Review of Related Literature 2016

Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 Introduction

Previous chapter deals with introduction and framing rationale of the study. In
this chapter various books, journal and other related literatures that have been
purposely reviewed for this study is described. But before proceeding to the reviews
made, it is necessary to unveil the meaning of review of related literature and its
significance.

Review of related literature has significant place in research process. No

research work regardless of qualitative or quantitative can be accomplished without
its support. In fact, it has meaningful identity in research process. It helps the
researcher to navigate, to channelize, to well acquaint with previous research work
done and to guide relevant source of knowledge, to avoid unintentional duplication, to
frame research strategies, and to identify methods and techniques suitable for
investigating the problem. Gay (1990) stated that review of related literature involves
the systematic identifications, location, and analysis of documents which include
periodical, abstracts, reviews, books, and other research reports that containing
information related to research problem. And in the words of Creswell (2014), review
of related literature means “written summary of journal articles, books and other
documents that describes the past and current state of information.”

This chapter is purposefully divided into four sections. The first section gives
an overview of the long term effect of primary education in reading, writing and
arithmetic abilities of students. Second section presents the studies conducted on
effective teaching learning methods that facilitated profound learning among students.
The third section deals with the studies made on physical and infrastructural status of
primary schools that contributes to development of above cited abilities, and finally
fourth section deals with the problems that are faced by Government primary schools
teachers.

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However, there is no any strict rule corresponding to division of related

studies. Investigator has framed an idea considering this theme from Indian and
foreign studies and publications of various article, journals, abstracts and
dissertations, and reviews. The categorization of theme may not be exclusive and thus
may overlap each other. The years of publication is also not exclusively arranged in
sequence. It is rather given as per the need of the content.

2.1 Studies Related to Reading Ability

The fullest attainment of reading, writing and arithmetic abilities has been
regarded as one of the highest priority area of primary school education. Failing to
teach these abilities effectively at primary school level ultimately affect later stage of
schooling career of children. For example Paisey (1990) stated that experiences and
treatment children received at primary school stage ultimately affect their future
attitude and achievement. Likewise Pustjens et al. (2007) in their study found that
there is considerable short-term effect of primary school and classes on the
achievement level of children after leaving primary education. Ohles (1970) in his
book aptly stated that if children have reading problem in early stage will have
problems at upper stage, thus degree to which children acquire basic educational skills
at early stage immensely affect later stage of education. It signifies how early literacy
is vital source for better reading.

Evidence concerning whether or not affect of experiences and treatment

children received at primary school stage persist later stage of life, a good many
studies dealt with early reading ability achievement and it contributes to later years of
life. For example Boland (1993) carried out a longitudinal reading research project
from 1979 till 1987 on the affects of primary school education on secondary school
career. They successfully carried a sample of 310 students at end of eight year
research. The study proved that reading and spelling ability developed in primary
school level directly or indirectly affects secondary school career. Evidence from the
study of Beverly (1996) which examined the reading achievement of 120 second
grade students in Chicago area public school. It was found that students who attended
preschool year had a high reading achievement than those who do not attended.

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Similarly, Jesson & Limbrick (2014) revealed that early literacy intervention
contributes to reading achievement. By adopting reading recovery method on 505
children, the analysis of the study results indicated moderate to strong correlation
between reading and writing achievement which indicate impact of reading recovery
in writing as well as reading. These findings affirmed that early literacy is necessary
to achieve reading literacy.

Reading as an activity can be done in many ways in order to develop reading

abilities. It may be loud reading, silent reading, fast or slow reading etc. but the goal
of reading is to comprehend the meaning from the text (Nanda, 1989). When
assigning these types of reading exercise on children caution have to be taken for
building their reading habits (Elizabeth & Rao, 2012) stated in their book that
conventional way of putting fore fingers under every word negatively effects reading
speed of students which teacher should avoid at early stage of reading habit. Khar
(2006) while describing learning English through task-based methodology he stated
that encouraging children to read and repeated reading of text aloud many times in a
day helps the child to understand the language as well as learn to read. Cadena (2006)
found out that teaching meaning of specific words, phrases or concept in primary
school children does not carry that much wattage to build reading abilities rather than
choosing correct reading material, setting time limits and adopting teaching method,
and develop abilities in children to use effectively the reading strategies benefited to
them. Duffy & McIntyre (1982) investigated the instructional responsibility of
teachers toward primary grade students to learn reading, and method and techniques
employs to make learning more easier for this students. They concluded that learning
how to read not only requires time but equally needs quality assistance from the
teachers to facilitate reading.

It is acknowledged that some children read books at their own efforts while
other not, but degree to which they read differs widely (Dallman et al. 1982). While
attention has been made on children reading ability, degree to which children spell the
words have been studied. In this context Aulls (1982) says that children who lack to
spell words on the page as well as cannot read fluently, certainly find difficulty in
constructing meaning. Such child will gain only few facts and fail to relate prior

