
1. The plane wall 𝛛𝒙
𝒌
𝛛𝒙 𝛛𝒚
𝒌
𝛛𝒚 𝛛𝒛
𝒌
𝛛𝒛
𝒒 𝝆𝒄𝒑
𝛛𝒕
Assumptions:
• 1D problem
• Steady State heat conduction
• No heat generation
• Homogeneous & isotropic material
• Constant thermal conductivity

Governing Equation

𝑑 𝑑𝑇
0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solving which gives us,

𝑇 𝑥 𝐶𝑥 𝐶
Figure: Heat conduction in plane wall with surface convection
We apply the boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = L,
which are, 𝑇 0 𝑇 , and 𝑇 𝐿 𝑇,
Once the constants of integration are substituted into the general equation, the temperature distribution is obtained
𝑥
𝑇 𝑥 𝑇, 𝑇, 𝑇,
𝐿

The heat flow rate across the wall is given by

𝑑𝑇 𝑘𝐴 𝑇, 𝑇,
𝑞 𝑘𝐴 𝑇, 𝑇,
𝑑𝑥 𝐿 𝐿 ⁄𝐾 𝐴

Thermal Resistance
Analogous to electric resistance, defined as

 temperature difference 𝛥𝑇
Thermal Resistance =
heat transfer rate 𝑞
𝑇, 𝑇, 𝐿
For plane wall, 𝑅
𝑞 𝑘𝐴

From Newton’s law of cooling, heat transfer by convection at the surface is given by,

q ℎ𝐴 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇 𝑇 1
The thermal resistance for convection 𝑅 ,
𝑞 ℎ𝐴
Applying thermal resistance concept to the plane wall, the equivalent thermal circuit for the plane wall with convection boundary
conditions is shown in the figure below

Under steady state conditions, since q 𝑥 is constant

throughout the network, it follows that

𝑇 , 𝑇, 𝑇, 𝑇, 𝑇, 𝑇 ,
𝑞
1⁄ ℎ 𝐴 𝐿 ⁄𝑘 𝐴 1⁄ℎ 𝐴

In terms of the overall temperature difference 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,

and the total thermal resistance Rtot, the heat transfer rate
may also be expressed as

𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
𝑞
𝑅

Since the resistances are in series, it follows that Figure: Equivalent thermal circuit, total resistance

1 𝐿 1
𝑅 𝑅
ℎ 𝐴 𝑘𝐴 ℎ 𝐴
Heat Conduction through composite wall
Consider three blocks, A, B and C, as shown are thermally in a series
arrangement

The steady state heat flow rate through the walls is given by

𝑇 , 𝑇 , 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
𝑞 𝑈𝐴𝛥𝑇
∑𝑅 1 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 1
ℎ 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 ℎ 𝐴

Where 𝑈𝐴 1 ⁄𝑅 & U = 1⁄𝐴𝑅 is the overall heat transfer

coefficient.

In the above case, U is expressed as Figure: heat conduction through composite wall

1
𝑈
1 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 1
ℎ 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 ℎ
Thermal Resistance: Series – Parallel Combination
It can be seen that thermal resistance for slab B and slab C are in parallel.
Assumption:
• Face between B and C is insulated
• Uniform temperature at any face normal to x
The equivalent thermal resistance for these two parallel
resistance is given by,

1 1 1
𝑅 , 𝑅 , 𝑅 ,

Total thermal resistance is given by,

1 1
𝑅 𝑅 , 𝑅 ,
𝑅 , 𝑅 ,

Under steady state conditions, Figure: series –parallel combination of thermal resistance

𝑇 𝑇
𝑞
𝑅
Thermal Contact Resistance
No two surfaces in contact has perfect continuity along the interface. There will be air pockets in between. This leads to
discontinuation of heat flux lines at the interface of two joining bodies in contact.

 temperature drop at the interface
Thermal contact resistance =
avearge heat transfer rate

From considerations of energy conservation, the heat flow

between the two bodies in contact, bodies A and B, is found
as

𝑇 𝑇
𝑞
𝑋 1 𝑋
𝑘 𝐴 ℎ 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴

Here is the contact thermal resistance.

Figure: Contact thermal resistance

2. Radial Conduction through Cylinder
Consider the cylinder shown. The heat losses through the ends is
negligible.

Assume no heat sources within the wall of the tube.

If T1>T2, heat will flow outward, radially, from the inside radius, R1, to
the outside radius, R2.

The process will be described by the Fourier Law.

The governing differential equation is:

1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
𝑘𝑟 0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟

According to Fourier’s Law, Figure: conduction through hollow cylinder

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
𝑞 𝑘𝐴 𝑘 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 Where, A =2𝜋rL is the area normal to the direction of heat transfer
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
The temperature distribution in the cylinder can be determined by solving the Governing Differential Equation subjected to appropriate
BCs
The general solution is given by,
𝑇 𝑟 𝐶 ln 𝑟 𝐶

Solving for C1 and C2 and substituting into the general solution, we then obtain
𝑇 𝑇 𝑟  C l n r1  C &  C ln r2  C
𝑇 𝑟 ln 𝑇 T 1 1 1 T 2 1 1
ln 𝑟 ⁄𝑟 𝑟

Hence, the temperature distribution associated with radial conduction through a cylindrical wall is logarithmic, not linear, as it is
for the plane wall under the same conditions.

