Chapter

Laplace Transform
5

5.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we will introduce Laplace transform. This is an extremely important technique.
For a given set of initial conditions, it will give the total response of the circuit comprising of both
natural and forced responses in one operation. The idea of Laplace transform is analogous to any
familiar transform. For example, Logarithms are used to change a multiplication or division prob-
lem into a simpler addition or subtraction problem and Antilogs are used to carry out the inverse
process. This example points out the essential feature of a transform: They are designed to create
a new domain to make mathematical manipulations easier. After evaluating the unknown in the
new domain, we use inverse transform to get the evaluated unknown in the original domain. The
Laplace transform enables the circuit analyst to convert the set of integrodifferential equations
describing a circuit to the complex frequency domain, where thay become a set of linear alge-
braic equations. Then using algebraic manipulations, one may solve for the variables of interest.
Finally, one uses the inverse transform to get the variable of interest in time domain. Also, in
this chapter, we express the impedance in s domain or complex frequency domain. Hence, we
may analyze a circuit using one of the reduction techniques such as Thevenin theorem or source
transformation discussed in earlier chapters.

5.2 Definition of Laplace transorm

A transform is a change in the mathematical description of a physical variable to facilitate com-

putation. Keeping this definition in mind, Laplace transform of a function f (t) is defined as
Z1
Lff (t)g = F (s) = f (t)e st
dt (5.1)
0

Here the complex frequency is s =  + j! . Since the argument of the exponent e in equation
(5.1) must be dimensionless, it follows that s has the dimensions of frequency and units of inverse
seconds (sec 1 ).
330 j Network Theory

The notation implies that once the integral has been evaluated, f (t), a time domain function
is transformed to F (s), a frequency domain function.
If the lower limit of integration in equation (5.1) is 1, then it is called the bilateral Laplace
transform. However for circuit applications, the lower limit is taken as zero and accordingly the
transform is unilateral in nature.
The lower limit of integration is sometimes chosen to be 0 to permit f (t) to include  (t) or
its derivatives. Thus we should note immediately that the integration from 0 to 0+ is zero except
when an impulse function or its derivatives are present at the origin.

Region of convergence

The Laplace transform of a signal f (t) as seen from equation (5.1) is an integral operation. It
Z1
t t
exists if f (t)e is absolutely integrable. That is f (t)e dt < 1. Cleary, only typical
0
choices of  will make the integral converge. The range of  that ensures the existence of X (s)
defines the region of convergence (ROC) of the Laplace transform. As an example, let us take
x(t) = e3t , t  0. Then

Z1
( +j! )t
X (s) = x(t)e dt
0
Z1
= e(  +3)t
e j!t
dt
0

The above integral converges if and only if  + 3 < 0 or  > 3. Thus,  > 3 defines the
ROC of X (s). Since, we shall deal only with causal signals(t  0) we avoid explicit mention of
ROC.
Due to the convergence factor, e t , a number of important functions have Laplace trans-
forms, even though Fourier transforms for these functions do not exist. But this does not mean
that every mathematical function has Laplace transform. The reader should be aware that, for
2
example, a function of the form et does not have Laplace transform.
The inverse Laplace transform is defined by the relationship:
Z
+j 1
1
L 1
fF (s)g = f (t) =
2j
F (s)est ds (5.2)
 j 1
where  is real. The evaluation of integral in equation (5.2) is based on complex variable theory,
and hence we will avoid its use by developing a set of Laplace transform pairs.
 Laplace Transform j 331

5.3 Three important singularity functions

The three important singularity functions employed in circuit analysis are:

(i) unit step function, u(t)
(ii) delta function,  (t)
(iii) ramp function, r (t).
They are called singularity functions because they are either not finite or they do not possess
finite derivatives everywhere.
The mathematical definition of unit step function is

0; t<0
u(t) = (5.3)
1; t>0

The step function is not defined at t = 0. Thus,

the unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values
of t, and 1 for positive values of t. Often it is
advantageous to define the unit step function as
follows:

1; t  0+
u(t) =
0; t0

A discontinuity may occur at time other than Figure 5.1 The unit step function
t = 0; for example, in sequential switching, the
unit step function that occurs at t = a is expressed
as u(t a).

Figure 5.2 The step function occuring at t = a Figure 5.3 The step function occuring at t = a


0; t a < 0 or t < a
Thus; u(t a) =
1; t a > 0 or t > a

Similarly, the unit step function that occurs at t = a is expressed as u(t + a).

0; t + a < 0 or t < a
Thus; u(t + a) =
1; t + a > 0 or t > a
332 j Network Theory

We use step function to represent an abrupt change in voltage or current, like the changes that
occur in the circuits of control engineering and digital systems. For example, the voltage

0; t<a
v (t) =
K; t>a

may be expressed in terms of the unit step function as

v (t) = Ku(t a) (5.4)

The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is the unit impulse function  (t).
8
d
< 0; t<0
That is;  (t) = u(t) = undefined; t = 0 (5.5)
dt :
0; t>0

The unit impulse function also known as dirac delta fucntion is shown in Fig. 5.4.
The unit impulse may be visualized as very short duration pulse of unit area. This may be
expressed mathematically as:

Z0+
 (t)dt = 1 (5.6)
0

where t = 0 denotes the time just before t = 0 and t = 0+ denotes

the time just after t = 0. Since the area under the unit impulse is unity,
it is a practice to write ‘1’ beside the arrow that is used to symbolize
the unit impulse function as shown in Fig. 5.4. When the impulse has
a strength other than unity, the area of the impulse function is equal
to its strength. For example, an impulse function 5 (t) has an area Figure 5.4 The circuit
of 5 units. Figure 5.5 shows impulse functions, 2 (t + 2), 5 (t) and impulse function
2 (t 3).

Figure 5.5 Three impulse functions

 Laplace Transform j 333

An important property of the unit impulse function is what is often called the sifting property;
which is exhibited by the following integral:
Zt2 
f (t0 ); t1 < t0 < t2
f (t) (t t0 )dt =
0; t 1 > t0 > t2
t1

for a fintie t0 and any f (t) continuous at t0 .

Integrating the unit step function results in the unit ramp function r (t).
Zt
r (t) = u( )d = tu(t) (5.7)


1
0; t0
or r (t) =
t; t0
Figure 5.6 shows the ramp function.

Figure 5.6 The unit ramp function

In general, a ramp is a function that changes at a constant rate.

Figure 5.7 The unit ramp function delayed by t0 Figure 5.8 The unit ramp function advanced by t0

A delayed ramp function is shown in Fig. 5.7. Mathematically, it is described as follows:


0; t  t0
r (t t0 ) =
t t0 ; t  t0
334 j Network Theory

An advanced ramp function is shown in Fig. 5.8. Mathematically, it is described as follows:


0; t t0
r (t + t0 ) =
t + t0 ; t  t0

It is very important to note that the three sigularity functions are related by differentiation as

du(t) dr (t)
 (t) = ; u(t) =
dt dt
or by integration as
Zt Zt
u(t) =  (t)dt; r (t) = u( )d
1 1
5.4 Functional transforms

A functional transform is simply the Laplace transform of a specified function of t. Here we make
an assumption that f (t) is zero for t < 0.

5.4.1 Decaying exponential function

at
f (t) = e u(t), where a > 0 and u(t) is the unit step function.

 Z1
L e at
u(t) = F (s) = f (t)dt
0
Z1
at st
= e e dt
0
1
e (s+a)t 

= 
(s + a) 
t=0
1
=
s+a

5.4.2 Unit step function

f (t) = u(t)
Z1
1
Lfu(t)g = F (s) = e st
dt =
s
0
 Laplace Transform j 335

5.4.3 Impulse function

f (t) =  (t)
Z1 
Lf (t)g = F (s) =  (t)e st
dt = e st 
t=0
=1
0

Please note that we have used the sifting property of an impulse function.

5.4.4 Sinusoidal function

f (t) = sin !t; t0

1  
Since sin !t = ej!t e j!t
2j
and Lfe at g = s +1 a
Z1

we have Lfsin !tg = F (s) = 21j ej!t e j!t
e st
dt

0 
1 1 1
=
2j s j! s + j!
!
=
s2 + !2
Table 5.1 gives a list of important Laplace transform pairs. It includes the functions of most
interest in an introductory course on circuit applications.

Table 5.1 Important transform pairs

f (t)(t  0) F (s)

 (t) 1
1
u(t)
s
1
t
s2
at 1
e
s+a
!
sin !t
s2 + ! 2
s
cos !t
s + !2
2
336 j Network Theory

f (t)(t  0) F (s)
n!
tn
sn+1
at 1
te
(s + a)2
at !
e sin !t
(s + a)2 + ! 2
at s+a
e cos !t
(s + a)2 + ! 2

All functions in the above table are represented without multiplied by u(t), since we have ex-
plicity declared that t  0.

5.5 Operational transforms (properties of Laplace transform)

Operational transforms indicate how mathematical operations performed on either f (t) or F (s)
are converted into the opposite domain. Following operations are of primary interest.
Note: The symbol  means “by the definition”.

5.5.1 Linearity

If Lff1 (t)g = F1 (s) and Lff2 (t)g = F2 (s)

then Lfa1 f1 (t) + a2 f2 (t)g = a1 F1 (s) + a2 F2 (s)
Proof :
Z1
Lfa1 f1 (t) + a2 f2 (t)g  [a1 f1 (t) + a2 f2 (t)]e st
dt
0
Z1 Z1
st st
= a1 f1 (t)e dt + a2 f2 (t)e dt
0 0
= a1 F1 (s) + a2 F2 (s)

EXAMPLE 5.1
bt
Find the Laplace transform of f (t) = (A + Be u(t)).

SOLUTION
We have the transform pair

Lfu(t)g = 1s
1
and Lfe bt
u(t)g =
s+b
 Laplace Transform j 337

Thus, using linearity property,

Lff (t)g = F (s) = LfAu(t)g + LfBe bt
u(t)g
A B
= +
s s+b
(A + B)s + Ab
=
s(s + b)

5.5.2 Time shifting

If Lfx(t)g = X (s), then for any real number t0 ,

Lfx(t t0 )u(t t0 )g = e t0 s
X (s)

Proof :
Z1
Lfx(t t0 )u(t t0 )g  x(t t0 )u(t t0 )e st
dt
0

1; t t0 > 0 or t > t0
Since; u(t t0 ) =
0; t t0 < 0 or t < t0
Z1
we get; Lfx(t t0 )u(t t0 )g = x(t t0 )e st
dt
t0

Using the transformation of variable,

t =  + t0
Z1
we get; Lfx(t t0 )u(t t0 )g = x( )e s( +t0 )
d
0
Z1
t0 s s
=e x( )e d
0
t0 s
=e X (s)

EXAMPLE 5.2
Find the Laplace transform of x(t), shown in Fig. 5.9.

Figure 5.9
338 j Network Theory

SOLUTION

Figure 5.10(a)

Figure 5.10(b)

Using Figs. 5.10(a) and 5.10(b), we can write

x(t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) = u(t 2) u(t 4)

1
We know that, Lfu(t)g = and using time shifting property, we have
s

Lfx(t)g = X (s) = 1s e 2s 1
s
e 4s

1
 X(s) =
s
(e 2s
e 4s
)

5.5.3 Shifting in s domain (Frequency-domain shifting)

If Lfx(t)g = X (s), then

Lfes t x(t)g = X (s
0
s0 )
Proof :
Z1
Lfe s0 t
x(t)g  es0 t x(t)e st
dt
0
Z1
(s s0 )t
= x(t)e dt
0
= X (s s0 )
 Laplace Transform j 339

EXAMPLE 5.3
at
Find the Laplace transform of x(t) = Ae cos(!0 t + )u(t).

SOLUTION

at
Given x(t) = Ae cos(!0 t + )u(t)
at
= Ae [cos !0 t cos  sin !0 t sin ]u(t)
at at
= A cos e cos !0 tu(t) A sin e sin !0 tu(t)

We know the transform pairs,

s
Lfcos !0 tu(t)g =
s2 + !02
!0
and Lfsin !0 tu(t)g =
s2 + !02

Applying frequency shifting property, we get


  s
L e at
cos !0 tu(t) = 2 
s + !2  0 s !s +a
s+a
=
(s + a)2 + !02

  !0
and L e at
sin !0 tu(t) = 2 
s + !2  0 s !s +a
!0
=
(s + a)2 + !02

Finally, applying linearity property, we get

LfAe at
cos(!0 t + )u(t)g = A cos  Lfe at cos !0 tu(t)g A sin  Lfe at
sin !0 tu(t)g
A cos  (s + a) !0
= 2 A sin 
2
(s + a) + !0 (s + a)2 + !02
A[(s + a) cos θ ω0 sin θ]
=
(s + a)2 + ω02

5.5.4 Time scaling

If Lfx(t)g = X (s), then

s
Lfx(at)g = a1 X a
340 j Network Theory

Proof :
Z1
Lfx(at)g  x(at)e st
dt
0
put at = 
) adt = d
Z1
1
Hence Lfx(at)g = x( )e s τa
a
d
0
Z1 s
1 s
 1
= x( )e a d = X
a a a
0

EXAMPLE 5.4
Find the Laplace transform of x(t) = sin(2!0 t)u(t).

SOLUTION
We know the transform pair,
!0
Lfsin !0 tu(t)g =
s2 + !02
Applying scaling property,
2 3

Lfsin 2!0 tu(t)g = 12 64  s !2 0 7

5
+ !02
2
2ω0
= 2
s + 4ω02

5.5.5 Time differentiation

If Lfx(t)g = X (s), then

 
dx(t)
L dt
= sX (s) x(0)

Proof :
dx(t)
Let y (t) =
dt
Z1
Then Lfy(t)g = Y (s)  y (t)e st
dt
0
Z1
dx(t) st
= e dt
dt
0
 Laplace Transform j 341

Integrating by parts yields

1 Z1
Y (s) = e st x(t)0 x(t)( se st
)dt
0
Z1
st st
= lim [e x(t)] x(0) + s x(t)e dt
t !1
0
=0 x(0) + sX (s)
 
dx(t)
Hence; L dt
= Y (s) = sX (s) x(0)

Therefore, differentiation in time domain is equivalent to multiplication by s in the s domain.

Whenever x(t) is discontinuous at t = 0 (like a step function), then x(0) should be read as
x(0 ).
The differentiation property can be extended to yield
 
dn x(t)
L dtn
= sn X (s) sn 1
x(0)


xn 1
(0)

When x(t) is discontinuous at the origin, the argument 0 on the right side of the above equation
should be read as 0 . Accordingly for a discontinuous function x(t) at the origin, we get
 
dn x(t)
L dtn
= sn X (s) sn 1
x(0 )


xn 1
(0 )

EXAMPLE 5.5
Find the Laplace transform of x(t) = sin2 !0 tu(t).

SOLUTION
We find that, x(0) = 0

dx(t)
= 2!0 sin !0 t cos !0 tu(t)
dt
= !0 sin 2!0 tu(t) (5.8)
We know that, Lfsin !0 tu(t)g = 2 !0 2
s + !0
342 j Network Theory

Applying time scaling property,

2 3

Lfsin 2!0 tu(t)g = 12 64  s !2 0 7

5
+ !02
2
2!0
=
s2 + 2(!0 )2
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides of equation (5.8), we get
 
dx(t)
L dt
= !0 Lfsin !0 tu(t)g

2!02
) sX (s) x(0) =
s2 + (2!0 )2
2ω02
 X(s) =
s[s2 + (2ω0 )2 ]

EXAMPLE 5.6
Solve the second order linear differential equation
 0
y (t) + 5y (t) + 6y (t) = x(t)

with the initial conditions, y (0) = 2, y 0 (0) = 1 and x(t) = e t u(t).

