Chapter One

Introduction

1.1 Preface

Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from

one place to another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber.
The light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry
information.[1] Fiber is preferred over electrical cabling when high
bandwidth, long distance, or immunity to electromagnetic interference are
required.

Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit

telephone signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals.
Researchers at Bell Labs have reached internet speeds of over 100 Peta-
bit× kilometer per second using fiber-optic communication. [2]

First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optics have revolutionized the

telecommunications industry and have played a major role in the advent
of the Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical
transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire
communications in core networks in the developed world.

The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following

basic steps, starting from creating the optical signal involving the use of a
transmitter,[3] usually from an electrical signal, then relaying the signal
along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or
weak, then receiving the optical signal and converting it into an electrical
signal.
Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit
telephone signals, Internet communication and cable television signals.
Due to much lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has large
advantages over existing copper wire in long-distance, high-demand
applications. However, infrastructure development within cities was
relatively difficult and time-consuming, and fiber-optic systems were
complex and expensive to install and operate. Due to these difficulties,
fiber-optic communication systems have primarily been installed in long-
distance applications, where they can be used to their full transmission
capacity, offsetting the increased cost. The prices of fiber-optic
communications have dropped considerably since 2000.

Since the demand on the fiber optical communication increases a need of

a technology that increase the capacity and the data rate of the system
regarding how powerful fiber communication is, so OFDM become in use
for this purpose. The OFDM has emerged as a leading modulation
technique [2] and [3] in the optical domain. It is also used in wireless and
wire-line applications and in almost every major communication
standards. The use of OFDM in optical communications mitigates
transmission impairments and, at the same time, provides high-data rate
transmission across dispersive optical media. The progress in Digital
Signal Processing (DSP) technology can make processing at optical data
rates feasible. O-OFDM introduces spectral efficiency and tolerance to
impairments such as chromatic dispersion (CD) and polarization mode
dispersion (PMD) to the system. It belongs to a broader class of Multi-
Carrier Modulation (MCM) in which data information is carried over
many lower rate subcarriers. The subcarriers are orthogonal to each other,
and their spectra can overlap. This results in a very high spectral
efficiency.

1.2 Problem definition

The role of the optical transmitter is to generate the optical signal, impose
the information bearing signal, and launch the modulated signal into the
optical fiber. The development of optical communication was caused
primarily by the rapidly rising demand for Internet connectivity.

So a wide class of multicarrier modulation is required in order to serve a

wide range of applications in the wireless communication domain such as
video/audio digital broadcasting.

1.3 Proposed solution

To engage the Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) in

fiber communication because OFDM wide class of multicarrier
modulation that increase the performance on the network with a reduced
power.

1.4 Statement of the Objectives

1.4.1 General objectives

To evaluate the performance of the Optical OFDM system in term of

Quality of Service (QoS) parameters such as delay, bandwidth utilization,
throughput, packet loss.

1.4.2 Specific objectives

 1- To study fiber optic communication network and the network
architecture.
2- To study Optical OFDM System.
3- To design a network into simulation program.
4- To evaluate the performance of QoS parameters.

1.5 Methodology

The methodology of this project starts by collecting data about the fiber
optical communication networks from scientific papers and related works
on the internet and the way it can be simulated into the OptiSystem
simulation software, then extract the required equations and mathematical
considerations and the optimal components that will be used in the
simulation.

Moreover the simulation results will cover the evaluation of the fiber
optical network while using OFDM such as delay time, throughput and
data rate and SNR /BER.

1.6 Thesis outline

This thesis consist of five chapters:

Chapter One: includes preface about the topic, along with the proposed
solution, problem definition, objectives and the working methodology.

Chapter Two: represent a literature review about the fiber optic and fiber
optic communication, then a brief notes about the OFDM optical system
along with the related works.
Chapter Three: in this chapter the methodology of the project is included
along with mathematical and computer model, moreover the project
scenarios was included in the same chapter.

Chapter Four: this chapter includes the results and discussion.

Chapter Five: in this chapter the conclusion and recommendations was

included along with the reference.

