Forces

A force occurs when two objects interact.

Contact forces: friction, tension, support/ normal, spring, applied/ push.

Non-contact forces: weight, magnetic force.

 Ffrict Friction:- The force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it (or attempts to move). The friction force will
oppose the motion of an object.
 Fnorm Normal/ Support:- This is the force exerted upon an object that is in contact with another stable object.
 Fair Air Resistance/ Drag:- The force acting on an object as it travels through air. The air resistance force opposes the
motion of the object.
 Ftens Tension:- The force transmitted through a string, rope, cable or wire when it is pulled tight by forces acting from
opposite ends.
 Fapp Applied/ Push:- A force applied to an object by a person or another object.
 Fspring Spring:- The force exerted by a stretched or compressed spring on an object it is attached to. An object that
stretches or compresses a spring is always acted upon by a force that restores the object to rest.

Force diagrams show the forces acting upon object.

 Each arrow represents a force
 Large arrow = bigger force
 Arrow head = direction
 Arrow base = where the force is acting (non-contact = centre of object)

Golden Rules of Force Diagrams

Force labels/ descriptions must include:
 Which objects are we interested in?
 Contact or non-contact?  Direction
 Where are the forces?  Name of force
 Which directions?  Thing causing force
 Base the arrows where the forces are acting.  Where it is acting

Scalar units – have size but not direction: speed, distance, time, mass, energy, power.
Vector units – have size AND direction: acceleration, force, momentum, weight, gravitational field strength.

Scale Diagrams

Drawn to show forces acting on an object.

Newtons 1st Law of Motion

An object will remain at rest, or in uniform motion in a straight line, unless acted upon by an external force.

- Consider that an object which is pushed will keep moving indefinitely (given the space), we know this cannot be true
because on Earth things naturally come to a standstill eventually. This is due to friction acting upon the moving object.
Friction acts opposite to movement.
- Newtons 1st Law considers objects where all forces are balanced. If an object has balanced forces they will not move OR
will continue to move at the same speed in the same direction.

Object pulled/ pushed in

opposite directions with
equal force – object stays Object pulled in opposite directions
where it is with a greater force to the left – object
moves left

PROBLEM – Use a ramp, marble, rule and timer to get the marble travelling at a steady speed – then prove it.

 This is harder than it seems. The ramp can be split up into segments of 10cm. Timings can be taken as the ball rolls
through the markings, but a lap timer would be needed. Another method is to time the beginning of the ramp to 10cm;
beginning of the ramp to 20cm etc. The ramp needs to be very slightly inclined, so the ball will continue once started
but not so inclined that it accelerates in stead of travelling at steady speed. To prove the ball is travelling at steady speed
the timings should be the same each segment; the ball should take the same time from beginning to 10cm as it does
beginning
¿ 20 cm ¿ (as distance doubles, time doubles).
2
PROBLEM 2 – As above but now get the marble travelling at a faster steady speed.

 It is tempting to raise the angle of the ramp a little higher. This is a misconception, raising the incline will cause the ball
to accelerate instead of achieving steady speed. The slight incline gave steady speed because that specific incline with
that specific ball, was just enough so that the force of weight and the force of friction are balanced which results in
steady speed. To continue achieving steady speed the incline needs to remain the same. To get the ball to travel faster
the initial speed needs to increase, therefore the force used to start the ball rolling should increase. Once rolling the
speed will be steady because the forces still balance. We know this steady speed is faster than before as the ball takes
less time to travel the segments. This can be expressed in 2 ways, the ball is travelling the same distance in less time OR
travelling more distance in the same time.
Faster
On a distance time graph these 2 problems would look like this:

*In a class don’t just give graphs like this and expect understanding Slower
- actually plot it out.
Graph Misconceptions

Do objects A and B ever travel at the same speed?

A
distance B
It can be gut instinct to say ‘yes – at the crossing point’, however
look again and see the story:

Both graphs are straight-line distance-time which indicates steady

speed. A is travelling from point 0. B, however, is travelling from a
point ahead, say 2m. A is travelling faster than B shown by the
steeper gradient.
time

A A travels faster than B

A passes B – the crossing point on the graph shows this

B B starts ahead of A

B Do objects A and B ever travel at the same speed?

distance Again, the instinct may be to say at the crossing point.

