ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES

Endogenous processes- are geomorphic processes that originate within Earth that tend to
increase the amount of surface relief. Tectonic and igneous processes constitute the endogenic
geomorphic processes. The driving force is the thermal energy of the mantle. Most of the thermal
energy originates from the decay and disintegration of radioactive elements in Earth’s core.
The endogenous processes on earth are responsible for earthquakes, development of
continents, mountain building, volcanic activities, and other movements related to earth’s crust.
Geomorphology- a major subfield of physical geography devoted to the scientific study of
landforms.
Relief- is the difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points within a specified
area or on a particular surface feature.
Some of the endogenic processes that played a role in the evolution of landforms on earth
1. Magmatism - magma is the original material that make up igneous rocks. Magmatism
happens when magma is generated and develops into igneous (magmatic) rocks. The
process can take place either under the surface or on the surface of earth
2. Volcanism (Plutonism)- the process that usually happens after magma is formed. Magma
comes out with extreme heat and pressure and may causedestructive explosions. As soon
as magma reaches the surface of Earth, it is now called lava.
3. Metamorphism- is the process of changing the materials that make up a rock due toheat
and pressure that are increasing or decreasing.
LAYERS OF THE EARTH
Geologists cannot observe Earth’s interior directly because of extreme conditions. The deepest mine
in the world, a gold mine in South Africa reaches a depth of 3.8 kms only. Geologists use an
indirect method of studying the earth’s interior, they use seismic waves produced by earthquakes.
As one descends into the earth’s surface temperature and pressure increase. For every 40 m that
one descends, the temperature rises 1°C.
Some principles necessary for understanding the behaviour of seismic waves
1. A wave radiates outward in concentric spheres and at constant velocity
2. Seismic waves travel at different velocities in different types of rocks, varying with the rigidity
and density of that rock
3. When waves pass from one material to another, they refracts(bend) and sometimes
reflect(bounces back)
4. P waves are compressional waves and can travel through gases, liquids, and solids. S waves are
shear waves and travel only through solids
Layer Composition Depth Properties
Crust Oceanic crust Basalt 4 to 7 km Cool, hard and
strong
Continental Granite 20 to 70 km Cool, hard, and
crust strong

Lithosphere The crust and Varies; the 75 to 125 km Cool, hard, and
the crust and the strong
Uppermost mantle have
portion of the different
mantle compositions
 Mantle(excluding Asthenosphere Plastic, Extends to Hot, weak, and
the uppermost ultramafic 350 km 1% or 2%
portion, which is rock, mainly melted
part of the peridotite,
lithosphere) throughout
entire mantle;
mineralogy
varies with
depth
Remainder of Extends from Hot, under
upper mantle 350 t0 660 great pressure
km and
mechanically
Lower mantle strong
Extends from High pressure
660 to 2900 forms minerals
km different from
those of the
upper mantle

Core Outer core Iron and nickel Extends from Liquid

2,900 to
Inner core Iron and nickel 5,150 km solid
Extends
from5,150 km
to the center
of earth

Crust-
Is the outermost and thinnest layer of earth’s geosphere composed of relatively low density
silicate rocks. It is made up of oceanic and continental crust. The boundary between the crust and the
mantle is called Mohorovicic discontinuity or Moho, in honor of Andrija Mohorovicic, its discoverer.

Mantle
Makes up 80% of earth’s volume. The temperature at the top of the mantle is near 1000 °C and at
near the mantle/core boundary, it is about 3,300°C. Because both temperature and pressure increase
with depth in Earth, their combined effects causes changes in the physical properties of rocks with
increasing depth.

Asthenosphere
Consists of a weak , plastic rock with partly molten characteristics where magma may form. The
average temperature is about 1,800°C. The strong, hard lithosphere lies and float on top of the soft,
weak asthenosphere. This concept of floating lithosphere is important to our understanding of plate
tectonics and earth’s internal processes.

Core
The dense, metallic, innermost region of earth’s geosphere, consisting mainly of iron and nickel.
The outer core is molten but the inner core is solid.
EARTH’S MAGNETISM
Early navigators learned that a needle-shaped magnet aligned itself in a north-south orientation.
They learned that the Earth has a magnetic north and south poles. Earth’s interior is too hot for a
permanent magnet to exist. Earth’s magnetic field is probably electromagnetic in origin. Earth’s
magnetic field is generated within the outer core. Currents in the liquid outer core force the solid inner
core to spin. This movement creates Earth’s magnetic field, which causes the planet to act like a giant
bar magnet.
FORCES THAT CHANGE THE EARTH’S SURFACE
A. DIASTROPHISM- PERTAINS TO ALL MOVEMENT OF THE SOLID PART OF THE EARTH
B. EARTHQUAKE- A SUDDEN MOTION OR TREMBLING OF EARTH CAUSED BY ABRUPT RELEASE OF
ENERGY THAT IS STORED IN ROCKS
C. VOLCANISM- IS THE TERM WHICH COVERS ALL KINDS OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES . IT INCLUDES THE
PROCESS THAT GIVES RISE TO MAGMA AND CAUSES ITS MOVEMENTS IN THE EARTH. IT ALSO
COVERS THE EXPULSION OF GASES, LAVA AND SOLID MATERIALS FROM THE OPENING IN THE
CRUST.
DIASTROPHISM
Earth’s movement may be described according to the direction of motion.
1. Uplift- either local or widespread rising of the crust. Responsible for the emergence of small
islands in the pacific and the rising of large areas of continents to higher elevation
2. Subsidence- occurs when the earth’s crust sinks. It is the local or widespread sinking of the
earth’s crust. This causes the disappearance of small islands in the pacific in the historic past.
3. Thrust- horizontal motion of the crust. Large masses of rocks slide and slip against each other
into new positions. Sometimes rock masses bend, tilt or wrinkle due to these sideward forces
which would lead to earthquakes.
THEORIES ON DIASTROPHISM
1. Theory of Isostacy- the concept that the lithosphere is in floating equilibrium on the
asthenosphere. It presupposes that continents and ocean basins as well as mountains and
plains are in a state of balance by slowly adjusting themselves vertically. As rock from higher
elevation is removed by erosion and deposited on a lower region, the higher region slowly rises
at the same time the lower region becomes heavier and slowly sinks. It helps to explain why the
wearing down of the mountain and filling up of the ocean basins have not resulted in the level
surface over the whole earth. Example, when a glacier grows, the weight of ice forces the
lithosphere downward. When a glacier melts, the continents rises-it rebounds.