Chapter Two
Literature Review
Optical Fiber
Optical fibers are extremely thin strands of ultra-pure glass designed to
transmit light from a transmitter to a receiver. These light signals represent
electrical signals that include video, audio, or data information in any
combination. (Fig 2.1) shows the general cross-section of an optical fiber.
The fiber consists of three main regions. The center of the fiber is the core.
This region actually carries the light. It ranges in diameter from 9 microns
(μm) to 100 microns in the most commonly used fibers. Surrounding the
core is a region called the cladding. This part of the fiber confines the light
in the core. The cladding typically has a diameter of 125 microns or 140
microns. A key design feature of all optical fibers is that the refractive
index of the core is higher than the refractive index of the cladding. Both
the core and cladding are usually doped glass materials. Other fiber types
incorporate quartz or pure fused silica and plastic, but these are not used
in mainstream high-performance applications. The outer region of the
optical fiber is called the coating or buffer. The buffer, typically a plastic
material, provides protection and preserves the strength of the glass fiber.
Typical diameters for the buffer are 250 microns, 500 microns, and 900
microns.

Figure ( 2.1) Cross-Section of a Typical Optical Fiber

The development of glass-coated glass fibers was motivated by the
optical loss experienced when using uncoated glass fibers. The inner fiber,
or core, was used to transmit the light, while the glass coating, or cladding,
prevented the light from leaking out of the core by reflecting the light
within the boundaries of the core.

2.2 Optical fiber cable

An optical fiber cable, also known as fiber optic cable, is a cable
containing one or more optical fibers that are used to carry light. The
optical fiber elements are typically individually coated with plastic layers
and contained in a protective tube suitable for the environment where the
cable will be deployed.
 Figure (2. 5) A TOSLINK optical fiber cable with a clear jacket.
Different types of cable [1] are used for different applications, for example
long distance telecommunication, or providing a high-speed data
connection between different parts of a building.

2.3 Design
Optical fiber consists of a core and a cladding layer, selected for total
internal reflection due to the difference in the refractive index between the
two.

Figure (2. 6) A multi-fiber cable

In practical fibers, the cladding is usually coated with a layer of acrylate
polymer or polyimide. This coating protects the fiber from damage but
does not contribute to its optical waveguide properties. Individual coated
fibers (or fibers formed into ribbons or bundles) then have a tough resin
buffer layer and/or core tube(s) extruded around them to form the cable
core. Several layers of protective sheathing, depending on the application,
are added to form the cable. Rigid fiber assemblies sometimes put light-
absorbing ("dark") glass between the fibers, to prevent light that leaks out
of one fiber from entering another. This reduces cross-talk between the
fibers, or reduces flare in fiber bundle imaging applications.[2]

Left: LC/PC connectors

Right: SC/PC connectors
all four connectors have white caps covering the ferrules.
For indoor applications, the jacketed fiber is generally enclosed, with a
bundle of flexible fibrous polymer strength members like aramid (e.g.
Twaron or Kevlar), in a lightweight plastic cover to form a simple cable.
Each end of the cable may be terminated with a specialized optical fiber
connector to allow it to be easily connected and disconnected from
transmitting and receiving equipment.

Fiber-optic cable in a Telstra pit

 Investigating a fault in a fiber cable junction box. The individual fiber
cable strands within the junction box are visible.

An optical fiber breakout cable

For use in more strenuous environments, a much more robust cable
construction is required. In loose-tube construction the fiber is laid
helically into semi-rigid tubes, allowing the cable to stretch without
stretching the fiber itself. This protects the fiber from tension during laying
and due to temperature changes. Loose-tube fiber may be "dry block" or
gel-filled. Dry block offers less protection to the fibers than gel-filled, but
costs considerably less. Instead of a loose tube, the fiber may be embedded
in a heavy polymer jacket, commonly called "tight buffer" construction.
Tight buffer cables are offered for a variety of applications, but the two
most common are "Breakout" and "Distribution". Breakout cables
normally contain a ripcord, two non-conductive dielectric strengthening
members (normally a glass rod epoxy), an aramid yarn, and 3 mm buffer
tubing with an additional layer of Kevlar surrounding each fiber. The
ripcord is a parallel cord of strong yarn that is situated under the jacket(s)
of the cable for jacket removal.[3] Distribution cables have an overall
Kevlar wrapping, a ripcord, and a 900 micrometer buffer coating
surrounding each fiber. These fiber units are commonly bundled with
additional steel strength members, again with a helical twist to allow for
stretching.
A critical concern in outdoor cabling is to protect the fiber from
contamination by water. This is accomplished by use of solid barriers such
as copper tubes, and water-repellent jelly or water-absorbing powder
surrounding the fiber.
Finally, the cable may be armored to protect it from environmental
hazards, such as construction work or gnawing animals. Undersea cables
are more heavily armored in their near-shore portions to protect them from
boat anchors, fishing gear, and even sharks, which may be attracted to the
electrical power that is carried to power amplifiers or repeaters in the
cable.
Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed
for applications such as direct burial in trenches, dual use as power lines,
installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles, submarine
installation, and insertion in paved streets.

