Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance
Introduction To
Predictive Maintenance
January 2008
Introduction
Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
• The purpose of this course is to

introduce and provide individuals
with an overview of predictive

maintenance and a basic
understanding of the methods and
tools required..
2
Objectives
• This course will present the following topics:

– Define predictive maintenance programs
– Define maintenance planning requirements and
review Critical Path Method (CPM)

– Examine the principles of Vibration Theory and
Analysis.
– Examine the basics of Lubrication and Analysis
(Tribology).
– Examine the basics of Ultrasonic Analysis
– Examine the basics of Thermographic Analysis
– Examine the principles of Electrical Insulation
Testing
– Define inspection and performance
measurement techniques
3
Agenda
• Predictive Maintenance
• Maintenance Planning
• Vibration Analysis
• Performance Monitoring
• Thermal Analysis
4
Agenda
• Lubrication and Tribology (Fluid

Analysis)
• Non-destructive Testing and Inspection

• Ultrasonic Measurement
• Insulation Testing
• Balancing
• Review
5
Predictive
Maintenance
Objectives
•
– Define preventive maintenance.
– Define predictive maintenance.

– Define patterns of failure
– Define condition monitoring
7
Terms
• PM means Preventive Maintenance

• PdM means Predictive Maintenance
• PPM or P/PM means

• CMMS means Computerized
Maintenance Management System
8
How to View Maintenance
• Engineering
• Economic
• Management
• What else?
9
PM
• PM (Preventive Maintenance) is a series

of tasks which are performed at
sequence of time, quantity of production,

equipment hours, mileage or condition
for the purpose of:
– Extending equipment life
– Detect critical wear or impending
breakdown
10
PdM
• PdM (Predictive Maintenance) is any

inspection carried out with technological
tools to detect when failures will occur.
11
Misconceptions about PM
• PM is the only way to determine when

and what will break down.
• PM systems are the same

• PM is extra work/costs more.
• Unskilled people can do PM tasks
• PM is obsolete due to new technology
• PM will eliminate breakdowns
12
Task Lists
• The task list is the heart of the PM

system.
– What to do
– What to use
– What to look for
– How to do it
– When to do it
13
Common Tasks
1. Inspection 7. Take Readings

2. Predictive Maintenance 8. Lubrication

3.Cleaning 9. Scheduled Replacement
4. Tightening 10. Interview Operators

5. Operate 11. Analysis
6. Adjustments
14
Patterns of Failure
• Random
• Infant mortality
• Increasing
• Increasing then stable
• Ending mortality
• Bathtub
15
Bathtub Chart
Break In
Or
Start -up
Number of Failures
Critical
wear point
Break Down
Normal Life Cycle
Time
16
Predictive Maintenance - PdM
• What do we mean by Predictive

Maintenance?
“to declare or indicate in advance”
17
PdM Definitions
• Any inspection (condition based) activity

on the PM task list is predictive.
Condition
• Predictive Maintenance is a way to view
data
18
PdM Program
• A Predictive Maintenance programs is the

active condition monitoring approach
This requires a program to:

– Regularly monitor the mechanical condition
of all critical production equipment.
– Identify outstanding problems.
19
Equipment Condition Monitoring
• Vibration analysis.
• Thermography..
• Fluid analysis (tribology).

• Visual inspection.
• Operational-dynamics analysis.
• Electrical monitoring.
• Failure analysis.
20
Condition Monitoring
• Temperature
• Vibration
• Changes in noise or sound

• Visually observed changes and
problems
21
Temperature
22
Vibration
Screwdriver
Listen
Vibration
Probe
23
Vibration Problems
Many vibration problems can be solved by

studying the history of the machine:
– operational changes
– maintenance changes
•Talk to the operators and maintenance
people, and review the maintenance
records.
• Knowledge of the machine and its
internal components will be of value in this
diagnosis
24
Sound/Noise
• Listening
• Sound Measurements
Sound Intensity and the Human Ear

Change in Human Ear Response
Sound Density
1 dB Detect change under controlled conditions
3 dB – 5 dB Noticeable difference in loudness
6 dB Significant increase in loudness
10 dB Appears almost twice as loud to the human ear
10 dB – 20 dB Unbelievably louder
Example: a 6 dB change in sound intensity will be a significant increase in
loudness or a 10 dB change in sound intensity is 3.162 x sound pressure, or
almost twice as loud as the original sound heard.
25
Sight
Loose
Bearing
Housing
Loose
Bolts
Cracked
Leaking
Housing
Seal Lubrication
26 Problem
Summary
• Review Objectives
• Question and Answer session
27
Maintenance
Planning
Objectives
– Define Maintenance Improvement and

Reliability Programs (MIRP)

– Define Critical Path Method (CPM)
– Define Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT)
29
Maintenance Program Objectives
• The primary objectives of any maintenance

program’s activities include:
– To ensure that the equipment operates safely and
relatively trouble-free for long periods of time.

– To maximize the availability of machinery and
equipment necessary to meet the planned
production and operational objectives.
– To consistently maintain the plant equipment in
order to minimize wear and premature
deterioration.
– To make the equipment reliable so it can be
counted on to perform to set standards and
conditions.
30
Maintenance Plans
• Long range planning

• Short or Mid-range planning
• Immediate planning
31
Maintenance Improvement and
Reliability Programs
• The following ten steps outline a plan
when a company is considering
developing an effective Maintenance

Improvement and Reliability Program
(MIRP).
32
1- Initialization
• Step 1: Begin by initiating a “total

maintenance” approach. Production and
maintenance must collectively work

together.
• The maintenance department has to be
viewed as being an integral part of the
organization.
33
2 - Clear Vision
• Step 2: Establish a clear vision by

having the employees and management
identify the problems.

• Then specify the goals and objectives
that must be set in order to achieve
success.
34
3 - Analyze
• Step 3: Analyze the organization.

– Will the organization, as a whole, support
the type of improvements required?

– If not, consider changing the organizational
structure and/or redesign the system to
meet the identified needs.
– Review the production and operational
policies and procedures, as they may not be
suited to the maintenance improvement and
reliability program.
35
4 - Develop
• Step 4: Begin to develop an ‘action

plan.”
– Identify what is going to be attempted, who

is to be involved, what are the resources
required, etc.
– Action plans take on many different forms,
but it is important that the plan contain
inputs drawn from the reviews and analysis
rather than from complaints.
36
5 - Assess
• Step 5: Assess the condition of the

equipment and facilities.
– Be objective in the assessment.

– Determine which equipment requires
immediate attention.
37
6 - Select
• Step 6: Select the appropriate maintenance

program. is a computerized maintenance
system needed?
– What technique will be employed, - reactive,

preventive or predictive maintenance?
– Determine the order maintenance activities will be
carried out, first, then second, etc.?
– What type of reporting system will be used to track
and record the data collected when measuring the
performance of each piece of equipment?
38
7 - Measure
• Step 7: Measure equipment condition.

• When measuring for equipment
condition which method(s) will be

considered:
– vibration analysis?
– fluid analysis?
– non-destructive testing?
– performance monitoring methods?
39
8 - Prepare
• Step 8: Prepare the maintenance

personnel.
– As the maintenance program activities and
methods are implemented ensure that the

maintenance personnel are:
• trained to understand the program
• why the activities and methods are performed.
– Without this step no type of maintenance
improvement and reliability program will
succeed.
40
9 - Monitor
• Step 9: Monitor equipment and machinery

effectiveness to the detail the maintenance
program requires.
• Monitor for:
– performance
– reliability
– quality
• Over time, the recorded information can be
used to evaluate the machinery and
equipment condition and situation.
• This is an on-going activity of any quality
maintenance program.
41
10 - Review
• Step 10: Initiate periodic reviews

• Equipment and machinery effectiveness is
based on scheduled predictive and preventive

maintenance activities.
– The review of these activities may indicate common
problems and trends which identify any design or
operational changes required.
– Include engineering, maintenance and production
personnel in these periodic reviews.
– Ensure that action plans develop from these review
sessions, not just complaints.
42
Critical Path Method - CPM
• Flow chart method of representing

specific job activities of a project
• Questions to ask:
– How long will it take to complete the
project?
– Which tasks determine total project time?
– Which activity times should be shortened or
how many resources should be allocated to
each activity?
43
Why use CPM?
• Which tasks must be carried out