Evaluating expression for the heat transfer rate

2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑇 𝑇
𝑞
ln 𝑟 ⁄𝑟

For radial conduction in a cylindrical wall, the thermal resistance is of the form

ln 𝑟 ⁄𝑟
𝑅
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
Conduction through Composite cylindrical walls
Consider now the composite system in the given figure, assuming 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,

Under steady state, the heat transfer rate may be expressed as,

𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
𝑞
1 ln 𝑟 ⁄𝑟 ln 𝑟 ⁄𝑟 1
ℎ 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿 2𝜋𝐿𝑘 2𝜋𝐿𝑘 ℎ 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿

This result may also be expressed in terms of an overall heat transfer

coefficient. That is,

𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
𝑞 𝑈𝐴 𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
𝑅
If U is defined in terms of the inside area, A3= 2𝜋𝑟3𝐿, 𝑈𝐴 1 ⁄𝑅
𝑇 , 𝑇 ,
𝑈
𝑟 1 𝑟 𝑟 1
ln 𝑟 ⁄𝑟 ln 𝑟 ⁄𝑟
𝑟 ℎ 𝑘 𝑘 ℎ
Figure: conduction through composite cylinder
The overall heat transfer coefficient may also be defined in terms of A1
3. Radial Conduction through Sphere
Assume no heat sources within the wall of the spheres. If 𝑇 , 𝑇 , heat will flow outward, radially, from the inside radius, r1, to the
outside radius, r2.
The differential equation governing heat diffusion is:
1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
𝑘𝑟 0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
The general solution is given by,
1
𝑇 𝑟 𝐶 𝐶
𝑟
Solving for C1 and C2 and substituting into the general solution,
we then obtain
1 𝑟 ⁄𝑟
𝑇 𝑟 𝑇, 𝑇, 𝑇,
1 𝑟 ⁄𝑟
Heat transfer rate,
𝑑𝑇 4𝜋𝑘 𝑇 , 𝑇,
𝑞 𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑟 1⁄𝑟 1⁄𝑟
Thermal resistance is given by, Figure: 1-D radial conduction through sphere
1⁄𝑟 1⁄𝑟
𝑅
4𝜋𝑘
Critical Thickness of Insulation
Wall insulation is required in various process equipment, reactors, pipelines etc. to minimize the heat loss from the system to
the environment or heat gain from the environment to the system (like cryogenic systems).

Whereas, heat loss is to be maximized for current conducting electrical wires.

Table : Thermal properties of a few of the insulations being used in the chemical process industries

Approximate thermal Density

Material Temperature (°C)
conductivity(W/(m°C)) (kg/m3)

Asbestos -200 to 0 0.074 469

−7 to 38 0.031 64
Glass wool
38 to 93 0.041 64
Fibre insulating board 21 0.049 237
Hard rubber 0 0.151 2000
Polyurethane foam −170 to 110 0.018 32

Source: https://nptel.ac.in/courses/103103032/
We wish to examine the variation in heat loss from the pipe with the change in insulation thickness, assuming that the length of the
pipe is infinite.

• Pipe radius: R
• Insulation radius: r
• Thickness of the insulation (r-R)
• Fluid Temperature: T
• Ambient temperature is Ta

•
𝑞 and 𝑅

where, k is the thermal conductivity of the insulation material.

As we increase the insulation radius, the conductive resistance increases Figure: Heat dissipation from an insulated pipe
and convective resistance decreases i.e. it is a maxima-minima problem.

Optimum point can be found by setting first derivative of Rtot w.r.t r to be

zero.
𝑑𝑅 1 1 𝑘
0 or, 0 or, 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝑘𝑟𝐿 2𝜋ℎ𝐿𝑟 ℎ

In order to determine if it is a maxima or a minima, we calculate

the second derivative at r =(k/h)

𝑑 𝑅 𝑘
at 𝑟
𝑑𝑟 ℎ

𝑑 𝑅 1 1 ℎ
0
𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝑘𝑟 𝐿 𝜋𝑟 ℎ𝐿 at r k/h 2𝜋𝐿𝑘 Figure: Critical thickness of insulation

Hence, Rtot is minimum or q is maximum at r= k/h.

This radius is known as critical radius of insulation and

corresponding thickness is called critical thickness of insulation.

In a similar manner, it can be shown for a sphere, critical

radius of insulation is r = 2k/h
Figure: Cost vs. insulation thickness
Conduction with heat generation
Applications:
• Current carrying conductor
• Chemically reacting system
• Nuclear reactors
Assumptions:
• 1-D analysis
• Steady state heat conduction
• Constant Thermal conductivity
• Uniform heat generation