2.11 Optical Fiber working mechanism

Optical fiber is a very thin strand of pure glass, which acts as a waveguide
for light over long distances.
• Uses a principal known as “Total Internal Reflection”.
• When light tries to pass between two different media:

2.12 Total Internal Reflection

Fiber is actually composed of two layers of glass.
• The “core”, which carries the actual light signal.
• The “cladding”, a layer of glass surrounding the core.
• The cladding has a lower refractive index than the core.
• This causes Total Internal Reflection within the core.

Inside a Single-Mode Fiber Cable

2.13 Transmitting Over Fiber
Digital signals are encoded in analog pulses of light.
• Today, primarily via a method known a Non-Return to
Zero (NRZ) modulation.
• Most fibers operate in duplex (pairs)
• One fiber is used to transmit, the other is used to receive.
• But it is possible to send both signals over a single strand.
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Tutorial

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing or OFDM is a modulation

format that is being used for many of the latest wireless and
telecommunications standards.

OFDM has been adopted in the Wi-Fi arena where the standards like
802.11a, 802.11n, 802.11ac and more. It has also been chosen for the
cellular telecommunications standard LTE / LTE-A, and in addition to this
it has been adopted by other standards such as WiMAX and many more.

Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing has also been adopted for a

number of broadcast standards from DAB Digital Radio to the Digital
Video Broadcast standards, DVB. It has also been adopted for other
broadcast systems as well including Digital Radio Mondiale used for the
long medium and short wave bands.

Although OFDM, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing is more

complicated than earlier forms of signal format, it provides some distinct
advantages in terms of data transmission, especially where high data rates
are needed along with relatively wide bandwidths.

What is OFDM? - The concept

OFDM is a form of multicarrier modulation. An OFDM signal consists of

a number of closely spaced modulated carriers. When modulation of any
form - voice, data, etc. is applied to a carrier, then sidebands spread out
either side. It is necessary for a receiver to be able to receive the whole
signal to be able to successfully demodulate the data. As a result when
signals are transmitted close to one another they must be spaced so that the
receiver can separate them using a filter and there must be a guard band
between them. This is not the case with OFDM. Although the sidebands
from each carrier overlap, they can still be received without the
interference that might be expected because they are orthogonal to each
another. This is achieved by having the carrier spacing equal to the
reciprocal of the symbol period.

Traditional view of receiving signals carrying modulation

To see how OFDM works, it is necessary to look at the receiver. This acts
as a bank of demodulators, translating each carrier down to DC. The
resulting signal is integrated over the symbol period to regenerate the data
from that carrier. The same demodulator also demodulates the other
carriers. As the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period
means that they will have a whole number of cycles in the symbol period
and their contribution will sum to zero - in other words there is no
interference contribution.
OFDM Spectrum

One requirement of the OFDM transmitting and receiving systems is that

they must be linear. Any non-linearity will cause interference between the
carriers as a result of inter-modulation distortion. This will introduce
unwanted signals that would cause interference and impair the
orthogonality of the transmission.

In terms of the equipment to be used the high peak to average ratio of

multi-carrier systems such as OFDM requires the RF final amplifier on the
output of the transmitter to be able to handle the peaks whilst the average
power is much lower and this leads to inefficiency. In some systems the
peaks are limited. Although this introduces distortion that results in a
higher level of data errors, the system can rely on the error correction to
remove them.