2. Contraction theory- according to this theory the earth is gradually shrinking. This may be true
either because it is cooling , or because great pressure squeeze parts of it into a smaller volume
causing an increase in density. Because of this shrinking the interior is becoming a little too
small for the exterior. This “misfit” would bring about a continual tendency toward
readjustment

3. The convection Theory- According to this theory convection current are set up in liquids and
also in gases by heating. The cooler portion of the liquid sinks because it is more dense than the
heated portion. This pushes up the heated portion. The rising liquid loses heat at the surface
and then moves down again. These circulating currents are set up which continue as long as
heat is applied. The theory has been advanced that convection currents are set up under the
crust. The source of heat is believed to be the disintegration of radioactive elements such as
uranium. This theory accounts for the pushing up and folding of the rocks
4. Continental Drift Theory- this theory was proposed by Alfred Wegener that earth’s continents
were once joined together in a single landmass and later split and drifted apart. It supposes
that originally only one large continent was formed when the earth’s crust cooled. This single
continent, the PANGAEA was composed mainly of granite and situated at the center of the
equator. It broke up into pieces which drifted slowly away from each other and formed the
continents today. As the continents drifted apart they rubbed and collided with each other
forming the surface features of today. Wegener used several types of evidence to support his
idea among them were similarity of fossils found in different continents, presence of tillites in
areas whose present climates do not suggest glacial formation, presence of coal seams in
polar regions, continuity of rock layers found in different continents, similarity of rock types in
different continents. Geologist believed that South America and Africa were once connected
and when they broke off South America moved westward and Africa moved eastward and their
separation formed the Atlantic Ocean. India was once connected to Antarctica and Africa but
moved north eastward and collided with Asia forming Himalayan Mountain ranges. Saudi
Arabia drifted apart from Africa forming the Red Sea. Because Wegener could not identify the
cause of continental drift, most geologist rejected his idea. The continental drift theory has been
replaced by the more complete Plate Tectonic Theory.

5. Expansion Theory- According to this theory, the earth is neither shrinking or remaining at the
same size, it is expanding. Expansion of the earth would change the position of the continents.
Diastrophism maybe the result of earth’s expansion.

6. Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis- Presented by an American geologist H. H. Hess. He proposed

that that the seafloor is not permanent but constantly being renewed. He theorized that the
underwater mountains (mid-ocean ridges) are located above the upwelling convection cells in
the mantle . As rising material from the mantle oozes upward, new lithosphere is formed at the
mid oceanic ridge (also known as spreading center). At the mid-ocean ridge, molten material
rises from the mantle and erupts. The molten material then spreads out, pushing older rock to
both sides of the ridge. Oceanic crust created along the mid-ocean ridge is destroyed at a deep-
ocean trench. In the process of subduction, oceanic crust sinks down beneath the trench into
the mantle. The oceanic crust was found to be thin and young near the central ridge region and
progressively thicker and older away from the ridge. Several types of evidence from the oceans
supported Hess’s theory- evidence from molten material, magnetic stripes and drilling sample.
The theory of seafloor spreading provided a mechanism for continental drift.

7. Plate Tectonic Theory- this theory describes the forces within the earth that create the
continents, ocean basins, mountain ranges, earthquake belts, and other large- scale features of
the earth’s surface. It states that pieces of Earth’s lithosphere are in constant, slow motion,
driven by convection currents in the mantle. It states that the earth’s outer shell, the lithosphere
is divided into 7 relatively large plates ( African, Eurasian, Indian-Australian, Antarctic, Pacific,
North American and South American plates) and a number of smaller ones. These lithospheric
plates ride atop the plastic asthenosphere below. The plates carry the continents or parts of the
ocean floor or both. Because each plate moves as a single unit in relation to the other plates, the
interior of the plates are generally stable geologically. All major interactions between plates
occur along the plate boundaries. Thus most of the earth’s earthquakes, volcanoes and
mountains occur along these active margins. The creation and destruction of lithosphere takes
place at such margins. This theory was proposed by a Canadian scientist, J.Tuzo Wilson.
There are 3 types of plate boundaries
1. Divergent boundary- A plate boundary where tectonic plates move apart from each other
and new lithosphere is continuously forming: also called a spreading center or a rift zone. At
a divergent plate boundary, two plates spread apart from one another. Most divergent
boundaries occur at the mid-ocean ridge. The underlying asthenosphere then oozes upward
to fill the gap between the separating plates. As the asthenosphere rises between the
separating plates, some of it melts to form magma. Most of the magma rises to the earth’s
surface, where it cools to form new crust. Divergent boundaries also occur on land forming a
deep valley called a rift valley.