• Where parallel activity can be done
• Shortest time of a project

• What resources are needed
• Sequence of tasks
• Scheduling and timing
• Priorities
44
Building a chart
List tasks Draw arrow

Create start
and relation from start to
node
ships first task
Sequentially Repeat process

arrange all tasks from successors
from start to all tasks
Check for missed

relationships
45
Example chart Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
TURBINE OVERHAUL Earliest start time followed

(EXAMPLE) by latest start time
54-54
8-52 57-57 60-60
2 3 3 2
11 12 13 14
Estimated job time 18
2
8
6-6
40 46-46 2
9 10
Critical job time
41-49
2 7
36
4
4-4 47-55 52-60 62-62
0-0
1 16
4 2 2 3 2 8
1 2 5 8 15 16 17 19 20
5-13
44-53 49-57 70-70
4 2
10 6 2
10-51
14-56 18-60
4
3 4
CRITICAL PATH: 1 - 2 – 9 10 – 12 – 13 – 14 19 - 20
46
Task durations
• Early Start
• Early Finish
• Late Start
• Late Finish
47
Example Table of TimesEjercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Work Earliest Latest Earliest Latest

Estimated Critical
Segment Work Description Start Start Finish Finish Float
Job time Work
Number Time Time Time Time
1-2 Check Stand – by

Unit No: 4 0 0 4 4 0 4
2-3 Check Rebuild

Calibrate 10 4 4 14 14 0
gauges
2-5 Dismantle Unit
No:____. 1 4 4 5 5 0
Casing
2-9 Dismantle Unit

No:____ 2 4 60 20 60 42 2
Rotor
3-4 Inspect Clean

Control Lines 4 14 56 18 62 42
48
Program Evaluation and Review
Technique
• The Program Evaluation and Review
Technique (PERT) is a network model
that allows for randomness in activity

completion times. It has the potential to
reduce both the time and cost required
to complete a project.
– PERT was developed in the late 1950’s for
the U.S. Navy’s Polaris project having
thousands of contractors.
49
• A PERT chart is a tool that facilitates decision

making; The first draft of a PERT chart will number its
events sequentially in 10s (10, 20, 30, etc.) to allow
the later insertion of additional events.
• Two consecutive events in a PERT chart are linked by

activities
• The events are presented in a logical sequence and
no activity can commence until its immediately
preceding event is completed.
• The planner decides which milestones should be
PERT events and also decides their “proper”
sequence.
• A PERT chart may have multiple pages with many
sub-tasks.
50
Terminology
• Critical Path
• Critical Activity
• Lead time
• Lag time
• Slack
• Fast tracking
• Crashing critical path
• Float
51
Pert Activity
• A PERT activity: is the actual

performance of a task. It consumes
time, it requires resources

• Optimistic Time (O)
• Pessimistic Time (P)
• Most likely time (M)
• Expected time (TE)
– TE = (O + 4M + P) ÷ 6
52
Implementing PERT
• First, determine the tasks that the

project requires and the order in which
they must be completed.
Activity Predecessor Opt. Norm. Pess. TE

O M P (o + 4m + p)/6
a -- 2 4 6 4.00
b -- 3 5 9 5.33
c a 4 5 7 5.17
d a 4 6 10 6.33
e b, c 4 5 7 5.17
f d 3 4 8 4.50
g e 3 5 8 5.17
53
Chart
• Once this step is complete, one can

draw a Gantt chart or a network diagram
54
PERT Network Diagram
40
t=1 mo F
D
t=3 mo t=2 mo
10 30 50
A E
B C
t=4 mo t=3 mo
20
55
Hasse Diagram
56
Summary
57
Vibration
Analysis
Course Objectives
• Define the need for analysis

• Define the cause and effects of
equipment vibration
• State how vibration is measured
59
Benefits from Vibration
Analysis
• Identifies early stages of machine
defects such as:
– Unbalance of Rotating Parts – Loose or broken parts
– Misalignment of Couplings & – Torque Variations

Bearings – Improper Lubricant
– Bent Shafts – Hydraulic or Aerodynamic
– Bad Bearings – Anti Friction Type Forces
– Bad Drive Belts and Drive Chains – Rubbing
– Worn, Eccentric, or Damaged – Electrical problems
Gears – Resonance
• Provides for time to plan
maintenance activities
• Saves Cost of Unnecessary
Repairs
• Evaluates work done
60
Vibration CbM Philosophy
• Based on three principles:

– All rotating equipment vibrates
– Vibration increases/changes as equipment

condition deteriorates
– Vibration can be accurately measured and
interpreted
61
Causes of Vibration:
• Forces that change in direction with time (e.g.,

Rotating Unbalance)
• Forces that change in amplitude or intensity
with time (e.g., Motor Problems)

• Frictional Forces (e.g., Rotor Rub)
• Forces that cause impacts (e.g., Bearing
Defects)
• Randomly generated forces (e.g., Turbulence)
62
When Condition of Machinery
Deteriorates
• Dynamic forces increase, cause
increase in vibration
– Wear, corrosion, or buildup of deposits increases
unbalance
– Settling of foundation may increase misalignment
forces
• The stiffness of the machine reduces,
thus increasing vibration
– Loosening or stretching of mounting bolts
– Broken weld
– Crack in the foundation
– Deterioration of grouting
63
Vibration Demonstration
• Vibration-Single spring and weight in

suspension
Spring
Upper Limit
Weight at Neutral Position

complete rest
Weight Lower Limit

Time
64
A Word About Bearings
The vast majority of bearings are one of two types: Fluid

Film Bearings and Rolling Element, or “Anti-friction”
Bearings
Accelerometer
Eddy Current Probe
Bearing Bearing
bearing bearing
housing housing
Oil Wedge
Soft Metal (load zone)
(Babbitt)
ROLLING ELEMENT: Low cost,
simple to apply. But are capable of
FLUID FILM: Capable of only moderate speeds and relatively
supporting very high loads, high light loads. Rotor dynamics aren’t
temperatures, high speed. bad but diagnostics can be
Expensive and associated rotor complex due to all those spinning
dynamics are very complex. balls!
65
Sensors & Units
All sensors are designed to measure one of the three…

Eddy Current
Displacement mils (0.001 inch) Probes
µm (0.001 millimeter)
Velometers &
integrate
Integrating
Velocity ips (inches/sec) Accelerometers
mm/s (millimeters/sec)
Acceleration
g’s Accelerometers
m/s2(meters/sec2)
66
Operation of Piezoelectric
Velocity Pickup
Integrator
Amplifier
Preload
Insulator Bolt
Conductive Inertial
Plate Mass
Piezoelectric
Insulator Crystal
67
A Non-Contacting Pickup
(NCPU) System
68
Theory of Operation - NCPU
• NCPU system works on the eddy

current principle.
• The tip of the probe contains a coil
of wire that is connected to a driver. Eddy currents

When energized, the probe induces
eddy currents in the rotating shaft.
RF in
SHAFT
Cutaway of
NCPU Probe Tip
NCPU coil
69 Generated magnetic field

Theory of Operation - NCPU Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Displacement
• System Operation
Probe Driver NCPU

Detector Oscillator
(-) 24
V 20
16
O 12
L 8
T 4
S 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
70 MILS
• System Static Output

24 Linear Range
(-)
V 20
O 16
L 12
Gap Voltage
T 8
S 4
Gap
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
MILS
71
• System Dynamic Output

24
(-)
Vibration Amplitude
V 20
Average Gap Voltage
O 16
L 12
T 8
S 4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
TIME (ms)
72
• There are five measurable

characteristics of vibration.
– Frequency
– Displacement (or amplitude)
– Velocity
– Acceleration
– Phase
73
VIBRATION AMPLITUDE
OVER TIME
Amplitude
Time
Peak to Peak Displacement
74
VIBRATION VELOCITY
Zero velocity/Peak acceleration

Peak velocity/Zero acceleration

Amplitude
Time
Zero velocity/Peak acceleration
Period (Time)
75
VIBRATION FREQUENCY
Frequency = 1 / Period
Amplitude
Time
Period (Time)
Example:
If it takes .1 seconds for one cycle (the Period), then

Frequency = 1 / .1 or 10 Cycles Per Second (Hertz)
76
VIBRATION SIGNAL
DETECTION
Peak RMS Peak to Peak