A
B is a straight-line telling us it is at steady speed. A is steeper at the
start, decelerating until it stops. We know A has stopped because
the time is passing but no more distance is being travelled. They do
travel at the same speed but the point at which they do so will be
where a tangent drawn to line A matches the gradient of line B.

time

The reason we have gut answers when asked these questions is because traditional teaching of
physics gets us to memorise the graphs. We don’t stop to consider the story the graph tells.
This is why it is dangerous to teach around the maths rather than from the beginning.

How far?
Same speed here

In a certain amount
10 meters in 1 second
distance of time
Speed =
time

10 m
Speed = =10 m/s
1s

If time doubles –
10 m
Velocity is speed with direction eg, 10m/s Speed = =5 m/s speed halves
2s
South

If distance doubles –
20 m
Speed = =20 m/s speed doubles
1s
 1s 2s
3s
4s

1-2s the ball travelled 3cm 5s

2-3s the ball travelled 9cm

3-4s the ball travelled 18cm

4-5s the ball travelled 40cm

The ball is travelling further each second. The ball is getting faster. It is accelerating.

Velocity time graphs

In distance-time graphs a straight line means steady speed but in velocity-time graphs it tells a different story.

Velocity -Time
50
40
Velocity m/s

30
20
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time s

At 1s the ball is travelling at 10m/s.

At 2s the ball is travelling at 20m/s.

At 3s the ball is travelling at 30m/s etc.

The graph tells us the ball is getting faster.

NOTE: The area under the velocity time graph tells us distance travelled!

At steady speed.

The distance travelled is equal per unit of time.

On a velocity time graph it would look:

At 1s the ball is travelling 10m/s

At 2s the ball is travelling 10m/s Steady speed

At 3s the ball is travelling 10m/s

The arrows from the above
diagram all line up
Acceleration

We know velocity is speed in any direction. 30mph North is not the same velocity as 30mph South. An object travelling in a circle
has steady speed but not constant velocity – the direction is always changing.

Acceleration is change in velocity, in a given time – usually per second. Any object with changing velocity is accelerating. Slowing
down is just a negative acceleration.

m/s Meters per

m/s2 or m/s/s
second, per
change ∈velocity ∆ v second!
acceleration= =
time taken ∆t s

Another way of expressing this is:

v = final velocity
v−u
u = initial velocity a=
t

Acceleration can also be found from the gradient of the line on a velocity-time graph.

Q. An aeroplane increases speed from 0mph to 100mph. It takes 10s. What is the acceleration?

∆ v v−u 100−0 100

a= = = = =10 mph/s
∆t t 10 10
the original question was in mph – we
don’t have to change this. Mph/s just
The important teaching points are to tell the story rather than just
means miles per hour per second.
guessing or remembering an equation. We must teach students to talk
the problem out and understand it before we teach equations.

When answering questions stop and consider the story before

answering. People rely on memory and memory often fails us.
As soon as the ball leaves the racket the force is removed.
Newtons 1st Law applies, and the ball will carry on forever if
The forces acting on a tennis ball passing over a net: another force does not change its course.

This force is drag which slows the ball down, and gravitational
field strength which pulls the ball to earth.

g
At the moment the ball is struck by the racket there is a force
acting upon the ball in the upwards and forward direction.
However, immediately after this moment there is no longer a
force acting on the ball. The force cannot still be there as it is
a contact force!

To address misconceptions, do a prior-

learning task with the class to deduce what
preconceptions there are to make sure
they’ll all get dealt with.
 Putting it all together
100
90
80
70
60 60
Velocity m/s

50
40 1 0.5
30
20
30 90
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
time/ s

Write a story describing this motion.

Write four questions that you would ask the students about the graphs.

0-1s: Velocity is increasing. The object is getting faster from 0m/s to 30m/s within a second. The area under the graph shows the
30 x 1
object has travelled: =15 m in this time.
2
1-2s: At 1 second velocity is 30m/s. At 2 seconds the velocity is 30m/s. The object is travelling at steady speed. The object travels
1 x 30=30 m during this time and 45m overall.
2-2.5s: The object is rapidly getting faster, accelerating. At 2.5s it is travelling at 90m/s whereas at 2s it was only 30m/s. In this

time it travels: ( 0.52x 60 =15 m+0.5 x 30=15 m)=30 m . 75m overall.