2. Convergent boundary- A plate boundary where two tectonic plates move toward each
other or collide head –on. When two plates collide, the density of the plates determine
which one comes out on top. Where two plates carrying oceanic crust meet at the trench,
the plate that is more dense dives under the other plate and returns to the mantle a process
known as subduction. When two plates carrying continental crust collide, subduction does
not takes place. Instead, the plates crash head-on. The collision squeezes the crust into
mighty mountain ranges.

3. Transform boundary- A plate boundary where two tectonic plates slide horizontally past
one another moving in opposite directions. Along transform boundaries, crust is neither
created nor destroyed. Earthquakes occur frequently along these boundaries.
The plates move at amazingly slow rates: from about one to ten cm per year.
Characteristics and examples of plate boundaries

Type of Type of plates Topography Geologic Events Modern

boundary Involve Examples
Divergent Ocean-ocean Mid –Oceanic Sea-floor Mid- Atlantic
Ridge spreading, Ridge
shallow
earthquakes,
rising magma,
volcanoes

Continent- Rift valley Continents torn East African rift

continent apart,
earthquake,
rising magma,
volcanoes
Convergent Ocean-ocean Island arcs and Subduction, Western
]’ ocean trenches deep Aleutians
earthquakes,
rising magma,
volcanoes,
deformation of
rocks
Ocean – Mountains and Subduction, Andes
continent ocean trenches deep
earthquakes,
 rising magma,
volcanoes,
deformation of
rocks
Continent- Mountains Deep Himalayas
continent earthquakes,
deformation of
rocks
Transform Ocean-ocean Major offset of Earthquakes Offset of East
Mid-oceanic Pacific rise in
Ridge axis South Pacific

Continent- Small deformed Earthquakes, San Andreas

continent mountain deformation of Fault
ranges’ rocks
deformations
along fault

The term CONVECTION refers to the upward and downward flow of fluid material in response to
heating and cooling. The process of mantle convection continually stirs the entire mantle as rock that is
hotter than its surroundings rises toward earth surface and old plates that are colder than their
surroundings sink into the mantle. A single mantle convection cell maybe thousands of kilometres
across. In this way, the entire mantle –lithosphere system circulates in great cells, carrying rock from
the core-mantle boundary to earth’s surface and then back into the deepest mantle.
While plate tectonic motion and the resulting earthquakes may lead to death and destruction,
we must appreciate that earth’s tectonic activity profoundly affects Earth’s system and may cause the
planet to be habitable. The movement of tectonic plates is responsible for the following:
1. Forming the oceans and the atmosphere when gases released during volcanic eruptions
brought water to the surface of the otherwise dry, inhospitable Earth.
2. Creating the continents
3. Rejuvenating soils
4. Regulating global chemistry
5. Concentrating metals

B. EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is the shaking and trembling that results from the movement of rock beneath
the earth’s surface. It is the sudden motion or trembling of earth caused by the abrupt release of energy
that is stored in rocks. The movement of Earth’s plates creates powerful forces that squeeze or pull the
rock in the crust. These forces are called stress