Amplitude
Time
77
For Sinusoidal Motion….
Peak to Peak = 2 x Peak

RMS = .707 x Peak
Amplitude
RMS Peak to Peak Peak
Time
78
Common Vibration Amplitude
Units
ENGLISH UNITS METRIC UNITS
• Displacement • Displacement
– Mils (0.001 inch) – µm (0.001 millimeter)

Peak-to-Peak Peak-to-Peak
• Velocity • Velocity
– Inches/sec Peak – mm/sec Peak
– Inches/sec RMS – mm/sec RMS
• Acceleration • Acceleration
– G Peak – Meters/Sec2 Peak
79
RELATIVE PHASE
• Comparative phase readings show “how” the

machine is vibrating
• Note how relative phase causes significant
changes in vibration seen at the coupling with

little to no change in the amplitudes measured
at points 1 and 2
80
Frequency Characteristics
• Synchronous Vibration
• Asynchronous Vibration
• Natural Frequency
• Resonance
81
Resonance
• Spring System – Pillow Block

Shaft coupling Ball bearing
V-belt
pulley
Pillow block
Flex
housing
• Spring System – Machine Base
Machine Base
Flex
82
Critical Speed
• Critical Speed is defined as being a type

of resonance which occurs when a shaft
or rotating machine component revolves

at a speed close to its natural
frequency .
83
Vibration Indicators
84
Vibration Indicators
85
Summary (Amplitude,
Frequency, Phase)
• Amplitude is the amount of vibration
– Measured in units of Acceleration, Velocity,
or Displacement
– Signal Detection is Peak to Peak, Peak, or
RMS
• Frequency is the number of cycles per
second (Hertz) or cycles per minute
(CPM) that a part is vibrating
• Phase is used to determine how one
part is vibrating relative to another part.
86
Overall Velocity Guidelines
87
Overall Alarm Chart Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
MACHINE TYPE GOOD FAIR ALARM

Cooling Tower Drives
Long Hollow Drive Shaft 0 - .375 .375 - .600 .600
Close Coupled Belt Drive 0 - .275 .275 - .425 .425
Close Coupled Direct Drive 0 - .200 .200 - .300 .300
Compressors
Reciprocating 0 - .325 .325 - .500 .500
Rotary Screw 0 - .275 .275 - .425 .425
Centrifugal with or without External Gearbox 0 - .200 .200 - .300 .300

Centrifugal - Integral Gear (Axial Meas.) 0 - .200 .200 - .300 .300
Centrifugal - Integral Gear (Radial Meas.) 0 - .150 .150 - .250 .250
Blowers (Fans)
Lobe-Type Rotary 0 - .300 .300 - .450 .450
Belt-Driven Blowers 0 - .275 .275 - .425 .425
General Direct Drive Fans (with Coupling) 0 - .250 .250 - .375 .375
Primary Air Fans 0 - .250 .250 - .375 .375
Large Forced Draft Fans 0 - .200 .200 - .300 .300
Large Induced Draft Fans 0 - .175 .175 - .275 .275
Shaft-Mounted Integral Fan (Extended Motor Shaft) 0 - .175 .175 - .275 .275
Vane-Axial Fans 0 - .150 .150 - .250 .250
Motor/Generator Sets
Belt-Driven 0 - .275 .275 - .425 .425
Direct Coupled 0 - .200 .200 - .300 .300
Chillers
Reciprocating 0 - .250 .250 - .400 .400
Centrifugal (Open-Air) - Motor & Comp. Separate 0 - .200 .200 - .300 .300
Centrifugal (Hermetic) - Motor & Impellers Inside 0 - .150 .150 - .225 .225
Large Turbine/Generator
3600 RPM Turbine/Generators 0 - .175 .175 - .275 .275
1800 RPM Turbine/Generators 0 - .150 .150 - .225 .225
Centrifugal Pumps
Vertical Pumps (12' - 20' Height) 0 - .375 .375 - .600 .600
General Purpose Horizontal Pump (Direct Coupled) 0 - .200 .200 - .300 .300
Boiler Feed Pumps 0 - .200 .200 - .300 .300
Hydraulic Pumps 0 - .125 .125 - .200 .200
Machine Tools
Motor 0 - .100 .100 - .175 .175
Gearbox Input 0 - .150 .150 - .225 .225
88 Gearbox Output
Spindles: a. Roughing Operations
b. Machine Finishing
0 - .100
0 - .075
0 - .050
.100 - .175
.075 - .125
.050 - .075
.175
.125
.075
Frequency Analysis
89
Measuring Vibration Amplitude
• The three vibration characteristics,

displacement, velocity, and acceleration are
inter-related.
• When displacement and frequency values are

known, velocity (peak) can be calculated.
• To Calculate Velocity (peak):
 V = 52.3 x D x F x 106
• Where:
 V = velocity (peak) in inches/second
 D = displacement (peak-to-peak) in mils
 F = frequency in CPM
90
Calculate Acceleration
• When displacement and frequency are

known, acceleration (peak) can be
determined by using the following
calculation:
• To Calculate Acceleration (peak):
g (peak) = 14.2 x D (F/I 000)2 x i0
• Where:
g = acceleration (peak) due to gravity
D = displacement (peak-to-peak) in mils
F = frequency in CPM
91
Time Waveforms
Unbalance Looseness
Output
Shaft Gearmesh
Time
92
Conversion to Frequency Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Domain
Amplitude Complex Waveform
A
F.F.T.
Time
T Time
Amplitude
Freq
A
Frequency
Simple Frequency
f Spectrum
93
Time and Frequency
Domain
Simple Waveform
Complex Waveform
FMAX
Amplitude
9X
5X
3X
1X
Time Domain
Frequency Domain
TMAX
94
Spectrum Analysis!!! Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Amplitude
Frequency
a
I rB e D p
C r
G
lm ie ecFrequency
lo m
e
a
b n tf
a iu e
a
n g n s
c
95 e
g h
Real Vibration is Complex
96
Resulting Spectrum (FFT)
97
Fixed Frequency
vs.
Order Normalization
98
Fixed Frequency Spectrum
Speed = 500 RPM

Vibration Amplitude
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Frequency (CPM)
99
Fixed Frequency Spectrum
Speed = 1500 RPM

Vibration Amplitude
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Frequency (CPM)
100
Order Normalized Spectrum Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Speed = 500 RPM

Vibration Amplitude
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency (Orders)
101
Speed = 1500 RPM

Vibration Amplitude
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency (Orders)
102
Spectrum Alarm Bands
103
Alarm Bands
Speed = 1800 RPM
Vibration Amplitude
Band 1 – Unbalance
Band 2 – Looseness
Band 3 – Bearings
Band 4 – Blade Pass
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency (Orders)
104
Alarm Bands
Speed = 1800 RPM
Vibration Amplitude
Band 3 – Bearings
Warning
Danger
Blade Pass
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Frequency (Orders)
105
Trending Band Amplitudes Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Band 3 – Bearings
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (Days)
106
A Pump Example
How many vanes does this one have?

107
Vane Pass
vanes The pressure output to the

volute will vary as the vanes
pass depending on how exactly
the vanes line up with the
outlet (volute) at any given

moment.
So with any centrifugal pump
there will be a pulsation
(pressure pulse) that occurs at
a frequency equal to the
number of vanes times the
speed of the pump.
volute This
Thisisiscalled
calledthe
the“Vane
“VanePass”
Pass”
1x frequency.
frequency. ItItisisalways
alwaysequal
equalto
tothe
the
5x
number
numberof ofvanes
vanestimes
timesthe
thespeed
speedofof
the
thepump.
pump.
InInthis
thiscase…
case…
Vane
VanePass
Pass==5x
108 0
Hz 800 5x
A Coupling / Alignment Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Example
There will be a coupling joining every component on a machine
This is called “angular”
misalignment (you don’t
really need to know that though)
coupling
109
Two Maximum Forces per
Revolution
Imagine that you are this bolt…
When you were here, you
would feel a maximum
compressive force
You would
And you would feel a maximum
expansion force here feel no force
when you
were here
110
Force is applied in two
directions
If you drew a plot of the force relative to
expansion or compression, vs. time over one
revolution you would see…
1 Rev.
compression
expansion
111
Two Maximum Forces per
Revolution
If you drew the same plot of force
(any kind) vs. time you would see…
1 Rev.
max.
min.
max compression
max expansion
1x
2x A maximum force is
observed twice per
revolution, so…
112 0
Hz 800
How Would You Orient The
Sensor?
If you were going to attach a sensor to
detect this problem, in what direction
(relative to the shaft) would you place it?
1x
This type of misalignment would be
2x felt mostly in the axial direction, but
also somewhat in the radial
direction.
113 0
Hz 800
Gears
Input =1000 RPM

