Electric & hybrid vehicles

BITS Pilani, Work-Integrated Learning Programmes Division

SESSION 2
POWER PLANT & TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
 Equations of motion
𝑑𝑉
𝑀𝑣 + 𝐹𝑤 + 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑡𝑓 + 𝐹𝑡𝑟 − 𝐹𝑟𝑓 + 𝐹𝑟𝑟
𝑑𝑡
If the net tractive effort 𝐹𝑡𝑓 + 𝐹𝑡𝑟 = 𝐹𝑡 & the
net rolling resistance 𝐹𝑟𝑓 + 𝐹𝑟𝑟 = 𝐹𝑟 , then,
𝑑𝑉
𝑀𝑣 + 𝐹𝑤 + 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑡 − 𝐹𝑟 …(1)
𝑑𝑡
Recall that 𝐹𝑟 =𝑓𝑟 𝑀𝑣 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 … (2)

If ℎ𝑤 = ℎ𝑔 ,

Simplify using (1) & (2) to get

 Traction limit
• Maximum traction is the max friction force
(adhesion) between the tire and the ground. It is
the product of the normal reaction and the
coefficient of friction.
• For a front wheel drive,
⟹

• For a rear wheel drive,

⟹

• If the applied tractive effort exceeds the max noted

above, the wheels slip.
 Max tractive effort on drive wheels
• No traction is required under pure rolling.
• Traction depends on the tire slip s defined as
𝑉 𝑟𝑒
𝑠 =1− =1−
𝑟𝜔 𝑟
where V is the translatory speed of the tire center, 𝜔 the
angular speed of the tire and 𝑟𝑒 is the effective rolling
radius
• For a certain tire slip s and tire load P, the max
traction 𝐹𝑥 = 𝜇𝑃, where 𝜇 is the tractive effort
coefficient.
μ vs. s curve
• For low slip (caused by
tire elasticity, not by
relative slip between tire
& ground), the tractive
effort is linearly
proportional to tire slip
(section OA)
• It turns nonlinear as
slipping increases (AB)
• It approaches the static
sliding values for large
slip
Drive train configuration
 Performance potential of a vehicle

• Limiting factors for max tractive effort are…

• Maximum tractive effort that the tire-ground interface
can support
• Tractive effort that the maximum torque of the power
plant can produce with the given driveline gear ratios
• The lower of the above two limits determines the
performance potential of the vehicle, usually the
second one.
Ideal performance characteristics of a
vehicle power plant
• Constant power
output over the full
speed range. i.e.;
torque varies
hyperbolically with
speed.
• In practice, the torque
is constrained to be
constant at low speeds
and is limited by the
adhesion between the
tire and the ground.
Fundamental disadvantages of the ICE

• ICE cannot produce torque at zero speed, while

electric motors can.
• ICE produces max power at a particular engine
speed only.
• Efficiency (read fuel consumption) of an ICE
depends on the operating point.
Characteristic curves: engine vs. electric motor

Engine Electric motor

The ideal and effective traction hyperbola

• If 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the max engine power, the ideal traction

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 at any speed v is given by 𝐹𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = ,
𝑣
defining the ideal traction hyperbola.
• Taking the drivetrain efficiency 𝜂 into account, the
effective traction 𝐹𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜂𝐹𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
• But the ICE does not provide constant power at all
speeds and hence the traction profile 𝐹𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 of
the ICE depends on its power- speed characteristic.
• This is plotted in the next slide
Traction vs. speed of an ICE without gearbox

Note: Shaded area is not usable

Traction vs. speed of an ICE with gearbox

Note: Shaded area has reduced – i.e.; the power potential of the engine
is better utilized. Also observe that with more number of gears, we get a
closer approximation of the effective traction hyperbola
 Transmission in ICE and EV’s

• An ICE needs a 4 or 5 speed transmission to get

closer to the effective traction hyperbola
• The electric motor has a torque-speed profile close
to the ideal and hence needs a single speed or two
speed gear box – a multi-speed transmission is not
required.
 Vehicle performance parameters
• Max cruising speed
• The constant cruise speed with full power plant load on a flat road.
It is determined by the equilibrium between the tractive effort and
the net resistance (rolling resistance + aerodynamic)