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knowledge thus attained little comprehension after reading. Other studies have
investigated the validity of fluency over reading achievement gains. Schilling et al.
(2007) measured the validity of fluency through Dynamic Indicator of Basic Early
Literacy Skills (DIBELS) and Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) to predict reading
achievement of early elementary students’ over the sample of 2,588 first graders,
2,437 second grader and 2,527 third grader. The study concluded that oral reading
fluency accounted for early elementary students’ progress in reading. Likewise,
Reutzel & Hollingsworth (1993) explore the impact of oral reading fluency upon the
reading comprehension in second grader students. They conducted study by
administering Oral Recitation Lesson (ORL) over the sample of 87 second grader
students. The findings of the study reveals that the oral reading fluency developed in
second grader primary school children affect significantly in achievement of reading
comprehension. The research carried out by Kayiran and Karbay (2012) aims at
investigating the effect of Phonics based sentence methods and decoding method in
primary reading and writing teaching programs on primary schools 5th grade students
reading comprehension achievement. The study also considered the relationship
between socio-economic status and reading comprehension achievement. The casual
comparative study was carried out four primary schools which were in the districts of
Adana, Seyhan and Cuckurova. Out of 20 classes in these schools, 745 fifth grade
students who participated in the study were chosen according to the convenience
sampling method. The data of 351 students was obtained through learned reading and
writing by means of decoding method (DM) in the 2008-2009 academic years and
another 394 students were obtained through learned reading and writing by phonics-
based sentence method (PBSM) in 2009-2010 academic year. The data was collected
through using a reading comprehension achievement test. The findings shows no
statistically significant difference on the reading comprehension scores of students
learning basic reading and writing skills through PBSM and DM. A significant
difference was found in favour of high socio-economic status students regarding
comprehension achievement scores. That students from high socio-economic status
have higher achievement scores. Study also highlighted the relationship between
family income and the quality of education given to children. The socio-economic

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dynamic of families and father’s occupation are effective in growing up children and
present important contribution on students’ achievement.

In the light of research evidence however, the deficiency in reading could be

avoided among children if repeated and assisted non-repeated method is adopted
(Homan et al., 1993). They found that there was positive effect of both repeated and
assisted non-repeated method to improve the reading fluency and comprehension
among children. The study indicated that both repeated reading and assisted non-
repetitive reading methods improved comprehension among sixth-grade students who
received instruction for a 7 week period. The growth may have been caused by the
fact that the students focused on connected reading three times a week, 20 minutes a
session, for a total 60 minutes a week. Begeny et al., (2009) conducted study to
examine three small-group reading intervention of repeated reading (RR), listening
passages preview (LPP) and listening only (LO) that improved student’s reading
fluency. They adopted alternative-treatments design to examine the alternative effect
of each intervention on four grade students. The findings of study reveal that small
group reading intervention effectively improved students’ reading fluency.

As noted, reading is not a single entities but a chain of vocabulary. A child

having reading fluency develops more vocabulary knowledge than children who do
not have reading fluency. It is evident that knowledge of vocabulary builds
confidence in reading whereas lack of vocabulary expected to intensify problem in
reading as well as comprehension of the meaning of the text. So, knowledge of
vocabulary is inevitable. In fact, many studies have been done to investigate the
possible relationship between vocabulary skills and comprehension of text by the
reader. Berg et al., (1998) on the basis of pre-test and post test found that increased in
vocabulary increased comprehension. The lack of vocabulary knowledge affects
reading comprehension. An action research was carried out by Gaudio (2003) on 19
ESL students, age ranging from 7 to 10 years in city of Illinois to investigate the
effect of an intensive vocabulary building programme on improving reading skills
with English as a Second language (ESL) Students. Result of the study reveals that
intensive vocabulary building programme positively increased students reading
ability, self confidence and reading comprehension. Andreasen & Braten (2010),

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Burgoyne et al., (2013) also found that word recognition skills and background
knowledge of vocabulary skills uniquely contributed to reading comprehension and
low level of vocabulary skills related to comprehension difficulty among children.
While referring to building vocabulary Khan (2004) says that vocabulary signifies
words that are used in speaking or writing. Words that are more frequently used either
in writing or speaking are frequently remembered and teacher should use it in their
sentences in the class so that students may follow.

Looking into contribution of other elements that facilitate students learning at

schools and home was found significantly improve their achievement. For example,
Miller (1993) investigated the effect of reward on student’s self correction inaccuracy
and effect of improved self-correction on homework achievement. The subjects were
13 sixth-grade students (6 boys, 7 girls) from a middle school in upstate New York.
The subject lived in both rural and suburban areas, encompassing lower to middle-
class socioeconomic levels. Their ages ranged from 11 to 13 years old. Result of the
study reveals that positive reinforcement and reward improve self correction of home
work as well as accuracy and contributes homework achievement in children.
Likewise, Seneschal & LevFevre (2014) studied the home literacy environment as
predictors of growth in vocabulary and reading among children. A sample of 143
kindergarten children and their parents were recruited from Public School in Canadian
City. Study found that Home Literacy environment is linked to growth of reading.
Especially, informal literacy environment at home liked to growth of vocabulary from
kindergarten to Grade 1 whereas, formal literacy environment in kindergarten linked
to growth in English word reading during Grade 1.

In another study time spent on reading found to be an important aspect for

children’s growth in reading. A few studies have made report on relationship between
time spent on reading and reading achievement. Taylor et al., (1990) examine the
probable effect of time spent on reading relatively related to gain in children reading
achievement. Their research finding revealed that time spent on reading at school
positively contributes children to gain reading achievement but time spent on reading
at home was not beneficial.