Output =2000 RPM

Gear mesh=54000 CPM
Vibration Amplitude
Drive 54T Driven 27T
1x
2x 54x
0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency (Orders)
114
Rolling Element Bearings
Estimation Equations
Defect on Outer Race ~.5xN – 1.2
Defect on Inner Race ~.5xN + 1.2
Ball Spin Frequency ~.2xN-1.2/N
Train Frequency ~.5xN-1.2/N
Vibration Amplitude
FTF
N=8 (Balls) 1X
BSOR
BSF BSIR
0 2 4 6 8 10
Estimation Equations
Defect on Outer Race .5x8 – 1.2 = 2.8 Frequency (Orders)
Defect on Inner Race .5xN + 1.2 = 5.2
Ball Spin Frequency .2xN-1.2/N = 1.45
115 Train Frequency .5-1.2/N = .35
Summary
• Question and Answer Session
116
Performance
Monitoring
Objectives
• Define monitoring methods

• Measuring electrical performance
• Measuring fluid performance
118
Monitoring Methods
• Measuring Electrical Performance

• Measuring Fluid Performance
• Measuring Temperature
• Measuring RPM
119
Establishing Standards
1. Standards which represent absolute

values.
2. Qualitative type of comparative criteria

such as manufacturer’s design limits.
120
Judging Performance
• What seems to be out of its limit or has

changed?
• By how much have the limits changed?

• Are the changes occurring slowly or
rapidly?
• Are there any other changes which
either confirm or contradict the initial
observations?
121
Measuring Electrical Performance
• First – follow proper safety rules

• Common Electrical instruments
– Voltmeters
– Ammeters
– Ohmmeters
– Megohmmeters
– wattmeters
122
Basic Instruments- Multimeters
• Combines reading of:

– Voltages
– Resistance
– Current
Analog Multimeter
Digital Multimeter
123
Ohms Law
• The amount of current flowing in an

electrical circuit (I - Measured in
amperage) is dependent upon the value of
electrical pressure (E - measured in volts)

E
and the amount of opposition to the flow of
I=
R current (R - measured in ohms).
E
I=
124 R
Measuring Voltage
12.000
+
V A
Battery
V A
OFF
-
A CO M
125
Voltage Drop Cont’d
7.500
V A
Conductor
Resistance
V A
OFF
11.500
+ A COM
V A
Battery
V A
OFF
-
A COM
126
Measuring Current Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
.5000
Break circuit to connect

meter. Note: meter leads
A
are moved to different

inputs for current testing.
V A
OFF
A COM
Battery
127
Measuring Current Cont’d
Never
clamp
two
wires at
once!
128
Measuring Resistance Ejercicios de ¿Qué Pasa Si? y de Diagnóstico y Solución de Problemas
Verify zero Reading

setting of meter Resistance
0000 5000
V A
V A
V A
V A OFF
OFF
A COM
A COM
129
Megohmeter
130
Measuring Power
Typical single phase wattmeter connection.

Current
± A
A
± V
SOURCE
LOAD
Ammeter
Voltage
131
Measuring Power Cont’d
• Typical single phase wattmeter connection

± A
THREE PHASE SOURCE
THREE PHASE LOAD

±
V
Measuring Power
± A
± V
132
Protective Devices
• Fuses
• Circuit Breakers
133
Fuse Function
Fuse melts and opens

Fuse
Source
Load
Normal current High current
Short
BLADE BODY FILLER
ELEMENT
134
Circuit Breaker Operation
Pivot point
Bimetallic strip
Spring Hold lever
Breaker
“Made”
Contacts
Current flow closed
Breaker
“Tripped” Contacts
open
135
Measuring Fluid Performance
• Pascal’s Law simply stated

says: “Pressure applied on a
confined fluid is transmitted
undiminished in all
directions, and acts with
equal force on equal areas,
and at right angles to the
surface.”
Pressure
exerted by fluid
equal in all
directions
136
Pressure and Force
• The force contained by an air

cylinder barrel is the
projected area multiplied by

the pressure
Force = Pressure X Area

2
Area = Pi X Diameter D
4
Where
D = the cylinder bore in inches
=
P = the pressure in pounds per square inch (psi)
Note = area of rod must be subtracted from total area
if calculating area of pressure at rod end.
Boyles Law
• “if the temperature of a confined body of gas

is maintained constant, the absolute pressure
is inversely proportional to the volume.”

F1
F2
F3
V1
P1 V2
P2 V3
P3
P1 X V2 = P2 X V3 = P3 X V3 = constant where P = pressure and V= volume
138
Bernoulli’s Principle
“in a system with a constant flow rate, energy is

transformed from one form to the other each time the
pipe cross-section size changes”
Ignoring friction losses, the

pressure again becomes the
In the small section pipe, velocity is same as at “A” when the flow
maximum. More energy is in the form velocity becomes the same as
of motion, so pressure is lower. at “A.”
PUMP A B C
PSI PSI PSI
Velocity decreases in the larger

pipe. The kinetic energy loss is
made up by an increase in
139 pressure.
Pressure Measurement
• Bourdon Style Gage

Tube tends to
straighten under
pressure causing
pointer to rotate.
Bourdon
tube
140 Pressure Inlet

Flow Measurement
• By determining the rate of flow to what

the recommended flow rate is supposed
to be is essential for determining

pumping capabilities and efficiencies.
141
Flow Measurement Cont’d
• Types of flow measurement devices are the

list following are but a few of the most
common types
– Elbow tap switches

– Flow switches
– Turbine Flow meters
– Rotameter Flow meters
– Orfice Flow meters
– Venturi tube flow measurement
– Doppler Flow meters
– Volumetric Flow meters
142
Elbow Taps
• Elbow Taps: A flow measurement using elbow taps

depends on the detection of the differential pressure
developed by centrifugal force as the direction of fluid
flow is changed in a pipe elbow
Elbow tap
Elbow tap
Flow
Indicator
143
Flow switches
• Flow switches are used to determine if

the flow rate is above or below a
certain value. One type of flow switch

is the swinging vane flow switch.
Swinging
Switch
vane
144
Turbine Flowmeter
Magnetic pickup
Flow
direction
Rotor
145
Doppler Flowmeters
Transmitting Receiving
element element
Flow
direction
146
Summary
147
Thermographic
Analysis
Objectives
•Define infrared
•Types of equipment used
•Define thermographic imaging

•Implementing a maintenance program
•List types of faults
149
Introduction
• Thermography is a predictive
maintenance technique that can be used
to monitor the condition of plant

machinery, structures, and systems.
• Involves the measurement or mapping
surface temperatures as heat flows to,
from and/or through an object
150
Infrared Basics
• Objects with a temperature above absolute

zero emit energy or radiation
• Infrared radiation is one form of this emitted
energy.
• Three sources of energy
– Emitted energy
– Reflected energy
– Transmitted energy
• Only emitted energy is important in a
predictive maintenance program.
151
Energy Emissions
• A = Absorbed energy.
• R = Reflected energy.
• T = Transmitted energy.
• E = Emitted energy.
T
A+R+T=1
E=A
152 E+R+T=1
Blackbody Emissions
• A perfect emitting body is called a

“Blackbody”
E = A = .7 R = .3 T=0
153
Graybody Emission
• Bodies that are not blackbodies will emit

some amount of infrared energy.
E=A=1 R=0 T=0

154
Infrared Thermometers
249°
155
Line Scanners
• This type of infrared instrument provides

a single-dimensional scan or line of
comparative radiation.
156
Infrared Imaging
157
Infrared Theory
158
Implementing a Maintenance
Program
• Gain support from management .
• Practice reading thermographic images
• Meet regularly with managers, line supervisors

and other co-workers
• Integrate with other predictive maintenance
efforts
• Establish written inspection procedures
• Create inspection routes
• Reporting results
159
Example Inspection Process
160
Overheating Belt/Sheave
161
Overheating Belt Drive
162
• Thermal image reveals overheating

bearing on a primary motor
163
This panel circuit breaker is hot! Is it a problem?