2.5-3s: Speed is decreasing. At2.5s the velocity is 90m/s but at 3s the object comes to a stop. The object gets slower and then
0.5 x 90
stops. However it is still travelling distance before it stops: =22.5 m . Overall 97.5m.
2
Summary:- Velocity is gradually increasing as the object accelerates during the first second, travelling 15m. It then travels at
steady speed 30m/s for 30m. It then accelerates rapidly travelling 30m in 0.5s. At 2.5s the object then (decelerates) slows down
and finally stops at 3s.

Questions for students:

 How far does the object travel in the first second?

 What is the objects velocity at 1.5s?
 What is the total distance travelled at 2.5s?
 What is the object doing between 2.5-3s?

Terminal Velocity
Question? If you drop a heavy ball and a light ball from a height, which one hits the floor first? Answer. It depends on the height.

If the height is 2m they would both hit at the same time. The weight is this respect is irrelevant. When the balls are dropped the
force acting on them downwards is the same – 9.8N/kg – gravitational field strength.

There is also a force upwards – air

20N 5N
resistance (drag). The surface area
the air resistance acts on is the
same.
9.8N/kg 9.8N/kg Air resistance is due to air particles.

However, if this happened over a larger distance the story would change:

At this point the force of weight is larger than the force of

drag so the resultant force is downwards

At this point the ball is travelling faster and accelerating but

there is increasing air resistance

At this point air resistance has increased to the point where

the lighter balls forces now balance…. But as it is already
moving and has no resultant force it obeys Newtons 1 ST Law
and continues to move at constant velocity. The heavier
balls forces are not yet balanced so it continues to
accelerate.

The heavier ballThe

hitslight ball isfirst
the floor still–travelling
it doesn’tatreach
constant velocity 5N
terminal-TERMINAL
velocity VELOCITY
20N
So, if we consider a parachutist (who’s parachute doesn’t open) – no matter if the person jumps out of the plant at 2000ft or
1000ft, if terminal velocity is reached the person will hit the floor at the same speed.
Summary – An object reaches constant velocity when the
frictional force (drag) on it is equal and opposite to its weight.
This velocity is its terminal velocity. At this point the resultant
force is zero, so acceleration is zero.

In a vacuum there are no air particles and therefore no air resistance. There will not be any force opposing the force of weight so
any two objects will fall at the same rate. For example, a bowling ball and a feather will hit the ground at the same time no
matter what distance they fall.
DEMO: Two identical tennis balls. 1 made heavier by injecting
water into it. – both hit the floor at the same time

DEMO: 1 tennis ball and 1 screwed up piece of paper the same

size – both hit the floor at the same time

DEMO: 1 tennis ball and 1 screwed up paper the same size when dropped from
someone standing on the bench top – the ball hits the floor first dur to the paper
reaching terminal velocity (weight is less, and air resistance is greater)

DEMO: Flat piece of paper dropped reaches terminal velocity immediately. However, if we take the air
resistance away by placing the paper on top of a book and both are dropped, they hit the floor together

Speed = how fast m/s

Velocity = how fast in a given direction m/s 2m 3m 5m

4m Car is
Acceleration = faster this second than the last second. getting
1s 2s 3s 4s faster
OR

The car changes direction. For example, if a car travels around a roundabout at a steady speed of 5mph it is said to be
accelerating. It has a change in velocity, it is changing direction.

Constant Acceleration = velocity is changing at a constant rate.

2m/s 4m/s 6m/s Increasing by

2m/s each
second
1s 2s 3s 4s
Decreasing Acceleration = velocity change is decreasing.

2m/s 4m/s 6m/s 7m/s 7.5m/s

1s 2s 3s 4s 5s 6s

Increase of 2m/s Increase of 2m/s Increase of 1m/s Increase of 0.5m/s

Velocity is increasing but at a reduced rate

Decelleration (negative acceleration) = change in velocity in a negative direction. This does not mean backwards!

4m/s 3m/s 2m/s

Car is still
getting
1s 2s 3s 4s slower

Constant speed = car is not getting faster or slower.