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2.2 Studies Related to Writing Ability

Today, there is growing concern of children’s writing development. Writing is

not isolated from reading but an essential part of it. It is stated as thinking process
with a purpose to express precisely and effectively in a written form. Asher (2006)
speculated that handwriting today is nothing but used as a tool to demonstrate mastery
of content in other subject areas. And students that learn to write not only acquaint
with the style of writing but also acquired accuracy and fluency in writing (Khan,
2004). On the other hand children who lack handwriting skills (Feder & Majnemer
2007) may have difficulty keeping up with the volume of written work required
during the elementary school years, which may impede academic progress and lead to
lowered self-esteem and behavioural problems.

Before children begin to write stories or poems, they must learn some form of
handwriting skills. But primary school children are handicapped while concerning use
of various form of handwriting. So, it is the sole responsibility of primary school
teachers to introduce handwriting skills to children. Now question arises which form
of handwriting essentially be taught to children first. Elizabeth and Rao (2012) stated
that beginner should follow printed script (Manuscript) form of writing first and
afterward shifted to cursive form of writing. They focused on manuscript form of
writing because children can reproduce it easily. Likewise, Plattor and Woestehoff
(1971) support the introduction of manuscript as a writing style in the primary grader
because children can acquire it with less difficulty as compare to cursive writing style
which is complex and complicated style. Several research studies indicate the
advantages of manuscript handwriting over the cursive handwriting during the
primary grade level. Koenke (1986) whose studies revealed that manuscript or printed
handwriting should be introduced first to children because it does not slant letters and
can be produced easily by children.

Reviewed of several research studies however, found that there are no

unanimous agreements with regard to use of printed/manuscript and cursive form of
handwriting. Elizabeth and Rao (2012) stated that it is appropriate for the beginner to
follow print script form of writing first and afterward they could shift to cursive script

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of writing in which all the letters of the words are joined. When following any type of
scripts, it is important that forward slant or erect position is appropriate to follow than
the backward slant of writing.

While focused on handwriting skills, the methods that enhanced writing ability
have been studied. Hachem et al. (2008) conducted qualitative action research to
examine the effects of writing workshop on second grader mixed ability classroom
and discussed the factors that enable their writing skills. Result of the study reveals
that writing workshop not only improve writing skills of students but also allow ways
to improve their writing skill further. They write complete sentences, adding
descriptive details, ideas, and using interesting vocabulary words without teacher’s
guidance. Their writing became well organized, it contained a logical flow of ideas.
They were capable of planning, drafting, revising, and editing most of their writing
pieces and correcting their conventional errors independently. Their handwriting was
also legible and clear. Likewise, Dennis and Votter (2012) conducted ‘writer
workshop’ and ‘dictation’ as two writing strategies for children writing development.
In ‘writer workshop’ children’s self selecting topics for writing not only motivate
them to write and expresses themselves but also give opportunities to share their
stories to others. Only attention need is to make ensure children spend maximum
amount of time in practicing their writing every day. Moreover, dictation had to be
taken when children had become familiar with words or content of the book through
repeated reading. And Denton et al. (2006) investigated the effectiveness of two
different handwriting intervention approaches on both handwriting and sensorimotor
components. The study was conducted on 38 children of 6 to 11 years of age with
handwriting dysfunction but no identified educational need were randomly assigned
to one of the two intervention groups or a control group. Intervention groups met four
times per week over 5 weeks. Handwriting was measured pre- and post-intervention
using the Test of Handwriting Skills. Visual perception (motor-reduced), visual-motor
integration, proprioception, and in-hand manipulation were also measured. Results of
the study revealed that handwriting on the dictated, copied handwriting and writing
from memory was positively improved due to therapeutic practice intervention. It also
appears that those forms of the handwriting were found improved on which students

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received practice most. Case-Smith et al. (2012) studied the effect of Co-teaching
Handwriting Program for First Graders on their legibility, handwriting speed, writing
fluency, and writing expression in students with diverse learning needs. Measures of
handwriting and writing program were administered on 36 first-grade students in two
classrooms in a mid-western U.S. city participated in 12 week handwriting and
writing program co-taught by teachers and occupational therapist. Results of the study
revealed that students made significant progress in handwriting legibility, speed, and
writing fluency that was retained at 6-mo follow-up. The students gained improved in
lowercase handwriting legibility from 62% legibility to 89% legibility, and this
improvement was highly significant, F(2, 66) 5 95.9, p < .001, h2 5 .74. They also
improved significantly in handwriting speed for writing the lowercase alphabet; the
mean speed decreased by 122 s, from 203.9 s to 80.9 s, F (2, 66) 5 52.1, p < .001, h2 5
.61. In the uppercase alphabet, the students also made significant progress in
legibility, F(2, 66) 5 6.7, p 5 .002, h2 5 .17, improving by 11.2 percentage points, and
in speed, F(2, 66) 5 31.2, p < .001, h2 5 .49, improving by 97.1s. In another study
Quant (1946) found that good letter formation, spacing between letters and between
words, and slant of the letters are the most important factors that determine the
legibility of handwriting. If the letters are poorly formed the reader will pause
frequently, their word recognition become decrease, and the number of eyes fixation
from forward to backward per line will increase. And the irregularity of slant of letter
obviously decreases the legibility of handwriting.