Without a load reading, diagnosis is difficult. This
may be the only energized breaker in the entire
164 panel!
Roller, chain and belt
conveyors
• Thermal imaging is especially useful
for monitoring low-speed mechanical
equipment like conveyors.
These hot spots most likely indicate poor bearing lubrication or component
165 wear problems.
Inspect Bearings
• When a motor bearing fails, the motor heats up and

lubrication begins to break down. The windings
overheat and then the temperature sensor cuts out
and stops the motor. Worst case, the shaft binds up,
the rotor locks up and the motor fails completely
overheating shaft and bearing may be an indicator of

bearing failure, lack of proper lubrication, or
166 misalignment.
Printed Circuit Boards
Thermal imagers capture two-dimensional

representations of the surface temperatures of
electronics, electrical components and other objects.
Since overheating may signal that a trace, a solder

joint, or a component (chip, capacitor, resistor, etc.) is
malfunctioning,
167
Building Inspection
• Thermal imaging or
thermography can
capture two-dimensional
representations of the
surface temperatures of
parts of buildings,
including roofs, walls,
doors, windows and
construction joints.
168
Petroleum and petrochemical
processing
This nitrogen pump had a persistently leaky seal and had to

be changed out regularly. Thermal imaging revealed a
restriction preventing the seal from receiving enough cool
airflow. As a result, the seal was overheating and melting.
169
Substations and Switchgear
• Since overheating as well as abnormally cool

operating temperatures may signal the degradation
of an electrical component, thermal imagers provide
the predictive capabilities required for substation

and switchgear maintenance.
For equipment that always has a high operating

temperature, establish a baseline or standard
170 acceptable temperature range to compare readings to.
Monitoring transformers
• Most transformers are cooled by either oil or

air while operating at temperatures much
higher than ambient
At 94 ºF, one of the terminals on this 1320V–

480 V main transformer is running about 20 ºF
hotter than it should.
171
Industrial gearboxes
The gearbox on this conveyor belt motor assembly

is abnormally warm. The clue is the white-hot shaft
at the center.
172
Reports
• When an image reveals

a situation that may
require repairs, a report
should be created
describing what the
image shows and
possibly suggesting a
remedy. The report can
then be circulated to
personnel responsible
for equipment reliability,
who can investigate the
problem further.
173
Wind Flow
Wind will affect your temperature readings due to

convection cooling. This can be compensated in
outdoor predictive maintenance applications by
multiplying your temp. reading by the correction factors

listed below.
Wind Speed (Miles Per Hour) Correction Factor
2 1.00
4 1.30
6 1.60
8 1.68
10 1.96
12 2.10
14 2.25
16 2.42
174 18 2.60
Summary
175
Lubrication
Course Objectives
• Define types of lubrication

• Distinguish the difference between
grease and oil

• Discuss the hazards of mixing different
lubrications
• Describe the proper handling of
lubrication
177
Introduction to Lubrication
• Why use lubricants?

– Reduce Friction
– Increase Cooling
178
Lubrication Functions
• Form a lubricant film between

components.
• Reduce the effect of friction

• Protect against corrosion
• Seal against contaminants
• Cool moving parts
179
Lubrication
180
Friction
• Grease and oil lubricate the moving

parts of a machine
• Grease and oil reduce friction, heat, and

wear of moving machine parts
181
Oil = Low Friction and Heat
182
No Oil = High Friction and Heat
183
Bearing
center
Shaft Loaded Oil delivery

center area
184
Lubrication Prevents Failure of:
• Bearings
• Gears
• Couplings
• Chains
185
Lubrication Prevents Failure of:
• Engine components
• Hydraulic pumps
• Gas and Steam Turbines

• Any moving parts
186
Lubricants prevent failure by:
• Inhibiting rust and corrosion

• Absorbing contaminates
• Displacing moisture
• Flushing away particles
187
Lubricant Selection
• Operating temperature
• Load
• Speed
• Environment
• Grease Lubrication
• Oil Lubrication
188
Grease
• Grease is a heavy, non-liquid

lubricant
• Grease can have a mineral, lithium

or soap base
• Grease is pasty, thick and sticky
189
Grease
• Some greases remain a paste from

below 0°C to above 200°C.
• The flashpoint of most greases is

above 200°C
• Grease does not become a mist under
pressure
190
Oil
• Oil can be a heavy or thin liquid

lubricant
• Oil can have a natural base

(mineral)
• Oil can have a synthetic base
(engineered)
191
Oil
• Oil remains liquid from below 0°C to

above 200°C.
• The flashpoint of many oils is above

200°C
• The flashpoint is very low for
pressurized oil mist. Why?
192
How are grease and oil different?
• How oil is used:

– Oil used in closed systems with pumps.
An oil sump on a diesel engine pumps
liquid oil.
– Oil is used in gas and steam turbines
– Oil is used in most machines that need
liquid lubricant
193
How grease is used?
– In areas where a continuous supply of oil

cannot be retained, (open bearings, gears
chains, hinged joints)
– Factors to be considered when selecting

greases are:
• Type. Depends on operating
temperatures, water resistance, oxidation
stability etc
• Characteristics. Viscosity and
consistency
194
Grease or Oil?
• What determines whether a machine

needs grease or oil?
• The manufacturer specifies what

lubricant is used in their machines,
based on the properties of the lubricant.
One important property is VISCOSITY.
195
Viscosity
• Liquid oil has lower viscosity than grease

paste
• Grease paste has higher viscosity than

liquid oil
196
What is Viscosity?
197
Viscosity
• Viscosity is a liquid’s resistance to flow

• Viscosity affects the thickness of a liquid
• High viscosity liquids are hard to pour

• Low viscosity liquids are easy to pour
198
Viscosity Rules of Thumb
• the lower the temperature, the lighter the

oil
• the higher the temperature, the heavier

the oil
• the heavier the load, the heavier the oil
• the lighter the load, the lighter the oil
• the faster the speed, the lighter the oil
• the slower the speed, the heavier the oil
199
Viscosity
Low High
Viscosity Viscosity
200
Viscosity
Temperature affects viscosity.

• Heat decreases viscosity

• Cold increases viscosity
• Viscosity is measured in centistokes
(cSt)
201
Consistency
• Fundamental principle
• Thickener
• Operating temperature
• Mechanical conditions
• Low temperature effect
• High temperature effect
202
Additives
• Antifoaming
• Demulsibility – prevention of emulsions.
• Detergents
203
Grease Lubrication
• How grease works

• Thickening agent
• Properties
• Where used
204
Advantages of Grease Lubrication
• Reduction of dripping and splattering

• Hard to get points
• Reduction of frequency of lubrication

• Helps seal out contaminants and
corrosives.
• Ability to cling to part
• Used to suspend other solids
205
Grease Selection Factors
– Load condition
– Speed range
– Operating conditions
– Temperature conditions
– Sealing efficiency
– External environment
206
Oil Types
• Two types of lubrication oil are:

• Mineral-based
• Synthetic
207
Mineral-Based Oil
• Mineral-based oil is refined from crude

oil hydrocarbons
• Mineral-based oil has 2 types of base:

– Naphtha Base
• A naphtha base is solvent-like
– Paraffin Base
• A paraffin base is waxy
208
Mineral-Based Oil
• Naphtha Base
– Lower viscosity index (40-80 cs)
– Lower pour point

– Less resistant to oxidation and changes
in viscosity index
– Good performance at higher
temperatures
209
Mineral-Based Oil
• Paraffinic Base
– Higher viscosity index (>95cs)

– Higher pour point
– Very resistant to changes in viscosity
index and oxidation
– Thicken at low temperatures
210
Mineral-Based Oil
• Mineral-based oils are cheaper to buy

than synthetics.
• Mineral-based oils can contain traces
of sulfur and nitrogen. These
impurities can cause oil to form
sludge.
211
Synthetic Oil
• Synthetic oil is NOT refined from crude

oil hydrocarbons
• Synthetic oil is made without a mineral

base
• Synthetic oil is made by careful control
of a chemical reaction that yields a
“pure” substance
212
Synthetic Oil
• Synthetic oils are chemically

engineered to be pure. They do not

contain the traces of sulfur or nitrogen
present in mineral-based oils.
• Synthetic oils are expensive
213
Synthetic Oil
• Synthetic oil is less flammable than

mineral-based oil at low pressure.