1m 1m 1m

1s 2s 3s 4s

Decreasing velocity (speed) = car is getting slower. It is travelling less distance in the same time.

6m 5m 4m 3m

1s 1s 1s 1s 1s

20m/s
Slow down learning, use examples and
+20m/s visuals, it is worth getting the basics right
as it will make it easier to understand the
40m/s
harder stuf
+15m/s

DEMO: Terminal velocity can be

55m/s
demonstrated using cupcake cases. Drop 1
+10m/s or more cases and film them using the
video physics app. The app will give the
65m/s
position of the case at a regular time
interval so that a velocity-time graph can
+9m/s
Increasing velocity acceleration
Decreasing show terminal velocity
74m/s
 +8m/s DEMO: A cylinder of bubble solution.
Insert a tube with a syringe on the top. A
82m/s
bubble injected will slowly rise to the
+8m/s surface. Timing it, or videoing with video
physics, will allow terminal velocity to be
90m/s identified.

+3m/s
Compare big bubbles with little bubbles.

93m/s

SUVAT EQUATIONS -Solve velocity problems if constant acceleration is involved.

s = distance

u = initial velocity

v = final velocity

a = acceleration

t = time

Q. A monkey hanging from a 10m high tree lets go. Assuming the acceleration due to gravity is 10m/s/s, how fast is the monkey
travelling when he hits the ground?

A. s = 10m 2 2
v =u + 2as
u = 0m/s
v 2=0+ ( 2 x 10 x 10 )
v=?
2
v =0+200
a = 10m/s/s
v =√200=¿ 14.1m/s
t=?

Parallelogram of Forces

When more than one force is acting on an object, we can draw a parallelogram to reveal the overall resultant force.

18N

7N

16N When the forces are drawn to scale, simply

measure the resultant!
Resolving Forces
F3
A diagonal force can be resolved into its vertical and horizontal components. F1

F2

F1 = F2 + F3

Q. Consider the tow truck: If the tensional force in the cable is

1000N and if the cable makes a 60°
angle with the horizontal, then what is
the vertical component of force that
lifts the car?

Find the right-angled triangle:

Use trigonometry to find x:

x 1000N

OPP HYP
60°

SOHCAHTOA

OPP x ADJ
I have OPP and HYP so: sin 60= =
HYP 1000
x=sin 60 x 1000=866 N The car is lifted by an upwards force of 866N.

Newtons 2nd Law of Motion

The larger the resultant force acting on an object, the more the object accelerates – force and acceleration are directly
proportional. F ∝ a

An object with a larger mass will accelerate less than one with a smaller mass – acceleration and mass are inversely proportional.
1
a∝ .
m

mass (kg)

Overall this is expressed as - F=ma

acceleration (m/s/s)
Force (N)

Newtons 3rd Law of Motion

 When two objects interact, the force they exert on each other are equal and opposite.

In summary, the two vehicles exert equal and opposite force on each other as they collide. We know that F=ma but although
force is equal, 1 truck has bigger mass and 1 has bigger acceleration. We also know that acceleration is change in velocity (in a
certain time) so the smaller truck is the one that experiences a greater change in velocity away from the crash site (it bounces
away).

Consider these two skaters. When they push off from one another they will both experience equal force.
F
However a= (rearranged from F=ma) so the skater with less mass will be accelerated more.
m

Work Done

WORK DONE = ENERGY TRANSFERRED

Work Done is the energy transferred when a force moves an object through a distance

Work Done (joules)

Distance (m)
W =Fs
Force (N)
 Energy

Teach energy in the following order:

 Observation – describing using everyday language
 Explanation – using mechanisms and processes
 Energy Analysis – considering start and end points – connecting the start to the end using stores and pathways.
 Quantification – calculate quantities using equations

Conservation of energy: Energy is not created nor destroyed. The total energy is a system stays the same. However, it can be
stored and transferred (shifted).

Energy transfers (or shifts) from one store to another by an energy pathway….
Thermal is
 Mechanical
 Electrical
sometimes called
 Heating internal!
 Radiation
Misconception: there is no heat energy –
it is energy in the thermal store
transferred by heating.

Energy needs to be considered as a closed system. The system has a start and an end. Systems can interact with one another.

The energy rules were read to us as a story. We had to draw each part of the story. We then had to read the story to someone
else using the drawings.