The students also made significant gains in writing fluency and written
expression. For all students, mean scores for Writing Fluency improved by 6.7 points,
from 1.2 to 7.9, a significant gain, F(2, 66) 5 45.6, p < .001, h2 5 .58. Writing
Samples, a measure of written expression, was considered to be an indirect outcome
of the Write Start program because writing ability was not the emphasis of the
program. Writing Samples mean scores improved significantly from pretest (7.6) to
follow-up (10.7), F(2, 66) 5 46.9, p < .001, h2 5 .59. From the study it is concluded
that students had increase handwriting legibility, speed and writing fluency, thus the
program appeared to benefit first-grade students with diverse learning needs. Marr
and Dimeo (2006) evaluated the benefits associated with summer handwriting

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instruction for elementary-age children. The study included 26 students who attended
1 hour per day handwriting instruction for two weeks using the Handwriting Without
Tears curriculum. Pre- and post-testing with the Evaluation Tool of Children’s
Handwriting (ETCH) were conducted. Parents were also asked to rate their child’s
handwriting at pretest, posttest, and 3 months posttest. Results of the study revealed
that handwriting instruction across children significantly improved their cursive and
manuscript handwriting as well as legibility of uppercase and lowercase alphabets
writing.

Gilbert and Graham (2010) examined how writing is taught nationwide to

elementary students of grades 4–6 by elementary school teachers. A random sampling
procedure (stratified by grade level) was used to identify 300 fourth- through sixth-
grade elementary teachers from the population of intermediate grade teachers in the
United States. The results of the study revealed that teachers are not adequately
prepared to teach writing. They spend only 15 minutes a day to teach writing.
Moreover, 44% or more of the teachers of grade 4 – 6 never provide extra
handwriting instruction, additional use of word processing, or extra instruction via
technology to weaker writers. Therefore, they suggested that teachers must assign a
broader range of writing activities on a more regular basis, increasing the use of
activities such as persuasive writing, writing to inform and describe, and writing
research reports. They must devote more time to teaching writing to their grade 4–6
students and must apply a larger range of evidence-based writing practices on a
regular basis instead of periodically.

Other things that help students to articulate their thought are through writing
skills. Like Gibson (2008) described that guided writing instructions procedure for
primary-grade not only engaged students in writing activities but also provides
opportunities to write better draft over a time to become independent writer. Kos and
Maslowski (2001) conducted a study on how children perceived about good writing.
The analysis of the study was based on handwriting, spelling and mechanics of 15
children of grade-two. Studies concluded that children perceived that good writing
develops from within, but still than children relied mostly on others that are more
correct and fluent than their own of which teacher and each other as a source of their

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writing model. Similarly, Byers (1963) investigated the effects of handwriting on

spelling accuracy on third graders. He concluded that accuracy in spelling is not
related with style of handwriting because if a child miss the word in one style is sure
to miss same word in other style too.

Yu et al. (2012) examined the contribution of Haptic and Kinesthetic

perception to legibility of handwriting and speed of first and second grader children.
Results revealed that Haptic and Kinesthetic significantly contributes to legibility of
handwriting and speed. That children who wrote more legible and faster had better
haptic and kinesthetic perception.

2.3 Studies Related to Arithmetic ability

Duncan et al. (2007) revealed that early mathematical skills are the most
powerful predictors of later learning followed by reading and then attention.
Therefore, Mathematics education should be considered one of the primary concerns
in primary school level. Hamely (2003) said that addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division are the fundamental operation of Arithmetic ability. In many sense
children lack this fundamental operation of mathematics. Previous researches have
shown that mathematics disabilities among children are due to lack of mathematics
skills. It is evident from the study made by Rastogi (1982) which stated that poor
command over mathematic skills is the backwardness of basic mathematical skills.

Many studies have carried out to find out the possible reasons of deficiencies
of children in basic mathematical abilities. Dhireswar and Choudhury (2008) found
ineffective used of teaching learning materials and negligence of remedial classes by
qualified Mathematic teachers that causes poor achievement of students in
Mathematics. In other research study it is found that uneducated parents are the
reasons for backwardness of students in basic mathematics ability. Like Gaiab et al.
(2008) conducted a study to compare learning outcomes for children in private and
public schools by considering the sex, wealth, and caste. The studies also assess the
influence of a caregiver’s own education on their children’s learning outcomes in both
private and public schools. The data was collected from 1,008 mothers and children
aged 7.5-8.5 years at the time of the survey and sampled across the 3 district agro-

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climatic regions of Andhra Pradesh (costal AP, Royalaseema and Telengana) from
sentinel sites. Findings of the study revealed that children in private schools have
better literacy and numeric skills regardless of wealth or caste than the children in
public schools. Children of uneducated parents (especially mothers) tend to have poor
learning outcome which is largely found in public schools than private schools. And
girls have lower learning scores than boys. Therefore, there is a clear interplay
between school and home in every aspect. In another study, Lin and Kubina (2015)
examined the association between accuracy and fluency for the component-composite
relationship within multiplication. Study was conducted on 156 fifth grade students of
five public elementary schools from the three schools district in central and
southeastern Pennsylvania. Results demonstrated that students had achieved high-
level of accuracy with single-digit number but achieved lower levels with multi-digit
multiplication. However, students lack fluency performance in multiplication facts
with both component single-digit and composite, multi-digit multiplication problems.
Study also revealed a strong positive correlation of fluency with the single-digit and
multi-digit multiplication performance when component skill was applied to a
composite skill.