SOLUTION
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides of the given differential equation, we get
 2 0 
s Y (s) sy (0) y (0) + 5 jsY (s) y (0)j + 6Y (s) = X (s)
1
where X (s) = Lfe t u(t)g =
s+1
Substituting the initial conditions, we get
1
(s2 + 5s + 6)Y (s) = + 2s + 11
s+1
2s2 + 13s + 12
) Y (s) =
(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3)
Using partial fraction expansion, we get
     
1 1 1 9 1
Y (s) = +6
2 s+1 s+2 2 s+3
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get
1 t 9
y(t) = e + 6e 2t
e 3t
, t0
2 2
 Laplace Transform j 343

5.5.6 Integration in time domain

For a causal signal x(t),

Zt
If y (t) = x( )d;
0

then Lfy(t)g = Y (s) = Xs(s)

Proof :
Z1
LBx(t)C = X(s)  x(t)e st dt
0

Dividing both sides by s yields

Z1 st
X (s) e
= x(t) dt
s s
0

Integrating the right-hand side by parts, we get

1
 Z1
X (s) e ts e ts
= y (t) y (t) ( s)dt
s s t=0 s
0
1 Z1
X (s) e st  st
= y (t) + y (t)e dt
s s  t=0
0

The first term on the right-hand side evaluates to zero at both limits, because

Z0
e 1=0 and y (0) = x( )d = 0
0
X (s)
Hence; Y (s) =
s
Thus, integration in time domain is equivalent to division by s in the s domain.

EXAMPLE 5.7
Consider the RC circuit shown in Fig. 5.11. The input is the rectangular pulse shown in Fig. 5.12.
Find i(t) by assuming circuit is initially relaxed.
344 j Network Theory

Figure 5.11 Figure 5.12

SOLUTION
Applying KVL to the circuit represented by Fig. 5.11, we get
Zt
1
Ri(t) + i( )d = v (t)
C
0
Zt
1
) Ri(t) + i( )d = Vo [u(t a) u(t b)]
C
0

Taking Laplace transforms on both the sides, we get

1 Vo
RI(s) + I(s) =(e as e bs )
Cs s
Vo
) I(s) = R (e as e bs
)
1
s+
RC
We know the transform pair,
1
Lfe at
u(t)g =
s+a
and then using the time-shift property, we can find inverse of I(s).
 
Vo  vo 
u(t)
t t
That is; i(t) = e e u(t)
!t
RC RC
R t !t a R t b
Vo h (ta) (t b)
i
) i(t) = e RC u(t a) e RC u(t b)
R

5.5.7 Differentiation in the s domain

For a signal x(t), t  0, we have

dX (s)
Lf tx(t)g =
ds
 Laplace Transform j 345

Proof :
For a causal signal, x(t), the Laplace transform is given by
Z1
Lfx(t)g = X (s) = x(t)e st
dt
0

Differentiating both the sides with respect to s, we get

Z1
dX (s) st
= x(t)( te )dt
ds
0
Z1
dX (s) st
) = [ tx(t)]e dt
ds
0
dX (s) dX (s)
Hence; Lf tx(t)g =
ds
or Lftx(t)g =
ds
n
In general; Lftn x(t)g = ( 1)n d ds
X (s)
n

EXAMPLE 5.8
Find the Laplace transform of x1 (t) = te 3t u(t).

SOLUTION
We know that,
1
Lfe at
u(t)g =
s+a
1
Hence Lfe 3t
u(t)g =
s+3
Using the differentiation in s domain property,
 
Lfx1 (t)g = X1 (s) = dsd s +1 3
1
=
(s + 3)2

5.5.8 Convolution

If Lfx(t)g = X (s)
and Lfh(t)g = H (s)
then Lfx(t)  h(t)g = X (s)H (s)
where  indicates the convolution operator.
346 j Network Theory

Proof :
Z1
x(t)  h(t) = x( )h(t  )d
1
Since x(t) and h(t) are causal signals, the convolution in this case reduces to
Z1
x(t)  h(t) = x( )h(t  )d
0
2 3
Z1 Z1
Hence; Lfx(t)  h(t)g = 4 x( )h(t  )d 5 e st
dt
0 0

Interchanging the order of integrals, we get

2 3
Z1 Z1
Lfx(t)  h(t)g = x( ) 4 h(t  )e st
dt5 d
0 0

Using the change of variable  = t  in the inner integral, we get

2 3
Z1 Z1
Lfx(t)  h(t)g = x( )e s 4 h()e s
d5 d
0 0
= X (s)H (s)

Please note that this theorem reduces the complexity of evaluating the convolution integral to
a simple multiplication.

EXAMPLE 5.9
Find the convolution of h(t) = e t
and f (t) = e 2t .

SOLUTION

h(t)  f (t) = L
1
fH (s)F (s)g
1
 
1 1
=L
1
s+1 s+2
 
1 1
=L
1
+
s+1 s+2
=e t e 2t , t0
 Laplace Transform j 347


EXAMPLE 5.10
Find the convolution of two indentical rectangular pulses. Each rectangular pulse has unit ampli-
tude and duration equal to 2T seconds. Also, the pulse is centered at t = T .
SOLUTION
Let the pulse be as shown in Fig. 5.13.
From the Fig. 5.13, we can write

x(t) = u(t) u(t 2T )

Taking Laplace transform, we get T

T
1 1 2T s
X (s) = e Figure 5.13
s s
1
= (1 e 2T s )
s
Let y (t) = x(t)  x(t)
Then; Y (s) = X 2 (s)
 
2T s 2
1 e
=
s
1 2 2T s 1 4T s
) Y (s) = e + e
s2 s2 s2
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

y (t) = tu(t) 2(t 2T )u(t 2T ) + (t 4T )u(t 4T )

= r (t) 2r (t 2T ) + r (t 4T )
y(t) = x(t)  x(t)

5.5.9 Initial-value theorem Figure 5.14

The initial-value theorem allows us to find the initial value x(0)

directly from its Laplace transform X (s).
If x(t) is a causal signal,

then; x(0) = lim sX (s)

s !1 (5.9)

Proof :
To prove this theorem, we use the time differentiation property.
  Z1
dx(t) dx
L dt
= sX (s) x(0) =
dt
e st
dt (5.10)
0

 The problems with  are better understood after the inverse Laplace transforms are studied.
348 j Network Theory

If we let s ! 1, then the integral on the right side of equation (5.10) vanishes due to damping
factor, e st .
Thus; lim [sX (s) x(0)] = 0
s !1
) x(0) = lim sX (s)
s !1
EXAMPLE 5.11
Find the initial value of
s+1
F (s) =
(s + 1)2 + 32
SOLUTION  
s+1
f (0) = lim sX (s) = lim s
s !1 s !1 (s + 1)2 + 32
s2 + s
= lim
s !1 (s + 1) 2 + 32
1
s2 1 +
s
  =1
= lim
s !1 s2 1+
2
+
10
s s2
We know the transform pair:
s+b
Lfe bt
cos atg =
(s + b)2 + a2
Hence, inverse Laplace transform of F (s) yields
f (t) = e t cos 3t
At t = 0, we get f (0) = 1.
This verifies the theorem.

5.5.10 Final-value theorem

The final-value theorem allows us to find the final value x(1) directly from its Laplace transform
X (s).
If x(t) is a causal signal,
lim x(t) = lim sX (s)
then
t !1 s !0
Proof :
dx(t)
The Laplace transform of is given by
dt
Z1
dx(t) st
sX (s) x(0) = e dt
dt
0
 Laplace Transform j 349

Taking the limit s ! 0 on both the sides, we get

Z1
dx(t) st
lim [sX (s) x(0)] = lim e dt
s !0 s!0 dt
0
Z1
dx(t) h st
i
lim e dt
=
dt s 0!
0
Z1
dx(t)
= dt
dt

= x(t)j1
0

0
= x(1) x(0)
Since; lim [sX (s) x(0)] = lim [sX (s)] x(0)
s !0 !0
s
we get; x(1) x(0) = lim [sX (s) x(0)]
s !0
Hence; x(1) = lim [sX (s)]
s !0

This proves the final value theorem.

The final value theorem may be applied if, and only if, all the poles of X (s) have a real part
that is negative.
The final value theorem is very useful since we can find x(1) from X (s). However, one
must be careful in using final value theorem since the function x(t) may not have a final value
a
as t ! 1. For example, consider x(t) = sin at having X (s) = 2 . Now we know
s + a2
lim sin at does not exit. However, if we uncarefully use the final value theorem in this case, we
t!1
would obtain:
a
lim sX (s) = lim s 2
s !0 s !0 s + a 2
=0

Note that the actual function x(t) does not have a limiting value as t ! 1. The final value
theorem has failed because the poles of X (s) lie on the j! axis. Therefore, we conclude that for
final value theorem to give a valid result, poles of X (s) should not lie to right side of the s-plane
or on the j! axis.

EXAMPLE 5.12
Find the final value of
10
X (s) =
(s + 1)2 + 102

 Consider a function, X(s) =

P (s)
. The roots of the denomoniator polymial, Q(s) are called poles () and the
Q(s)
roots of the numerator polynomial, P (s) are called zeros (O).
350 j Network Theory

SOLUTION

lim x(t) = x(1)

t !1
s10
= lim [sX (s)] = lim
s !0 s !0 (s + 1)2 + 102 = 0
We know the Laplace transform pair
  b
L e at
sin bt =
(s + a)2 + b2
x(t) = L
1
Hence; fX (s)g
 
10
=L
1 t
=e sin 10t
(s + 1)2 + 102
Thus; x(1) = 0

This verifies the result obtained from final-value theorem.

5.5.11 Time periodicity

Let us consider a function x(t) that is periodic as

shown in Fig. 5.15. The function x(t) can be
represented as the sum of time-shifted functions
as shown in Fig. 5.16.

Figure 5.15 A periodic function Figure 5.16 Decomposition of periodic function

Hence; x(t) = x1 (t) + x2 (t) + x3 (t) +

= x1 (t) + x1 (t T )u(t T ) + x1 (t 2T )u(t 2T ) +


(5.11)

where x1 (t) is the waveform described over the first period of x(t). That is, x1 (t) is the same as
the function x(t) gated over the interval 0 < t < T .
gating means the function x(t) is multiplied by 1 over the interval 0  t  T and elsewhere by 0.
 Laplace Transform j 351

Taking the Laplace transform on both sides of equation (5.11) with the time-shift property
applied, we get
Ts 2T s
X (s) = X1 (s) + X1 (s)e + X1 (s)e +



Ts 2T s
) X (s) = X1 (s)(1 + e +e +


)
1
But 1 + a + a2 +


= ; jaj < 1
1 a
 
1
Hence, we get X (s) = X1 (s) Ts
(5.12)
1 e

In equation (5.12), X1 (s) is the Laplace transform of x(t) defined over first period only.
Hence, we have shown that the Laplace transform of a periodic function is the Laplace transform
evaluated over its first period divided by 1 e T s .

EXAMPLE 5.13
Find the Laplace transform of the periodic signal x(t) shown in Fig. 5.17.

Figure 5.17

SOLUTION

From Fig. 5.17, we find that T = 2 Seconds.

The signal x(t) considered over one period is donoted as x1 (t) and shown in Fig. 5.18(a).

Figure 5.18(a) Figure 5.18(b) Figure 5.18(c)

352 j Network Theory

The signal x1 (t) may be viewed as the multiplication of xA (t) and g (t).

That is; x1 (t) = xA (t)g (t)

= [ t + 1][u(t) u(t 1)]
) x1 (t) = tu(t) + tu(t 1) + u(t) u(t 1)
= tu(t) + (t 1 + 1)u(t 1) + u(t) u(t 1)
= tu(t) + (t 1)u(t 1) + u(t 1) + u(t) u(t 1)
= u(t) tu(t) + (t 1)u(t 1)
= u(t) r (t) + r (t 1)

Taking Laplace Transform, we get

1 1 1 s
X1 (s) = + e
s s2 s2
s
s 1+e
=
s2
X1 (s) (s 1 + e s )
Hence; X(s) = sT = 2
1 e s (1 e 2s )

5.6 Inverse Laplace transform

The inverse Laplace transform of X (s) is defined by an integral operation with respect to variable
s as follows:
Z
+j 1
1
x(t) = X (s)est ds (5.13)
2
 j 1
Since s is complex, the solution requries a knowledge of complex variables. In otherwords,
the evaluation of integral in equation (5.13) requires the use of contour integration in the complex
plane, which is very difficult. Hence, we will avoid using equation (5.13) to compute inverse
Laplace transform.
In many situations, the Laplace transform can be expressed in the form

P (s)
X (s) = (5.14)
Q(s)
m 1
where P (s) = bm sm + bm 1s +


+ b1 s + b0
n n 1
Q(s) = an s + an 1s +


+ a1 s + a0 ; an 6= 0

The function X (s) as defined by equation (5.14) is said to be rational function of s, since
it is a ratio of two polynomials. The denominator Q(s) can be factored into linear factors.
 Laplace Transform j 353

P (s)
A partial fraction expansion allows a strictly proper rational function to be expressed as a
Q(s)
factor of terms whose numerators are constants and whose denominator corresponds to linear or
a combination of linear and repeated factors. This in turn allows us to relate such terms to their
corresponding inverse transform.
For performing partial fraction technique on X (s), the function X (s) has to meet the follow-
ing conditions:

(i) X (s) must be a proper fraction. That is, m < n. When X (s) is improper, we can use long
division to reduce it to proper fraction.

(ii) Q(s) should be in the factored form.

EXAMPLE 5.14
Find the inverse Laplace transform of

2s + 4
X (s) =
s2 + 4s + 3

SOLUTION
2s + 4
X (s) =
s2
+ 4s + 3
2(s + 2) K1 K2
= = +
(s + 1)(s + 3) s+1 s+3
where; K1 = (s + 1)X (s)js= 1

2(s + 2) 
= =1
(s + 3) s= 1
K2 = (s + 3)X (s)js= 3

2(s + 2) 
= =1
(s + 1) s= 3
1 1
Hence; X (s) = +
s+1 s+3
1
We know that: Lfe u(t)g = s + 
t

Therefore; x(t) = [e t + e 3t ]u(t)

EXAMPLE 5.15
Find the inverse Laplace transform of

s2 + 2s + 5
X (s) =
(s + 3)(s + 5)2
354 j Network Theory

SOLUTION

K1 K2 K3
Let X (s) = + +
s+3 s+5 (s + 5)2
where K1 = (s + 3)X (s)js= 3

s2 + 2s + 5 
= =2
(s + 5)2 s= 3

1 d 
K2 = [(s + 5)2 X (s)]
1! ds s=
5
 
d s2
+ 2s + 5 
= 
ds s+3 s= 5

2
s + 6s + 1  
= = 1
(s + 3)2 s= 5

K3 = (s + 5 )2 X (s)s= 5

s2 + 2s + 5 
= = 10
(s + 3)  s= 5
2 1 10
Then X (s) =
s+3 s+5 (s + 5)2

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

3t 5t 5t
x(t) = 2e e 10te ; t0
or x(t) = (2e 3t e 5t 10te 5t )u(t)

Reinforcement problems

R.P 5.1
Find the Laplace transform of: (a) cosh(at) (b) sinh(at)

SOLUTION
1
(a) cosh(at) = [eat + e at ]
2
We know the Laplace transform pair:

1
Lfe at
g=
s+a
1
and Lfeat g = s a
 Laplace Transform j 355

Applying linearity property, we get,

Lfcosh(at)g = 12 Lfeat g + 12 Lfe at

g
 
1 1 1
= +
2 s a s+a
s
=
s2 a2
1
(b) sinh at = [eat e at ]
2
Applying linearity property,
 
Lfsinh(at)g = 12 s 1 a 1
s+a
a
= 2
s a2

R.P 5.2
Find the Laplace transform of f (t) = cos(!t + ).

SOLUTION

Given f (t) = cos(!t +  )

= cos  cos !t sin  sin !t
Applying linearity property, we get,
Lff (t)g = F (s)
= cos  Lfcos !tg sin  Lfsin !tg
s !
= cos  sin 
s2 + !2 s2 + !2
s cos θ ω sin θ
=
s2 + ω 2

R.P 5.3
Find the Laplace transform of each of the following functions:

(a) x(t) = t2 cos(2t + 30 )u(t)

d
(b) x(t) = 2tu(t) 4  (t)
dt
 
t
(c) x(t) = 5u
3
t
(d) x(t) = 5e 2 u(t)
356 j Network Theory

SOLUTION
(a) Let us first find the Laplace transform of cos(2t + 30 )u(t)

L fcos(2t + 30 )u(t)g = L fcos 30 cos 2tu(t) sin 30 sin 2tu(t)g
= cos 30 Lfcos 2tu(t)g sin 30 Lfsin 2tu(t)g
   
= cos 30 
s 2
sin 30
s2
+4 s2 + 4
s cos 30 2 sin 30
=
s2 + 4

The Laplace transform of x(t) is now found by using differentiation in s domain property.