1. Dennis has 28 blocks of wood to play with. He plays with them every day. The blocks are indestructible.
2. Every night Dennis’ mother counts the blocks as she puts them away. There are always 28.
3. One day, when putting the blocks away his mother sees that there are only 27 blocks. She looks all around and finds one
under the rug.
4. Another night there are only
Identify the 26 blocks.
energy Mother
stores at notices the window is open. The blocks are found on the grass outside.
5. Another day Derek comes
the start and the end: his blocks. That evening Dennis’ mother puts away 33 blocks. But the next
to play and brings
day Dennis returns the extra blocks to Derek.
 There are alwaysStart
28 –blocks
Gravitational
unless Potential
someEnergy
are added from outside or some are lost to outside (energy is not created nor
Store
destroyed but diferent systems can interact. The energy will be there, you just have to look for it!).
End – Thermal Store of the
surroundings

Identify the pathways:

Misconception: TheMechanical
word ‘energy’
transfer toiskinetic
usedenergy
in There are not different forms of
store and to the thermal store of the
everyday language without scientific meaning. energy – there are different
surroundings due to collisions with air
particles (drag). Energy in the chemical store forms of energy transfer.
Thermal store, via heating, of the transferred electrically to
surroundings due to the collision with
the thermal store of the filament bulb and
the ground.
thermal store of the surroundings by the
 1
k e= m v 2
2
velocity (m/s)
Kinetic energy
(J) mass (m)

Kinetic energy – the energy due to

motion

mass (kg)

GPE=mgh height (m)

Gravitational potential
energy – the energy due
Gravitational potential gravitational field strength
to position in a
energy (J) (N/kg) gravitational field

ZEEBEE DEMO
The zeebee turns
inside out and gets dropped. It rebounds off the floor bouncing high.
The start and end points are picked: - Start at full GPE (before being dropped) and end just before it
touches the floor (full KE).
The zeebee falls to Earth due to the force of weight due to the Earths gravitational field strength. At the top
before the fall it has maximum GPE. As it falls the GPE decreases as KE increases, the zeebee is accelerating
and will reach maximum velocity immediately before hitting the floor. On its way down the zeebee collides
with air particles transferring some energy into thermal stores of the zeebee and the air.

If the thermal stores are ignored, we can calculate both GPE and KE.
GPE=mgh=0.035 x 9.8 x 2=0.686 J ∴ maximum GPE (top) is 0.686J and the maximum KE (before
hitting floor) is also 0.686J.

DEMO: The orange liquid demo is a

useful tool in visualising energy stores
and the conservation of energy. An
amount of orange liquid will be
poured into cups labelled with the
energy stores. The stores will be filled
with liquid totalling that of the
original amount.
 Force explanation Energy explanation Force explanation Energy explanation

At the top there is a At the top there is

At the top there is a At the top there is energy in
energy in the
the gravitational potential force of weight due
force of weight due gravitational potential
store of the ball. to the Earths store of the case.
to the Earths
When it is falling the GPE is
Gravitational Field
Gravitational Field When it is falling the
decreasing and the energy of Strength (N).
Strength (N). GPE is decreasing and
the kinetic store is increasing.
As the case falls the the energy of the kinetic
As the ball falls If air resistance is negligible
store is increasing.
the GPE+KE at any point will force of air
there is the force of equal the GPE at the top. If
There will be some
resistance gets energy transferred to
weight + the there is air resistance/ drag,
larger with the thermal stores of
opposing force of there will be some energy
the case and the air
transferred to the thermal increasing velocity
air resistance/ drag particles due to the
stores of the ball and the air until this force is
(friction). Weight is collisions.
particles due to the collisions. equal to and
a larger magnitude. When terminal velocity
Just before the ball hits the balanced with the
is reached KE is at its
At the bottom there ground the KE is at its force of weight. At
maximum but GPE is still
is the force of maximum. this point terminal decreasing. This is
weight downwards As the ball hits the ground velocity is reached. because it is transferred
and the support energy is transferred to the to the thermal stores of
At the bottom the the case and the air
force of the ground elastic potential store and as
the balls shape reforms force of weight particles.
upwards. These
(bounce) this energy is equals the support
forces are equal. transferred back to KE.
As the case hits the
force of the ground. ground energy is
When the ball comes to rest transferred to thermal
the energy is transferred to stores of the ground and
the thermal energy stores of the case. Some energy
the ball and the ground. Some will be transferred away
being transferred away via via sound pathways.
sound waves.