TYPES OF STRESS
1. Shearing- stress that pushes a mass of rock in two opposite directions. Shearing can cause rock
to break and slip apart or to change its shape. The friction caused by this stress can cause
earthquakes.
2. Tension- occurs where two plates are moving apart. It pulls the crust stretching rock so that it
becomes thinner in the middle. It is speculated that this type of stress is what separated all the
continents in the world during breaking away of the supergiant continent known as Pangaea.
 3. Compression- squeezes rock until it folds or breaks. One plate pushing against another can
compress rock like a giant trash compactor. Vertically, the crust can thin out or break off.
Compressional stress is usually what takes place in folding, which results in mountain building.
4. Confining-in confining stress, the crust becomes compact, making it look smaller. This is
different from shearing as none of the crust’s edges break away. However, if breaking away
happens, it would come from the inside. It can cause sinkholes where the inside portion of the
ground has already disintegrated without being apparent.
Rock appears rigid, but if you apply enough stress, rock will deform. When stress is applied to a rock,
the rock can deform in one of three ways (1) elastically (2) by fracturing or (3) plastically.
Under small amounts of stress, the rock deforms elastically when you stretch it
If the stress is removed, the rock returns to its original size and shape. An elastically deformed rock will
spring back to its original shape and release its stored elastic energy when the force is removed.
However, under certain conditions, an elastically deformed rock may suddenly fracture. When
large masses of rock in Earth’s crust deform and then fracture, the resultant rapid motion creates
vibrations that travel through Earth and are felt as an earthquake.
Under other conditions’ when its elastic limit is exceeded, a rock continues to deform, like putty,
while still solid. This behaviour is called plastic deformation. Earthquakes do not occur when rocks
deform plastically.
Any change in the volume or shape of Earth’s crust is called deformation. The crust would bend,
stretch, break, tilt, fold and slide. The slow shift of Earth’s plates causes this deformation.
Although tectonic plates move at rates between 1 and 16 cm per year, friction prevents the
plates from slipping past one another continuously. For decades or century the strong rocks near the
plate boundary can stretch or compress elastically, while the edges remained locked and immobile.
Potential energy builds, then when the strain reaches a critical value, rock snaps loose or fractures. The
ground rises and falls and undulates back and forth. Building topple, bridges fall, roadways and
pipelines snap. Earthquake had occur.
When enough stress builds up in rock, the rock breaks, creating a fault. A Fault is a break in
Earth’s crust where slabs of crust slip past each other. The rocks on both sides of the fault can move up
or down or sideways. Faults usually occur along plate boundaries, where the forces of plate motion
compress, pull or shear the crust so much that the crust breaks.
There are 3 main types of faults:
1. Strike-Slip Faults- the rocks on either side of the fault slip past each other sideways with
little up- or- down motion .A strike-slip fault that forms the boundary between two plates is
called a transform boundary. It involves a dominantly horizontal shifting of the ground. The
two types of strike-slip fault are distinguished from each other by the sense of motion of
part of the ground located on opposite side of the fault, which is either left- lateral or right-
lateral. Example, San Andreas fault in California
2. Normal faults- tension forces in earth’s crust cause normal fault. It involves mainly
downward movement of the ground across the fault called the hanging wall. The hanging
wall is the block on the right side of the fall. The fault is at an angle, so one block of rock lies
above the fault while the other block lies below the fault. The half of the fault that lies
above is called hanging wall. The half of the fault that lies below is called the footwall. When
movement occurs along a normal fault, the hanging wall slips downward. Example, Fault
along Rio Grande rift valley in New Mexico.
3. Reverse Faults- Compression forces produce reverse faults. A reverse fault has the same
structure as a normal fault, but the blocks move in the opposite direction. The rock forming
the hanging wall of a reverse fault slides up and over the footwall. Example , reverse fault
 produced part of the Appalachian Mountain in the eastern United States and the majestic
peaks in Glacier national Park in Montana.
How rocks move along a fault depends on how much friction there is between the opposite sides of the
fault. Where friction along a fault is low, the rocks on both sides of the fault slide by each other without
much sticking. Where friction is moderate, the sides of the fault jam together. Then from time to time
they jerk free, producing small earthquakes. Where friction is high, the rocks lock together and do not
move. In this case, stress increases until it is strong enough to overcome the friction force. Stress build
up until an earthquake releases the stress and the plates slide past each other.
MOUNTAIN BUILDING
The forces of plate movement can build up Earth’s surface. Over millions of years, fault
movement can change a flat plain into a towering mountain range
Mountains Formed by faulting- When normal faults uplift a block of a rock, a fault-block
mountain forms. Example, Sierra Nevada of California
Mountains formed by Folding – Plate movement causes the crust to fold. Rocks stressed by
compression may bent slowly without breaking. Folds are bends in rock that form when compression
shortens and thickens part of Earth’s crust. The collisions of two plates can cause compression and
folding of the crust. Example Himalayas in Asia and Alps in Europe
Anticlines and Synclines are used to describe upward and downward folds in rock. Anticline-
is a fold in rock that bends upward into an arch. A syncline is a fold in rock that bends downward in
the middle to form a bowl. Example of anticline is the Black Hills in South Dakota. Example of syncline is
the Illinois Basin
Plateaus- The forces that raise mountain can also raise plateaus. A Plateau is a large area flat
land elevated high above sea level. Example Colorado Plateau

Measuring Earthquakes
Earth is never still. Everyday worldwide there are about 8,000 earthquakes. Most of them are
too small to notice. Earthquakes always begin in rock below the surface. Most earthquakes begin in the
lithosphere within 100 km of earth’s surface. The focus is the point beneath earth’s surface where rock
that is under stress breaks, triggering an earthquake. The point on the surface directly above the focus
is called the epicenter.
Seismology is the study of earthquakes and the nature of Earth’s interior based on evidence
from seismic waves.
Seismic Waves are waves that travel through rocks. They are vibrations that travel through
Earth carrying the energy released during an earthquake. Seismic waves carry the energy of an
earthquake away from the focus, through Earth’s interior, and across the surface.
The energy of the seismic waves that reach the surface is greatest at the epicenter. The types
of rock and soil around the epicenter determine where and how much the ground shakes. There are 3
categories of seismic waves: P waves, S waves and surface waves. P waves and S waves are called
Body waves. An earthquake sends out two types of waves from its focus: P waves and S waves.
When these waves reach the Earth’s surface at the epicenter, surface waves develop.
Primary Waves. The first wave to arrive are the primary waves or P waves. P waves are
earthquake waves that compress and expand the ground like an accordion. P waves cause buildings to
contract and expand. P waves travel at speeds between 4 and 7 km/s in Earth’s crust and at about 8
km/s in the uppermost mantle.
Secondary waves- After P waves come secondary waves or S waves. S waves are earthquake
waves that vibrate from side to side as well as up and down. They shake the ground back and forth.
When S waves reach the surface, they shake structures violently. Unlike P waves, which travel through
both solids and liquids, S waves cannot move through liquids.They are slower than P waves. S waves
shake the ground at right angles to the direction of wave travel. S waves travel at a speed of 3 to 4 km/s
in the crust.
Surface Waves. When P waves and S waves reach the surface some of them are transformed
into surface waves. Surface waves move more slowly than P and S waves., but they produce the most
severe ground movements. Some surface waves make the ground roll like ocean waves. Other surface
waves shake buildings from side to side.They are the principal source of movement and damage on the
surface.
A seismograph records the ground movements caused by seismic waves as they move through
the Earth.
The records of earth vibration is called a Seismogram