L
 
t2 cos(2t + 30 ) =
d2 
L fcos(2t + 30 )u(t)g
 
2
ds 
d2 s cos 30 
2 sin 30
 
= 2
ds s2 + 4
2p 3
3
d2 6 s 17
= 26 2 7
ds 4 s2 + 4 5

2p 3
3
d d 6 s 17
= 6 2 7
ds ds 4 s2 + 4 5
" p ! #
d d 3
1
= s 1 s2 + 4
ds ds 2
" p ! p ! #
d 3 2
1 3
2
= s +4 2s s 1 s2 + 4
ds 2 2
p !
p p p 3
3 3 3 8s2 s 1
( 2s) s 1 2s 2
= 2 2 2 2 +
(s2 + 4)2 (s2 + 4)2 (s2 + 4)2 (s2 + 4)3
F F
8 12 3s 6s2 + 3s2
=
(s2 + 4)3

d
(b) x(t) = 2tu(t) 4  (t)
dt
 
d
Lfx(t)g = X (s) = 2Lftu(t)g 4L
dt
 (t)
 Laplace Transform j 357

 
d
We know that whenever a function f (t) is discontinuous at the origin, we have L f (t)
dt
= sF (s) f (0 ). Applying this relation to the second term on the right side of the above
equation, we get
1
X (s) = 2 4[s  1  (0 )]
s2
2
= 4[s 0]
s2
2
= 4s
s2
 
t
(c) x(t) = 5u
3
Using scaling property,
s
Lff (at)g = a1 F a
we get; Lfx(t)g = X (s) = 5  11=3 Lfu(t)g 
s ! s
1
  3

1 1
=5  
1=3 s s ! s
1
3
5
=
s
t
(d) x(t) = 5e 2 u(t)
We know the Laplace transform pair:
1
Lfe at
u(t)g =
s+a
n o
Lfx(t)g = X (s) = 5L
1
t
Hence; e 2 u(t)
1 10
=5 =
1 2s + 1
s+
2
R.P 5.4
Find the Laplace transform of the following functions:

(a) x(t) = t cos at

1
(b) x(t) = sin at sinh(at)
2a2
sin2 !t
(c) x(t) =
t
358 j Network Theory

SOLUTION
(a) x(t) = t cos at

d
We know that Lftf (t)g = ds
F (s)
Let f (t) = cos at
s
) F (s) = 2
s + a2
 
d s
Hence Lft cos atg = Lftf (t)g = ds s2 + a2
s2 a2
=
(s2 + a2 )2
1
(b) x(t) = sin at sinh at
2a2
 
1 1 at 1 at
= e sin at e sin at
2a2 2 2
1  
= 2 eat sin at e at
sin at
4a
We know the shifting in s domain property:

Lfes t f (t)g = F (s)js!(s

0
s0 )

Applying this property along with linearity property, we get

Lfx(t)g = X (s)
1  
=
4a2 
Lfeat sin atg Lfe at
sin atg
  
1 a  
a
= 2
4a s2 + a2 s!s a s +a 
2 2
s !s+a

1 a a
= 2
4a (s a)2 + a2 (s + a)2 + a2
s
=
[(s a)2 + a2 ] [(s + a)2 + a2 ]
1
(c) x(t) = sin2 !t
t
Z1
We know that Lff (t)g = F (s) = f (t)e st
dt
0
 Laplace Transform j 359

Z1 Z1 Z1
st
Hence; F (s)ds = f (t) e dsdt
s 0 s
Z1  st
1
e
= f (t) dt
t s
0
Z1
f (t) st
= e dt
t
0
 
f (t)
=L
t
In the present case; f (t) = sin2 !t
 
1 j!t 2
1 j!t
= e e
j2 j2
ej 2!t 2 + e j 2!t
=
 4     
1 1 1 1 1 1
Hence; F (s) = +
4 s j 2! 2 s 4 s + j 2!

Hence,
 
1
X (s) = L 2
sin !t
t
 
1
=L f (t)
t
Z1 Zx
F (s)ds = lim f (x)dx
=
x !1
s s
 
ln(x j 2! ) ln(s j 2! ) 2 ln x + 2 ln s + ln(x + j 2! ) ln(s + j 2! )
= lim
x !1 4
   2 
1 x2 + 4! 2 1 s + 4! 2
= ln + ln
4

x2
 x !1 4 s2
1 s2 + 4ω 2
= ln
4 s2

R.P 5.5
Consider the pulse shown in Fig. R.P. 5.5, where f (t) = e2t for 0 < t < T . Find F (s) for the
pulse.
360 j Network Theory

Figure R.P. 5.5

SOLUTION
The discrete pulse f (t) could be imagined as the prod-
uct of signal x(t) and g (t) as shown in Fig. R.P. 5.5(a)
and (b) respectively.

That is; f (t) = x(t)g (t)

= e2t [u(t) u(t T )]
2t 2t
= e u(t) e u(t T)
2t 2(t T +T )
= e u(t) e u(t T)
2t 2T 2(t T )
= e u(t) e e u(t T)
e2T e T s
Hence; Lff (t)g = F (s) = s 1 2 s 2
T (s 2)
1 e
=
s 2 s 2
1 e T (s 2)
=
(s 2) Figure R.P. 5.5(a)

Alternate method:
Z1
Lff (t)g = F (s)  f (t)e st
dt
0
ZT
= e2t e st
dt
0
1 e T (s 2)
=
(s 2)
 Laplace Transform j 361

R.P 5.6
Find the Laplace transform of f (t) shown in Fig. R.P. 5.6.

Figure R.P. 5.6

SOLUTION
f (t) is a discrete pulse and can be expressed mathematically as:

f (t) = x(t)g (t)

= sin t[u(t) u(t 1)]
= sin tu(t) sin tu(t 1)
= sin tu(t) sin[ (t 1 + 1)]u(t 1)
) f (t) = sin tu(t) sin[ (t 1)] cos  (t 1)
cos[ (t 1)] sin u(t 1)
= sin tu(t) + sin[ (t 1)]u(t 1)
 e 1s 
Hence; F (s) = Lff (t)g = + 2
s2 +  2 s + 2
π
= [1 + e s ]
s2 + π 2 Figure R.P. 5.6(a)

R.P 5.7
Determine the Laplace transform of f (t) shown in Fig. R.P. 5.7.

Figure R.P. 5.7

362 j Network Theory

SOLUTION

We can write,

f (t) = x(t)g (t)

 
5
=t [u(t) u(t 2)]
2
5 5
= tu(t) tu(t 2)
2 2
5 5
= tu(t) (t 2 + 2)u(t 2)
2 2
5 5
= tu(t) (t 2)u(t 2) 5u(t 2)
2 2 
  
5 1 5 1 5 2s
Hence; Lff (t)g = F (s) = 2 2
e 2s e
2 s 2 s s
5 Figure R.P. 5.7(a)
= 2 [1 e 2s 2se 2s ]
2s

R.P 5.8
Find the Laplace transform of f (t) shown in Fig. R.P. 5.8.

Figure R.P. 5.8

SOLUTION
The equation of a straight line is y = mx + c, where m = slope of the line and c = intercept on
y -axis.
5
Hence, f (t) = t+5
3
When f (t) = 2, let us find t.
 Laplace Transform j 363

5
That is; 2= t+5
3
) t = 4:2 Seconds
Mathematically,
f (t) = x(t)g (t)
 
5
= t + 5 [u(t) u(t 4:2)]
3
5 5
= tu(t) + tu(t 4:2) + 5u(t) 5u(t 4:2)
3 3
5 5
= tu(t) + (t 4:2 + 4:2)u(t 4:2)
3 3
+5u(t) 5u(t 4:2)
5 5
= tu(t) + (t 4:2)u(t 4:2) + 7u(t 4:2) Figure R.P. 5.8(a)
3 3
+5u(t) 5u(t 4:2)
5 5
= tu(t) + (t 4:2)u(t 4:2) + 2u(t 4:2) + 5u(t)
3 3
Hence; F (s) = Lff (t)g
5 5 2 5
= 2 + 2 e 4:2s + e 4:2s
+
3s 3s s s
5 + 5e 4:2s + 6se 4:2s + 15s
=
3s2
R.P 5.9
If f (0 ) = 3 and 15u(t) 4 (t) = 8f (t) + 6f 0 (t), find f (t) (hint: by taking the Laplace
transform of the differential equation, solving for F (s) and by inverting, find f (t)).
SOLUTION
Given, 15u(t) 4 (t) = 8f (t) + 6f 0 (t)
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides, we get
15
4 = 8F (s) + 6[sF (s) f (0 )]
s
15
) 4 = 8F (s) + 6sF (s) + 18
s
15 4s
Therefore; F (s)(6s + 8) = 18 +
s
18 15 4s
) F (s) = +
(6s + 8) s(6s + 8)
22s + 15 K K2
=  = 1+
4 s 4
6s s + s+
3 3
364 j Network Theory

The constants K1 and K2 are found using the theory of partial fractions.



22s + 15 
K1 =   = 1:875
4 
6 s+
3 s=0

22s + 15 
K2 =
6s  4 = 5:542
s= 3
1:875 5:542
Hence; F (s) =
s 4
s+
h 3 i
4
t
Taking the inverse, we get f (t) = 1.875 5.542e 3 u(t)

R.P 5.10
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions:
s+1
(a) F (s) = 2
s + 4s + 13
3e s
(b) F (s) =
s2 + 2s + 17

SOLUTION
s+1
(a) F (s) =
(s + 2)2 + 9
(s + 2) 1
=
(s + 2)2 + 9
s+2 1
=
(s + 2)2 + 32 (s + 2)2 + 32
s+2 1 3
=
(s + 2)2 + 32 3 (s + 2)2 + 32
The determination of the Laplace inverse makes use of the following two Laplace transform
pairs:
a
Lfe bt
sin atg =
(s + b)2 + a2
Lfe bt cos atg = (s +sb+)2 b+ a2
f (t) = L
1
Hence; fF (s)g
2t 1 2t
=e cos 3t e sin 3t
3
3e s
(b) F (s) =
s2 + 2s + 17
 Laplace Transform j 365

s
Let F (s) = e X (s)
3 3
where X (s) = =
s2
+ 2s + 17 (s + 1)2 + 42
 
3 4
=
4 (s + 1)2 + 42
3
) x(t) = e t sin 4t
4
Since F (s) = e s X (s)
we get; f (t) = x(t
1)
3 (t 1)
Therefore; f (t) = e sin[4(t 1)]; t>1
4
3
f (t) = e (t 1) sin[4(t 1)]u(t 1)
4
Laplace transform method for solving a set of differential equations:

1. Identify the circuit variables such as inductor currents and capacitor voltages.

2. Obtain the differential equations describing the circuit and keep a watch on the initial con-
ditions of the circuit variables.

3. Obtain the Laplace transform of the various differential equations.

4. Using Cramer’s rule or a similar technique, solve for one or more of the unknown variables,
obtaining the solution in s domain.

5. Find the inverse transform of the unknown variables and thus obtain the solution in the time
domain.

R.P 5.11
Referring to the RL circuit of Fig. R.P. 5.11, (a) write a differential equation for the inductor
current iL (t). (b) Find IL (s), the Laplace transform of iL (t). (c) Solve for iL (t).

Figure R.P. 5.11

366 j Network Theory

SOLUTION
(a) Applying KVL clockwise, we get
diL
10iL (t) + 5 5u(t 2) = 0
dt
(b) Taking Laplace transform of the above equation, we get
5
10IL (s) + 5[sIL (s) iL (0 )] = e 2s
s
5 2s
e + 5iL (0 )
) IL (s) = s
5s + 10
e 2s + 5  10 3s
=
s(s + 2)
 
2s K1 K2 5  10 3 s
=e + +
s s+2 s(s + 2)

1  1
where K1 =  =
s + 2 s=0 2

1  1
K2 =  =
s s= 2 2
 
1 2s 1 1 5  10 3
Hence; IL (s) = e +
2 s s+2 (s + 2)
(c) Taking Inverse Laplace transform, we get
1 
iL (t) = u(t) e 2t u(t) t!t 2 + 5  10 3 e 2t u(t)
2
1 
= u(t 2) e 2t u(t 2) + 5  10 3 e 2t u(t)
2
R.P 5.12
Obtain a single integrodifferential equation in terms of iC for the circuit of Fig. R.P. 5.12. Take
the Laplace transform, solve for IC (s), and then find iC (t) by making use of inverse transform.

Figure R.P. 5.12

 Laplace Transform j 367

SOLUTION
Applying KVL clockwise to the right-mesh, we get
Z1
4u(t) + iC + 10 iC dt + 4[iC 0:5 (t)] = 0
0

Taking Laplace transform, we get

1 10IC (s)
4 + IC (s) + + 4IC (s) 2=0
s s
2s 4
) IC (s) =
5s + 10
1.6
= 0.4
s+2
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

iC (t) = 0.4δ(t) 1.6e 2t u(t) Amps.

R.P 5.13
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.13. Find i(0) and i(1) using initial and final value theorems.

Figure R.P. 5.13

SOLUTION
Applying KVL we get
di
i+2 = 10
dt
Taking Laplace transform, on both the sides, we get
10
I (s) + 2[sI (s) i(0 )] =
s
10
) I (s) + 2[sI (s) 1] =
s
10
) I (s)[1 + 2s] = +2
s
368 j Network Theory

10 2
) I (s) = +
s(1 + 2s) 1 + 2s
10 + 2s
=
s(1 + 2s)
5+s
=  
1
s s+
2
According to initial value theorem,
i(0) = lim sI (s)
s !1
(s + 5)
= lim s  
s!1 1
s s+
2
5
1+
s =1
s!1
= lim
1
1+
2s
We know from fundamentals for an inductor, i(0+ ) = i(0 ) = i(0). Hence, i(0) found using
initial value theorem verifies the initial value of i(t) given in the problem.
From final value theorem,
i(1) = lim sI (s)
s !0
s(s + 5) 5
= lim  = = 10 A
s !0 1 1=2
s s+
2

R.P 5.14
Find i(t) and vC (t) for the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.14 when vC (0) = 10 V and i(0) = 0 A. The
input source is vi = 15u(t) V. Choose R so that the roots of the characteristic equation are real.

Figure R.P. 5.14

 Laplace Transform j 369

SOLUTION
Applying KVL clockwise, we get

di
L + vC + Ri = vi (t) (5.15)
dt
The differential equation describing the variable vC is

dvC
C =i (5.16)
dt
The Laplace transform of equation (5.15) is

L[sI (s) i(0) + VC (s) + RI (s) = Vi (s)] (5.17)

The Laplace transform of equation (5.16) is

C [sVC (s) vC (0) = I (s)] (5.18)

Noting that i(0) = 0, substituting for C and L and rearranging equation (5.17) and (5.18), we
get,
15
[R + s]I (s) + VC (s) = Vi (s) = (5.19)
s
1
I (s) + sVC (s) = 5 (5.20)
2
Putting equations (5.19) and (5.20) in matrix form, we get
2
R+s 1
3" # 2 15 3
I (s)
4 1 5 =4 s 5 (5.21)
1 s VC (s) 5
2
Solving for I (s) using Cramer’s rule, we get

5
I (s) =
s2 + Rs + 2

The inverse Laplace transform of I (s) will depend on the value of R. The equation
s2 + Rs + 2 = 0 is defined as the characteristic equation. For the roots of this equation to
be real, it is essential that b2 4ac  0 . 
This means that; R2 4120
p
) R2 2

 The condition b2 4ac  0 is with respect to algebraic equaion ax2 + bx + c = 0.

370 j Network Theory

Let us choose the value of R as 3

5 5
Then I (s) = =
s2 + 3s + 2 (s + 1)(s + 2)
K1 K2
) I (s) = +
s+1 s+2
5 
where K1 = =5
s + 2 s = 1

5 
K2 = = 5
s + 1 s = 2
5 5
Hence; I (s) =
s+1 s+2
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

i(t) = 5e t u(t) 5e 2t u(t)

Please note that t = 0 gives i(0) = 0 and t = 1 gives i(1) = 0.

Solving the matrix equation (5.21) for VC (s), using Cramer’s rule, we get
10s2 + 10Rs + 30
VC (s) =
s(s2 + Rs + 2)
Substituting the value of R, we get
10(s2 + 3s + 3)
VC (s) =
s(s + 1)(s + 2)
Using partial fraction expansion, we can write,
K1 K2 K3
VC (s) = + +
s s+1 s+2
where, K1 = 15, K2 = 10, K3 = 5
15 10 5
Hence; VC (s) = +
s s+1 s+2
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

vC (t) = 15u(t) 10e t u(t) + 5e 2t u(t)

Verification:
Putting t = 0, we get

vC (0) = 15 10 + 5 = 10 V
vC (1) = 15 0 + 0 = 15 V

This checks the validity of results obtained.