(Pressure causes most oils to become
more flammable)
• Synthetic oils are generally more
expensive than mineral based oils
214
Lubricant Specifications
• ISO = International Standards

Organization
• SAE = Society of Automotive

Engineers
215
ISO Lubricant Specifications
• ISO Grade lubricants are for industrial

use. ISO specifications exist for

lubricants in extreme industrial
environments.
216
ISO Lubricants
ISO GRADE 32 46 68 100

Viscosity
40°C
30.4 43.7 64.6 30.4
100°C
5.2 6.6 8.5 5.2
Flash Point
°C(°F)
222(432) 224(435) 245(473) 262(504)
Pour Point
°C(°F) -36(-33) -36(-33) -33(-27) -30(-22)
217
Using Different Lubricants
• Why do we use different lubricants?

• What happens if oils are mixed?
218
Mixing Lubricants
• Consequences of mixing different

lubricants are:
• Change of viscosity
• Stripping of machine’s internal
coatings, damage to seals
• Reduced flash point, risk of fire
219
Mixing Lubricants
• Loss of corrosion protection

• Poor water separation

• Foaming
• Thermal instability
220
Fundamentals of Lubrication
• Equipment lubrication
– Bearings
– Gears
– Couplings
– Chains
221
Lubricant Delivery Methods
• Force Feed Lubricant

• Oil Mist
• Constant Circulation
• Oil Slinger
• Zerk Fittings
• Surface Application (brush or spray)
222
Force Feed Lubrication
• A force feed lubricant system is like an

automated version of the hand held oil
can. An automatic plunger applies

pressure to deliver a few drops at
predetermined time intervals.
223
Oil Applicators
224
Grease Lubrication
225
Lubrication Check Example
Hand
Grease
grease
support
square slide
wheel
shaft and
bearings
worm shaft
(Quarterly)
(Monthly)
1 to 2
1 to 2
pumps with
pumps per
(Mobil
shaft of
XHP222)
(Mobil
XHP222)
Check
Windup
Gear Boxes
(Quarterly)
Oil type
Grease Variable Pitch Pulley Hand Oil Roller Chain, ISO360
(Quarterly) 1 to 2 Pumps of [behind guard] (Quarterly) (Mobil Gear
(Mobil XHP222) (LPS) (24810) 636)
226
Zerk Fittings
• Zerk Fittings are grease fill points

that have an internal check valve that
prevents contaminates from entering

the fitting. Always clean the Zerk
fitting before applying grease.
227
Lubrication Practices
• Using grease gun

• Oil samples
• Removing contamination
• Leaks
• Follow lubrication instructions
228
Summary
229
Tribology
(Oil Analysis)
Course Objectives
• Define Tribology
• Oil Analysis Tests
• Discuss the hazards of mixing different

lubrications
• Describe the proper handling of
lubrication
231
Introduction to Tribology
• Tribology is the general term that refers

to oil analysis, spectrographic analysis,
ferrography, and wear particle analysis.
232
Lubricating Oil Analysis Tests
• Viscosity
• Contamination
• Fuel Dilution
• Solids Content
• Fuel Soot
• Oxidation
• Nitration
• Total Acid Number (TAN)
• Total Base Number (TBN)
• Particle Count
• Spectrographic Analysis
233
TAN
• Measures of the acid concentration of the oil

• As oil ages and oxidizes small amounts of

acid are formed
• Indication of the amount of degradation of oil
• TAN above 4.0 is highly corrosive, attacking
bearings and other metals
234
TBN
• Measures of the alkalinity the oil

• Engine oil has additives to neutralize

acids generated during combustion
• Indication of the amount of degradation
of oil
• Once depleted the oil can become
highly corrosive, attacking bearings and
other metals
235
Wear Particle Analysis
• Provides information about the wearing

condition of the machine.
• Particles in lubricant are studied for

– Shape
– Composition
– Size
– Quantity
236
Types of Wear
• Five basic types of wear can be identified

according to the classification of particle
– Rubbing wear
– Cutting wear particles
– Rolling fatigue
– Combined Rolling and Sliding wear
– Severe Sliding Wear
237
Ferrography
• Similar to spectrography except a

magnetic field is used to separate
particles.
• Particles larger than 10 microns can be
separated.
• Analytical Ferrography utilizes
microscopic analysis to identify the
composition of material present.
238
Example Slide
Magnetic Flux Lines

Non-Magnetic Particles
Wetting Barrier
Strong Magnet
239
Ferrogram photos
• Photographs of ferrograms showing

severe sliding wear during break-in
240
• Ferrograms of fine rubbing wear and

the occasional larger particle
241
Spectroscopy
• Uses an IR radiation source

• Radiation is passed through the sample
to a detector.
242
Example FTIR Spectroscopy
Glycol
Sulfation
Antioxidant
Nitration AW
Water Oxidation Fuel
Soot
3900 3500 3100 2700 2300 1900 1500 1100 700

Wavenumber
243
Typical Results of Testing
244
245
246
Analysis Progams
• Lubricant analysis programs are tests used to

determine whether a lubricant remains
effective.
• A lubricant analysis program may allow longer

intervals between changing lubricants.
• In this program, samples of lubricant are
collected and either analyzed in the field
(using test equipment) or sent to an analytical
laboratory for analysis.
• Representative sample collection is critical to
ensure that the sample being analyzed is
indicative of the lubricant's overall condition.
247
Benefits
• Reduces the frequency of oil changes.

• Decreases consumption and purchase
of virgin oil.
• Reduces the generation of waste oil.
• Provides valuable diagnostic
information.
248
Disadvantages
• Higher level of knowledge is required to

perform the diagnostic tests or take
representative samples.
• Data must be collected over time and
analyzed to determine trends.
• Results are subject to interpretation.
• Oil analyzers must be calibrated to the
type and manufacturer of the oil being
used.
249
Equipment Audit
• An equipment audit should be performed

to obtain:
– knowledge of the equipment

– its internal design
– the system design
– present operating
– environmental conditions
250
Lubricant Audit
• Equipment reliability requires a lubricant that

meets and maintains specific physical,
chemical, and cleanliness requirements.
• A detailed trail of a lubricant is required,

beginning with the oil supplier and ending after
disposal of spent lubricants.
• Sampling and testing of the lubricants are
important to validate the lubricant condition
throughout its life cycle.
251
Baseline Signature
• The baseline signature should be designed to

gather and analyze all data required to
determine the current health of
– the equipment
– lubricant
• The baseline signature or baseline reading
requires a minimum of three consecutive,
timely samples, preferably in a short duration
(i.e., one per month) to effectively evaluate the
present trend in the equipment condition.
252
Monitoring
These activities are performed to collect

and trend any early signs of deteriorating
lubricant and equipment condition
•Routing Monitoring
•Routes
•Frequency of Monitoring
•Tests
253
Analysis
• Data Analysis
• Root Cause Analysis
254
Reports
– Specific equipment identification

– Data of sample
– Date of report
– Present condition of equipment and
lubricant
– Recommendations
– Sample test result data
– Analyst’s name
255
Summary
256
Non-Destructive
Testing (NDT)
Objectives
• Upon completion of this course

students will be able to:
– Define the purpose of non-destructive

testing
– Define visual inspection
– Define liquid penetrant testing
– Define magnetic particle testing
258
Purpose
• To reduce the rate of machine failure by

– Checking for defects that may cause a part
to fail
– Verify a part is within specified tolerances
– Conditions will allow machine to operate at
maximum efficiency
259
Types of Faults
– Cracks
– Erosion
–
Wear
– Loss of coating
– Reductions in thickness or wall size
– Weld integrity
An assembled machine can also be checked
for:
– Correct assembly
– Loose parts
– Damage
– Blockages
260
Types
• Visual
• Liquid Penetrant
• Magnetic Particle
• Ultrasonic
• Eddy Current
• Radiography
261
Direct Visual Inspection
• NDE (non-destructive examination)

• Requirements
– Adequate light
– Good eyesight
– Ability to get close to equipment
– Experience/Knowledge
– May need magnification instruments
262
Remote Visual Inspection
• RVI allows the detection, observation or

analysis of defects inaccessible to the
eye.
– The simplest tool is a swivel type mirror
• Main tools are
– Videolmagescope
– Fiberscope
– Borescope
263
Video Image Scope
• The scope has a camera built into the

end of a flexible probe.
Interchangeable
Articulation
tip adapters
Control
Light guide
connector
Light guide
cable CCU
connector
264
Fiberscope
• Differs from video image scope, the

image is seen at the eyepiece
Image guide
Eyepiece
Light guide
Light Objective lens

source
Focusing eyepiece Object
Fiber optic light guide

265 Illumination area
Borescope
• The borescope is another instrument for

remotely inspecting the inside of a
machine by optical means.