Besides the influence of teachers and parents, other research findings revealed
that school infrastructure, educational facilities and home factors or background also
plays a crucial role in development of basic abilities among children. One such
research activities carried out by Aztekin and Yilmaz (2014) aims to explore the
effects of human and materials resources on the student’s math achievement. The
study found that the quality of school educational resources and teachers morale
significantly influence or impact on student’s mathematic literacy achievement.
Similarly, Johal and Garg (2011) revealed that poor school infrastructure contribute to
the poor development of basic abilities among school children. That they studied the
quality of elementary education under SSA in three selected districts of Punjab
(Ropar, Fatchgarh Sahib and Mukstar) for a period of eight years from 2001- 2009.
The study was based on both primary and secondary data with a total sample of 120
teachers. The study concluded that despite the various initiatives to improve the
curriculum and learning abilities of students such as Computer Aided Learning

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(CAL), vocational education and free workbooks to enhance teaching-learning

process, surprisingly 50 % of the grade V students did not know how to read a story in
Punjabi, over 25 % could not write even letters of the Punjabi alphabet, almost 40%
and 70 % did not know how to subtract and divide respectively. This are due to poor
school infrastructure such as excessive water longing that made classroom unfit for
students to sit on taat patties (mats) as they became soggy as well as unavailability of
water and electricity in schools making it difficulty during acute summer or the
monsoon season. LeFevre et al. (2009) investigated the effect of various home
numeracy experiences to children’s mathematical knowledge. In this study 146
children were included. Result of the study shows that math-related activities (i.e.
numeracy and literacy activities) is important to children in their early numeracy
experience. The frequency with which children engaged in math-related activities
(numeracy and literacy activities) at home contributed to their mathematic
performance/outcomes. RESU, TSG-SSA. (2008) conducted study on scholastic
achievement and literacy of pupils reveals that pupil’s home background and peer
group significantly impact on pupils’ achievement in literacy and Mathematics.
Similarly, Singh and Singh (2012) attempted to explore and focus upon the effect of
school and home factor on the learning outcomes of slum children at elementary stage
of education. Study was conducted on Four government. & 4 private elementary
schools, altogether 620 class V children and 62 teachers teaching in class V level
were randomly selected from these schools. Results of the study supported desirable
effects of basic facilities available in school, instructional method adopted by teacher
in curriculum transaction, teacher’s behaviour in classroom in order to accelerate,
physical-natural environment of classroom and parents socio-economic status on
learning outcomes at elementary stage of education in urban slums of Varanasi city.
The basic facilities available in the schools, and instructional method adopted by
teacher in curriculum transaction was found to be 0.154 & 0.197 respectively and
significant at 0.05 level of significance. Among the available studied, instructional
method adopted by teacher in curriculum transaction has made maximum contribution
in learning outcomes. And basic facility available in school has made second largest
contribution. Bachouse et al. (1992) stated that learning mathematics require
repetitive practice of skills and understanding together and it is by understanding a

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learner can effectively use mathematical knowledge. Rajput (2012) discussed the
important of assessment in learning mathematics. He suggested that daily monitoring
of class and home work is the way to assessing whether children are being accurate
and successful in their mathematic learning during teaching.

In one study consequences of disabilities in basic mathematical ability and

qualitative differences among children in successes of arithmetic have been revealed.
Russel and Ginsburg (1984) investigated children suffering from mathematics
difficulties (MD) exhibits low performance in mathematics achievement. The research
involves three groups viz. fourth grade children performing poorly in school
mathematics but normal in intelligence, fourth grade peers matched for intelligence
but experiencing no apparent difficulties in mathematics, and randomly selected
group of third grade. These children were presented with tasks designed to measure
the mathematical concepts and skills. Findings pointed out that children with
mathematical difficulties somehow select proper calculation routines for solving some
kind of mathematical word problems, but they performed poorly on complex words
problems like complex subtractions. They failed to apply appropriate strategies and
lack basic concepts and skills to deals with when larger numbers are involved. Gray
(1993) conducted a study to find out the qualitatively differences between children of
different age group of 7 to 12 years old success in arithmetic. In this study he found
that children of above average and below average are qualitatively different in
thinking about simple arithmetic problems.

Khan (2012) conducted an experimental study on 28 grade six students to

confirm the relationship of arithmetic knowledge and its use in algebra. Study
confirmed that students having strong arithmetic knowledge of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division performed better in algebra. Hence, the study affirmed a
strong relationship exist between arithmetic knowledge and algebra.

In another study the methods of teaching and use of instructional

aids/materials have also been examined. Natesan (2001) examined teaching
mathematic through video cassette. An experimental method was conducted on 45
boys and 45 girls, using probability sampling technique. The results of the study

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revealed that teaching mathematics through video-cassette significantly increased