 Laplace Transform j 371

R.P 5.15
For the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.15, the steady state is reached with the 100 V source. At t = 0,
1
switch K is opened. What is the current through the inductor at t = seconds ?
2

Figure R.P. 5.15

SOLUTION
At t = 0 , the circuit is as shown in Fig. 5.15(a).

i2 (0+ ) = i2 (0 ) = 2:5 A

Figure R.P. 5.15(a) Figure R.P. 5.15(b)

For t  0+ , the circuit diagram is as shown in Fig. 5.15(b). Applying KVL clockwise to the
circuit, we get
di
80i(t) + 4 =0
dt
372 j Network Theory

Taking Laplace transform, we get

80I (s) + 4[sI (s) i(0 )] = 0
) 80I (s) + 4sI (s) = 4  2:5
) [20 + s]I (s) = 2:5
2:5
I (s) =
s + 20
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get,
20t
i(t) = 2:5e
At t = 0:5 sec, we get
i(0.5) = 2.5e 10 = 1.135  10 4 A

R.P 5.16
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.16. Find:
(a) vo (t) for t  0
(b) io (t) for t  0
(c) Does your solution for io (t) make sense when t = 0? Explain.

Figure R.P. 5.16

SOLUTION

Figure R.P. 5.16(a)

 Laplace Transform j 373

KCL at node A: (for t  0)

Zt
1 vo dvo
Idc = vo dt + +C
L R dt
0

Taking Laplace transform,

Idc Vo (s) Vo (s)
= + + sCVo (s)
s sL R
Idc
Hence; Vo (s) =  C
1 1
s2 + s+
RC LC

Substituting the values of Idc , R, L, and C , we find that

120; 000 120; 000
Vo (s) = =
s2 + 10; 000s + 16  106 (s + 2000)(s + 8000)
Using partial fractions, we get
K1 K2
Vo (s) = +
s + 2000 s + 8000
where K1 = 20, and K2 = 20
20 20
Hence; Vo (s) =
s + 2000 s + 8000
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

vo (t) = 20e 2000t u(t) 20e 8000t u(t)

dvo
(b) io (t) = C
dt
Hence Io (s) = C [sVo (s) vo (0)]

For t  0 , since the switch was in closed state, the circuit was not activated by the source.
This means that vo (0) = vo (0 ) = vo (0+ ) = 0 and iL (0+ ) = iL (0 ) = 0:

Then; Io (s) = CsVo (s)

25  10 9  s  120; 000
=
s2 + 10; 000s + 16  106
3  10 3 s
=
(s + 2000)(s + 8000)
K1 K2
= +
s + 2000 s + 8000
374 j Network Theory

We find that, K1 = 10 3, and K2 = 4  10 3

10 3 4  10 3
Therefore; Io (s) = +
s + 2000 s + 8000

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

io (t) = 4e 8000t u(t) e 2000t u(t)mA

(c) io (0+ ) = 4 1 = 3mA

Yes. The initial inductor current is zero by hypothesis iL (0+ ) = IL (0 ) = 0 . Also, the initial
resistor current is zero because vo (0+ ) = vo (0 ) = 0. Thus at t = 0+ , the source current
appears in the capacitor.

R.P 5.17
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.17. The circuit parameters are R = 10kΩ, L = 800 mH
and C = 100nF, if Vdc = 70V, find:

(a) vo (t) for t  0

(b) io (t) for t  0

(c) Use initial and final value theorems to check the inital and final values of current and
voltage.

Figure R.P. 5.17

SOLUTION
At t = 0 , switch is open and at t = 0+ , the switch is closed. Since at t = 0 , the circuit is not
energized by dc source, io (0 ) = 0 and vo (0 ) = 0. Then by the hypothesis, that the current in
an inductor and voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously,

io (0+ ) = io (0 ) = 0 and vo (0+ ) = vo (0 ) = 0

 Laplace Transform j 375

The KCL equation when the switch is closed (for t  0+ ) is given by

Zt
dvo vo 1
C + + (vo Vdc )d = 0
dt R L
0
Zt Zt
dvo vo 1 1
) C + + vo d = Vdc d
dt R L L
0 0
Zt
dvo vo 1 1
) C + + vo d = Vdc t
dt R L L
0

Laplace transform of the above equation gives

Vo (s) 1 Vo (s) 1 Vdc
C [sVo (s) vo (0)] + + =
R L s L s2
Since vo (0) is same as vo (0 ), we get
Vo (s) 1 Vo (s) Vdc
CsVo (s) + + =
R L s Ls2
Vdc
) Vo (s) =  LC 
1 1
s s2 + s+
RC LC
Substituting the values of Vdc , R, L, and C , we get
875  106
Vo (s) =
s [s2 + 1000s + 1250  104 ]
875  106
=
s(s s1 )(s s2 )
p
where s1 ; s 2 = 500  25  104 1250  104
= 500  j 3500
875  106
Hence; Vo (s) =
s(s + 500) j 3500)(s + 500 + j 3500)
Using partial fractions, we get
K1 K2 K2 
Vo (s) = + +
s s + 500 j 3500 s + 500 + j 3500
875  106
We find that K1 = = 70
125  105
875  106
K2 =
( 500 + j 3500)(j 7000)
376 j Network Theory

= 5 50 /171:87
p

5 50 /171:87 5 50 / 171:87
p p
70
Vo (s) = + +
s s + 500 j 3500 s + 500 + j 3500
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get
h i
p
vo (t) = 70 + 5 50 /171:87 e  (500 j 3500)t
+ 5 50 / 171:87 e
p (500+j 3500)t
u(t)

The inverse of Vo (s) can be expressed in a better form by following the technique described
below:
Let us consider a transformed function
C + jd C jd
F (s) = +
s + a j! s + a + j!
m / m/ 
= +
s + a j! s + a + j!
p  
1 d
where m= c2 + d2 and  = tan
c

The inverse transform of F (s) is given by

at
f (t) = 2me cos(!t + )u(t)

(For the proof see R.P. 5.19)

In the present context,

p
m = 5 50;  = 171:87 
! = 3500 and a = 500
( p )
5 50 /171:87 5 50 / 171:87
p
This means that, L 1
s + 500 j 3500
+
s + 500 + j 3500

= 2  5 50e 500t cos (3500t + 171:87 )

p

= 10 50e 500t cos (3500t + 171:87 )

p

 F 
Hence; vo (t) = 70 + 10 50e 500t cos (3500t + 171.87 ) u(t)
 Laplace Transform j 377

vo dvo
(b) io (t) = +C
R dt
Taking Laplace transforms on both the sides, we get

Vo (s)  
Io (s) = + C sVo (s) vo (0 )
R
Vo (s)
) Io (s) = + CsVo (s)
R  
1
) Io (s) = CVo (s) s +
RC
2 3
  1
Vdc 6 s+ 7
= 6 
4
RC 7
5
L 1 1
s s2 + s+
RC LC

Substituting the values of Vdc , R, L, and C , we get

87:5(s + 1000)
Io (s) =
s(s + 500 j 3500)(s + 500 + j 3500)
K1 K2 K2 
= + +
s s + 500 j 3500 s + 500 + j 3500

We find that,
87:5  1000
K1 = = 7mA
1250  104
87:5(500 + j 3500)
K2 =
( 500 + j 3500)(j 7000)
= 12:5 / 106:26 mA
7 12:5 / 106:26 12:5 /106:26
Io (s) = + +
s s + 500 j 3500 s + 500 + j 3500

The inverse Laplace transform yields,

h i
io (t) = 7 + 12:5 / 106:26 e  (500 j 3500)t
+ 12:5 /106:26 e (500+j 3500)t
u(t)
 
= 7 + 25e 500t cos(3500t 106.26 ) u(t)mA

Vdc
(c) Vo (s) =   LC 
1 1
s s2 + s+
RC LC
Vdc  LC
vo (1) = lim vo (t) = lim sVo (s) =
From Final Value theorem:
t !1 LC s !0
= 70V
The same result may be obtained by putting t = 1 in the expression for vo (t).
378 j Network Theory

vo (0) = lim sVo (s)

From initial value theorem :
s !1
Vdc
6s
LC
= lim
s !1 6 ss2 + 1
s+
1

RC LC
=0

This verifies our beginning analysis that vo (0+ ) = vo (0 ) = 0. The same result may be
obtained by putting t = 0 in the expression for vo (t).  
1
s+
Vdc RC
We know that, Io (s) =  
L 2
1 1
s s + s+
RC LC

Io (1) = lim sIo (s)

From final value theorem :
s !0  
1
s+
Vdc RC
= lim 6 s  
s !0 L
6s s2 +
1
s+
1
RC LC
1
Vdc RC
=
L 1
LC
Vdc 70
= = = 7 mA
R 10  103
The same result may be obtained by putting t = 1 in the expression for io (t).

io (0) = lim sIo (s)

From initial value theorem :
s !1 2   3
1
s+
6 Vdc RC 7
= lim s 6  7
s!1 4 L 1 1 5
s s2 + s+
RC LC
=0

This agrees with our initial analysis that the initial current through the inductor is zero. The
same result can be obtained by putting t = 0 in the expression for io (t).
 Laplace Transform j 379

R.P 5.18
Apply the initial and final value theorems to each of the functions given below:
s2 + 5s + 10 s2 + 5s + 10
(a) F (s) = (b) F (s) =
s+6 5(s2 + 6s + 8)
SOLUTION
Since in F (s) referred in (a) and (b) are improper 1 fractions, the corresponding time domain
counterparts, f (t) contain impulses.
Thus, neither the initial value theorem nor the final value theorems may be applied to these
transformed functions.

R.P 5.19
c + jd c jd
Find the inverse Laplace transform of F (s) = +
s + a j! s + a + j!
SOLUTION
Expressing c + jd and c jd in the exponenetial from, we get,

mej me j
F (s) = +
s + a j! s + a + j!
p  
1 d
where m= c2 + d2 and  = tan
c
f (t) = L
1
Hence; fF (s)g
j (a j! )t j (a+j! )t
= me e u(t) + me e u(t)
at j ( +!t) at j ( +!t)
= me e u(t) + me e u(t)
" #
at ej (+!t) + e j ( +!t)
= 2me u(t)
2
= 2me at cos(θ + ωt)u(t)

R.P 5.20
60
Find the initial and final values of f (t) when F (s) =
s2 2s + 1
SOLUTION
Initial value theorem

f (0) = lim sF (s)

s !1
60
= lim s =0
s !1 s2 2s + 1
1
If the degree of the numerator polynomial is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator polynomial,
the fraction is said to be improper.
380 j Network Theory

Final value theorem:

The poles of F (s) are given by finding the roots of the denominator polynomial. That is,

s2 2s + 1 = 0 ) (s 1)2 = 0 ) s = 1; 1

Since both the poles of F (s) lie to the right of the s plane, final value theorem cannot be used
to find f (1).

R.P 5.21
Find i(t) for the circuit of Fig.R.P. 5.21, when i1 (t) = 7e 6t A for t  0 and i(0) = 0. Also find
i(1).

Figure R.P. 5.21

SOLUTION

Refer Fig. R.P. 5.21(a).

v1 6t
KCL at node v1 : + i = 7e
5
di
Also; v1 = 3i + 4
 dt 
1 di
Hence; 3i + 4 + i = 7e 6t
5 dt
4 di 8
) + i = 7e 6t Figure R.P. 5.21(a)
5 dt 5
di 35
) + 2i = e 6t
dt 4
Taking Laplace transform of the differential equation, we get
35 1
[sI (s) i(0)] + 2I (s) =
4 s+6
35 1
) I (s) =
4 (s + 2)(s + 6)
 Laplace Transform j 381

Using partial fraction expansion, we get

K1 K2
I (s) = +
s+2 s+6
35 35
and find that K1 = and K2 =
16   16 
35 1 35 1
Hence; I (s) =
16 s + 2 16 s + 6
35  2t 
 i(t) =
16
e e 6t u(t)

5.7 Circuit element models and initial conditions

In the analysis of a circuit, the Laplace transform can be carried one step further by transforming
the circuit itself rather than the differential equation. Earlier we have seen how to represent a
circuit in time domain by differential equations and then use Laplace transform to transform the
differential equations into algebraic equations. In this section, we will see how we can represent
a circuit in s domain using the Laplace transform and then analyze it using algebraic equations.

5.7.1 Resistor

The voltage-current relationship for a resistor R is given by Ohm’s law:

v (t) = i(t)R (5.22)
Taking Laplace transform on both the sides, we get
V (s) = I (s)R (5.23)
Fig. 5.19 (a) shows the representation of a resistor in time domain and Fig. 5.19(b) in fre-
quency domain using Laplace transform.

Figure 5.19(a) Resistor represented in Figure 5.19(b) Resistor represented in the

time domain frequency domain using Laplace transform

The impedance of an element is defined as

V (s)
Z (s) =
I (s)
382 j Network Theory

provided all initial conditions are zero. Please note that the impedance is a concept defined only
in frequency domain and not in time domain. In the case of a resistor, there is no initial condition
to be set to zero. Comparision of equations (5.22) and (5.23) reveals that, resistor R has same
representation in both time and frequency domains.

5.7.2 Capacitor

For a capacitor with capacitance C , the time-domain voltage-current relationship is

Zt
1
v (t) = i( )d + v (0) (5.24a)
C
0

The s domain characterization is obtained by taking the Laplace transform of the above equa-
tion. That is,

1 v (0)
V (s) = I (s) + (5.24b)
Cs s

To find the impedance of a capacitor, set the initial condition v (0) to zero. Then from equation
V (s) 1
(5.24b), we get Z (s) = = as the impedance of the capacitor. With the help of equation
I (s) Cs
(5.24b), we can draw the frequency domain representation of a Capacitor and the same is shown
in Fig. 5.20(b). This equivalent circuit is drawn so that the KVL equation represented by equation
(5.24 b) is satisfied. Performing source transformation on the equivalent s domain circuit for a
capacitor which is shown in Fig. 5.20(b), we get an alternate frequency domain representation as
shown in Fig. 5.20(c).

Figure 5.20(a) A capacitor represented in time domain

(b) A capacitor represented in the frequency domain
(c) Alternate frequency domain representation for a capacitor
 Laplace Transform j 383

5.7.3 Inductor

For an inductor with inductance L, the time domain voltage-current relation is

di(t)
v (t) = L (5.25)
dt
The Laplace transform of equation (5.25) yields,

V (s) = LsI (s) Li(0) (5.26)

To find impedance of an inductor, set the initial condition i(0) to zero. Then from equation
(5.26), we get

V (s)
Z (s) = = Ls (5.27)
I (s)

which represents the impedance of the inductor. Equation (5.26) is used to get the frequency
domain representation of an inductor and the same is shown in Fig. 5.21(b). The series connection
of elements corresponds to sum of the voltages in equation (5.26). Converting the voltage source
in Fig.5.21(b) into an equivalent current source, we get an alternate representation for the inductor
in frequency domain which is as shown in Fig. 5.21(c).
To find the frequency domain representation of a circuit, we replace the time domain repre-
sentation of each element in the circuit by its frequency domain representation.

Figure 5.21(a) An inductor represented in time domain

(b) An inductor represented in the frequency domain
(c) An alternate frequency domain representation

To find the complete response of a circuit, we first get its frequency domain representation.
Next, using KV L or KCL, we find the variables of interest in s doamin. Finally, we use the
inverse Laplace transform to represent the variables of interest in time domain.
384 j Network Theory

EXAMPLE 5.16
Determine the voltage vC (t) and the current iC (t) for t  0 for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.22.

Figure 5.22

SOLUTION
We shall analyze this circuit using nodal technique. Hence we represent the capacitor in frequency
domain by a parallel circuit since it is easier to account for current sources than voltage sources
while handling nodal equations.
The symbol for switch indicates that at t = 0 it is closed and at t = 0+ , it is open. The
circuit at t = 0 is shown in Fig. 5.23(a). Let us assume that at t = 0 , the circuit is in steady
state. Under steady state condition, capacitor acts as on open circuit as shown in Fig. 5.23(a).