Data on OFDM

The data to be transmitted on an OFDM signal is spread across the carriers

of the signal, each carrier taking part of the payload. This reduces the data
rate taken by each carrier. The lower data rate has the advantage that
interference from reflections is much less critical. This is achieved by
adding a guard band time or guard interval into the system. This ensures
that the data is only sampled when the signal is stable and no new delayed
signals arrive that would alter the timing and phase of the signal.

Guard Interval

The distribution of the data across a large number of carriers in the OFDM
signal has some further advantages. Nulls caused by multi-path effects or
interference on a given frequency only affect a small number of the
carriers, the remaining ones being received correctly. By using error-
coding techniques, which does mean adding further data to the transmitted
signal, it enables many or all of the corrupted data to be reconstructed
within the receiver. This can be done because the error correction code is
transmitted in a different part of the signal.

OFDM advantages & disadvantages

OFDM advantages

OFDM has been used in many high data rate wireless systems because of
the many advantages it provides.

 Immunity to selective fading: One of the main advantages of

OFDM is that is more resistant to frequency selective fading than
 single carrier systems because it divides the overall channel into
multiple narrowband signals that are affected individually as flat
fading sub-channels.
 Resilience to interference: Interference appearing on a channel
may be bandwidth limited and in this way will not affect all the sub-
channels. This means that not all the data is lost.
 Spectrum efficiency: Using close-spaced overlapping sub-
carriers, a significant OFDM advantage is that it makes efficient use
of the available spectrum.
 Resilient to ISI: Another advantage of OFDM is that it is very
resilient to inter-symbol and inter-frame interference. This results
from the low data rate on each of the sub-channels.
 Resilient to narrow-band effects: Using adequate channel coding
and interleaving it is possible to recover symbols lost due to the
frequency selectivity of the channel and narrow band interference.
Not all the data is lost.
 Simpler channel equalisation: One of the issues with CDMA
systems was the complexity of the channel equalisation which had
to be applied across the whole channel. An advantage of OFDM is
that using multiple sub-channels, the channel equalization becomes
much simpler.

OFDM disadvantages

Whilst OFDM has been widely used, there are still a few disadvantages to
its use which need to be addressed when considering its use.
  High peak to average power ratio: An OFDM signal has a noise
like amplitude variation and has a relatively high large dynamic
range, or peak to average power ratio. This impacts the RF amplifier
efficiency as the amplifiers need to be linear and accommodate the
large amplitude variations and these factors mean the amplifier
cannot operate with a high efficiency level.
 Sensitive to carrier offset and drift: Another disadvantage of
OFDM is that is sensitive to carrier frequency offset and drift.
Single carrier systems are less sensitive.

OFDM variants

There are several other variants of OFDM for which the initials are seen
in the technical literature. These follow the basic format for OFDM, but
have additional attributes or variations:

 COFDM: Coded Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing. A

form of OFDM where error correction coding is incorporated into
the signal.
 Flash OFDM: This is a variant of OFDM that was developed by
Flarion and it is a fast hopped form of OFDM. It uses multiple tones
and fast hopping to spread signals over a given spectrum band.
 OFDMA: Orthogonal frequency division multiple access. A
scheme used to provide a multiple access capability for applications
such as cellular telecommunications when using OFDM
technologies.
 VOFDM: Vector OFDM. This form of OFDM uses the concept
of MIMO technology. It is being developed by CISCO Systems.
 MIMO stands for Multiple Input Multiple output and it uses
multiple antennas to transmit and receive the signals so that multi-
path effects can be utilised to enhance the signal reception and
improve the transmission speeds that can be supported.
 WOFDM: Wideband OFDM. The concept of this form of OFDM
is that it uses a degree of spacing between the channels that is large
enough that any frequency errors between transmitter and receiver
do not affect the performance. It is particularly applicable to Wi-Fi
systems.

Each of these forms of OFDM utilise the same basic concept of using close
spaced orthogonal carriers each carrying low data rate signals. During the
demodulation phase the data is then combined to provide the complete
signal.

OFDM, orthogonal frequency division multiplexing has gained a

significant presence in the wireless market place. The combination of high
data capacity, high spectral efficiency, and its resilience to interference as
a result of multi-path effects means that it is ideal for the high data
applications that have become a major factor in today's communications
scene.