MEASURING EARTHQUAKES
Magnitude- is a measurement of earthquake strength based on seismic waves and movement
along faults
Mercalli Scale-was developed to rate earthquakes according to their intensity. An earthquake’s
intensity is the strength of ground motion in a given place. It is based on structural damage. The
Mercalli Scale is not a precise measurement. An earthquake that destroyed many buildings was rated as
more intense than one that destroyed only a few.
The Richter Scale. The Richer Scaleis a rating of the size of seismic waves as measured by a
particular type of mechanical seismograph. It provides accurate measurements for small, nearby
earthquakes but the scale does not work well for large or distant earthquakes.
The Moment Magnitude Scale . Today geologist use the moment magnitude scale, a rating
system that estimates the total energy released by an earthquake. The moment magnitude scale can be
used to rate earthquakes of all sizes, near or far. An earthquake with a moment magnitude of 6.5 has an
energy of about 1025ergs. The atomic bomb that was dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima at the
end of World War 11 released about that much energy. On both the moment magnitude and Richter
scales, the energy of the quake increases by a factor of about 30 for each increment on the scale. The
largest earthquakes ever measured had moment magnitudes of 8.5 to 8.7 about 900 times greater than
Hiroshima bomb.
LOCATING THE EPICENTER
To tell how much far the epicenter is from the seismograph, scientists measure the difference
between the arrival times of the P waves and the S waves. The farther away an earthquake is, the
greater the time between the arrival of the P and S waves. Geologists then draw at least 3 circles using
data from different seismographs set up at stations all over the world. The center of each circle is a
particular seismograph location. The radius of each circle is the distance from seismograph to the
epicenter. The point where the 3 circles intersect is the location of the epicenter.
Earthquakes at Convergent Plate Boundaries
In a subduction zone, a relatively cold, rigid lithospheric plate dives beneath another plate and
slowly sinks into the mantle. In most places, the subducting plate slips past the plate above it with
intermittent jerks, giving rise to numerous earthquakes. The earthquakes concentrate along the upper
part of the sinking plate, where it scrapes past the opposing plate. This earthquake zone is called
Benioff Zone after Hugo Benioff, the geologist who recognized it. Many of the world’s strongest
earthquakes occur in subduction zone. When 2 continental plates converge, rocks fracture or slip
generating frequent earthquakes. The 2005 earthquake along the India-Pakistan border was generated
by the convergence of the subcontinent of India with Asia.

Earthquakes at Divergent Plate Boundary

 Only shallow earthquakes occur along the Mid-Oceanic Ridge because here the asthenosphere
rises to levels as shallow as to 10 to 15 km below Earth’s surface and is too hot and plastic to fracture.
Earthquake Hazards and Safety
Violent ground motion may toss a person to the ground and break the person’s arm, but this motion is
seldom lethal. Most earthquake fatalities and injuries occur when falling structures crush people.
Structural damage, injury, and death depend on the magnitude of the quake, its proximity to population
centers, rocks and soil types, topography, and quality of construction in the region.

HOW EARTHQUAKES CAUSE DAMAGE

Local Soil Conditions
Bedrock forms a desirable foundation in earthquake-hazard areas. When seismic waves move
from hard, dense rock to loosely packed soil, they transmit their energy to the soil. The loose soil shakes
more violently than the surrounding rock. The thicker the layer of soil, the more violent the shaking will
be. In many places, structures are built on sand, silt or clay. Sandy sediments and soil commonly settle
during earthquake. This displacement tilts buildings, break s pipelines and roadways, and fracture dams.
To avert structural failure in such soils, engineers drive steel or concrete pilings through the sand to the
bedrock below. These pilings anchor and support the structures, even if the ground beneath them
settles. This means a house built on solid rock will shake less than a house built on sandy soil
Liquefaction
Liquefaction occurs when an earthquake’s violent shaking suddenly turns loose, soft soil into
liquid mud. Liquefaction is likely where the soil is full of moisture. As the ground gives way, buildings
sink and pull apart. Liquefaction can also trigger landslides that can swept an entire house down a cliff
and into the sea.