Plane Wall
The governing differential equation is
•
𝑑 𝑇 𝑞
0
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
𝑞
⇒𝑇 𝑥 𝑥 𝐶𝑥 𝐶 Figure: Plane wall with heat source
2𝑘
Invoking BCs, at x=+L, T=T , and at x=−L, T=T ,
•
𝒒𝑳𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝑻𝒔,𝟐 𝑻𝒔,𝟏 𝒙 𝑻𝒔,𝟐 𝑻𝒔,𝟏
𝑻 𝒙 𝟏
𝟐𝒌 𝑳𝟐 𝟐 𝑳 𝟐
The preceding result simplifies when both surfaces are maintained at a common temperature, Ts,1 = Ts,2 = Ts. The temperature
distribution is then symmetrical about the midplane, the profile is given by, as shown in below figure
•
𝑞𝐿 𝑥
𝑇 𝑥 1 𝑇
2𝑘 𝐿
In that case, the maximum temperature exists at the midplane
•
𝑞𝐿
𝑇 0 𝑇 𝑇
2𝑘
The temperature distribution is given by,

𝑇 𝑥 𝑇 𝑥
𝑇 𝑇 𝐿
Ts can be estimated from convective energy balance across the
wall. It is given by,

𝑑𝑇
𝑘 | ℎ 𝑇 𝑇 Figure: Plane wall with heat source, symmetric surface convection
𝑑𝑥
•

Substituting T(x) in above Eq with X = L limits, once can get, 𝑇 𝑇

Cylinder
Governing differential equation:
•
1 𝑑 𝑑𝑇 𝑞
𝑟 0
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑘
Boundary conditions: C1 = 0 at r = 0 and
𝑑𝑇 •
at 𝑟 𝑟 ,𝑇 𝑇 ; at 𝑟 0, 0 at 𝑟 𝑟 ; C2 = 𝑇 + 𝑟
𝑑𝑟
Solution:
•
𝑞 𝑟
𝑇 𝑟 𝑟 1 𝑇
4𝑘 𝑟
Evaluating above equation at the centerline and dividing the result into same
equation, we obtain the temperature distribution in non-dimensional form,
𝑇 𝑟 𝑇 𝑟 Figure: Cylinder with heat source
1 Where, T0 is the centerline temperature
𝑇 𝑇 𝑟
To relate the surface temperature, Ts , to the temperature of the cold fluid, 𝑇 , an overall energy balance is used.
•
𝑞 𝜋𝑟 𝐿 ℎ 2𝜋𝑟 𝐿 𝑇 𝑇
Under steady state; heat
• generated = amount of heat
𝑞𝑟
or, 𝑇 𝑇 convected from the body
2ℎ
Heat Transfer through Extended Surface 
: Fins
Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces
An extended surface is used specifically to enhance heat transfer between a solid and an adjoining fluid, involving conduction within
a solid and convection from the boundaries of the solid. Such an extended surface is termed a fin.

Applications:
• Air-cooled engines (motorcycles, portable generators, etc.)
• Electronic equipment
• Automobile radiators,
• Condensers and other heat exchangers
Extended surface analysis
Electronic cooling IC engine cooling
Assumptions
• 1-D conduction analysis (longitudinal)
• Steady state heat transfer
• Constant thermal conductivity
• No heat generation, Negligible radiation effects
• Convective heat transfer coefficient is uniform over surface
Heat exchanger fins
Applying the conservation of energy law to the
differential element of the given Figure, we obtain,
𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑞
From Fourier’s law we know that
𝑑𝑇
𝑞 𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑥
where Ac is the cross-sectional area, which may vary with x.
𝑑𝑞
𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑇 𝑑 𝑑𝑇
⇒𝑞 𝑘𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
again, convective heat transfer rate is given as
dq ℎ 𝑑𝐴 𝑇 𝑇 Figure: Energy balance for an extended surface.
where dAs is the surface area of the differential element.
𝑑 𝑑𝑇 ℎ 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 𝑇 𝑇 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑘 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑇 1 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑇 1 ℎ 𝑑𝐴
or, 𝑇 𝑇 0 1
𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝑘 𝑑𝑥
Fins of Uniform Cross-Sectional Area
We consider the simplest case of straight rectangular and pin fins of uniform cross section.
Each fin is attached to a base surface of temperature T(0)=Tb and extends into a fluid of temperature 𝑇

Here, Ac is constant
As=Px, where As is the surface area measured from the
base to x and P is the fin perimeter.

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴
Invoking 0 and 𝑃 in equation (1), we obtain,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑇 ℎ𝑃
𝑇 𝑇 0 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑘𝐴
We see that h, P, k and Ac are all independent of x in the
defined system. We replace this ratio with a constant.

ℎ𝑃
Let, 𝑚 Figure: straight fins with uniform cross section(a) Rectangular fins (b) Pin fins
𝑘𝐴
𝑑 𝑇
⇒ 𝑚 𝑇 𝑇 0 3
𝑑𝑥
The above equation is non-homogeneous, we make it homogeneous by defining excess temperature, 𝜃 𝑥 𝑇 x 𝑇

𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝑻
 =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Substitute into the Fin Equation (3)
𝒅𝟐 𝜽
𝒎𝟐 𝜽 𝟎 𝟒
𝒅𝒙𝟐

This equation is a Second Order, Homogeneous Differential Equation

Its general solution is of the form 𝜃 𝑥 𝐶𝑒 𝐶 𝑒 5

An alternative solution can be obtained as follows sinh 𝑚𝑥 ; cosh 𝑚𝑥

We may write: 𝐶. 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑚𝑥 𝐷. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑚𝑥 𝐶. 𝐷. .𝑒 .𝑒

Or, equation (5) can be equivalently written as,

𝜽 𝑪. 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒎𝒙 𝑫. 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒎𝒙 ‐‐‐‐‐‐(6)

Boundary Conditions

Solution contains: 2 constants of integration

We require: 2 boundary conditions.