As a ball bounces the energy pathways/ stores will repeat over and over so
make sure you decide on a start and end!
 Spring constant (N/m)
Elastic Potential Energy
Elastic potential energy
– the energy stored as a
(J) result of applying a
1
Ee = k e 2 force to deform an
2
elastic object

extension (m)

energy transferred (J)

POWER Power (watts)

E
P=
This is the rate of energy transfer or t time (s)

work done. Its units are watts (W).

1 watt = 1 J/s

Work done (J)

Power (watts)
W
P=
t
time (s)

WD = F d
GPE = mxg h
Static Electricity
KE = mxa Electrical charge can move easily through some
∴ 1
mx
From SUVAT
(∆ v ) t materials – these are electrical conductors. If
2 electrical charges cannot move easily through a
∆v
∴ material it is called an electrical insulator.
Shows the energy
t vt
equations all
2 An electrical charge that cannot move is called a
follow the ‘work
static charge.
mv done’ pattern
t Static charges are usually found on electrical
insulators as they cannot move easily – they can be
positive, negative or neutral.
KE = mv 2
2
or 1
2
mv
2

A static charge is created when electrons are rubbed

onto, or off of, materials.

acetate rod
Proves where KE
When an acetate rod is rubbedcomes
equation withfrom
a
cloth the friction created will rub
electrons off the rod and deposit them
onto the cloth.
cloth

POSITIVE CHARGES DO NOT

MOVE!!!
 DEMOS
The charge on the balloon is unknown – it can be charged by rubbing it on a material but
whether electrons are rubbed on or off will depend on the type of material.

If the balloon has a positive charge: as the hand nears the balloon the electrons on the hand will
be attracted to the + charge and move forwards.

If the balloon has a negative charge: as the hand nears the balloon the electrons on the hand
are repelled by the – and move away.

ANY CHARGE WILL BE ATTRACTED TO A NEUTRAL OBJECT AS THE CHARGE IS INDUCED –

ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION

The yen in floating on water. yen

A ‘fly stick’ gives off negative charge. As you bring it near to the
surface of the water the yen floats away. Why?

As the negative charge approaches the surface of the water the electrons of the neutral water
move backwards inducing a positive charge on the surface of the water. The positive charge is
attracted to the negative fly stick and the water lifts slightly causing a mini wave to pass over the
surface of the water moving the yen away.

When you step in the shower why does the shower curtain suddenly love you?

The water is running over your body knocking electrons off, giving you a positive charge. The
shower curtain is neutral and so the electrons move forward, attracted to your positive charge.
There is electrostatic induction between you and the shower curtain.

Alternatively the water could rub electrons off the shower curtain as it runs down it, if you are
neutral there will still be electrostatic induction and either way that shower curtain is your best
friend!

As a car travels friction can knock electrons from the air particles building a negative
charge on the car. When you touch the car (or almost touch the car) a spark may
occur where the charge jumps across the gap between the car and you and it travels
through you to earth.

Electrostatic attraction/ repulsion are non-contact forces

CIRCUITS
Battery (multiple cells)

Cell – store of chemical energy -

creates a potential difference in a
circuit. Differences make things
happen!
 switch resistor

lamp
variable resistor

fuse
thermistor
Ammeter – measures current (I) Voltmeter – measures potential
in amperes (A). Current is another difference (p.d.) in volts (V).
name for flow of charge. diode
Connected across components. LED – light
Connected in line with emitting diode
Electric current will only flow LDR – light
components.
around a complete circuit if there dependent
resistor
is a potential difference. Potential
heater
difference is the driving force that
pushes the charge around.
Resistance – this is anything in a
circuit which reduces the flow of I =INTENSITY (CURRENT - AMPS)
current. It is measured in ohms Ω.