Aftershocks
Sometimes, buildings weakened by an earthquake collapse during an aftershock. An aftershock
is an earthquake that occurs after a larger earthquake in the same area. It may strike hours, days or
even months later
Tsunamis
When an earthquake occurs beneath the sea, part of the sea floor rises or falls. Water is
displaced in response to rock movement, forming a wave. Sea waves produced by an earthquake are
often called tidal waves but have nothing to do with tides. Geologists call them by their Japanese name
tsunami . In the open sea, a tsunami is so flat that it is barely detectable. The crest may be only 1 to 3
meters high and successive crests may be more than 100 to 150 km apart. However a tsunami may
travel at 750 km/ hr. When the wave approaches the shallow water near the shore, the base of the
wave drags against the bottom and the water stacks up, increasing the height of the water. The waves
become closer together and grows into a mountain of water. Some are a height of a six story building.
Today the central part of the Indian-Australian Plate is subducting beneath the islands of
Sumatra and Java. On December 26, 2004, approximately 1200 km of rock along the subducting sea
floor slipped suddenly with vertical movement up to 15 m and the resulting earthquake of magnitude
9.0 to 9.3 lasted for almost 10 minutes and was the second –largest seismic event ever recorded, second
only to the 1960 Chilean quake. This tremendous displacement of rock initiated a massive tsunami that
radiated in all directions, killing an estimated 283,000 people along the Indian Ocean coastlines.
Survivors reported that moments prior to the deadly wave coastal water retreated, exposing dry mud in
ocean bays. Then the wave raced inward, rearing upward as much as 30 m as high as a 10 story
building. When there is earthquake in the sea floor, sea floor drops, sea level falls with it. Water rushes
into low spot, and overcompensates, creating a bulge. Water rises and crashes onto land, destroying
property and often causing human deaths.
We can’t prevent tsunamis, but we can mitigate loss of life. An early warning system could alert
coastal inhabitants several minutes ahead giving people time to retreat to higher ground. In addition,
barrier islands and coral reefs, cause waves to break and dissipate their energy offshore, thus,
preservation of these natural features protects populated regions along the coast.
Making Buildings Safer
To reduce earthquake damage, new buildings must be made stronger and more flexible. Older
buildings must be modified to withstand stronger quakes
Choice of Location
The location of a building affects the damage caused during earthquake. Steep slopes pose the
danger of landslides. Filled land can shake violently. People should avoid buildings on such sites.
People should also avoid building structures near earthquake faults. The farther a structure is from a
fault, the less strong the shaking will be.
Construction Materials
Some common framing materials used in buildings, such as wood .and steel, bend and sway
during an earthquake, but they resist failure. However, brick, stone, adobe (dried mud) and other
masonry products are brittle and likely to strengthen the frames of wooden buildings.
To combat damage caused by liquefaction, new homes built on soft ground should be anchored
to solid rock below the soil. A building designed to reduce the amount of energy that reaches the
building during an earthquake is called a base-isolated building. A base isolated building rests on a
shock-absorbing rubber pads or springs. Flexible joints can be installed in gas and water lines to keep
them from breaking. Automatic shut-off valves also can be installed on these lines to cut off gas and
water flow.

Protecting Yourself During an Earthquake

The best way to protect yourself is drop, cover and hold. If possible crouch under a a desk or
table when indoor or crouch against an inner wall, away from the outside of a building and cover your
head and neck with your hands. Avoid windows, mirrors, wall hangings, and furniture that might topple.
If you are outdoors, move to an open area such as playground. Avoid vehicles, power lines,
trees, and buildings, especially ones with brick wall or chimneys. Sit down to avoid being thrown down.
Prepare earthquake kit that contain canned food, water, and first aid supplies and should be stored
where it is easy to reach.

VOLCANOES AND PLATE TECTONICS

A volcano is a weak spot in the crust where molten material, or magma, comes to the surface.
Magma is a molten mixture of rock-forming substances, gases and water from the mantle. When
magma reaches the surface, it is called lava. After lava has cooled, it forms solid rock. The lava released
during volcanic activity builds up Earth’s surface. Volcanic activity is a constructive force that adds new
rock to existing land and forms new islands. There are about 600 active volcanoes on land and many
more lie beneath the sea. One major volcanic belt is the Ring of Fire, formed by the many volcanoes
that rim the Pacific Ocean. Volcanic belts form along the boundaries of Earth’s plates. At plate
boundaries , huge pieces of the crust diverge, or converge. Here the crust is weak and fractured
allowing magma to reach the surface. Most volcanoes occur along diverging plate boundaries, such as
mid-ocean ridge, or in subduction zones around the edges of oceans. A ridge is a long underwater rift
valley that winds through the oceans. Along the ridge lava pours out of cracks in the ocean floor. Only In
Iceland and Azores Islands in Atlantic Ocean do the volcanoes of the mid-ocean ridge rise above the
ocean’s surface. Some volcanoes form at hot spots far from the boundaries of continental or oceanic
plates.
Many volcanoes form near the plate boundaries where oceanic crust returns to mantle.
Subduction causes slabs of oceanic crust to sink through deep-ocean trench into the mantle. The crust
melts and forms magma, which then rises back toward the surface because it is less dense than the
surrounding rock. When the magma from the melted crust erupts as lava, volcanoes are formed.
The resulting volcanoes create a string of islands called an island arc. The curve of an island arc
echoes the curve of its deep-ocean trench. Major island arcs include Japan, New Zealand, Indonesia,
the Caribbean Island, the Philippines, and the Aleutians. Collisions between oceanic and continental
plates produced both the volcanoes of the Andes mountains on the west coast of South America and the
volcanoes of northern California, Oregon, and Washington.
Some volcanoes result from “hot spots” in Earth’s mantle. A hot spot is an area where magma
from deep within the mantle melts through the crust like a blow torch. Hot spots often lie in the middle
of continental or oceanic plate far from any plate boundaries and does not result from subduction. A
hot spot volcano in the ocean floor can gradually form a series of volcanic mountains. Example, the
Hawaiian Islands. Hot spots can also form under the continents. Ex. Yellowstone National Park in
Wyoming is under the North American plate.
During a volcanic eruption, the gases dissolved in the magma rush out, carrying the magma
with them. Once magma reaches the surface and becomes lava, the gases bubble out. Beneath a
volcano, magma collects in a pocket called a magma chamber. The magma moves through a pipe, a long
tube in the ground that connects the magma chamber to Earth’s surface. Molten rock and gas leave the
volcano through an opening called a vent. Often. There is one central vent on top of a volcano.
However, many volcanoes also have other vents that open on the volcano’s sides. A lava flow is the
area covered by lava as it pours out of a vent. A crater is a bowl –shape area volcano around the
volcano’s central vent.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGMA
The force of a volcanic eruption depends partly on the amount of gas dissolved in the magma.
How thick or thin the magma is depends on its temperature and its silica content. The hotter the
magma, the more fluid it is. The more silica magma contains, the thicker it is. Silica is a material
formed from the elements oxygen and silicon. Magma that is high in silica produces light-colored lava
thatis is too sticky to flow very far. When this type of lava cools, it forms the rock rhyolite, which has
the same composition as granite. Pumice and Obsidian also form from high-silica lava. Obsidian forms
when lava cools very quickly, giving it a smooth, glossy surface. Pumice forms when gas bubbles are
trapped in cooling lava, leaving spaces in the rock. Magma that is low in silica flows readily and
produces dark-colored lava. When this kind of lava cools, rocks such as basalt are formed.