First BC:

As one end of the fin will be attached to a hot surface and will come into thermal equilibrium with that surface. Hence, at the fin base,

𝜃 0 𝑇 𝑇 𝜃

Second BC: specified at the fin tip (x= L), may correspond to one of four different physical situations.
1. Very Long Fin

For very long fins, the end located a long distance from the heat source will approach the
temperature of the surroundings.

Hence, 𝜽 ∞ 𝟎

Substituting the BC’s into, the exponential solution of the fin equation (Eq. (5))

At

𝑥 → ∞; 𝜃 ∞ 0 ⇒0 𝐶1𝑒 +C2𝑒 ⇒ C2 0

𝑥 0; 𝜃 o 𝜃 ⇒𝜃 𝐶1𝑒   ⇒  C1  𝜃

Substituting C1 and C2  in Eq. 5, we obtain the general temperature profile,

𝒎𝒙
𝜽 𝒙 𝜽𝒃 𝒆
Figure: Temperature profile Long cylindrical fins
 𝒎𝒙
𝜽 𝒙 𝜽𝒃 𝒆

Fourier Law gives heat flow through the fin as,

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑞 𝑘𝐴 𝑘𝐴 ; again 𝜃 𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

ℎ𝑃
⇒𝑞 𝑘𝐴 𝜃 ⋅𝑒 ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴 ⋅ 𝑒 𝜃 𝑀𝜃 𝑒 ; where M ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴
𝑘𝐴

The heat flow entering at the base (x=0).

𝑞 ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴 ⋅ 𝜃 𝑀𝜃
 2. The insulated tip fin
𝑇 = Tb 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣

Assume that the tip of the fin is insulated and hence there is no heat transfer

𝟎
𝐢. 𝐞. 𝑘𝐴
𝒙 𝑳
𝑘𝐴 = 0
𝒅𝜽
⇒ | 𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒙 𝑳

x
Applying the BC’s to , the exponential solution of the fin equation (Eq. (5)),

𝜃 𝑥 𝐶𝑒 𝐶 𝑒

𝑥 0; 𝜃 o 𝜃 ⇒𝜃 𝐶𝑒 𝐶 𝑒 ⇒𝐶 𝐶 𝜃

𝑑𝜃
𝑥 𝐿; | 0⇒0 𝑚𝐶 𝑒 m𝐶 𝑒
𝑑𝑥

⇒0 𝐶𝑒 𝐶 𝑒
Solving for C1 and C2

𝑒 𝑒
𝐶 𝜃 𝐶 𝜃
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒

𝜃 𝑥 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 =  𝑒 𝑒

we know, cosh mL ;                 coshm L x

On simplifying we obtain the temperature profile

𝜽 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒎 𝑳 𝒙
𝜽𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒎𝑳

The heat flowing through the base of the fin is

𝒒 𝒉𝑷𝒌𝑨𝒄 ⋅ 𝜽𝒃 ⋅ 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒎𝑳 𝑴𝜽𝒃 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒎𝑳 where M =  ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴

3. Convection heat transfer from the fin tip

Boundary conditions:

1. As one end of the fin will be attached to a hot surface and will come into
thermal equilibrium with that surface. Hence, at the fin base,

𝜃 0 𝑇 𝑇 𝜃

2. Applying an energy balance to a control surface about the fin tip, we obtain,

𝑑𝑇
At the fin end, As = Ac
ℎ𝐴 𝑇 𝐿 𝑇 𝑘𝐴 |
𝑑𝑥

⇒ ℎ𝜃 𝐿 𝑘 | Figure: Temperature distribution: fin tip with convection heat transfer

⇒ |

Applying the BC’s to , the exponential solution of the fin equation (Eq. (5)),

𝜃 𝑥 𝐶𝑒 𝐶 𝑒
At 𝑥 0; 𝜃 o 𝜃
ℎ
𝜃 1 𝑒
⇒𝜃 𝐶𝑒 𝐶 𝑒 ⇒𝐶 𝐶 𝜃 --------------- a 𝑘𝑚
𝐶
ℎ
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝑘𝑚
𝑑𝜃 ℎ𝜃 𝐿
|
𝑑𝑥 𝑘 From Eq. (a), 𝐶 𝜃 𝐶1
ℎ𝜃 𝐿
𝑚𝐶 𝑒 𝑚𝐶 𝑒
𝑘 ℎ
𝜃 1 𝑒
ℎ𝜃 𝐿 𝑘𝑚
𝐶
𝐶𝑒 𝐶 𝑒 ℎ
𝑘𝑚 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝑘𝑚

𝐶𝑒 𝐶 𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝐶 𝑒 ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐-- b

Solving (a) and (b), the constants C1 and C2 are determined  Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in the exponential 

as follows solution of the fin equation 
𝐶2 𝜃 𝐶1

ℎ 𝜃 𝑥 𝐶𝑒 𝐶 𝑒
𝐶𝑒 𝜃 𝐶1 𝑒 𝐶𝑒 𝜃 𝐶1 𝑒
𝑘𝑚
 𝑒 +  𝑒

ℎ
𝜃 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝑘𝑚
𝜃𝑏 ℎ
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝑘𝑚

ℎ
𝜃 cosh 𝑚 𝐿 𝑥 sinh 𝑚 𝐿 𝑥
𝑘𝑚
𝜃𝑏 ℎ
cosh 𝑚𝐿 sinh 𝑚𝐿
𝑘𝑚
The rate of heat flow from the fin is given by

𝑞 𝑘𝐴𝑐 x 0

sinh 𝑚𝐿 ℎ
𝑚𝑘 cosh 𝑚𝐿
𝑞 ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴 ⋅ 𝜃
cosh 𝑚𝐿 ℎ
𝑚𝑘 sinℎ 𝑚𝐿

tanh 𝑚𝐿 ℎ
𝑚𝑘
𝑞 ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴 ⋅ 𝜃
1 ℎ
𝑚𝑘 tanℎ 𝑚𝐿
4. Prescribed temperature condition
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣
Boundary condition

𝜃 L 𝜃
𝑇 = TL
Similar to previous cases, the following are the temperature distribution and heat
transfer rate

Temperature profile x
𝜃
𝜃 𝜃 sinh𝑚𝑥 sinh𝑚 𝐿 𝑥
𝜃 sinh 𝑚𝐿

The rate of heat flow through the base of the fin

𝜃
cosh 𝑚𝐿 𝜃
𝑞 ℎ𝑝𝑘𝐴 ⋅ 𝜃
sinh 𝑚𝐿
Temperature Distribution : Fins

Figure: (a) very long fin, (b) insulated tip fin, (c) fin with prescribed temperature (d) fin with tip convection
Fin Effectiveness
How effectively a fin can enhance heat transfer is characterized by the fin effectiveness.

heat transfer with fin
Fin Effectiveness =
heat transfer without fin

For an fin with adiabatic tip, it is given as,

𝑞 𝑞 ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴 ⋅ tanh 𝑚𝐿 𝑘𝑃
𝜀 ⋅ tanh𝑚𝐿
𝑞 ℎ𝐴 𝑇 𝑇 ℎ𝐴 ℎ𝐴

In any rational design the value of fin effectiveness should be as large as possible.

and in general, the use of fins is justified when 𝜺𝒇 𝟐

If the fin is long enough, tanh(mL)→1, and hence it can be considered as infinite long fin

𝑘𝑃 𝑘 𝑃
Hence, for long fins, 𝜀 → → P/AC should be as high as possible.
ℎ𝐴 ℎ 𝐴
If fins are to be used on surfaces separating gas and liquid, Which
side should they be placed?
If h is very high, adding fins is not necessary to enhance heat transfer.

The air (or the gas phase in general) has very low heat transfer coefficient, since the thermal conductivities of gases are
very low, as compared to the liquid phase.

Therefore, fins are more effective if h is low. i.e. they should be placed in the gas side rather than liquid side.

In order to have better effectiveness,

It is preferred to use thin and closely spaced fins.

Fin Efficiency
The fin efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy transferred through a real fin to that transferred through an ideal fin.

actual heat transfer through fin
Fin Effeciency =
ideal heat transfer through fin

An ideal fin has an infinite thermal conductivity so that the entire fin is at the base material temperature.

For an insulated fin tip, fin efficiency can be expressed as,

𝑞 𝑞 ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴 ⋅ 𝜃 ⋅ tanh 𝑚𝐿 tanh 𝑚𝐿

𝜂
𝑞 ℎ𝐴 𝜃 ℎ ⋅ 𝑃𝐿 ⋅ 𝜃 𝑚𝐿
For heat transfer from a straight rectangular fin with an active tip, it has been shown that approximate, yet accurate, predictions

may be obtained by using the adiabatic tip result, with a corrected fin length of the form,

For a rectangular fin, 𝐿 𝐿 𝑡 ⁄2

For a pin fin, 𝐿 𝐿 𝑑 ⁄4

Where, t is the thickness of the rectangular fins and d is the diameter of the cylindrical fins.

Hence, with tip convection, the fin heat rate may be approximated as

𝑞 ℎ𝑃𝑘𝐴 ⋅ tanh𝑚𝐿

And the corresponding efficiency as

tanh𝑚𝐿
𝜂
𝑚𝐿
If the width of a rectangular fin is much larger than its thickness, 𝑤 ≫ 𝑡, the perimeter may be approximated
as P = 2w, and
ℎ𝑃
𝑚𝐿𝑐 Lc
𝑘𝐴𝑐

2ℎ ∵𝑃 2𝑤; 𝐴𝑐 𝑤𝑡
𝑚𝐿𝑐 Lc
𝑘𝑡

Multiplying numerator and denominator by Lc  and introducing a corrected fin profile area, Ap such that

Ap 𝐿𝑐𝑡

2ℎ /
⇒ 𝑚𝐿𝑐 𝐿𝑐
𝑘𝐴𝑝
Fig. Efficiency of straight fins (rectangular, triangular, and parabolic profiles)
Fig. Efficiency of annular fins of rectangular profile
Efficiency of common fin shapes
Fin design
• Fin design is to minimize the fin material and/or related manufacturing costs required to achieve a

prescribed cooling effectiveness.