26 12 4
i1 (0 ) = = =
6+3 9 3
4
vC (0 ) =  3 = 4V
3
Hence; vC (0) = vC (0+ ) = vC (0 ) = 4V

Fig. 5.23(b) represents the frequency

domain representation of the circuit
Figure 5.23(a)
shown in Fig. 5.22.
KCL at top node:

VC (s)
s 2
+ VC (s) = 2 +
3 2 s
6 2
) VC (s) =
s 2
s+
3

Figure 5.23(b)
 Laplace Transform j 385

Inverse Laplace transform yields

h 2
i
vC (t) = 6 2e 3
t u(t)V
2
VC (s) 3
Also; IC (s) = 2=
2 2
s+
s 3
2
 iC (t) =
3
e
2
3
t
u(t)A

EXAMPLE 5.17
Determine the current iL (t) for t  0 for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.24.

Figure 5.24

SOLUTION
At t = 0 , switch is closed and at t = 0+ , it is open. Let
us assume that at t = 0 , the circuit is in steady state. In
steady state, capacitor is open and inductor is short. The
equivalent circuit at t = 0 is as shown in Fig. 5.25(a).
12
iL (0 ) = = 1A
8+4
vC (0 ) = 1  8 = 8V
Therefore; iL (0) = iL (0+ ) = iL (0 ) = 1A
vC (0) = vC (0+ ) = vC (0 ) = 8V Figure 5.25(a)

For t  0+ , the circuit in frequency domain is as shown in Fig. 5.25(b). We will use KVL
to find iL (t). Hence, we use series circuits to represent both the capacitor and inductor in the
frequency domain. These series circuits contain voltage sources rather than current sources. It
is easier to account for voltage sources than current sources when writing mesh equations. This
justifies the selection of series representation for both the capacitor and inductor.
386 j Network Theory

Applying KVL clockwise to the right

mesh, we get
8 20
+ IL (s) + 4sIL (s) 4+8IL (s) = 0
s s  
8 20
) +4= + 8 + 4s IL (s)
s s
2+s (s + 1) + 1
) IL (s) = =
s2 + 2s + 5 (s + 1)2 + 4
 
s+1 1 2 Figure 5.25(b)
) IL (s) = +
(s + 1)2 + 22 2 (s + 1)2  22

We know the Laplace transform pairs:

 s+a
L e at
cos bt =
(s + a)2 + b2

and L e at sin bt = (s + ab)2 + b2
 
t cos 2t + 1 t
Hence; iL (t) = e e sin 2t u(t)A
2

EXAMPLE 5.18
Find vo (t) of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.26.

Figure 5.26

SOLUTION

The unit step function u(t) is defined as

follows:

1; t  0+
u(t) =
0; t  0

Figure 5.27(a)
 Laplace Transform j 387

Since the circuit has two independent sources with u(t) associated with them, the circuit is not
energized for t  0 . Hence the initial current through the inductor is zero. That is, iL (0 ) = 0.
Since current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously,

iL (0) = iL (0+ ) = iL (0 ) = 0
Also; vC (0) = vC (0+ ) = vC (0 ) = 0

The equivalent circuit for t  0+ in frequency domain is as shown in Fig. 5.27(b).

Figure 5.27(b)

KCL at supernode:

V1 (s) V2 (s) V2 (s) 2

+ + =
1 s 2 s
1+
2 s3
 
6
V1 (s) 4
1 7 1 1 2
15
) + V2 (s) + =
s 2 s
1+
 s   
s 2+s 2
) V1 (s) + V2 (s) =
s+1 2s s

The constraint equation:

Applying KVL to the path comprising of current source ! voltage source ! inductor,

1
we get, V1 (s) + V2 (s) = 0
s+2
1
V2 (s) V1 (s) =
s+2
1
) V1 (s) V2 (s) =
s+2
388 j Network Theory

Putting the above two equations in matrix form, we get

2 3 2 3
s 2+s 2 3 2
V1 (s) 6 7
6 s+1
4 2s 7
54 5=6 s 7
4 1 5
1 1 V2 (s)
s+2
Solving for V2 (s) and then applying the principle of voltage division, we get
1 2(3s2 + 6s + 4)
Vo (s) = V2 (s) =
2 2(s + 2)(3s2 + 3s + 2)
 
4
s2 + 2s +
3
) Vo (s) =
(s + 2)(s + 0:5 j 0:646)(s + 0:5 + j 0:646)
Using partial fractions, we can write
K1 K2 K2 
Vo (s) = + +
s+2 s + 0:5 j 0:646 s + 0:5 + j 0:646
We find that K1 = 0:5
K2 = 0:316 / 37:76
0:5 0:316 / 37:76 0:316 /37:76
Hence; Vo (s) = + +
s+2 s + 0:5 j 0:646 s + 0:5 + j 0:646
 
1
We know that, L 1
s+a
=e at
u(t)
 
m / m/ 
L 1
s + a j!
+
s + a + j!
at
= 2me cos(!t + )u(t)
Hence, vo (t) = 0.5e 2t u(t) + 0.632e 0:5t cos [0.646t 37.76 ] u(t)

EXAMPLE 5.19
For the network shown in Fig. 5.28, find vo (t), t > 0, using mesh equations.

Figure 5.28
 Laplace Transform j 389

SOLUTION
The step function u(t) is defined as follows.

1; t  0+
u(t) =
0; t  0

Since the circuit is not energized for t  0 , there

are no initial conditions in the circuit. For t  0+ ,
the frequency domain equivalent circuit is shown Figure 5.29(a)
in Fig. 5.29(b).

Figure 5.29(b)
2
By inspection, we find that I1 (s) =
s
KVL clockwise for mesh 2:
4
+ 1 [I2 (s) I1 (s)] + 2I2 (s) + 1 [I2 (s) I3 (s)] = 0
s
4
) I1 (s) + I2 (s) [1 + 2 + 1] I3 (s) = 0
s
Substituting the value of I1 (s), we get
4 2
+ 4I2 (s) I3 (s) =
s s
6
) 4I2 (s) I3 (s) =
s
KVL clockwise for mesh 3:
1 [I3 (s) I2 (s)] + sI3 (s) + 1I3 (s) = 0
) I2 (s) + I3 (s) [s + 2] = 0
Putting the KVL equations for mesh 2 and mesh 3 in matrix form, we get
2 32 3 2 6 3
4 1 I2 (s)
4 54 5=4 s 5
1 s+2 I3 (s) 0
390 j Network Theory

Solving for I3 (s), using Cramer’s rule, we get

1:5
I3 (s) =  
7
s s+
4
1:5
) Vo (s) = I3 (s)  1 =  
7
s s+
4
Using partial fractions, we can write
K1 K2
Vo (s) = +
s 7
s+
4
6 6
We find that, K1 = ; and K2 =
72 37
6 61 1 7
Hence; Vo (s) = 4 75
7 s
s+
4
6h i
 vo (t) =
7
1 e
7
4
t
u(t)

EXAMPLE 5.20
Use mesh analysis to find vo (t), t > 0 in the network shown in Fig. 5.30.

Figure 5.30

SOLUTION
The circuit is not energized for t  0 because the independent current source is associated with
u(t). This means that there are no initial conditions in the circuit. The frequency domain circuit
for t  0+ is shown in Fig. 5.31.
By inspection we find that:
4 Ix (s)
I1 (s) = ; I2 (s) =
s 2  
4 4 1 4
Ix (s) = I3 (s) ) 2I2 (s) = I3 (s) ) I2 (s) = I3 (s)
s s 2 s
 Laplace Transform j 391

KVL for mesh 3 gives

 
4
s [I3 (s) I2 (s)] + 1 I3 (s)
s
+1  I3 (s) = 0
  
1 4
) s I3 (s) I3 (s)
2 s
 
4
+ I3 (s) + I3 (s) = 0
s
4(s 2)
) I3 (s) =
s(s + 4)
and Vo (s) = 1[I3 (s)] Figure 5.31
4(s 2)
=
s(s + 4)

By partial fractions, we can write

K1 K2
Vo (s) = +
s s+4
We find that K1 = 2; K2 = 6
2 6
Hence; Vo (s) =
s s+4
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

vo (t) = 2u(t) 6e 4t u(t)

EXAMPLE 5.21
Using the principle of superposition, find vo (t) for t > 0. Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 5.32.

Figure 5.32

SOLUTION
Since both the independent sources are associated with u(t), which is zero for
t  0 , the circuit will not have any initial conditions. The frequency domain circuit for t  0+
is shown in Fig. 5.33(a).
392 j Network Theory

Figure 5.33(a)

As a first step, let us find the contribution to Vo (s) due to voltage source alone. This needs the
deactivation of the current source.
Referring to Fig. 5.33(b), we find that
4
I (s) = s
2
s+1+ +1
s
4
) Vo1 (s) = I (s)[1] =
s2 + 2s + 2
Figure 5.33(b)
Next let us find the contribution to the output due to
current source alone.
Refer to Fig. 5.33(c). Using the principle of current
division,
2
s
I1 (s) = s
2
s+1+ +1
s
2s
) Vo2 (s) = 1 [I1 (s)] = Figure 5.33(c)
s2 + 2s + 2
Finally adding the two contributions, we get

Vo (s) = Vo1 (s) + Vo2 (s)

4 2s 2s + 4
= + 2 = 2
s2 + 2s + 2 s + 2s + 2 s + 2s + 2
K1 
K1
= +
s + 1 j1 s + 1 + j1
We find that,
p
K1 = 2 / 45 
2 / 45 2 /+45
p p
Hence; Vo (s) = +
s + 1 j1 s + 1 + j1
 Laplace Transform j 393

 
m / m/ 
We know that: L 1
s + a jb
+
s + a + jb
= 2me at
cos(bt + )u(t)

F
Hence; vo (t) = 2 2e t cos(t + 45 )u(t)

EXAMPLE 5.22
(a) Convert the circuit in Fig. 5.34 to an appropriate s domain representation.
(b) Find the Thevein equivalent seen by 1Ω resistor.
(c) Analyze the simplified circuit to find an expression for i(t).

Figure 5.34

SOLUTION

(a) Since the independent current source has u(t) in it, the circuit is not activated for t  0 . In
otherwords, all the initial conditions are zero. Fig.5.35 (a) shows the s domain equivalent
circuit for t  0+ .

Figure 5.35(a)

(b) Sine we are interested in the current in 1Ω using the Thevenin theorem, remove the 1Ω
resistor from the circuit shown in Fig. 5.35(a). The resulting circuit thus obtained is shown
in Fig. 5.35(b).
394 j Network Theory

Zt (s) is found by deactivating the independent

current source.
500
Zt (s) = (5 + 0:001s)jj
s
2500 + 0:5s
= Ω
0:001s2 + 5s + 500
Referring to Fig. 5.35 (b),
3
Vt (s) = [Zt (s)] Figure 5.35(b)
s
7:5  106
+ 1500s
= Volts
s(s + 5000s + 5  105 )
2

The Thevenin equivalent circuit along with 1Ω

resistor is shown in Fig. 5.35 (c).
Vt (s)
I (s) =
Zt (s) + 1
7:5  106 + 1500s
=
s(s2 + 5500s + 3  106 )
7:5  106 + 1500s
= Figure 5.35(c)
s(s + 4886)(s + 614)

Using partial fractions, we get

2:5 0:008 2:508
I (s) = +
s s + 4886 s + 614
Taking inverse Laplace transforms, we get
4886t 614t


i(t) = 2.5 + 0.008e 2.508e u(t)A

Check:

i(0) = 2:5 + 0:008 2:508 = 0

and i(1) = 2:5:

These could be verified by evaluating i(t) at t = 0 and t = 1 using the concepts explained in
Chapter 4.

EXAMPLE 5.23
Refer the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 5.36. Find the complete response for v (t) if t  0+ . Take
v (0) = 2V.
 Laplace Transform j 395

Figure 5.36

SOLUTION
Since we wish to analyze the circuit given in Fig. 5.36 using KVL, we shall represent L and C in
frequency domain using series circuits to accomodate the initial conditions. Accordingly, we get
the frequency domain circuit shown in Fig. 5.36 (a).
Applying KVL clockwiseto the circuit shown in Fig. 5.36 (a), we get
2s 9 2
2
+ 6+s+ I (s) + = 0
s + 16 s s
32
) I (s) = 2
(s + 6s + 9)(s2 + 16)
 
9 2
Hence; V (s) = I (s) +
s s
2 288
= +
s s(s + 3)2 (s2 + 16)

Using partial fraction, we get

2 K1

K2 K3 K4 K4   Figure 5.36(a)
V (s) = + + + 2
+ +
s s s+3 (s + 3) s j4 s + j4

Solving for K1 , K2 , K3 , and K4 , we get


288 
K1 =  = 2
(s + 3) (s + 16) s=0
2 2
 
d 288
K2 = = 2:2
ds s(s2 + 16) s= 3

288 
K3 = = 3:84
s(s2 + 16) s= 3

288 
K4 =  = 0:36 / 106:2
s(s + 3) (s + j 4) s=j 4
2
396 j Network Theory

Therefore
2 2 2:2 3:84 0:36 / 106:2 0:36 /106:2
V (s) = + + 2
+ +
s s s+3 (s + 3) s j4 s + j4

Taking inverse Laplace Transform we get,

v(t) = 2.2e 3t + 3.84te 3t + 0.72 cos(4t 106.2 )

Verification:
Putting t = 0 in the above equation

v (0) = 2:2 + 0 + 0:72 cos( 106:2 ) 

= 2:2 0:2 = 2V

(The same quantity is given in the problem)

5.8 Waveform synthesis

The three important singularity functions explained in section 5.3 are very useful as building
blocks in constructing other waveforms. In this section, we illustrate the concept of waveform
synthesis with a number of exmaples, and also determine expressions for these waveforms.

EXAMPLE 5.24
Express the voltage pulse shown in Fig.5.37 in terms of unit step function and then find V (s).
 
dv (t)
Also find L .
dt

Figure 5.37

SOLUTION
The pulse shown in Fig. 5.37 is the gate function. This function may be regarded as a step function
that switches on at t = 2 secs and switches off at t = 4 secs.
 Laplace Transform j 397

Figure 5.37(a)

Referring to Figs. 5.37 and 5.37 (a), we can write

v (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t)

) v (t) = 5u(t 2) 5u(t 4)
5 2s 5 4s
Hence; V (s) = e e
s s
5 2s 4s

= e e
s

Taking the derivative of v (t), we get Figure 5.37(b)

dv (t)
= 5 [ (t 2)  (t 4)]
dt

dv (t)
Fig. 5.37(b) shows the graph of .
dt
We can obtain Fig. 5.37(b) directly from Fig. 5.36 by observing that at t = 2 seconds, there is
a sudden rise of 5V leading to 5 (t 2). Similarly, at t = 4 seconds, a sudden fall of 5V leading
to 5 (t 4).
We know the Laplace trasnform pair

Lf (t a)g = e as
Lf (t)g
as
 =e
dv(t)  
Hence; L dt
=5 e 2s
e 4s
398 j Network Theory

EXAMPLE 5.25
Express the current pulse in Fig.5.38 in terms of the unit step.
R
Find: (i) L fi(t)g (ii) L i(t)dt .

Figure 5.38

SOLUTION

Figure 5.39(a)

Figure 5.39(b)

Referring to Figs. 5.39 (a) and (b), using the principle of synthesis, we can write
i(t) = i1 (t) + i2 (t) + i3 (t)
= 5u(t) 10u(t 2) + 5u(t 4)
 Laplace Transform j 399

The Laplace transform of the above equation yields

5 10 2s 5 4s
I (s) = e + e
s s s
5 2s 4s

= 1 2e +e
s
5 
2s 2
= 1 e
Zs
Let f (t) = i(t)dt
Z
then; f (t) = [5u(t) 10u(t 2) + 5u(t 4)]dt
= 5r (t) 10r (t 2) + 5r (t 4)
= f1 (t) + f2 (t) + f3 (t)

The function f1 (t) is a ramp of slope = 5 as shown in Fig. 5.39 (c). To this, if we add a ramp
of slope = 10, the effect of this addition is, we get a ramp of slope = 5 10 = 5 for t  2 secs
till we encounter the next ramp. At t = 4 seconds, if we add a ramp with a slope of +5, the net
slope beyond t = 4 seconds is 5 + 5 = 0. Thus figure f (t) is drawn as shown in Fig. 5.39 (d).