Some components have a change

Q=QUANTITY (CHARGE -
in their resistance when there is a COULOMBS)
change in the current flowing
through them, for example, their
resistance will increase when they Current is rate of flow of charge – measured in amps it could be better measured in units of
get warm. A component which coulombs per second C/s.
charge currents
Electric (C) can be identified only by
does not get affected in this way current (A)
Q their effects, for example, heat, light….
is referred to as ohmic. I=
t time (s)

Modelling circuits
Penguin race game model - The penguins go up the stairs. The stairs are modelling the battery, therefore the penguin is the charge (1C) and each step is
1J of ‘work done’. Therefore, each step of the game is 1J/C. There are 9 steps, so the potential difference is 9J/C or 9V. The battery pushes the charge
around the circuit, this is shown by the penguins sliding down the slide back to the steps (battery) where the process starts again. Along the track there
is a flag that turns when the penguins pass by – this can represent a resistor and the resistance is due to the collisions.
As always there are problems with modelling in this way – for this to better represent a circuit the track would need to be completely full of penguins.

Sweetie model – The teacher is the cell and has a bowl of sweets. The sweets represent energy. The pupils, in a circuit shape, are the charges. One pupil is the bulb,
they have a bowl too. Before starting everybody before the bulb gets 2 sweets; 1 sweet = 1J, the cell gives 2J per unit of charge, therefore 2J/C, therefore the cell is 2V.
The people (charge) move around the circuit. When they pass the bulb, they give it 2 sweets when they pass the cell, they get given 2 sweets.
Series circuit – if another bulb is added the charges give 1 sweet (1J) to 1 bulb and 1 sweet to the other bulb – the bulbs have half as much energy and therefore are half
as bright!

Parallel circuit – the circuit can be laid out as a parallel circuit, but the charges take turns going down each branch where they will give their 2 sweets to one bulb or the
other – the charges have to work harder, the cell will need to give out more energy and will be exhausted more quickly.

Current is usually shown travelling in the direction away from the positive end of the cell/ battery:
 TIP: Get students to
critique models

In reality the negative e- ‘s are attracted to the positive end:

Misconceptions:

x batteries store electricity

x ‘clashing current’ – where kids believe charge travels down both arms of
the circuit
x short wires = less electricity
x charge flows sequentially
x how you draw the circuit affects how it works
x terminology is interchangeable eg, power, electric, current, energy
x bulbs take time to light whilst they wait for the electric to get to them,
consider a BIG circuit; will there be a time delay after the switch is
pressed to when the bulb lights?
x pupils can think circuits only need 1 wire to work as the items they see
in the home only have 1 wire – show them inside the plug!

Tips:

 Allow the class to talk – they will benefit from considering other views/
explanations
 draw circuits out on benches with whiteboard markers
 if you are not teaching about the building of the circuits that week, ask for
the circuits to be pre-built so you can get straight to the point of the
learning objective

Two cells care connected to a bulb and an

ammeter. ROPE CIRCUIT

If one cell is taken away will the reading The class loosely hold a rope loop. The rope
on the ammeter go up, down or stay the represents the charge in the circuit. The cell
will ‘push’ the charge around (by pulling the
same? Explain.
rope loop round and round – model isn’t
From 2 cells to 1 cell the p.d. decreases, perfect!). One person can be a component
less work is done, less energy is being such as resistor by holding the rope a bit
tighter, the cell will have to do more work to
shifted. The charge per second reduces
push the charge around.
therefore the reading on the ammeter
decreases. The model is good as it shows that charge is
all around the circuit and doesn’t begin and end. Charge is conserved.
The bulb will be dimmer as there is less
charge therefore less collisions and less
energy transferred to the thermal energy
store of the bulb.
The Donation Model
Ask pupils who is:
  Battery?
 Energy?
 Charges?
 What is represented by the supermarket?
 The battery is the bakery manager who
loads the bread onto the vans.
 The energy is the bread.
 The vans are the charges. They carry the
bread (energy).
 The supermarket is a resistor.
 If the vans move faster more energy is
shifted as the rate of flow of charge
increases.
 The manager loading more bread
represents a larger p.d.

Potential Difference is the energy given to each

coulomb of charge by the battery. For example, a 12V battery will give 12J of energy per coulomb. This means that volts = joules
per coulomb. It is the difference in potential energy between two points. At the negative terminal of the battery the potential is
zero. At the positive end of the battery there is full potential, say 12V, therefore in this example the difference is 12-0=12V.