• Hence, a straight triangular fin is attractive because, for equivalent heat transfer, it requires much less

volume (fin material) than a rectangular profile.

Overall Fin Efficiency
The overall fin efficiency characterizes an array of fins and the base surface to which they are attached.
Here, S designates the fin pitch
Ab : the base area exposed to coolant
Af : surface area of the single fin
At: : total area including base area and total finned area
N : total number of fins
qt : total heat transfer rate

𝑞 𝑞 𝑁𝑞 ℎ𝐴 𝑇 𝑇 𝑁𝜂 ℎ𝐴 𝑇 𝑇

or, 𝑞 ℎ 𝐴 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝜂 𝐴 𝑇 𝑇
ℎ𝐴 𝑁𝐴 1 𝜂 𝑇 𝑇 . Figure: Representative fin arrays. (a) Rectangular fins. (b) Annular fins
ℎ𝐴 1 1 𝜂 𝑇 𝑇

Defining overall fin efficiency,

𝑞 𝑞
𝑞 𝑁𝐴
𝜂 1 1 𝜂 𝑞 ℎ𝐴 𝜃
𝑞 𝐴
Two Dimensional Steady State Heat 
Conduction
 Two Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction (Analytical Method)
We consider thin rectangular plate as our geometry.

Three sides of the thin rectangular plate are maintained at a

constant temperature T1, while the fourth side is maintained at a
constant temperature T2 ≠ T1.

Assumptions
• Steady State
• Two dimensional heat conduction, i.e. negligible heat transfer
from the surfaces of the plate or the ends of the rod.
• No heat generation
• Constant thermal conductivity 𝑇 𝑇
𝜃
𝑇 𝑇
Governing Differential Equation
𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 Figure:Two-dimensional conduction in a thin rectangular plate
0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
We are interested in the temperature distribution T(x, y), but to simplify the solution we introduce the transformation,
𝑇 𝑇
𝜃
𝑇 𝑇

The transformed differential equation is then

𝜕 𝜃 𝜕 𝜃
0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Boundary Conditions

Since the equation is second order in both x and y, two boundary conditions are needed for each of the coordinates.

𝜃 0, 𝑦 0 and 𝜃 𝑥, 0 0
𝜃 𝐿, 𝑦 0 and 𝜃 𝑥, 𝑊 1
Solution by separation of variables

𝜃 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑋 𝑥 ⋅𝑌 𝑦

Substituting into transformed equation, we get

1𝑑 𝑋 1𝑑 𝑌
𝑋 𝑑𝑥 𝑌 𝑑𝑦

This equality can apply in general (for any x or y) only if both sides are
equal to the same constant, let separation constant be 𝜆 , we have

𝑑 𝑋
𝜆 𝑋 0 a
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑌
𝜆 𝑌 0 b
𝑑𝑦
The general solutions to equations (a) and (b) are, respectively, Figure:2-D conduction in a thin rectangular plate

𝑋 𝐶 cos𝜆𝑥 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥

𝑌 𝐶 𝑒 𝐶 𝑒
The general form of the two-dimensional solution is
𝜃 𝑥, 𝑦 𝐶 cos𝜆𝑥 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜆𝑥 ⋅ 𝐶 𝑒 𝐶 𝑒

Applying the condition that 𝜃 0, 𝑦 0, we get C1 =0; and from the requirement that 𝜃 𝑥, 0 0 ,we obtain

𝐶 sin𝜆𝑥 𝐶 𝐶 0

Which may only be satisfied if C3=C4. Although the requirement could also be satisfied by having C2 =0, this would result in
𝜃 𝑥, 𝑦 0 which does not satisfy the boundary condition 𝜃 𝑥, 𝑊 1
.
If we now invoke the requirement that 𝜃 𝐿, 𝑦 0 , we get

𝐶 𝐶 sin𝜆𝐿 𝑒 𝑒 0

or, sin𝜆𝐿 0

The only way in which this condition may be satisfied (and still have a nonzero solution) is by requiring that assume discrete values
for which
𝑛𝜋
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜆 ; where 𝑛 1,2,3, . . .
𝐿
The desired solution may now be expressed as

𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝜃 𝐶 𝐶 sin 𝑒 𝑒
𝐿

Combining constants and acknowledging that the new constant may depend on n, we obtain

𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑦
𝜃 𝑥, 𝑦 𝐶 sin sinh
𝐿 𝐿

To determine Cn we now apply the remaining boundary condition, which is of the form

𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑊
𝜃 𝑥, 𝑊 1 𝐶 sin sinh
𝐿 𝐿
The properties of orthogonal functions may be used to solve the above
equation for Cn by formulating an infinite series for the appropriate
form of ƒ(x). We should choose ƒ(x) =1 and the orthogonal function
gn(x) = sin (nπx/L).

Solving the equation we obtain,

2 1 1
𝐶 n 1,2,3,. . .
𝑛𝜋sinh 𝑛𝜋 𝑊 ⁄𝐿

We then obtain for the final solution

𝟐 𝟏 𝒏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝝅𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒏𝝅 𝒚⁄𝑳

𝜽 𝒙, 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝝅 𝒏 𝑳 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒏𝝅 𝑾⁄𝑳
𝒏 𝟏

Observations:

We note that the temperature distribution is symmetric about x =L/2,

with 𝜕𝑇/ 𝜕𝑥 0 at that location.
Figure: Isotherms and heat flow lines for 2-D conduction
The symmetry plane at x L/2 is adiabatic and, therefore,
is a heat flow line.
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION
Unsteady state Heat Conduction
Heat conduction problems in engineering applications: time as an independent variable.