Figure 5.39(c)

L ff (t)g = F (s)
= L f5r (t) 10r (t 2) + 5r (t 4)g
5 10 2s 5 4s
= e + e
s2 s2 s2
5  2s 4s

= 1 2e +e
s2
400 j Network Theory

Figure 5.39(d)

EXAMPLE 5.26
Express the sawtooth function in terms of singularity functions. Then find Lfv (t)g.

Figure 5.40

SOLUTION
There are three methods to solve this problem.
Method 1:
The function v1 (t) is a ramp function of slope = +5. This slope +5 should continue till t = 1
second. Hence at t = 1 second, a ramp of slope t = 5 is added to v1 (t). The graph of
v1 (t) + v2 (t) is shown in Fig. 5.41(a). Next, to v1 (t) + v2 (t), a step of 5V is added at t = 1
second.
Hence; v (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t) + v3 (t)
= 5r (t) 5r (t 1) 5u(t 1)
5 5 5
V (s) = Lff (t)g = e s
e s
s2 s2 s
5  s s

= 2
1 e se
s
 Laplace Transform j 401

Figure 5.41(a)

Figure 5.41(b)

Method 2:
This method involves graphical manipulation.

Figure 5.41(c)
402 j Network Theory

The equation of a straight line passing through the origin is y = mx, where m = slope of the
line. This allows us to write v1 (t) = 5t. From Fig. 5.41(c), we can write

v (t) = v1 (t)v2 (t)

= 5t [u(t) u(t 1)]
= 5tu(t) 5tu(t 1)
= 5tu(t) 5(t 1 + 1)u(t 1)
= 5tu(t) 5(t 1)u(t 1) 5u(t 1)
= 5r (t) 5r (t 1) 5u(t 1)
5  s
Hence; V (s) = 2 1 e s se
s
Method 3:

Figure 5.41(d)

This method also involves graphical manipulation. We observe from Fig. 5.41(d) that v (t) is a
multiplication of a ramp function and a unit step function.

Thus; v (t) = v1 (t)v2 (t)

= 5r (t) [u( t + 1)]

Figure 5.41(e)
 Laplace Transform j 403

From Fig. 5.41(e), we can write

v2 (t) = v3 (t) + v4 (t)
) v2 (t) = 1 u(t 1)
) u( t + 1) = 1 u(t 1)
Hence; v (t) = 5r (t) [1 u(t 1)]
= 5r (t) 5r (t)u(t 1)
We know that, r (t) = tu(t)
Hence; v (t) = 5r (t) 5tu(t)u(t 1)
= 5r (t) 5(t 1 + 1)u(t)u(t 1)
= 5r (t) 5(t 1)u(t)u(t 1) 5u(t)u(t 1)
Please note that, u(t)u(t 1) = u(t 1) [Refer Fig. 5.41(f)]

Figure 5.41(f)

Thus; v (t) = 5r (t) 5(t 1)u(t 1) 5u(t 1)

= 5r (t) 5r (t 1) 5u(t 1)
5  
Hence; V (s) = 2 1 e s se s
s
EXAMPLE 5.27
Given the signal
8
< 3; t<0
x(t) = 2; 0<t<1
:
2t 4; t>1
Express x(t) in terms of singularity functions. Also find Lfx(t)g.
SOLUTION
The signal x(t) may be viewed as follows:
(i) in the interval, t < 0, x(t) may be regarded as 3u( t)
(ii) in the interval, 0 < t < 1, x(t) may be viewed as 2[u(t) u(t 1)] and
(iii) for t > 1, x(t) may be viewed as (2t 4)u(t 1)
404 j Network Theory

Thus; x(t) = 3u( t) 2 [u(t) u(t 1)] + (2t 4)u(t 1)

) x(t) = 3 [1 u(t)] 2u(t) + 2u(t 1) + 2tu(t 1) 4u(t 1)
=3 5u(t) 2u(t 1) + 2(t 1 + 1)u(t 1)
=3 5u(t) 2u(t 1) + 2(t 1)u(t 1) + 2u(t 1)
=3 5u(t) + 2r(t 1)

Lfx(t)g cannot be found because x(t) contains a constant 3 for 1 < t < 0 (a noncausal
signal).

EXAMPLE 5.28
Express f (t) in terms of singularity functions and then find F (s).

Figure 5.42

SOLUTION
To find f (t) for 0 < t < 2 :
Equation of the straight line 1 is
y y1 y2 y1
=
x x1 x2 x1
Here, y is f (t) and x is t.
Hence,
f (t) 3 3 3
=
t 0 2 0
) 2f (t) 6 = 6t
) f (t) = 3 3t
Figure 5.43
 Laplace Transform j 405

To find f (t) for 2 < t < 3:

Here,
f (t) + 3 0+3
=
t 2 3 2

) f (t) + 3 = 3t 6
) f (t) = 3t 9
Hence 8
< 3
3t; 0 < t < 2
f (t) = 3t 9; 2 < t < 3
:
0; otherwise
The above equation may also be written as :
f (t) = [3 3t] [u (t) u (t 2)] + [3t 9] [u (t 2) u (t 3)]
= 3u (t) 3u (t 2) 3tu (t) + 3tu (t 2) + 3tu (t 2)
3tu (t 3) 9u (t 2) + 9u (t 3)
) f (t) = 3u (t) 12u (t 2) 3tu (t) + 6tu (t 2) 3tu (t 3) + 9u (t 3)
= 3u (t) 12u (t 2) 3tu (t) + 6 (t 2 + 2) u (t 2)
3 (t 3 + 3) u (t 3) + 9u (t 3)
= 3u (t) 12u (t 2) 3tu (t) + 6 (t 2) u (t 2)
+12u (t 2) 3 (t 3) u (t 3) 9u (t 3) + 9u (t 3)
f (t) = 3u (t) 3tu (t) + 6 (t 2) u (t 2) 3 (t 3) u (t 3)

Hence; F (s) = L ff (t)g

3 3 6 2s 3 3s
= 2
+ 2e e
s s s s2

EXAMPLE 5.29
Express the function f (t) shown in Fig. 5.44 using singularity functions and then find F (s).

Figure 5.44
406 j Network Theory

SOLUTION
Equation of the straight line shown in Fig. 5.45(a) is

f1 (t) + 1 2+1
=
t 1 2 1
) f1 (t) + 1 = t + 1
) f1 (t) = t

The above equation is for the values t lying between 1 and 2.

This could be expressed, by writing
f (t) = f1 (t) g (t)
Figure 5.45(a)

Figure 5.45(b)

) f (t) = t [u (t 1) u (t 2)]
= (t 1 + 1) u (t 1) + (t 2 + 2) u (t 2)
= (t 1) u (t 1) u (t 1) + (t 2) u (t 2) + 2u (t 2)
= r (t 1) u (t 1) + r (t 2) + 2u (t 2)

Hence; F (s) = L ff (t)g

1 1 s 1 2
= e s e + 2e 2s
+ e 2s
s2 s s s
 Laplace Transform j 407

EXAMPLE 5.30
Find the Laplace transform of the function f (t) shown in Fig. 5.46.

Figure 5.46

SOLUTION
Method 1:

Figure 5.47(a)

We can write; f (t) = fA (t) + fB (t)

= sin tu (t) + sin  (t 1) u (t 1)
 
Hence; F (s) = L ff (t)g = + e s
s2 +  2 s2 +  2
π  
= 1+e s
s2 +π 2
408 j Network Theory

Method 2 :

Figure 5.47(b)

Graphically, we can manipulate f (t) as

f (t) = fC (t) g (t)
= sin t [u (t) u (t 1)]
= sin tu (t) sin tu (t 1)
= sin tu (t) sin t (t 1 + 1) [u (t 1)]
= sin tu (t) sin ( (t 1) +  ) u (t 1)
= sin tu (t) + sin  (t 1) u (t 1)

 s
Hence; F (s) = L ff (t)g = + e s
s2 + 2 s2 + 2
π  
= 1+e s
s2 +π 2

EXAMPLE 5.31
Find the Laplace transform of the signal x(t) shown in Fig. 5.48.

Figure 5.48
 Laplace Transform j 409

SOLUTION

Figure 5.49

Mathematically, we can write x(t) as

x (t) = xA (t) xB (t)

= sin  (t 1) u (t 1) sin  (t 3) u (t 3)
 
Hence; L fx (t)g = X (s) = s2 + 2 e s
s2 +  2
e 3s

π  
= e s e 3s
s2 + π2

EXAMPLE 5.32
Refer the waveform shown in Fig. 5.50. The equation for the waveform is sin t from 0 to ; sin t
1  s 
from  to 2 . Show that the Lapalce transform of this waveform is F (s) = 2 coth :
s +1 2

Figure 5.50
410 j Network Theory

SOLUTION
f (t) is a periodic waveform with a period T =  seconds. Let f1 (t) be the waveform f (t)
described over only one period. The Laplace transform of f (t) and f1 (t) are related as
F1 (s)
F (s) =
1 e sT
Let us now proceed to find F1 (s). From Fig. 5.51 (b), we can write
f1 (t) = fA (t) + fB (t)
= sin tu (t) + sin (t  ) u (t )
1 1
) F1 (s) = 2 + 2 e s
s +1 s +1
(1 + e s )
=
s2 + 1
F1 (s) F1 (s)
Hence; F (s) = sT
= Figure 5.51(a)
1 e 1 e s
s
(1 + e )
) F (s) = 2
(s + 1) (1 e s )
 
, es=2 + e
s=2
s=2

1 e, 2
=  
s2 + 1 , es=2 e s=2
s=2
e,
 s  2
1 cosh 2
) F (s) =  
s2 + 1 sinh s
2
1  πs 
= 2 coth
s +1 2

Figure 5.51(b)
EXAMPLE 5.33
Find the Laplace transform of the pulse shown in Fig. 5.52.

Figure 5.52
 Laplace Transform j 411

SOLUTION
We can describe Fig. 5.52 mathematically as

Vo ; 0<t<2
f (t) =
Vo t + 3Vo ; 2 < t < 3

The expression for f (t) for 2 < t < 3 is obtianed as follows :

Equation of a straight line between two points is given by
y y1 y2 y1
=
x x1 x2 x1

In the present context, y = f (t); x = t; (x1 ; y1 ) = (2; Vo ) and (x2 ; y2 ) = (3; 0)

f (t) Vo 0 Vo
Hence; =
t 2 3 2
) f (t) = Vo t + 3Vo

The time domain expression for f (t) between t = 0 and 3 could be written using graphical
manipulation as

f (t) = Vo [u (t) u (t 2)] + [ Vo t + 3Vo ] [u (t 2) u (t 3)]

The first term on the right-side of the above equation defines f (t) for 0 < t < 2 and the
second term on the right-side defines f (t) for 2 < t < 3.

f (t) = Vo u (t) Vo u (t 2) Vo tu (t 2) + Vo tu (t 3) + 3Vo u (t 2) 3Vo u (t 3)

= Vo u (t) Vo u (t 2) Vo (t 2 + 2) u (t 2)
+Vo (t 3 + 3) u (t 3) + 3Vo u (t 2) 3Vo u (t 3)
= Vo u (t) Vo u (t 2) Vo (t 2) u (t 2) 2Vo u (t 2) + Vo (t 3) u (t 3)
+3Vo u (t 3) + 3Vo u (t 2) 3Vo u (t 3)
= Vo u (t) Vo (t 2) u (t 2) + Vo (t 3) u (t 3)
) f (t) = Vo u (t) Vo r (t 2) + Vo r (t 3)

Hence; F (s) = L ff (t)g

Vo Vo 2s Vo 3s
= e + e
s s2 s2
EXAMPLE 5.34
Consider a staircase waveform which extends to infinity and at t = nt0 jumps to the value n + 1,
being a superposition of unit step functions. Determine the Laplace transform of this waveform.
412 j Network Theory

SOLUTION
We can write,
f (t) = u (t) + u (t 2t0 ) +



t0 ) + u (t
1 1 1
F (s) = L ff (t)g = + e t0 s + e 2t0 s +



s s s
1 t0 s 2t0 s

= 1+e +e +



s
t0 s
Let e =x
1 
then F (s) = 1 + x + x2 +



s
From Binomial theorem, we have
1
(1 x) = 1 + x + x2 +



1
Hence; F (s) = Figure 5.53
s (1 x)
1
=
s (1 e t0 s )

EXAMPLE 5.35
(a) Find the Laplace transform of the staircase waveform shown in Fig. 5.54. (b) If this voltage
were applied to an RL series circuit with R = 1Ω and L = 1H , find the current i(t).

Figure 5.54
SOLUTION
(a) We can express mathematically, the voltage waveform shown in Fig. 5.54 as,
8
>
> 1; 1 < t < 2
>
>
< 2; 2 < t < 3
v (t) = 3; 3 < t < 4
>
>
>
> 4; 4 < t < 5
:
0; elsewhere
 Laplace Transform j 413

or v (t) = [u (t 1) u (t 2)] + 2 [u (t 2) u (t 3)]

+3 [u (t 3) u (t 4)] + 4 [u (t 4) u (t 5)]
= u (t 1) + u (t 2) + u (t 3) + u (t 4) 4u (t 5)

Taking the Laplace transform, we get

1 s 2s 3s 4s 5s

V (s) = e +e +e +e 4e
s
(b) Assuming all initial conditions to be zero, the time domian circuit shown in Fig. 5.55 gets
transformed to a circuit as shown in Fig. 5.56.

Figure 5.55 Time Domain Circuit Figure 5.56 Frequency

. Domain Circuit
From Fig. 5.56, we can write

V (s)
I (s) =
s+1

1 1 1 1 4
) I (s) = e s+ e 2s + e 3s + e 4s
e 5s
s (s + 1) s (s + 1) s (s + 1) s(s + 1) s (s + 1)
     
1 1 s 1 1 2s 1 1 3s
) I (s) = e + e + e
s s+1 s s+1 s s+1
    
1 1 1 1
+ e 4s 4 e 5s
s s+1 s s+1

Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get

   t
  
i (t) = u (t) e t u (t) !t 1 + u (t) e u (t) t!t 2 + u (t)
t
e t u (t) t !t 3

+ u (t) e u (t) t!t 4 4 u (t) e t u (t) t!t 5
t
     
 i (t) = 1 e (t 1) u (t 1) + 1 e (t 2) u (t 2) + 1 e (t 3) u (t 3)
 (t 4)
  (t 5)

+ 1 e u (t 4) 4 1 e u (t 5)
414 j Network Theory

EXAMPLE 5.36
A voltage pulse of 10 V magnitude and 5  sec duration is applied to the RC network shown in
Fig. 5.57. Find the current i(t) if R = 10Ω and C = 0:05F .

Figure 5.57

SOLUTION

Figure 5.58(a)

Mathematically, we can express v (t) as follows :

v (t) = v1 (t) v2 (t)
= 10u(t) 10u(t t0 )
Hence; V (s) = L fv (t)g
10  t0 s

= 1 e
s
Assuming all initial conditions to be zero, the Laplace
transformed network is as shown in Fig. 5.58(b). Figure 5.58(b)

V (s)
I (s) =
1
R+
Cs

t0 s
10 1 e
=  
1
s R+
Cs
 Laplace Transform j 415

10Cs

I (s) = 1 e t0 s
s (RCs + 1)
10 1

= 1 e t0 s
R 1
s+
2 RC 3
10 6 1 1 t0 s 7
= 4 e 5
R 1 1
s+ s+
RC RC
Taking inverse Laplace transform yields

10 10 
u (t)
t t
i (t) = e RC u (t) e RC
R R t !t t0
10 t 10 (t t0 )
= e RC u (t) e RC u (t t0 )
R R
t (t 510 6
)

i (t) = e 0:510 6
u (t) e 0:510 6
u t 5  10 6

EXAMPLE 5.37
Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. 5.59.

Figure 5.59

SOLUTION

3t; 0 < t < 1
v (t) =
2; 1 < t < 2

or v (t) = 3t [u (t) u (t 1)] + 2 [u (t 1) u (t 2)]

= 3tu (t) 3tu (t 1) + 2u (t 1) 2u (t 2)
= 3tu (t) 3 (t 1 + 1) u (t 1) + 2u (t 1) 2u (t 2)
= 3tu (t) 3 (t 1) u (t 1) 3u (t 1) + 2u (t 1) 2u (t 2)
416 j Network Theory

v (t) = 3tu (t) 3 (t 1) u (t 1) u (t 1) 2u (t 2)

= 3r (t) 3r (t 1) u (t 1) 2u (t 2)
Hence; V (s) = L fv (t)g
3 3 1 s 2
= e s e e 2s
s2 s2 s s

5.9 The System function

The system function or transfer function of a linear time-invariant system is defined as the ratio
of Laplace transform of the output to Laplace transform of the input under the assumption that all
initial conditions are zero.
Hence, for relaxed LTI system, the response Y (s) to an input X (s) is H (s) X (s), where H (s)
is the system function. The system function H (s) may be found in several ways:
1. For a system defined by a linear differential equation, by taking Laplace transform of the
Y (s)
differential equation and then finding the ratio .
X (s)
2. From the Laplace transform of impulse response h(t).
3. From the s domain model of a physical system like an electrical system.