level of achievement among children than teaching through traditional method. There
was a significant difference between boys and girls in all groups. In over all, the
performance of girls was superior to boys. Zadeh et al. (2010) found that availability
of learning materials at home enhance high levels of achievement in math and reading
in grade one students. Hoang (2007) attempted to find out the relationship between
learning and instruction in mathematics achievement of 12-year-old students in
Saigon, Vietnam. The study was conducted on 564 students (282 females and 282
males). Results of the study revealed that students were more likely to earn higher test
scores where teachers more frequently explained the rules and definitions, more
frequently gave them homework, more frequently showed them how to do
mathematics problems during their lessons, and that their teachers more frequently
checked homework during their mathematics lessons. Moreover, students were more
likely to earn higher test scores was earned by students who frequently tried to solve
an example related to the new topic in their mathematics lessons, and more frequently
checked each other's homework. Sharma (2008) Conducted a study to determine the
different methods of teaching mathematics that enhances student performance.
Results of the study reveals that the use of blackboard to explain Maths is the most
commonly used method. However there were few teachers who also use new methods
like the visual aids and other laboratory equipment to make the students understand
better. The students on the other hand were found to like the subjects when taught
from the basics and in a simple and lucid way, simplicity of presentation, clarity of
the topic covered, and the ability of teachers to read a student’s mind in order to make
them understand. All these characteristics of teachers were found have influence on
the attitude of students towards teachers, subject and their performance in the subject.
Meremikw and Enukoha (2010) studied the effect of use of instructional aids and
school variables on pupil’s Mathematics achievement. The study adopted quasi-
experimental research design involved a pre-test and post-test experiment by using a
variety of instructional aids on the experimental group for six week. A random sample
of 600 pupils was selected using multi-stage sampling approach. In all 300 pupils
were involved in the experimental and other 300 pupils were served as control group.
The results of the study revealed that the use of instructional aids significantly

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influence pupil’s level of Mathematic achievement. The instructional materials alone

accounting for 49.6 % of the variance in the pupils Mathematics achievement.

2.4 Studies Related to Status of Primary Schools

To understand the status of primary schools education two related questions

must be addressed. First, what is the impact of infrastructure facilities on the
academic achievement of students? Secondly, what is the role of teaching learning
methods on the academic performance of students?

2.4.1 The Impact of Educational and Physical Infrastructure Facilities on the

Academic Achievement of Students

There is growing body of literature based on studies conducted by various

educationist and researchers that supports benefits of educational facilities in primary
schools level. Like Owoeye and Yara (2011) in their study of school facilities
concluded that achievement is the function of availability of facilities to students like
qualified personal, laboratory, library, school building, chairs/tables, administrative
block, chalks board, school maps and likes are very crucial to high academic
attainment. This study affirmed that well equip classroom and available facilities in
schools supports teachers and students to enable leaning and teaching. Singh and
Singh (2012) revealed that school and home factors like basic facilities available in
the school, physical-natural environment of classroom, instructional method adopted
by teacher in curriculum transaction, teacher’s behaviour in classroom and socio-
economic status of parents significantly contributed in the learning outcomes at
elementary stage of education. Another study made by Cuyvers et al. (2011) found
empirical evidence that a school with poor quality infrastructure affect well being of
students regardless of rural and urban. Likewise, case study (Cooper, 1985) of the
view expressed by the primary school teachers on how they think about the school
building in which they are working. Study concluded that teachers belief that
inadequate physical environment facilities could lower their morel and motivation
thus eroding their commitment to teaching.

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Studies about academic achievement and school building condition concluded

that the quality of infrastructure significantly affect students achievement. Research
studies like Lumpkin (2013), Schneider (2002), Earthman (2002), and Fisher (2001)
concluded that poor school building condition, non-modernized schools, school
building with poor air quality, poor ventilation classroom, inadequate lighting,
building age and large class size, school building design, building age, impacting
temperature, lighting, overcrowded school building and classroom, poor school
facilities, inadvertently affects the academic outcomes of students and negatively
impact on teacher effectiveness as well as performance. Likewise, another study
carried out by Bhunia et al. (2012) concluded that the availability of infrastructure
elements such as toilets, electricity, library, computers, types and conditions of
classroom plays very significance role for improving the learning environments.

Findings from other studies proved that school which are deprived of
educational facilities breed low academic performance. Like Sabitu et al. (2012)
showed that students of private school with high standard of educational facilities
have outperformed in the academic performance than the public school that lack
educational facilities.

Other research has affirmed that lack of educational facilities is higher in the
hilly areas. While discussing the scenario of elementary education of Uttrakand
Sharma et al. (2010) stated that pupil teacher ratio is one of the best educational
parameter to measure the quality of education being provided to children. Their study
found out that inadequate educational facilities are higher in hilly districts like
Champawat, Pithoragarh, Tehri Garhwal, Uttrakand and Chamoli. In such rural areas
teacher do not want to serve their duty because these rural schools are mostly
disconnected from modern educational facilities. Kabra (2010) examined the plight of
teachers of rural areas and found that rural area teachers are isolated from the city,
discomfort of poor and unhealthy housing, lack of medical care, the lack of a regular
supply of fruits, vegetables, milk, books, magazines, internet facilities and broadening
contact with outside world. These are the some of many reasons why teachers tend to
avoid rural service/posting.

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Management of primary schools also appeared to be directly linked to overall

development of students as well as teachers. The study of Sarkar and Das (1980)
revealed that the method of sanctioning number of teachers to primary schools was
largely responsible for the poor state of management of primary schools. Every
primary school teaching up to Class IV should have at least five teachers. The number
of primary schools should be increased to cut down the size of big schools and also to
make room for more students. Establishment of more schools and appointment of
more teachers would not only create more employment for educated persons in the
villages but will also create a better atmosphere for parents to send their children to
schools. Likewise, McMohan and Wernsman (2009) examined the relationship of
classroom environment and school belonging, and association of school belonging
and academic self-efficacy. The study was conducted on 142 students (70 fourth
graders and 72 Fifth graders) in two elementary schools in San Francisco, California.
The study revealed significantly correlation among the classroom environment
dimension and sense of school belonging and even some aspects of school belonging
were associated with academic self-efficacy. More positive and supportive classroom
environments and school belonging were associated with higher language arts self-
efficacy.