Optical communications
The goal of optical signal transmission is to achieve a predetermined BER
between any two nodes in an optical network. This BER must be at least
10􀀀9 (Forward Error Correction (FEC) can be assumed). The increasingly
Internet traffic growth requires the deployment of optical transmission
systems supporting high data rates. Unfortunately at high data rates some
nonlinear effects due to the fiber appear in the communication. Using
advanced modulation formats mitigates these effects transmitting the
signal to much lower symbol rates. An optical transmission system
consists of a transmitter, a receiver and the fiber. We can also introduce
amplifiers, equalizers, filters and other components in the link depending
on the system requirements [3]. The role of the transmitter is to modulate
the signal and generate the optical version to launch it to the fiber. Figure
1.1 shows an example of an optical OFDM system using IM/DD or
coherent detection. The OFDM symbols are created and then transmitted
through the fiber.

Figure 1.1: Optical OFDM communication system

Related Works
Performance Analysis of Fiber Optical Communication using Fiber
Bragg Grating as Dispersion Compensator
Bibhu Prasad 1, Dr. K. C. Patra2, Dr. N.K Barpanda3
Research Scholar, SUIIT Sambalpur , Odisha, India1
Professor, Department of Electronics, SUIIT, Sambalpur, odisha, India2
Professor, Department of Electronics, GIET, Gunupur, Odisha, India 3

With the increasing growth and demand for capacity in national, regional,
and even metropolitan optical networks, high bit rate fiber transmission
has recently become an essential part of communications. The high bit rate
transmission improves spectral utilization which results in increased
overall system capacity and reduces overall cost.
The optical communication systems are used as high speed long–haul
communication systems. Although optical fiber communication has a lot
of advantages, dispersion is the main performance limiting factor. There
are various types of optical fiber compensators, but Fiber Bragg Grating
(FBG) is commonly chosen as important components to compensate the
dispersion in optical communication system. FBG is very simple, has low
cost filter for wavelength selection and low insertion loss, it has also
customized reflection spectrum and wide bandwidth. An analysis of the
dispersion compensation using Fiber Bragg Grating at different fiber
lengths and at different value of input power and fbg length. The simulated
transmission system have been analyzed on the basic of different
parameters which include input power (dBm), fiber cable length (km),
FBG Length (mm) by using OptiSystem 7 .

In this paper an analysis to the dispersion compensation using Fiber Bragg

Grating at different fiber lengths and at different fbg .
The simulated transmission system has been analyzed on the basic of
different parameters. The optical transmission system has been modelled
by using Optisystem7.0 simulator, in order to investigate different
parameters of the system. From the simulation result, it can conclude that
the fiber Bragg grating length and the input power are directly proportional
to the signal power. . When input power (dBm) is increased then its output
power (dbm), is increased but Q-Factor (db) is decreased. FBG Length
(db) is increased then output power (dbm) and QFactor(db) are increased.

Chapter Three

Methodology

3.1 Optical Networks

A very thin glass cylinders that carry in the form of light signals are Optical
fiber. Generally, the data stored in any device establishes connection using
optical fibers to an optical network. These networks comprises optical
devices to produce the optical signals from electrical signals to enable the
communication of data. These optical signals renovate and transmits via
fibers and pass the signals through optical network.
Optical fiber consists of two concentric glass layers (shown in fig 3.1), the
inner core and the outer clad with a lower refraction index. A third
protective layer, buffer coating, is applied as the materials and protects the
optical fiber especially against the moisture and abrasion, which might
degrade the fiber.

Fig 3.1 : optical fiber consists

3.2 Optical Fiber

Optical fibers which have higher bandwidth and are less liable to
electromagnetic interferences and awful effects. Hence these are chosen
for data transmission above bit of tens of megabits per second above a
kilometer distance. Short distance realizing (a few meters to hundreds of
meters), high speed data transmission in large interconnection systems
(gigabits per second and above) are chosen in optical fibers. Theoretically,
it is possible to send data in a single fiber at a rate of 50 tera-bits per
second. Optical Networks of first generation are works simply by optical
fibers replacing the copper wires.