EXAMPLE 5.38
The output y (t) of an LTI system is found to be e 3t u(t) when the input x(t) is 0:5u(t).

(a) Find the impulse response h(t) of the system.

(b) Find the output when the input is x(t) = e t u(t).

SOLUTION
(a) Taking Laplace transforms of x(t) and y (t), we get

1 0:5
Y (s) = ; X (s) =
s+3 s
Y (s) 2s
Hence H (s) = =
X (s) s+3
2 (s + 3) 6 6
) H (s) = =2
(s + 3) s+3

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

h (t) = 2δ (t) 6e 3t u (t)

 Laplace Transform j 417

(b) x (t) = e t u (t)

1
) X (s) =
s+1
Thus; Y (s) = X (s) H (s)
2s
=
(s + 1) (s + 3)
K1 K2
= +
s+1 s+3


2s 
where K1 = = 1
s + 3 s = 1

2s 
K2 = =3
s + 1 s = 3
1 3
Therefore; Y (s) = +
s+1 s+3

Taking inverse Laplace transform of Y (s), we get

t 3t
y (t) = e + 3e ; t0
t 3t


or y (t) = e + 3e ; u(t)

EXAMPLE 5.39
Determine the output v (t) for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.60.

Figure 5.60

SOLUTION
The transformed network of Fig. 5.60 with the assumption that all initial conditions are zero is
shown in Fig. 5.61(a).
418 j Network Theory

1
V (s) = I (s)
s2 3
1 6 Vs (s) 7
= 4 15
s
1+
s
V (s) 1
) H (s) = =
Vs (s) s+1
Figure 5.61(a)

The inverse Laplace transform of H (s) is called the impulse response of the circuit and is
denoted by h(t).
h (t) = e t u (t)

I method :
From Convolution theorem, we have,
v (t) = h (t)  vs (t)
Z1
= h ( ) vs (t  ) d
0
Z1
 (t  )
= e u ( )  2e u (t  ) d
0
Z1
t
= 2e u ( ) u (t  ) d
0

Let us compute the product u ( ) u (t  ) for different values of 


1;  < 0
u ( ) =
0;  > 0

1; t  > 0 or  < t
u (t ) =
0; t  < 0 or  > t

1; 0 <  < t; t > 0
Hence; u ( ) u (t ) =
0; otherwise

Figure 5.61(b)
 Laplace Transform j 419

Zt
t t
Therefore; v (t) = 2e d = 2te ; t0
0
= 2te t u (t)
II method :
In the frequency domain, convolution operation is transformed into a multiplicative operation.
That is; V (s) = H (s) Vs (s)
1 2
= 
(s + 1) (s + 1)
2
=
(s + 1)2
Inverse Laplace transform yields,
v(t) = 2te t u(t)Volts

Reinforcement problems
R.P 5.22
Vo (s)
(a) Find H (s) = for the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.22. (b) Determine vo (t) when the
Vi (s)
intital current in the inductor is zero.

Figure R.P.5.22
SOLUTION
The Laplace transformed network with all initial conditions set to zero is shown in Fig. R.P.
5.22(a).
 3

Vo (s) = I (s) 150 + 2  10 s
 3s

Vi (s) 150 + 2  10
= 3s 3s
100 + 3  10 + 150 + 2  10

) H (s) =
Vo (s) 1.5  105 + 2s
Vi (s)
=
2.5  105 + 5s
420 j Network Theory

(b) Vo (s) = H (s) Vi (s)

1:5  105 + 2s 100
= 
2:5  105 + 5s s
 
40 s + 0:75  105
=
s [s + 0:5  105 ]
K1 K2
= +
s s + 0:5  105
Figure R.P. 5.22(a)

  
40 s + 0:75  105 
where K1 =  = 60
[s + 0:5  105 ] 
s=0
 5
 
40 s + 0:75  10 
K2 =  = 20
s  5
s= 0:5 10 
60 20
Hence; Vo (s) =
s s + 0:5  105

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

 
0:5 105t

vo (t) = 60 20e u (t) Volts

R.P 5.23
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.23. The switch closes at t = 0. Determine the voltage v (t)
after the switch closes.

Figure R.P. 5.23

SOLUTION
The switch is open at t = 0 and closed at t = 0+ . Let us assume that at t = 0 , the circuit is in
steady state. The circuit at t = 0 is shown in Fig. R.P. 5.23(a).
 Laplace Transform j 421

Figure R.P. 5.23(a)

Referring to Fig. R.P. 5.23(a), we get

8
i 0 = 2A
=

2+2
v 0 =0
From switching principles, we know that the current through an inductor and the voltage
across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously. Therefore,



i (0) = i 0+ = i 0 = 2A
+



and v (0) = v 0 =v 0 = 0V
We shall solve this probelm using nodal technique. Hence, in the frequency domain, we will
use the parallel models for the capacitor and inductor because the parallel models contain current
sources rather than voltage sources. The frequency domain circuit is shown in Fig. R.P. 5.23(b).

Figure R.P.5.23(b)

KCL at node V (s) :

8
V (s)
s + V (s) + V (s) + 2 = 0
2 s 1 s
 s 
1 1 4 2
) V (s) + +s =
2 s s s
 
s + 2 + 2s2 2
) V (s) =
2s s
422 j Network Theory

4
) V (s) =
2s2 +s+2
2
=
s2 + 0:5s + 1
2
=
s2 + 0:5s + (0:25)2 (0:25)2 + 1
2
=
(s + 0:25) + (0:96824)2
2

2 0:96824
= 
0:96824 (s + 0:25)2 + (0:96824)2
0:96824
= 2:066 
(s + 0:25)2 + (0:96824)2

We know that,  
a
L 1
2 =e bt
sin at u (t)
(s + b) + a2
Hence,
v (t) = 2.066e 0:25t sin (0.96824t) u (t) Volts

R.P 5.24
Find the impulse response of the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.24.

Figure R.P. 5.24

SOLUTION
The frequency domain representation of the circuit is shown in Fig. R.P. 5.24(a) by assuming that
all initial conditions to be zero.
 Laplace Transform j 423

Figure R.P. 5.24(a)

KCL at node a:
Va (s) Vb (s)1 Va (s)
+ Vg (s) + =0
2 2 1
2s
Va (s) Vb (s) Va (s) Vb (s)
) + + 2sVa (s) = 0
2  2  
1 1 1 1
) Va (s) + + 2s Vb (s) + =0
2 2 2 2
) Va (s) [1 + 2s] Vb (s) = 0
KCL at node b:
Vb (s) Vi (s) Vb (s) Va (s)
+ =0
s  2 
1 1 1 Vi (s)
) Va (s) + Vb (s) + =
2 s 2 s
Va (s) (2 + s) Vi (s)
) + Vb (s) =
2 2s s
) sVa (s) + (2 + s) Vb (s) = 2Vi (s)
Putting the above nodal equations in matrix form, we get
    
1 + 2s 1 Va (s) 0
=
s 2+s Vb (s) 2Vi (s)
Solving, we get
2Vi (s)
Va (s) =
2 + s + 4s + 2s2 s
Va (s) 1
) =
Vi (s) (s + 1)2
Given vi (t) =  (t) ) Vi (s) = 1
424 j Network Theory

Va (s) 1
Hence; =
1 (s + 1)2
1
) Va (s) =
(s + 1)2

Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

va (t) = h (t) = te t u (t)

R.P 5.25
Find the convolution of h (t) = t and f (t) = e /t for t > 0, using the inverse transform of
H (s) F (s).

SOLUTION
h (t)  f (t) = L
1
fH (s) F (s)g
1
where H (s) = L fh (t)g = 2
s
1
F (s) = L ff (t)g =
s+
1
Hence; H (s) F (s) =
s2 (s + )
K1 K2 K3
= + 2 +
s s s+

Solving the partial fractions yields

1 1 1
K1 = ; K2 = ; K3 =
2  2
     
1 1 1 1 1 1
Hence; H (s) F (s) = + +
2 s  s2 2 s+

h (t)  f (t) = L
1
) fH (s) F (s)g
1 1 1 t
= u (t) + tu (t) + e u (t)
2  2
 
1 t 1
= + + 2 e t u (t)
α2 α α

R.P 5.26
Consider a pulse of amplitude 5V for a duration of 4 seconds with its starting point t = 0. Find
the convolution of this pulse with itself and draw the convolution x (t)  x (t) versus time.
 Laplace Transform j 425

Figure R.P. 5.26(a)

SOLUTION

x (t) = 5u (t) 5u (t 4)
5 5
) X (s) = e 4s
s s
Let y (t) = x (t)  x (t)
Taking Laplace transform, we get
Figure R.P. 5.26(b)
Y (s) = X (s) X (s)
25 50 4s 25 8s
= e + e
s2 s2 s2
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get
y (t) = 25tu (t) 50 (t 4) u (t 4) + 25 (t 8) u (t 8)
Hence; y(t) = 25r(t) 50r(t 4) + 25r(t 8)

R.P 5.27
 1 e at

Ktr K
Show that L (r 1)!
=
(s + a)r
SOLUTION
Let f (t) = 1
1
then F (s) =
s
dn F (s) ( 1)n n!
Thus; =
dsn sn 1
n
We know that; L ftn f (t)g = ( 1)n d ds
F (s)
n

With f (t) = 1, we get

 
( 1)n n!
L ft n
g = ( 1) n
sn+1
n!
=
sn+1
426 j Network Theory

Putting n = r 1, we get

 (r 1)!
L tr 1
=
sr
 (r 1)!
and L tr 1
e at
=
(s + a)r
K  K
Therefore;
(r 1)!
L tr 1
e at
=
(s + a)r

R.P 5.28
Tests conducted on a certain network revealed that the current was i(t) = 2e t + 4e 3t when a
unit step voltage was suddenly applied to the input terminals of the network at t = 0. What voltage
must be applied to get an output current of i(t) = 2e t if the network remains unchanged?
SOLUTION
Given, i(t) = 2e t
+ 4e 3t ; t  0 when v (t) = u(t)

2 4
Hence; I (s) = +
s+1 s+3
1
and V (s) =
s
Laplace transform of the output
System function = H (s) =
Laplace transform of the input
I (s)
) H (s) =
V (s)
2s (s 1)
=
(s + 1) (s + 3)

We have to find v (t) when i(t) = 2e t .

2 I (s)
First we will find V (s) when I (s) = using the relation H (s) = .
s+1 V (s)

I (s)
Hence; V (s) =
H (s)
2
s+1
=
2s (s 1)
(s + 1) (s + 3)
(s + 3)
=
s (s 1)
K1 K2
= +
s s 1
 Laplace Transform j 427

Using partial fractions, we find that K1 = 3 and K2 = 4

3 4
Hence; V (s) = +
s s 1
) v (t) = 3u (t) + 4et u (t) Volts

R.P 5.29
Find the Laplace transform of the periodic waveform shown in Fig. R.P. 5.29.

Figure R.P. 5.29

SOLUTION
The Laplace transform of a periodic waveform is found
using the relation

F1 (s)
F (s) =
1 e sT

where F1 (s) = L ff1 (t)g = Laplace transform of f (t)

over 0 < t < T . Where T = fundamental period of
f (t).
Referring to Fig. R.P. 5.29(a) we can write: Figure R.P. 5.29(a)
8 t
>
> ; 0<t<a
>
> a
>
<
f1 (t) = 1; a < t < 3a
>
>
>
> 1
>
: a t + 4; 3a < t < 4a

1
) f1 (t) = t [u (t) u (t a)] + [u (t a) u (t 3a)]
a  
1
+ t + 4 [u (t 3a) u (t 4a)]
a
1 1 1
= tu (t) tu (t a) + u (t a) u (t 3a) tu (t 3a)
a a a
1
+ tu (t 4a) + 4u (t 3a) 4u (t 4a)
a
428 j Network Theory

1 1
) f1 (t) = tu (t) (t a + a) u (t a) + u (t a) u (t 3a)
a a
1 1
(t 3a + 3a) u (t 3a) + (t 4a + 4a) u (t 4a)
a a
+ 4u (t 3a) 4u (t 4a)
1 1
= tu (t) (t a) u (t a) u (t a) + u (t a) u (t 3a)
a a
1 1
(t 3a) u (t 3a) 3u (t 3a) + (t 4a) u (t 4a) + 4u (t 4a)
a a
+4u (t 3a) 4u (t 4a)
1 1 1 1
= tu (t) (t a) u (t a) (t 3a) u (t 3a) + (t 4a) u (t 4a)
a a a a
1 1 1 1
= r (t) r (t a) r (t 3a) + r (t 4a)
a a a a
Hence; F1 (s) = L ff1 (t)g
1 1 as 1 3as 1 4as
= e e + e
as2 as2 as2 as2
1 as 3as 4as


= 1 e e +e
as2

Alternate method for finding F1 (s):

From Figs. R.P. 5.29(b), (c), (d), we can write

f1 (t) = fA (t) + fB (t) + fC (t) + fD (t)
1 1 1
= tu (t) (t a) u (t a) (t 3a) u (t 3a)
a a a
1
+ (t 4a) u (t 4a)
a

Figure R.P. 5.29(b)

 Laplace Transform j 429

Figure R.P. 5.29(c)

Figure R.P. 5.29(d)

Hence; F1 (s) = L ff1 (t)g

1 1 as 1 3as 1 4as
= e e + e
as2 as2 as2 as2
Finally; F (s) = L ff (t)g
F1 (s)
=
1 e sT
where T = 4a

1 1 e as e 3as + e 4as
F (s) =
as2 (1 e 4as )
430 j Network Theory

R.P 5.30
Find the Laplace transform of the function f (t) shown in Fig. R.P. 5.30.

Figure R.P. 5.30

SOLUTION
Let f (t) = x(t) + u(t), where x(t) is a periodic triangular wave and is as shown in Fig. R.P.
5.30(a).

Figure R.P.5.30(a) Figure R.P.5.30(b)

Let x1 (t) be x(t) within its first period as shown in Fig. R.P.5.30(b).
Referring to Fig. R.P. 5.30(b), we can write

2t; 0<t<1
x1 (t) =
4 2t; 1 < t < 2
) x1 (t) = 2t [u (t) u (t 1)] + (4 2t) [u (t 1) u (t 2)]
= 2tu (t) 2tu (t 1) + 4u (t 1) 4u (t 2) 2tu (t 1) + 2tu (t 2)
= 2tu (t) 2 (t 1 + 1) u (t 1) + 4u (t 1) 4u (t 2)
2 (t 1 + 1) u (t 1) + 2 (t 2 + 2) u (t 2)
= 2tu (t) 2 (t 1) u (t 1) 2u (t 1) + 4u (t 1) 4u (t 2)
2 (t 1) u (t 1) 2u (t 1) + 2 (t 2) u (t 2) + 4u (t 2)
) x1 (t) = 2tu (t) 4 (t 1) u (t 1) + 2 (t 2) u (t 2)
) x1 (t) = 2r (t) 4r (t 1) + 2r (t 2)
 Laplace Transform j 431

Hence; X1 (s) = L fx1 (t)g

2 4 s 2 2s
= e + e
s2 s2 s2
2 s 2s


= 1 2e +e
s2
2

s 2
= 1 e
s2

Since x(t) is periodic,

X1 (s)
X (s) = L fx (t)g =
1 e sT

where T = 2 seconds
2
2 (1 e s )
Hence; X (s) =
s2 (1 e 2s )
We know that; f (t) = x(t) + u(t)

Applying linearity property,

F (s) = X (s) + U (s)

2
2 1 e s 1
= 2 s +
s (1 e ) s

R.P 5.31
Find f (t) using convolution integral for the function,

4s
F (s) =
(s + 1) (s2 + 4)

SOLUTION
Let F (s) = F1 (s) F2 (s)

4
where F1 (s) = ) f1 (t) = 4e t u (t)
s+1
s
F2 (s) = 2 ) f2 (t) = cos 2tu (t)
s +4
f (t) = L
1
[F1 (s) F2 (s)]
Z1
= f1 () f2 (t ) d
0
432 j Network Theory


1; 0 <  < t; t > 0
We know that u ( ) u (t ) =
0; otherwise

Zt
(t )
Hence; f (t) = cos 24e d
0
Zt
t
= 4e e cos 2 d
0

Using the standard integral formula

Z
eax
eax cos bx dx = (a cos bx + b sin bx)
a2 + b2
 t
t e
we get f (t) = 4e (cos 2 + 2 sin 2)
1+4 =0

4  
= e t et (cos 2t + 2 sin 2t 1)
5
4 8 4 t
= cos 2t + sin 2t e ; t0
5 5 5
 
4 8 4 t
f (t) = cos 2t + sin 2t e u (t)
5 5 5

R.P 5.32
If h(t) = 2e 3t u(t) and x(t) = u(t)  (t). Find y (t) = h(t)  x(t) by (a) using convolution in
the time-domain (b) Finding H (s) and X (s) and then obtaining L
1
[H (s)X (s)]
SOLUTION

3t
Given h(t) = 2e u(t)
and x(t) = u(t)  (t)

(a) y (t) = x (t)  h (t)

Z1
= x () h (t ) d
0
Z1
3(t )
= ju ()  ()j 2e u (t ) d
0
Z1 Z1
3(t ) 3(t )
= 2e u (t ) u () d 2 e u (t )  () d
0 0
 Laplace Transform j 433


1; 0 <  < t; t > 0
We know that, u (t ) u () =
0; otherwise
The second integral on the right-hand side is evaluated using the sifting property for an im-
pulse function.