Charges flow from where they have high potential to where they are have low potential.

At a point of resistance, the energy will be transferred to the component. The difference in potential before the energy is
transferred and after the transfer is the potential difference across the component.

A Hill diagram represents what happens to the p.d. around a circuit.

Remember the definition: Potential

diference is the energy that each
coulomb of charge is able to shif
from the battery to the components
in the circuit

energy transferred (J )
ie, p .d .=
charge(C)
Current is the rate of flow of charge ie,
charge(C)
current=
Factors Affecting Resistance time (s)
A good practical for this is the resistance of a pencil line: Using a soft pencil (for example, 9B) draw a line on graph paper so it is
5cm long and 3 cm thick – make sure the line is dark. Use a multimeter to measure its resistance in ohms. Consider which
variables affect resistance by drawing longer or shorter lines, or by drawing thinner or thicker lines.

Long or short – Long wires have more atoms for the electron charges to collide with. In each collision energy will be shifted into
thermal stores.

Thick or thin – Thin wires have less space so there is less space for the electrons to avoid collisions with atoms.

Therefore, short and thick wires have low resistance; long and thin wires have most resistance.

Temperature – Hotter wires have more vibrations of their atoms. There will be more collisions between atoms and electrons and
so resistance increases with temperature.

RESISTANCE IS ALL ABOUT COLLISIONS!!!

Different materials have different resistivity – a low resistivity means the material readily allows the flow of charge. It is
represented by the Greek letter Rho, ρ.
Directly proportional means that there is a
relationship where when one increases so does
the other….
 MATHS LAST!!!

In summary then resistance is directly proportional to length, L:

RαL Inversely proportional means that

there is a relationship where when
It is inversely proportional to thickness; thickness is actually a measure of area, A: one decreases as the other
increases…
1
Rα
A
It is directly proportional to resistivity, ρ; as resistivity increases so does resistance:

Rαρ
ρL
When put together this gives the resistance equation R=
A

I-V CHARACTERISTICS

We can plot a graph of current v p.d. for a component in a circuit, the resulting graph is the components I-V
characteristic.
lower resistance

higher resistance

Ohmic component – as Filament lamp – at higher p.d. the Diode – the resistance is
p.d. increases so does components temperature high until a minimum p.d. is
current. increases its resistivity. reached.

CIRCUIT RULES
Series Parallel
ITOTAL=I1=I2=I3….etc ITOTAL=I1+I2+I3….etc
(current is the same at any point) (the current splits down branches)

VTOTAL=V1+V2+V3….etc VTOTAL=V1=V2=V3….etc
(P.d. is shared across components) (All components get full p.d.)

RTOTAL=R1+R2+R3….etc 1
=
1 1 1
+ + … . etc
(resistance accumulates) R TOTAL R1 R 2 R3

Circuit Rules Being Used:-

 Cell = 6V

Voltmeter reading: p.d. rule series circuit – VT=V1+V2….etc so p.d. is

6
shared across components! Total R=18Ω, Cell=6V so =0.33V per
18
Ω. 0.33V x 12Ω=4V

Ammeter reading: current rule – same all round circuit so V =IR

V 6
I = = =¿ 0.33A
R 18

Cell = 6V

Voltmeter reading: Branch 1=Branch 2=6V but branch 1 p.d. is shared by

components. Each resistor is 6Ω so p.d. is shared equally – 3V each.

Ammeter reading: current is split between branches and we need to know

1 1 1
= +
the total R in the parallel circuit. R rule is …etc, so
RT R1 R 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = + = =8 Ω ,
R T R BRANCH 1 R BRANCH 2 12 24 0.125

V 6 0.75
I = = =0.75 A BUT split between branches x 24 =0.5A
R 8 36

Cell = 6V

1 1 1 1
Voltmeter reading: parallel 1st, = + = =33.33 Ω
R T 100 50 0.03

6V 6
V per Ω = = =0.095 V per Ω x 33.33=3.16V
30+ 33.33 Ω 63.33

Ammeter reading: ammeter is before the branching so refers to total

current. Total current is dependent on RTOTAL which in the series
V 6
circuit is 30+33.33=63.33Ω. I= = = 0.095A
R 63.33

PARALLEL

SERIES