2.4.2 Studies Related to Significance of Teaching Learning Methods

“Teaching learning takes place all the time. It is a two way process which take
place between the teacher and the taught and covers physical, social, emotional and
cultural environment of the learner in an around” (Mandal, 2011). Teacher therefore,
needs serious thought to the wise direction of the child’s emotion so as to help him to
become his best. That teacher’s own influence on the child must be in good direction,
should have a sense of responsibility towards schools, as much as possible to avoid
treating the child unfairly and should acknowledge about the child’s home affairs, and
must help the child to face reality as well as satisfy the child’s legitimate curiosity
(Brockway, 2003).Today teachers faces enormous challenges. They are supposed to
teach diverse students belong to different culture and community. Traditional methods
of teaching no longer sustain the credibility of effective learning among students.
Teachers need effective teaching learning methods to meet the challenges ahead of

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them. Good amount of research studies have shown that classes where teaching
learning methods were greatly used in combination have benefited for students. One
such study carried out by Gegbe and Koroma (2014) on the causes of poor academic
performance among senior secondary students at West Africa Secondary School
certificates Examination level in Bo City, in Sierra Leone. The sample included 100
students and 75 teachers randomly selected from 5 secondary school in BO city. The
results of the study found that teacher’s method of teaching and learning materials,
and environment also influence student’s academic performance. Similary, study
carried out by Sharma (2008) on constructive teaching in primary classes revealed
that teacher while describing the problem must involve students to clearly stating the
problem. Encourage students to design activities, do experiment, record observation
and draw conclusions with alternative solutions and alternative explanations, work in
groups, share and discuss ideas. Likewise, Begum and Jayalakshmi (2008) explained
the role of mnemonic strategies in learning which help the learners to remember
better. Take for example ‘VIBGYOR’ is the simple Mnemonic to remember the
colours in a rainbow. Likewise the teachers should able to make the students to apply
many mnemonics to remember better. In another study grouping students while
teaching in classroom was viewed significant for learning among students. Ediger
(1998) proposed to study which ways of grouping pupils for reading instruction uses
by the teacher benefit most to pupils. The findings of the study revealed that whatever
approaches are, may it be large or small reading instruction but should be benefits as
much as possible to the pupils. However, it would be best for teacher to teach fewer at
one time. Importantly, heterogeneous group of pupils with mixed achievement levels
in a classroom should be prepared so that they may learn from each other regardless
of their ability levels. Other then this homogeneous grouping is not less regarded but
importantly significant.

A growing body of research demonstrates that students learn more deeply if

they have engaged in activities that require applying classroom gathered knowledge to
real world problems. The study of Engel-Yeger et al. (2009) revealed that there is
relationship between the activity of handwriting and children’s participation in school
and in daily living. The children who spend a large amount of time at school, and

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receive feedback of teachers and peers may have a great impact on a child’s
development and participation as a student. Similarly, Whitney (2004) investigated
that school literacy workshops and found have positive effects for reading
achievement. One-hour literacy workshop was conducted during school time from
1:25 to 2:25, Monday through Thursday for ten weeks. Twenty-one groups were
formed by ability, and consisted of 11 to 27 students. Result of the study revealed that
literacy workshops indeed indicated a significant effect on reading achievement of
boys and girls across all ethnic groups and grade levels. The increases were
significant in which males started at 2.3 and rose to 3.3; females were at 2.1 and rose
to 2.7. The largest ethnic group of students, the Hispanics (58%) went from 1.7 to 2.2;
Native Americans (29%) 2.5 to 3.5; and Anglo students (10%) 3.2 to 4.0. and perhaps
this growth in reading achievement scores would have taken place over the ten weeks
without the workshops. Wonder-McDowell et al. (2011) explored the effects of
aligning classroom core reading instruction with the supplementary reading
instruction. Pre-Posttest experimental designed was provided to 133 struggling grade
2 readers for a period of 20 week study. In 11 elementary schools, 12 teachers were
taught both the aligned and unaligned core and supplementary reading treatment.
Results of the study revealed that struggling readers in both the aligned and unaligned
supplementary reading instruction group made significant growth across all measures
from pre-test to post-test during 20 week treatment period. Students in the aligned
supplementary reading instruction evidenced statistically significant positive effect in
oral reading fluency and reading comprehension scores.

Other than teaching methods, quality and behaviour of teachers are significant.
It not only intensifies curiosity of learning among children but also influences on the
healthy growth of the child. For example, Brockway (2003) stated that to intensify
best learning among children, teacher should have a sense of responsibility of what is
going in the school. He should not treat children unfriendly rather try to influence for
the healthy growth of child. He should know about the child’s home affairs. Above all
he must able to encourage and satisfy the legitimate curiosity of child to face reality
and also should be able to turn their emotion to a positive direction. Likewise, Sharma
(2000) stated that in order to make children learn effectively the teacher has to adopt

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the right method of teaching, even should able to perceive differences in learning
behaviour of students and accordingly adjust their teaching style. He must be well
acquainted by the students, regular attendance and alphabetical order of setting
arrangement that facilitated effective classroom teaching. And the way of teaching
and learning in the classroom should based on first activities, than discussion and
lastly presentation of information.