3.2.1 Despite, there are some dissimilarities among the fiber and
copper as communicated media:
 Optical network resources are to be optimized because as compare
to electronic devices, the optical devices are more affluent.

 The data processing lead into electronic circuits are far less rate than
the rate at which optical signals are processed.

 A carrier with different wavelengths of number of optical signals

are at the same time passed through the same fiber.

3.3 Optical transmitter

To understand the tunable optical transmitter we should have the
background knowledge of basic principles of laser and operation of it.
Laser amplification by stimulated emission of radiation which in short
form called as “laser”. A high intense power beams of coherent light is
generated by the laser by a process called stimulated emission. Figure
shows the general structure of laser.
 Fig 3.2: General Structure of Laser.

Typically a laser contains two mirrors which form a cavity, an excitation

device and a lasing medium that inhibits the cavity. A quasi stable
substance of excitation device supplies current to lasing medium. Current
applied to the lasing medium by excitation device makes the electrons
excited which are present in it. A photon light is emitted when an electron
drops from higher state to ground state such that the photon reflects from
the mirrors at end of each cavity that will enter again into the medium.
Stimulated emission occurs only when photon enters closely to an electron
that is excited. Energy will be released from that electron due to photon
such that electron goes back to the ground state. Like this photons are
produced by the electrons that will have same coherency and path as the
stimulating photon. Light will build up in the cavity at required specified
frequency as the frequency of the photon are integral part of length of
cavity. In the meanwhile, energy is removed from the medium, as early as
possible light intensity which is build up will be inserted between the
stimulated and normal emission. Such that higher light intensities are
created by the occurrence of stimulated emission then the photons are to
and for feed by the mirrors present in the cavity. Some of the photons will
be disappeared from the cavity due to moderately transmitting by the one
of the mirrors present. By varying the cavity length, emitted light
frequency can be moderately attuned.

3.4 Laser with Semiconductor diode

Semiconductor diode laser are the frequently used laser in the optical
networks. By acquiring the bulk laser diode, semiconductor diode can be
easily realized, where the mirrored edges of p-n junction are perpendicular
to the junction (see Fig 3.3). By the knowledge of the semiconductor
physics, semiconductor diode operation can be easily understand.

Fig 3.3: Semiconductor diode laser.

When a voltage is applied to the p-n junction, stimulated emission process
is started and the device is forward biased which cause the electrons in n-
region will merge with holes in the p-region, which releases light energy
whose frequency is allied with the band gap of the device. Different
frequencies of light can be emitted with various kinds of semiconductor
materials. The p-n junction whose edges are mirrored is perpendicular to
length of the cavity concludes laser actually frequency of light that is
emitted by it.

3.5 Optical Amplifiers

Optical signals that are transmitted in the optical fiber which propagate
through the optical communication system are attenuated. Multiplexers
and couplers are the other components of optical communication system
which add losses to the system. The detection of signal is weak because
due to the loss in strength of the signal after reached at some distance. For
this reason the signal strength has to be restored which can be done by
regenerating the signal, that is by retransmitting the received signal. This
procedure is consummated by the regenerators.
Conversion of optical signal to electrical signal and alters back to optical
signal for ahead of communication.
On other hand, amplifier are not most probably advised. Since they
produce extra noise to the system where the signal is passed into the
various amplifiers in the pathway of analog nature of the amplifier. In a
system, the output power, transient nature of the amplifier and the spectral
shape of the gain are significant deliberations. Preferably, it is considered
that the output power must adequately high to come across requirements
of the network applications. The gain should be uniform above the
functioning wavelength range which is to be unaffected dissimilarities in
the input signal power.

Modulation method and bit rate used in the communication system of

regenerators are exclusive whereas, in optical amplifiers bit rate and signal
formats are impervious. Such that the system can be easily upgradable
using the optical amplifiers whereas regenerators used in a system is
upgrading by replacing all the regenerators.
Moreover, optical amplifiers ensure considerable large gain bandwidths,
and as a significance, several WDM signals can be instantaneously
amplify by a single amplifier whereas its required to regenerator for each
wavelength. Therefore optical amplifiers have become essential
components in optical communication systems for high-performance.