TYPES OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION

The silica content of a magma helps to determine whether the volcanic eruption is quiet or
explosive.
QUIET ERUPTION- A volcano erupts quietly if its magma flows easily. The gas dissolved in the
magma bubbles out gently. Thin, runny lava oozes quietly from the vent. The Islands of Hawaii and
Iceland were formed from quiet eruption. On the Big Island of Hawaii, lava pours out of the crater near
the top of Mount Kilauea. Quiet eruptions produce two different types of lava: Pahoehoe is fast
moving, hot lava. Lava that that is cooler and slow-moving is called aa.
EXPLOSIVE ERUPTION- If its magma is thick and sticky ,a volcano erupts explosively. The thick
magma does not flow out of the crater and down the mountain, instead, it slowly builds up in the
volcano’s pipe, plugging like a cork in the bottle. The trapped gases build up pressure until they explode.
The erupting gases push the magma out of the volcano with incredible force. The explosion breaks the
lava into fragments that quickly cool and harden into pieces of different sizes. The smallest pieces are
volcanic ash, cinders are pebble-sized particles. Larger pieces called bombs, may range from the size of
a baseball to the size of the car. A pyroclastic flow occurs when an explosive eruption hurls out ash,
cinders, and bombs as well as gases. The eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 in the state of
Washington was one of the most violent explosive eruptions that has ever occurred in the United States.

TYPES OF VOLCANOES ACCORDING TO ACTIVITY

The activity of a volcano may last from less than a decade to more than 10 million years. Most
long-lived volcanoes, however, do not erupt continuously. Volcanoes maybe classified as to activity as
Active-or live-is one that is erupting or has shown signs that it may erupt in the near future.
Dormant or sleeping- is like a sleeping bear. Scientists expect a dormant volcano to awake in the future
and becomes active. However, there maybe thousands of years between eruptions.
Extinct or dead- is a volcano which is unlikely to erupt again

OTHER TYPES OF VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

Hot springs and geysers are two examples of volcanic activity that do not involve the eruption of
lava. These features may occur in any volcanic area-even around an extinct volcano
A hot spring forms when groundwater heated by a nearby body of magma rises to the surface and
collects in a natural pool. Water from hot springs may contain dissolved gases and other substances
from deep within Earth.
A geyser-is a fountain of water that erupts from the ground. Sometimes, rising hot water and steam
become trapped underground in a narrow crack. Pressure builds until the mixture suddenly sprays
above the surface as a geyser.
In volcanic areas water heated by magma can provide a clean, reliable energy source called geothermal
energy. Steam from deep underground is piped into turbines. Inside a turbine, the steam spins a wheel
in the same way that blowing on a pinwheel makes the pinwheel turn. The moving wheel in the turbine
turns a generator that changes the energy of motion into electrical energy.

MONITORING VOLCANOES
Geologists use tiltmeters, laser-ranging devices and other instruments to detect slight surface
changes in elevation and tilt caused by magma moving underground. Geologists monitor the local
magnetic field, water-level in a volcanoes crater lake and any gases escaping from a volcano. They take
the temperature of underground water to see if it is getting hotter- a sign that magma is nearing the
surface. They also monitor the many small earthquakes that occur in the area around volcano before an
eruption. The movement of magma into the magma chamber and through the volcano’s pipe triggers
these quakes

VOLCANO HAZARDS
Although quiet eruptions and explosive eruptions involve different volcano hazards, both types
of eruption can cause damage far from the crater’s rim. During a quiet eruption, lava flows pour from
vents, setting fire to and then burying everything in their path. During an explosive eruption, a volcano
can belch out hot, burning clouds of volcanic gases as well as cinders and bombs. Volcanic ash can bury
entire towns, damage crops, and clog car engines. If it becomes wet, the heavy ash can cause roofs to
collapse. If a jet plane sucks ash into its engine, the engine may stall. Eruptions can also cause landslides
and avalanches of mud, melted snow, and rock
VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
Volcanoes have created some of Earth’s most spectacular landforms. The perfect volcanic cone
of Mt. Fuji in Japan and the majestic profile of snow –capped Mt. Kilimanjaro rising above the grassland
of East Africa are famous around the world.

Landforms From Lava and Ash

Rock and other materials formed from lava create a variety of landforms including shield
volcanoes, composite volcanoes, cinder cone volcanoes and lava plateaus.