The goal of this analysis is to determine the variation of the temperature as a function of time and position T (x,y,z,t) within
the heat conducting body.

Application
• The heat treating process(annealing, hardening etc.)
• Food processing (i.e. meat sausage cooling)

Assumptions
• 1-D conduction
• No heat generation
• Constant thermo-physical properties
Governing Differential Equation

𝜕 𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇 1 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑡 𝛼 𝜕𝑡
𝜌𝑐

In order to solve the above equation, we need two boundary conditions in x-direction and one initial condition.

The simplest situation in an unsteady heat transfer process is to use the lumped capacity assumption, where temperature
gradients within the solid may be neglected.

Under conditions for which temperature gradients are not negligible, but heat transfer within the solid is one-dimensional, exact
solutions to the heat equation may be used to compute the dependence of temperature on both location and time.
Lumped Analysis
Figure : A metal piece which is being cooled in air after hot forming.

Heat is leaving the object from all elements of the surface, and this is shown by a single arrow.

We assume lumped system analysis to be applicable,

So that the temperature remains uniform within the body at all

times and changes with time only, T =T(t).

Using energy balance for the described system,

(heat out of object during time dt) = (decrease in internal thermal energy
of the object during time dt)
ℎ𝐴 𝑇 𝑡 𝑇 𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑐 𝑉𝑑𝑇
Figure: cooling of hot metal piece
𝑑𝑇 ℎ𝐴
⇒ 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 𝜌𝑐 𝑉

Integrating and applying initial condition, T(0)=Ti ,

 𝑇 𝑡 𝑇 ℎ𝐴
ln 𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 𝜌𝑐 𝑉

say, 𝜃 𝑇 𝑇

Hence, the solution becomes, exp 𝑡 exp 𝑡/

Where,  𝑠

This  is called time constant, which has the dimension of time.

 Step response
Ti  T 
t
 1 e 
Ti  T
T = 30.7
which is
63.2% step

t/ % %
Response Error
1 63.2 36.8
2 86.5 13.5
3 95 5
5 99.3 0.7
 100 0
Criteria for the Lumped Analysis
One surface is maintained at a temperature Ts,1 and the other surface is exposed to a fluid of temperature 𝑇 𝑇 .
The temperature of this surface will be some intermediate value, Ts,2, for which 𝑇 𝑇, 𝑇s,1
Under steady-state conditions the surface energy balance, gives us
𝑘𝐴
𝑇, 𝑇, ℎ𝐴 𝑇 , 𝑇
𝐿
Where, k is the thermal conductivity of the solid, Rearranging, we then obtain

𝑇, 𝑇, 𝐿 ⁄𝑘 𝐴 ℎ𝐿 𝑅
≡ 𝐵𝑖
𝑇, 𝑇 1⁄ ℎ 𝐴 𝑘 𝑅

The quantity (hL/k) appearing in above Equation is a dimensionless parameter. It

is termed as Biot number, and it plays a fundamental role in conduction
problems that involve surface convection effects.

𝑳𝒄 ⁄ 𝒌 Conduction resistance within the body

𝑩𝒊
𝟏⁄𝒉 Convection resistance at the surface of the body Figure: Plane wall with surface convection: effect of Biot Number
The lumped capacity assumption implies that the object for analysis is considered to have a single mass averaged temperature.

Lumped system analysis holds valid if 𝑩𝒊 𝟎. 𝟏

In lumped system analysis we encountered a term 𝑡 , which can be written as,

ℎ𝐴 ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝐿 𝑘 𝑡 ℎ𝐿 𝛼𝑡
𝑡
𝜌𝑐 𝑉 𝜌𝑐 𝐿 𝑘 𝜌𝑐 𝐿 2 𝑘 𝐿 2

In this context, a dimensionless time, known as the Fourier number, is obtained by multiplying the dimensional time by the thermal
diffusivity and dividing by the square of the characteristic length.
𝜶𝒕
𝒊. 𝒆. Fo
𝑳𝒄 𝟐
Fourier number along with the Biot number, characterizes transient conduction problems.

Fourier number provides a measure of the relative effectiveness with which a solid conducts and stores thermal energy.

Non dimensional temperature distribution of Lumped system analysis can now be written as,
𝜽 𝑻 𝑻
𝐞𝐱𝐩 𝑩𝒊 ⋅ 𝑭𝒐
𝜽𝒊 𝑻𝒊 𝑻
Rate of convection heat transfer at any given time t, 𝒒 𝒕 𝒉𝑨𝒔 𝑻 𝒕 𝑻
Spatial Effects on unsteady 1-D heat conduction
We often encounter situations where Lumped system analysis can not be approximated, in such cases the temperature within a
body will change from point to point as well as with time.