• Gradeability
• Defined as the grade angle the vehicle can negotiate at a given
speed. Or it may be defined as the max grade angle that the vehicle
can overcome in a given speed range
• Acceleration performance
• Defined as the time to reach a certain speed starting from rest on
level ground
SESSION 3
HEV DRIVETRAIN ARCHITECTURE
BASICS OF ELECTRIC MOTORS
HEV drivetrain
 Series, parallel, mixed & complex architecture

Note: Series, parallel, and mixed (“series-parallel”) are shown for single axle propulsion.
Complex hybrid is for dual-axle propulsion – front wheels have hybrid and rear wheels
have electric propulsion. The motor shown between the ICE & the power converter in a
complex hybrid doubles up as a generator as well.
Electric motor basics
• A current through a coil placed in a magnetic field
causes a mechanical device to rotate.
• Reverse the above to get a generator
• Large electric motors have efficiencies of ~90% in
converting electrical energy to mechanical when
the load is matched. If the motor is oversized
efficiencies are substantially lower.
• Smaller motors tend to be less efficient.
Four basic types of motors
• Brushed DC motor
• Brushless DC motor (BLDC)
• Synchronous AC motor
• AC induction motor
AC vs. DC motors
• Stator & rotor
• In AC motors/generators, magnet is on the rotor and current flows
in the stator
• In most DC motors, magnet is on the stator and current flows in the
rotor – hence requires brushes
• Rotation speed
• Rotation speed of DC motors depends on the supply voltage,
offering variable motor speed in a certain range. They can be
designed to rotate at any desired speed for a fixed supply voltage.
• AC motors are constrained to certain rotation speeds
• Torque
• DC motors have strong torque at low speeds – an overloaded DC
motor slows down while trying to push the load. DC motors are
hence useful at low speeds and for varying loads
• Torque of an AC motors drops to zero at zero speed – an overloaded
AC motor just stops
 Working of DC motor & AC generator

DC motor with split ring commutator AC generator with slip ring

Notes: 1. The torque out of the DC motor shown above is not steady. To reduce “torque ripple”
(or jerky force), the number of windings on the rotor (called armature) and the number of
magnetic poles in the stator are increased.
 Reduction of torque ripple in DC motors
• By adding multiple rectified sine waves, the torque
ripple is evened out to obtain an almost steady
torque as shown below:
Advantages / drawbacks of brushed DC motors

• Advantages
• Cheap
• Essentially disposable - good to power small battery
powered devices such as toys
• Use permanent magnets in the stator (cheaper but
heavier) instead of electromagnets
• Drawbacks
• Brushes wear out fast
• Large current through brushes cause spark as contacts
are made and broken, leading to commutator damage
• Tradeoff between power, speed and repair frequency
• Simple armatures – hence significant torque ripple
 Brushless DC motor

• Electronic switching of current direction replaces

the brushes (i.e.; electronic commutation instead of
mechanical split ring commutation mimics an AC
motor using a DC power source).
• It is much like a synchronous AC motor with the
magnets mounted on the rotor and the drive
current in the stator (opposite way of brushed DC
motors)
• Gives complete control on motor speed
• Reliable but costlier
 AC motors

• Current is supplied to the stator and the magnets

are on the rotor
• Varying current in the stator produces a rotating
magnetic field that turns the rotor
• The magnets in the rotor may be permanent
magnets or electromagnets driven by a DC source,
In induction motors, the magnetic field in the rotor
is the induced magnetic field from the stator
 Synchronous AC motor
• Turns at the exact frequency of the AC driving it
• Advantages
• Brushless
• Most use permanent magnets
• Reliable but not readily controllable
• Simple and durable
• Disadvantages
• Torque-speed characteristic of a synchronous motor is quite
different for, that of a DC motor
• Torque drops to zero at zero speed
• Rotates only at one speed
• When overloaded, it draws more current and continues to
turn at the same speed or comes to a dead stop if it cannot
sustain the load
• Needs a kick starting mechanism as torque is zero at zero
speed
 Induction motor
• No magnet, no current sent through an electromagnet
• Rotor holds a few windings of wire
• Drive current in the stator induces a magnetic field in
the stator and in turn in the rotor to turn the device
• Dominant type for industrial use due to its ruggedness
and simplicity
• Unlike synchronous motors, they do not turn at the
frequency of the driving AC. They turn a bit slower than
the driving AC and this slip generates the torque. Hence
toque is maximum at zero speed (just as slip) - no kick
starting issues unlike a synchronous motor