Carreker et al. (2005) conducted a study on language enrichment (LE) teacher

preparation and practice and predicts third grade reading comprehension. In this study
first and second grade public school teachers were trained through interactive video-
conferencing to implement Language Enrichment. LE teacher preparation was given
to teachers in one of two formats: (1) 6 hours a day for 10 days over a 2-week period;
or (2) 6 hours a day on one weekday for 10 weeks. Upon completion of the teacher
preparation, all teachers implemented the program in their classroom. Results of the
study revealed that Reading skills of second grade teacher was significantly improved
due to Language Enrichment programme. As a results teacher have significantly
higher content-rich knowledge as well as competence was enhanced through practice
that have positive effect on reading instruction that results in a level of reading
comprehension and achievement among students than teacher who were not acquitted
with this programme. Therefore, study concluded that Language Enrichment teacher
preparation is effective for teaching reading to young regular education students.

Beside above cited teaching learning methods the class size also create
obstacle in the execution of various teaching methods. For example, Blatchford et al.
(2002) studied the relationships between class size and teaching interaction. Data
were collected from 10,000 children enrolled in English infant school of aged group
4- 7 years. Results of the study revealed that the large classes affected the quantity of
educational interaction each child received and even decrease quantity of interaction
which teacher felt valuable for students. Most importantly basic skills learning
suffered in larger classes. Teacher could not develop a depth of knowledge and
understanding of the children as individual in large classes. On the other hand in the
small classes children were more likely to interact with their teachers, more one-to-
one teaching took place, children were more often the focus of a teacher's attention,

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more teaching took place overall, and children more often attended to their teachers
and became actively involved in inter-actions.

2.5 Studies Related to Problems of Government Primary School Teachers

Teachers are the important resource for quality education. In reality the
primary school teachers occupies a lowest level in the leader of education system, and
their voice is regarded as unimportant is the matter of concern. Apart from teaching
job, primary school teachers are expected and obligatory to bear burden of other
assignment such as population survey and economic survey.

In rural areas, especially in the village teachers have to acts as multipurpose

village functionary and become more obligatory to act as wish of the villagers. It
becomes sole responsibility to bear the burden of village school teacher where there is
single teacher or at most two teachers are available. Apart from that teachers has to
act prudently where there is large numbers of students, low achievement, lack of
motivation to teachers and lack of parental supports are matter of concern. There is
growing bodies of literature based on studies conducted by various educationist and
researcher that reveals the multipronged problems faced by Government primary
school teachers. Like Al-Jarrah and Khasawneh (2013) studied the problems faced by
primary school teachers as perceived by school administrators. Population consisted
of randomly selected 100 teachers located within the Irbid Governorate. Study used
two part questionnaire based on Alshamari, 1425 AH to measure problems faced by
primary school teachers. Results of the study indicated that the problems faced by
primary school teachers as perceived by school administrator are the increased
number of students, low achievement of the students, lack of supports from parents,
parents make social stresses on teachers, community bodies intervene in teacher’s
work, lack of modern technologies to deliver content, lack of maintenance of school
buildings, lack of sanitary facilities, unsuitable environment inside classroom,
unsuitable location of school buildings, lack of library facilities in schools, lack of
stationary and fewness of sports supply. Beside these problems, there are various
study that revealed that teachers lack motivation to teach due to frequent transfer from
one school to another. Like, study made by Shah et al. (2014). He examined the

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problems faced by female teachers at primary school level in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

province of Pakistan. The results of the study found that female teachers of primary
school level faced several problems such as lack of motivation towards teaching
profession, frequent transfer from one place to another place, lack of accommodation
facilities and over burden with extra classes. Similarly, Noor et al. (2012) study the
effects of teacher’s transfer on school system in public secondary school in Karachi.
The study has adopted qualitative research method. The sample of the study is the all
public secondary school affiliated with Board of Secondary Education Karachi. The
results of the study revealed that due to sudden transfer of teachers classes has to
remained suspended for sometime, teaching learning process become deteriorating
condition, the syllabus are not covered in stipulated time, other working teachers were
overburdened, and curricular and co-curricular activities became not performed well
and in ordered way.

Another major problems faced by primary school teachers are insufficient

numbers of teachers in primary schools. The considerable numbers of primary school
teachers do not have requisite qualification, lack subject specialist and lack of trained
teachers. The numbers of female teachers compare to male teachers constituted in the
primary schools are very low. Findings from the other studies proved that all these
elements of primary schools determined the quality education. Like study made by
Mosha (1988) proposes to identify the factors that affecting the quality of primary
education in five regions of Tanzania. It was study through an extensive review of
literature and by empirical evidence by the means of adopting survey method. Results
of the study reveals that frequent turnover of staff, ineffective curriculum, shortage of
textbooks and teacher’s guides, declining of financial support for primary education,
and unfavorable working condition for teachers in rural areas are the factors that
affecting the quality of primary education. Another research study reveals that lack of
infrastructural facilities contributed to severity of the problems of the primary school
system which also adds problems to teachers in their execution of teachings activities
in primary schools. Like Rana and Das (2004) conducted study on primary education
in Dumka District of Jharkhand. Their study concluded that primary school of Dumka
district of Jharkhand lack inadequate infrastructure facilities like toilet facilities, no

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drinking water facilities for teachers and students, and no maps, charts and teaching
kits. Poor number of teachers per school, concentration of single teacher school in
rural areas and excess numbers of teachers in semi-urban area adds to severity of the
problems of the primary school system.

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