The Plane Wall

For a plane wall with symmetrical convection conditions and

constant properties, and no heat generation,
Governing Differential Equation

1 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝑇
𝛼 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

Initial Condition

𝑇 𝑥, 0 𝑇

Boundary Conditions

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
| 0; and 𝑘 | ℎ 𝑇 𝐿, 𝑡 𝑇 Figure: plane wall with symmetric convection conditions
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Non-Dimensionalization

The following dimensionless quantities are defined,

𝜽 𝑻 𝑻
Dimensionless temperature difference: 𝜽∗
𝜽𝒊 𝑻𝒊 𝑻 Once spatial variability of temperature is included, 
𝒙 there is existence of seven different independent 
Dimensionless coordinate: 𝒙∗ variables
𝑳
𝜶𝒕
Dimensionless time: 𝒕∗ 𝑭𝒐 T = f(Ti,T,t,x,h,k,α)
𝑳𝟐

𝒉𝑳
The Biot Number: 𝑩𝒊
𝒌𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅

The solution for temperature will now be a function of the other non-dimensional quantities, i.e. 𝜃 ∗ 𝑓 𝑥 ∗ , 𝐹𝑜, 𝐵𝑖

Invoking the non dimensional definitions, the heat equation, IC & BC’s become
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗
∗
, Subjected to: 𝜃 𝑥 , 0 1; ∗ | ∗ 0; ∗ | ∗ 𝐵𝑖𝜃 ∗ 1, 𝑡 ∗
Exact Solution:

𝜃∗ 𝐶 exp 𝜁 𝐹𝑜 cos 𝜁 𝑥 ∗

4sin𝜁
𝐶 ; 𝜁 tan𝜁 𝐵𝑖
2𝜁 sin 2𝜁

The roots (eigenvalues) of the equation can be obtained from tables given in standard references.
Approximate Solution:
It can be shown that for values of Fo >0.2,

the infinite series solution [𝜃 ∗ ], can be approximated by the first term of the series. (n = 1; Fo >0.2,)

Invoking this approximation, the dimensionless form of the temperature distribution becomes. For plane wall and long
cylinders; temperature distribution becomes
𝜃∗ 𝐶 exp 𝜁 𝐹𝑜 cos 𝜁 𝑥 ∗

or, 𝜃 ∗ 𝜃 ∗ cos 𝜁 𝑥 ∗

Where, 𝜃 ∗ represents the midplane (x*= 0) temperature. 𝜃 ∗ 𝐶 exp 𝜁 𝐹𝑜

The coefficients C1 and 𝜁 are evaluated from equations given in exact solution 𝐶 and 𝜁 ) respectively. Standard tables are
available in textbooks.
The Heisler Charts
The transient temperature charts for a large plane wall, long cylinder, and sphere were presented by M. P. Heisler in 1947 and are
called Heisler charts, which were supplemented by a third chart per geometry in 1961 by H. Gröber. They are graphical
representation of the one-term approximation

Heisler Charts can be used to obtain the following:

• The temperature To at the center of the geometry at a given time t.
• The temperature at other locations at the same time in terms of To.
• The total amount of heat transfer up to the time t.

Restrictions on using Heisler Chart

• There is no internal heat source (generation)
• The thermal diffusivity of the object is constant
• The problem can be approximated as one-dimensional
• The initial temperature of the object is uniform
• Relatively long after initial times (Fo >0.2)
The Heisler Charts for Plane Wall: (Midplane Temperature)
The Heisler Charts for Plane Wall : (Temperature Distribution &
Change in Thermal Energy Storage)

𝑄 𝑐𝑉 𝑇𝑖 𝑇

Also available for long cylinders and

spheres.

Temperature distribution in a plane wall of thickness 2L
General Lumped Capacitance Analysis

Consider a solid may be influenced

simultaneously by convection, radiation, an
applied surface heat flux, and internal energy
generation


q As ,h  E g   qconv  As (c,r )  Vc dT
''
s
''
 qrad
'' Figure. Control surface for general lumped capacitance analysis
dt


q As ,h  E g   h T  T    T 4  Tsur
''
s
4
 As (c,r )  Vc dT
dt
• The above equation is a nonlinear, first-order, nonhomogeneous, ordinary differential equation that
cannot be integrated to obtain an exact solution
• However, the exact solutions may be obtained for simplified versions of the equation.

Case 1: There is no imposed heat flux or generation and convection is negligible relative to radiation

0 0 0

q As ,h  E g   h T  T    T 4  Tsur   s ( c ,r )
 dT
''
s
4
A  Vc
dt

Separating variables and integrating from the initial condition to any time t

 As ,r t T
dT
Vc 0  T 4 T 4
dt 
T sur
i
Evaluating both integrals and rearranging, the time required to reach the temperature T becomes

Vc  Tsur  T Tsur  Ti  1  T  1  Ti 

t ln  ln  2  tan    tan  
4 As ,rTsur
3
 Tsur  T Tsur  Ti   Tsur   Tsur 

This expression cannot be used to evaluate T explicitly in terms of t, Ti, and Tsur, nor does it readily
reduce to the limiting result for Tsur = 0 (radiation to deep space).

 As ,r t T
dT
Vc 0 T Tsur4  T 4
However, the solution of dt  for Tsur = 0 yields
i

Vc  1 1
t  3  3
4 As ,r  sur
T T 