Zt
3t 3 3(t )
Hence; y (t) = 2e e d 2e u (t )j=0
0
 t
3t e3 3t
) y (t) = 2e 2e u (t)
3 0
2 3t

3t
= 1 e 2e u (t)
3
Since t > 0, we associate u(t) in the first component on the right hand side of y (t).
2

Then; y (t) = 1 e 3t u (t) 2e 3t
u (t)
3 
2 8 3t
= e u (t)
3 3

(b) Verification :
2 1
H (s) = ; X (s) = 1
s+3 s
) Y (s) = X (s) H (s)
2 (1 s)
=
s (s + 3)
K1 K2
= +
s s+3
Using partial fractions, we find that
2 8
K1 = ; K2 =
3 3   
2 1 8 1
Hence; Y (s) =
3 s 3 s+3
2 8 3t
) y (t) = u (t) e u (t)
3 3 
2 8 3t
= e u (t)
3 3

R.P 5.33
When an impulse  (t) V is applied to a certain network, the ouput voltage is vo (t) = 4u(t)
4u(t 2) V. Find and sketch vo (t) if the imput voltage is 2u (t 1) V.
434 j Network Theory

SOLUTION
When vi (t) =  (t), it is given that vo (t) = 4u(t) 4u(t 2).
From this data, we can find the transfer function H (s) as follows:

H (s) =
L fvo (t)g
L fvi (t)g
=
L f4u (t) 4u (t 2)g
L f (t)g
4 2s

= 1 e
s
The transfer function H (s) can be used to find vo (t) when vi (t) = 2u(t 1) V. This procedure
is as follows:
Vo (s)
H (s) 
Vi (s)
) Vo (s) = Vi (s) H (s)
 
2 s 4 4 2s
= e e
s s s
8 s 8 3s
= e e
s2 s2
Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get

vo (t) = 8 (t 1) u (t 1) 8 (t 3) u (t 3)
= 8r (t 1) 8r (t 3)

The corresponding wave form for vo (t) is sketched in Fig. R.P. 5.33

Figure R.P. 5.33

R.P 5.34
Refer the two circuits shown in Fig. R.P. 5.34(a) and (b). Given that v1 (t) = sin 103 t and
v2 (t) = e 1000t for t  0 and c = 1 F.
(a) Show that it is possible to have i1 (t) = i2 (t) for all t  0.
(b) Determine the required values of R and L for the condition in part (a) to hold good.
 Laplace Transform j 435

Figure R.P. 5. 34 (a) Figure R.P.5.34 (b)

SOLUTION
Referring Fig. R.P. 5.34(a) we can write in Laplace domain

V1 (s)
I1 (s) =
1
R+
Cs
Similarly, referring Fig. R.P. 5.34(b), we can write in Laplace domain

V2 (s)
I2 (s) =
1
sL +
Cs
i1 (t) = i2 (t) means that I1 (s) = I2 (s)

 103
Also; V1 (s) = L sin 103 t = 2
s2 + (103 )
 1
V2 (s) = L e 1000t
=
s + 103

Hence, the condition I1 (s) = I2 (s) gives,

103 1 1 1
=
s2 + 106 106 s + 103 106
R+ sL +
s s
103 1
)   =  
106 106
R s+ (s2 + 106 ) L (s + 103 ) s2 +
R L

If the above equation is satisfied, then it is possible to have i1 (t) = i2 (t). For this to happen,
it is required that

R 106 106
= L; = 103 and 106 =
103 R L

The above conditions give L = 1H and R = 103 Ω

436 j Network Theory

R.P 5.35
For the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.35 has zero initial conditions. At t = 0, the switch K is
p
closed. Find p
the value of R such that the response v (t) = 0:5 sin 2t volts. Take the excitation
as i(t) = te 2t A.

Figure R.P.5.35

SOLUTION
p
Given i(t) = te 2t
Taking Laplace transform of i(t) gives

1
I (s) = p
(s + 2)2
p
Laplace transform of the response v (t) = 0:5 sin 2t is
" p #
1 2
V (s) = 2
2 s +2
V (s)
Hence; Z (s) =
I (s)
p
1 (s + 2)2
=p (5.29)
2 s2 + 2

For the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 5.35 we can write

1
Z (s) = R +
s 1
+
2 s
2s
) Z (s) = R + 2 (5.30)
s +2
 Laplace Transform j 437

Equating equations 5.29 and 5.30, we get

p
2
1 s+ 2 2s
p 2
=R+ 2
2 s +2 s +2

1  p 2
) s2 + 2 R 2s = p s + 2
2
s 2 2
= p + 2s + p
2 2

1
Equating the like powers of s, we get R= p Ω
2

Exercise Problems
E.P 5.1
Find the Laplace transform of the following functions :
(a) f1 (t) = sin(!t + )

(b) f2 (t) = sin2 t

1
(c) f3 (t) = [sinh(at) sin(at)]
2a3
s sin θ + ω cos θ 2 1
Ans: F1 (s) = 2 2
, F2 (s) = 2
, F3 (s) = 2
s +ω s (s + 4) (s a2 ) (s2 + a2 )

E.P 5.2
In the network shown in Fig. E.P. 5.2, the switch K is moved from position a to position b at
t = 0, a steady state having previously been established at position a. Solve for i(t), using the
Laplace transformation method.

Figure E.P. 5.2

Va RA +RB
Ans: i (t) = e L u (t)
RA
438 j Network Theory

E.P 5.3
Find i1 (t) and i2 (t) for t > 0 for the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.3 using Laplace transform.

Figure E.P. 5.3

h i
Ans : i1 (t) = 2.4e  + 0.6e 6510 t + 3 u (t) mA
5 105 t 5

h i
i2 (t) = 1.2e 6510 t 1.2e 510 t u (t) mA
5 5

E.P 5.4
bt
Using Laplace transform technique, find i(t) when i1 = 0:1e A for the circuit shown in E.P.
5.4 when b = 105 . Assume steady state conditions at t = 0 .

Figure E.P. 5.4

 
1 27 17
Ans: i (t) = e bt + e 6bt
e 10bt
u (t) A
30 40 24

E.P 5.5
The current source shown in Fig. E.P. 5.5 is i(t) = tu(t) A. Find vo (t) when the initial value of
vo is zero.

Figure E.P. 5.5

 
Ans: vo (t) = t 10 3 1 e 103 t mV, t  0
 Laplace Transform j 439

E.P 5.6
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following F (s):
8s 3 4s2
(a) F (s) = 2 (b) F (s) =
s + 4s + 13 (s + 3)2
Ans: (a) f (t) = 10.2e 2t 
cos (3t + 38.3 ) u (t)
 3t 3t 3t

(b) f (t) = 4e 24te + 18t2 e u (t)

E.P 5.7
Using convolution integral, find f (t) if
10
F (s) =
s (s + 5)
 5t

Ans: f (t) = 2 1 e u (t)

E.P 5.8
Refer the network shown in Fig. E.P. 5.8. Assume the network is in steady state for t < 0.
Determine the current i(t) for t > 0.

Figure E.P. 5.8

Ans: i (t) = 4.22e t cos (3t 18.4 ) u (t) A

E.P 5.9
Find vo (t) in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.9.

Figure E.P. 5.9

 3:73t 0:27t

Ans: vo (t) = 4 8.93e + 4.93e u (t) V
440 j Network Theory

E.P 5.10
Find vo (t) for t > 0. Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.10.

Figure E.P. 5.10

 F 
17t + 10.1
4 1
t
Ans: vo (t) = + 2.55e 3 cos u (t)
3

E.P 5.11
For the circuit shown in E.P. 5.11.
Vo (s)
Find: (a) H (s) = (b) h (t)
Vi (s)
(c) Step response (d) The response when vi (t) = 8 cos 2t V

Figure E.P. 5.11

2
Ans: (a) H (s) =
s+4
(b) h (t) = 2e 4t u (t)
4t


(c) vo (t) = 0.5 1 e u (t) V
 4t

(d) vo (t) = 1.5 e + cos 2t + 0.5 sin 2t u (t) V

E.P 5.12
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.12. The switch is closed at t = 0
Find : (a) i1 (t) and (b) i2 (t)
 Laplace Transform j 441

Figure E.P. 5.12

 6:34t 23:66t

Ans: (a) i1 (t) = 3.33 1.67e 1.67e u (t)
 6:34t 23:66t

(b) i2 (t) = 3.33 + 1.22e 4.55e u (t)

E.P 5.13
Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. E.P. 5.13.

Figure E.P. 5.13

s


A 1 e A 2s
Ans: F (s) = e
s2 s

E.P 5.14
Find the Laplace transform of the periodic waveform shown in Fig. E.P. 5.14.

Figure E.P. 5.14

 
1 1 2s 2 2s 1
Ans: F (s) = 2 e e 2s
s s2 s 1 e
442 j Network Theory

E.P 5.15
Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in Fig. E.P. 5.15

Figure E.P. 5.15

 
2 2 2 1
Ans: F (s) = + + 2e s
s 2 s s 1 e s
E.P 5.16
Obtain the Laplace transform of the f (t) shown in Fig. E.P. 5.16.

Figure E.P. 5.16

1 
Ans: F (s) = 5 3e s + 3e 3s
5e 4s
s
E.P 5.17
Obtain the Laplace transform of the unit impulses shown in Fig. E.P. 5.17

Figure E.P. 5.17

1
Ans: X(s) =
1 e s
 Laplace Transform j 443

E.P 5.18
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.18. Let i(0) = 1A; vo (0) = 2V and vs (t) = 4e 2t u(t)V.

Find vo (t) for t > 0.

Figure E.P. 5.18

 0:5t 2t

Ans: vo (t) = 2 + 4.33e + 1.33e u (t) volts

E.P 5.19
Find i(t) in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.19. Assume that the circuit is initially relaxed.

Figure E.P. 5.19

 4t 4t

Ans: i (t) = 0.5 0.5e te u (t)
E.P 5.20
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.20. Assume zero initial conditions. Use convolution theorem
to find i(t).

Figure E.P. 5.20

t 5t (t 2) 5(t 2)
Ans: i (t) = e e
2 2
444 j Network Theory

E.P 5.21
There is no energy stored in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.21 at the time when the switch is
opened. Show that
sI (s)
V2 (s) =   g 
2
R1 1
C1 s + s+
L1 L 1 C1

Figure E.P. 5.21

E.P 5.22
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.22. If is (t) = 6u(t)mA, find v2 (t).

Figure E.P. 5.22

Ans: v2 (t) = 10e 4000t cos (3000t 90 ) u (t) V

E.P 5.23
Find Vo (s) and vo (t) in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.23 if the initial energy is zero and the
switch is closed at t = 0

Figure E.P. 5.23

 5000t 10000t

Ans: vo (t) = 30 60e + 30e u (t)
 Laplace Transform j 445

E.P 5.24
The initial energy in the circuit in Fig. E.P. 5.24 is zero.
(a) Find Vo (s).
(b) Use the initial and final value theorems to find vo (0+ ) and vo (1).
(c) Do the values obtained in part (b) agree with known circuit behaviour? Explain.
(d) Find vo (t).

Figure E.P. 5.24

21  103 s
+ 4200
Ans: (a) Vo (s) = 2
s (s + 8s + 25)


(b) vo 0+ = 0, vo () = 168V
(c) YES  
(d) vo (t) = 168 + 7225.95e 4t cos (3t + 91.33 ) u (t) V

E.P 5.25
s3 + 25 + 6
Find the initial and final value of H (s) =
s(s + 1)2 (s + 3)
Ans: 1, 2

E.P 5.26
Verify final value theorem and initial value theorem for the function,
f (t) = 2 + e 3t cos 2t

E.P 5.27
Using the convolution theorem, find the Laplace inverse of the following functions:
1 1 s
(i) F (s) = (ii) F (s) = 2
(iii) F (s) =
s(s + 1) (s a) (s + 1)(s + 2)
Ans: (i) f (t) = 1 e t
(ii) f (t) = teat
(iii) f (t) = e t + 2e 2t 2e t
446 j Network Theory

E.P 5.28
In the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.28, find the voltage across the resistance vR (t) using convolution
integral. Given that vg (t) = e 2t and RC = 1 second.

Figure E.P. 5.28

Ans: vR (t) = 2e 2t e t, t0

E.P 5.29
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following functions:
3s 1 s2 + 3
(i) 2 (ii) (iii)
(s + 1)(s2 + 4) (s + 1)(s + 2)2 (s2 + 2s + 2)(s + 2)
Ans: (i) cos t cos 2t
(ii) e t e 2t (1 + t)
7 2t
(iii) e 2.5e t cos t + 0.5e t sin t
2
E.P 5.30
In the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.30, switch K is open for a long time so that steady state is
reached and at t = 0, switch is closed. Determine the current i(t) in 10 ohm resistor.

Figure E.P.5.30

Ans: Current in each 10 Ω resistor = 2u(t) e 5t

 Laplace Transform j 447

E.P 5.31
Synthesize the wave form shown in Fig. E.P. 5.31 using ramp function and obtain the Laplace
transform of f (t).

Figure E.P.5.31

5
Ans: F (s) = [1 2e s + e 2s
]
s2
E.P 5.32
Find the Laplace transform of the voltage wave form as shown in Fig. E.P. 5.32.

Figure E.P.5.32

2
Ans: V (s) = [1 3e s + 5e 1:5s
6e 2s
+ 6e 3s
]
s2
E.P 5.33
Find the Laplace transform of the perodic wave forms shown in Figs. E.P. 5.33(a) and (b).

Figure E.P.5.33(a)
448 j Network Theory

Figure E.P.5.33(b)
 
1 1 2 1 1 2 1
Ans: (i) F (s) = 4s s2 2
e s + 2 e 2s e 2s
+ 2e 3s
e 4s
1 e  s s  s s s2
1 2 4e s 2 2s
(ii) F (s) = 2s s
+ e
1 e s s
E.P 5.34
For the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.34, find the current transients in both the loops using Laplace
transformation method.

Figure E.P.5.34

12 5 2t
Ans: i1 (t) = e e 5t Ampere; t  0
7 7
2 5 7t
i2 (t) = + e e 5t Ampere; t  0
7 7

E.P 5.35
Find the Laplace transform of the saw tooth wave as shown in Fig. E.P. 5.35.

Figure E.P. 5.35

 Laplace Transform j 449

V (1 e T s T se T s )
Ans: F (s) =
T s2 (1 e T s )

E.P 5.36
For the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.36 switch K is closed at t = 0. Determine the current i(t) for
t  0.

Figure E.P. 5.36

2t 5 5
Ans: i(t) = 0.357e e j 25t e j 25t
25 + j2 25 j2

E.P 5.37
For the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 5.37, determine the source current when the switch K is closed
at t = 0. Assume zero initial conditions.

Figure E.P. 5.37

Ans: i(t) = 2.57e t 0.57e 0:3t Amperes; t  0