Shield Volcanoes- Repeated lava flows during quiet eruptions gradually build up a broad, gently sloping
volcanic mountain known as a shield volcano. Mauna Loa is one of the shield volcanoes that built the
island Hawaii
Cinder Cone Volcanoes- a steep, cone-shaped hill or mountain. If a volcano’s lava is thick and stiff, it
may produce ash, cinders, and bombs that pile a vent in a steep, cone-shaped pile. Ex. Paricutin in
Mexico
Composite Volcanoes-are tall, cone-shaped mountains in which layers of lava alternate with layers of
ash. Sometimes, lava flows alternate with explosive eruptions of ash, cinder, and bombs. The result is
composite volcanoes like Mount Fuji in Japan, Mount St. Helens in Washington State and Mt Hood in
Oregon
Lava Plateaus- Instead of forming mountains, some eruptions of lava form high, level areas called lava
plateaus. First, lava flows out of several long cracks in an area. The thin, runny lava travels far before
cooling and solidifying. Again and again, floods of lava flow on top of earlier like the Columbia Plateau \
Calderas- the huge hole left by the collapse of a volcanic mountain. The hole is filled with the pieces of
the volcano that have fallen inward as well as some lava and ash.
Volcanic soils are among the richest (fertile) soils in the world. Volcanic ash breaks down and
releases potassium, phosphorus, and other materials that plants need.

Landforms from Magma

Features formed by magma include volcanic necks, dikes, and sills, as well as batholiths and
dome mountains
Volcanic Necks- a deposit of hardened magma in a volcano’s pipe
Dikes- A slab of volcanic rock formed when magma forces itself across rock layers
Sills- A slab of volcanic rock formed when magma squeezes between layers of rock
Batholiths- is a mass of rock formed when a large body of magma cools inside the crust.
Dome Mountains- is formed when rising magma is blocked by horizontal layers of rock
VOLCANOES IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Earth’s Moon. The dark areas on the moon’s surface are flat plains made of basalt, a type of rock
formed from lava
Volcanoes on Venus. Like Earth, Venus has volcanic mountains and other features that are probably
made of thin, runny lava
Volcanoes on Mars. There are large shield volcanoes similar to those on Venus and Earth, as well as
cone-shaped volcanoes and lava flows. The biggest volcano on Mars is the largest mountain in the solar
system. This volcano, Olympus Mons, is a shield volcano similar to Mauna Loa on the island of Hawaii
but much, much bigger. It covers an area as large as Ohio and is 10 km high
Io, moon of Jupiter and Triton , moon of Neptune have volcanic features very different from those on
Earth, Mars and Venus. On Io, sulphur volcanoes erupt like fountains or spread out like umbrellas above
the colorful surface. The eruptions on Triton involve liquid nitrogen.
 Other moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune show signs of volcanic activity, but space probes
have not observed any eruptions in progress on these moons.

TEST YOURSELF
1. Folding of rocks is most likely to happen when rocks undergo
A. Tension b. shearing c. compression d. cooling
2. Which of the following causes reverse faults?
A. Compression b. shearing c. tension d. folding
3. The balance between the forces pushing the crust down and the forces pushing it up is
A. Strain b. isostacy c. convergence d. tectonics
4. Which of the following best describes the material that make up the earth’s Asthenosphere?
A. A rigid solid b. a solid that is able to flow c. a liquid at high temperature
d. a gas under great pressure
5. The lithosphere is made up of the upper mantle and the
A. Crust b. asthenosphere c. hydrosphere d. core
6. The boundary between the earth’s crust and the mantle where the speed of seismic Wave changes is
called
A. Moho b. shadow zone c. magnetosphere d. hydrosphere
7. The layer that makes up most of the earth’s mass and volume
A. Mantle b. lithosphere c. crust d. core
8. Most earthquakes occur along or near the edges of
A. North American plate b. earth’s oceans and lakes c. Eurasian plates
d. earth’s lithospheric plates
9. The Ring of Fire is an earthquake zone that forms ring around
A. Atlantic ocean b. South America c. Pacific Ocean d. North America
10. Which type of seismic waves travel the fastest?
A. L waves b. P waves c. S waves d. surface waves
11. Which type of seismic waves cause rock particles to move together and apart in the Same direction
as the wave is moving?
( use the same choices in # 10)
12. An opening in the earth’s surface through which molten rock flows is called a
A. Vent b. caldera c. mantle d. fault
13. A sunken block between two parallel normal faults is
A. Horst b. graben c. anticline d. caldera
14. What clue supported the continental drift theory?
A. A puzzle-like fit of all the continents
B. Fossils of animals have been found on continents separated by oceans
C. Similar rock structures have been found on different continents
D. All of these
15. Wat is the continental drift theory? The belief that
a. continents have quickly moved apart to their current locations on Earth
b. continents have moved slowly apart to their current locations on earth
c. continents are moving slowly together from their current locations on earth
d. continents have always been located at their current locations on earth
16. What is a transform boundary? A transform boundary is a boundary where
a. Two plates slide past each other c. two plates collide
b. Move toward each other d. pull away from each other
17. What type of rocks make up the oceanic crust?
 a. Basalt b. granite c. ultramafic d. gabbro
18. What determines the explosiveness of volcanic eruption?
a. The temperature and amount of silica in the magma
b. The amount of gases and pressure within the earth’s crust
c. The time of year and current weather conditions
d. Pressure within earth and plate movement
19. Granitic magma eruptions are
a. Quiet b. slow c. fluid d. explosive
20. High levels of silica causes magma to become
a. More fluid b. thicker c. thinner d. less dense
11. Enumeration

1-3 Endogenic Processes that Change the Earth’s Surface

4-9 Theories on Diastrophism

10-12 Types of Volcanoes According to Activity

13-15 Types of Plate Boundaries