Direction indicator
Focus control Field of
Eye cup view
Cap
Light guide
window
Eyepiece
266
Liquid Penetrant
• A common method of checking for

cracks due to:
– Fatigue
– Grinding
– Welding
– Casting
– Shrinkage
– Lack of bonding
– Delamination
– Etc.
267
Advantages
• The advantages of liquid penetrant are:

– Can be used on a wide variety of materials.
– Simple to use and does not require

extensive training.
– Does not require expensive and dedicated
equipment.
268
Disadvantages
• The disadvantages of liquid penetrant

are:
– Does not detect sub-surface faults.

– Does not indicate the width or depth of a
crack.
– Cannot be used on porous materials or
materials that do not have a smooth
surface.
269
Five steps of Liquid Penetrant
3. Removal of the
1. Surface 2. Penetrant
excess penetrant
preparation application
5. Inspection and
4. Developing
Interpretation
270
Magnetic Particle Inspection -
MPI
• Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a
nondestructive testing method used for defect
detection.
• MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic

particles (iron filings) to detect flaws in
components.
• The only requirement is that the component
being inspected must be made of a
ferromagnetic material such as iron, nickel,
cobalt, or some of their alloys
271
Basic Principle
Any place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters

the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a magnetic
line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole
and a pole where a line of force enters the magnet is

called a south pole.
Magnetic particles
S N
South pole
North pole
Magnetic field lines

272
Magnetic Flux and Leakage
Flux lines
A. Uniform Flux Lines
Leakage from
surface flaw
B. Distortion by a surface crack
Leakage from
Subsurface flaw
C. Distortion by Internal Flaw near the Surface
273
Advantages/Disadvantages
The advantages of the Magnetic Particle method

are:
– sensitive to flaws of almost any size shape and

composition.
– can detect flaws that are just below the surface.
The disadvantages of the Magnetic Particle
method are:
– can only be applied to ferromagnetic material.
– if the magnetic flux is parallel to the crack it will not
show, therefore perhaps requiring two or more tests.
274
Three Steps of MPI
• Magnetization of the part

• Application of the particles
• Inspection and interpretation
275
Magnetization
• Four methods
– Coil around a piece
– Current through a piece
– Current through a portion

using prods
– Electro-magnetic Yoke.
276
Application of Particles
• The particles consist of a fine iron oxide

powder that are elongated to assist in
polarization and lubricated to enhance

their mobility.
• Two types of particles
– Dry (usually dyed)
– Wet (usually treated with fluorescent
material)
277
MPI Inspection/Interpretation
• Flaw detection depends on a number of

factors
– Strength of magnetic field

– Orientation of fault to flux lines
– Depth of the flaw
– Strength of current used
– Location of prods, yoke or coil
278
Eddy Current Testing - ET
• Used to inspect electrically conducting

specimens for defects, irregularities in
structure, and determining coating

thickness
279
Eddy Current Principle
Alternating current
Probe
Magnetic field
Eddy Fault
Currents
or
secondary
magnetic
field
280
Advantages
• Crack detection
• Material thickness measurements
• Coating thickness measurements

• Conductivity measurements for:
• Material identification
• Heat damage detection
• Case depth determination
• Heat treatment monitoring
281
Disadvantages
• Only conductive materials can be inspected

• Surface must be accessible to the probe
• Skill and training required is more extensive
than other techniques

• Surface finish and roughness may interfere
• Reference standards needed for setup
• Depth of penetration is limited
• Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to
the probe coil winding and probe scan
direction are undetectable
282
Radiography Testing - RT
• Widely used processes to detect sub-

surface defects and faults
• Permanent record is produced in the

form of an image created on a film that
was exposed to a source of radiant
energy
283
Example Radiography
Source
Radiation Beam
Weld Slag
Film
284
Sources
• There are two sources of penetrating

waves which are suitable for
radiography:
– X-ray
– Gamma Ray
285
Advantages of X-Rays
• No residual radiation is generated or retained

when the power is switched off.
• Penetrating power is adjustable through
varying the high voltage (kV) input.

• Can be used on all materials (including
aluminum).
• Provides radiographs with good contrast and
sensitivity.
• Sufficient size machines exist to radiograph
through 20 inches (500 mm) of steel.
286
Disadvantages of X-Rays
• High initial cost.

• Requires source of electrical power.
• Equipment not very portable, also

relatively fragile.
• Tube head usually large in size,
unusable in tight locations.
• Electrical hazard from high voltage.
287
Advantages of Gamma Rays
• Small initial and low maintenance costs.

• Rugged construction, more suited to
industrial locations.
• No electric power required or concern of

electrical hazard.
• High penetrating power.
• Portable with access into small areas
with source tube.
288
Disadvantages of Gamma Rays
• Radiation hazard and radiation emitted

continuously.
• Penetrating power cannot be adjusted.
• Radioisotope decays in strength requiring

recalibration and replacement.
• Radiographic contrast generally less than X-
ray.
• Cannot be used on all materials (eg.
aluminum).
289
Safety
• Ionizing radiation can be very

damaging to the human body
depending on the concentration of
the exposure.
• Illness produced from ionizing
radiation ranges from nausea,
vomiting, headache, and diarrhea to
loss of hair and teeth, reduction in red
and white blood cells, hemorrhaging,
sterility, and death
290
Viewing Radiographs
• Generally viewed on a light-box.

291
Summary
292
Ultrasonic
Measurement
Objectives
• Define the basic principles of

ultrasonic detection
• Define the advantages/disadvantages

• Define types of waves
294
Ultrasonic Testing - UT
• The application of high frequency sound

waves is used to detect internal flaws in
materials and also for thickness gauging.
• When there is a discontinuity (such as a

crack) in the wave path, part of the
energy will be reflected back from the
flaw surface.
295
Sound Strategies
• Ultrasonic Inspection Program

– Versatile Predictive Maintenance
Technology
– Results Right Out of the Box
– Rising popularity
Steam Traps Condenser Leaks Acoustic Vibration
Leak Detection Monitor Bearings

296
Sound and Ultrasound
• Audible Sound (20 Broad or Flat Response - Humans
Hz → 20,000 Hz)
– Average peak human

range is 16 → 17 kHz
– Human response is 20 Hz → 20,000 Hz
very “flat” or broad
• Ultrasound (20,000 Narrow or Steep Response – Ultrasound
Hz +)
– Well beyond the
range of humans
– Ultrasonic response
is very “steep” or
narrow
20 KHz 40 KHz 60 KHz
297
Advantages
• Sensitive to surface/subsurface discontinuities

• Superior depth of penetration
• Only single-sided access needed
• Highly accurate
• Minimal part preparation
• Instantaneous results
• Details can be produced on an automated
system
• Can also be used for thickness measurement
298
Disadvantages
• Surface must be accessible

• Extensive training required
• Requires a coupling medium
• Rough, thin or irregular shapes are difficult to

inspect
• Cast iron or course grained material difficult to
inspect
• Linear defects parallel to beam go undetected
• Reference standards are required.
299
Intensity and transit time
• The pulse echo procedure is the most

common intensity and transit time
method
• Pulse echo procedures
– normal probe or straight beam
– angle beam
– surface wave
300
Pulse Echo Example
Ending pulse measured in time

Start pulse
CRT
Test Piece Test Piece
Transducer
Sound energy Flaw
301
Types of waves
• Longitudinal waves
• Transverse or shear waves
• Surface waves
Transducer
Longitudinal Shear
Waves Waves
302
Ultrasonic Requirements
• High frequency pulse generator

• Transmitting/Receiving probe
(transducers)
• Signal amplifier
• CRT or oscilloscope
• Coupling medium or couplant
Probe
Couplant
303
Test Methods
• Resonant frequency method

• Transit time method
• Intensity method
• Intensity and transit time method
304
Intensity and transit time method
Start pulse
Pulser/Receiver
Crack echo
Transducer
Back
surface
echo
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Fault
305
Angle Beam
Transducer
Traverse waves
Defect
306
Intensity Method
• The intensity method requires separate

sending and receiving transceivers
Transmitting Receiving
probe probe Reference
level
Receiver
High Frequency
Generators With flaw
Receiver
307 Flaw
Disadvantages of Intensity Method
– The test piece is required to have parallel

sides and access to both sides is required.
– The probes must be positioned exactly
opposite one another.

– Two probes double the chance of having
problems with the fluid coupling.
– The location (depth) of the fault is not
indicated.
308
Piezoelectric Transducers
• Conversion of electrical
pulses to mechanical
vibration and back is the

basis of ultrasonic testing.
• Piezoelectric ceramic uses
the phenomenon, known
as electrostriction, to
perform this effect.
309
Characteristics
310
Example Condition Monitoring
Condition Monitoring
• Rotating Equipment
• Bearings
• Gearbox
• Pumps
• Motors
• Compressors
311
Summary
312
Electrical Insulation
Testing
January 2008
Objectives
• Define principle of insulation testing

• Define currents to be tested
• Define testing procedures
314
Reason for Testing
• The most important reason for using an

insulation tester is to insure public and
personal safety.
• It can eliminate the possibility of having a life-

threatening short circuit or short to ground.
• This test is usually performed after the initial
installation of the equipment.
• This process will protect the system against
miswired and defective equipment and protect
against fire or shock.
315
Principle of Insulation Testing
• Insulation systems are capacitive

• Sub currents
– Conductive current
– Capacitive Leakage current
– Resistive current
316
Insulation Model
• Insulation may be simply modeled as

a capacitor in parallel with a resistor.
Total current
AC
voltage
Ic Ir
Capacitive Resistive
current current
317
DC Insulation Model
• An extra capacitor is added to the AC

model of insulation.
Ida
Dielectric
absorption
DC current
318
Current to be measured
Conductive Capacitive
Leakage Charging
Leakage Current
Current
Dielectric
Insulation
Conductors
319
Graphical Current Components
Insulation
Resistance
(in megohms)
Total current
Capacitive
Charging
Leakage current
Polarization
absorption
leakage current
Current Conductive
(microamps) Leakage current
0 Time (seconds)
320
Megger Testing
G
L E
321
Proof Testing & Procedure
Metal
Insulation
conduit
322
Predictive Maintenance Tests
• Spot-reading/short-time resistance
test
• Step voltage test

• Dielectric-absorption/time-resistance
test
323
Testing Generators/Motors
• When testing
generators, motors,
or transformers each
winding/phase should
be tested in
sequence and
separately while all
the other windings
are grounded. In this
way, the insulation
between phases is
also tested.
324
Summary
325
Rotor Balancing
Objectives
• Describe need for balancing

• Define each type balancing method.
• Determine if equipment is balanced

properly.
327
Rotor Balancing
• Introduction
• Imbalance = unbalance
• Unbalance is one of the most common

causes of machinery vibration.
328
Balancing Machine
329
Sources of Vibration
• Assembly errors
– Center of rotation
– Method of locating
– Cocked rotor
• Incorrect key lengths
330
Center of Rotation
• Errors
– Placement of shaft after balancing rotor
– Balancing shaft tolerances

– Shifting rotational center from center it was
balanced on
• Best results – balance on its own shaft
rather than balancing shaft
331
Method of Locating
• End clamped rotors out of position after

balancing
– Unbalanced if shaft not marked for point of

bore and shaft contact
– May result in more serious vibration
• Correction requires following precise
procedures for disassembly/reassembly
332
Cocked Rotor
• For set screw mountings

– If a rotor is cocked in a position different
from original imbalance can result
– Can be caused by reversing order of set

screw tightening during balancing vs.
mounting
• Prevention requires:
– Tighten set screw gradually
– Clean mating surfaces
– Clean bolt holes
333
Key Length
• Introduces machine vibration if key

length different from on used in
operation.
• Male/Female.
– One half of weight is shafts male portion
– One half of weight is coupled female portion
• Prevention – always use actual
(recorded) key length.
334
Unbalance Example
½ Revolution
Later
Rotor
Heavy
spot
Centrifugal
Centrifugal
Force Pulling
Force Pulling
This Way
This Way
335
Unbalance Force
2
 RPM 
F = 1.77 × R × W ×  
 1000 
– F = The force generated in pounds

– R = Radius of the out of balance weight in
inches
– W = Weight of the out of balance in
ounces
For calculating trial weight the formula is :
F
W =
 2
1.77 × R ×  RPM  
  1000  
336  
Theory of Imbalance
• Static
• Dynamic
• Coupled
• Dynamic combinations
337
Static
• Single plane
• Angular relationship
• Force imbalance
Rotational Axis
Heavy
Spot
Weight
Distribution
Axis
338
Correcting Static Unbalance
A B C
Heavy Heavy Heavy

Spot Spot Spot
Balance Balance
Balance
weights weights
weight
NOT
ACCEPTABLE AT
BEST ACCEPTABLE
LOW RPM’S
339
Dynamic
• Two Correction planes

Weight Distribution Axis
Rotational Axis
340
Couple
• Intersects at rotational axis

Rotational Axis
341
Combination or Quasi-static
Rotational Axis
342
Natural Frequency
Displacement Struck
lightly
a Time
Displacement Struck
Time heavily
b
343
Before Balancing
• Machine in sound condition

• Check for damage
• Check rotor
• Proper tuning of analyzer
344
Tools
• Vibration analyzer
• Weight scale
• Calculator
• Graph paper
• Compass, ruler, straight edge
• Trial weights
345
In Place Balancing
• Corrected with rotor mounted in its

normal housing
346
Balancing Methods
Selecting Single Plane, Two Plane, Multi-Plane

L/D ration Balance Correction
excluding
Single Two plane Multi-plane

shaft plane
L Less than 0-1000 Above 1000 Not
D 0.5 RPM RPM applicable
More than 0-150 RPM 150-2000 Above

L 0.5 but RPM or > 2000 RPM
D less than 2 70% of first or > 70% of
critical first critical
More than 0-100 RPM Above 100 Above 70%

L
D 2 RPM to 70% of first
of first critical critical
Note: RPM = machine operating speed
347
Summary
348

Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

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Fundamentals of Predictive Maintenance

• The purpose of this course is to

with an overview of predictive

• This course will present the following topics:

review Critical Path Method (CPM)

• Lubrication and Tribology (Fluid

• Non-destructive Testing and Inspection

– Define predictive maintenance.

• PM means Preventive Maintenance

• PPM or P/PM means

• PM (Preventive Maintenance) is a series

sequence of time, quantity of production,

• PdM (Predictive Maintenance) is any

tools to detect when failures will occur.

• PM is the only way to determine when

• PM systems are the same

• The task list is the heart of the PM

1. Inspection 7. Take Readings

2. Predictive Maintenance 8. Lubrication

4. Tightening 10. Interview Operators

• What do we mean by Predictive

“to declare or indicate in advance”

• Any inspection (condition based) activity

• A Predictive Maintenance programs is the

This requires a program to:

• Fluid analysis (tribology).

• Changes in noise or sound

Many vibration problems can be solved by

Sound Intensity and the Human Ear

– Define Maintenance Improvement and

Reliability Programs (MIRP)

• The primary objectives of any maintenance

relatively trouble-free for long periods of time.

• Long range planning

developing an effective Maintenance

• Step 1: Begin by initiating a “total

maintenance must collectively work

• Step 2: Establish a clear vision by

identify the problems.

• Step 3: Analyze the organization.

the type of improvements required?

• Step 4: Begin to develop an ‘action

– Identify what is going to be attempted, who

• Step 5: Assess the condition of the

– Be objective in the assessment.

• Step 6: Select the appropriate maintenance

– What technique will be employed, - reactive,

• Step 7: Measure equipment condition.

condition which method(s) will be

• Step 8: Prepare the maintenance

methods are implemented ensure that the

• Step 9: Monitor equipment and machinery

• Step 10: Initiate periodic reviews

based on scheduled predictive and preventive

• Flow chart method of representing

• Which tasks must be carried out

• Shortest time of a project

List tasks Draw arrow