3.5.1 Applications of Optical Amplifier

3.5.1.1 In-line Optical Amplifier
Generally the signal goes through loss because of attenuation during a
single mode glass fiber. Therefore regeneration of the signal and its
amplification has to be done when a definite interval of time. Inline optical
amplifier are often accustomed to compensate attenuation loss and to
extend the gap between regenerative repeaters.
3.5.1.2 Preamplifier
Frequently, an optical amplifier is engaged as a front-end preamplifier
beforehand an optical receiver. For instance to decrease the SNR
degradation, the weak optical signals is intensified by the preamplifier and
moreover preamplifier shows high gain and higher bandwidth.
3.5.1.3 Power Amplifier
Enhancing of the signals is concluded by the power or booster amplifiers
placed merely next to the transmitter. Looking on the amplifier gain and
fiber loss, the transmission distance may be multiplied by 10-100 km.
Following fig shows Different applications of optical amplifier are shown
in the (fig 3.4).
Fig 3.4: Block Diagram of different applications of optical amplifier.

3.5.2 There are three different types of optical amplifiers:

 Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers

 Raman amplifiers

 Semiconductor amplifiers

Out these three amplifiers [11], erbium-doped fiber amplifier are

efficiently using in the communication system.

3.5.2.1 Erbium doped optical amplifiers

An erbium-doped fiber amplifier consists of a silica fiber of certain where
the core is doped with ionized atoms (ions), Er3+, which is the rare earth
element erbium. Usually, at a wavelength of 980 nm or 1480 nm, the fiber
is pumped from a laser by using a pump signal. The wavelength-selective
coupler is used after the doped fiber so that to get the output of the pump
laser along with the input signal [11]. In case, to separate the amplified
signal from the remaining pump signal power we can use wavelength-
selective coupler at the output if necessary. To avoid the replications in the
amplifier, either at input or output isolator is used.

Fig 3.5: Erbium-doped fiber amplifier.

From the above figure 2.7 it shows that they are three levels of energy E1,
E2 and E3 of E3+ ion of silica glass. The E4 energy level is not present in
the silica glass, it is present in Fluoride glass. Stark splitting is a process
that spread the energy levels into bands. Ions jump into the higher energy
level, which are excited by pumping with amplifier at wavelengths
labelled at the difference between the energy levels. The transition gap
between the energy levels E1 and E3 is 980nm.Similarly, the transition
gap between E1 and E2 is 1480nm. Due to stimulated emission and
spontaneous emission emitted photons with wavelengths are indicated
with downward transition.
 Fig 3. 6 : Typical EFDA gain plot.
The above (fig 3.6) shows the gain plot of EDFA with four pump power
different values as a function of wavelength. Taking on the pumping, 15m
to 980nm considered as a doped fiber length.

3.6 Optical Receiver

The direct detection of an optical receiver is shown in the (Fig 3.7). The
main purpose of the optical receiver is to retrieve the data which is
transmitted in form of optical signal that is converted to electrical signal
passed through single mode fiber of the receiver. The incoming optical
signal is pre-amplified by the optical amplifier which is fed in to the optical
filter to cut the noise level by selecting the desired wavelength channel of
wavelength de-multiplexer or by stimulated spontaneous emission.
Optical signal is converted into electrical signal by the photo detector, led
to post amplifier. An equalizer is used for compensating the inter symbol
inference. To pull out the received signal, a recovery clock circuit is used
in the decision circuit. A phase lock loop is used in the design of the
recovery clock circuit. At last the sampled signal is compared with the pre-
set threshold where the signal in binary form is led out by the decision
circuit. Decision circuit sets the received signal sample to bit 1 or to bit 0
after comparing with threshold.

Fig 3. 7 : Block Diagram of Optical Receiver.

Formerly being transmitted over the optical fiber, the optical indicator
created by semiconductor laser must be tweaked by data sign. Normally
for transmitters functioning at 10 Gb/s or more, the semiconductor laser
diode (LD) is generally pre-dispositioned at consistent present to give
constant wave (CW) yield, and outside modulators are utilized to force the
data sign to be transmitted. Most basic and prominent modulators utilized
are electro-optic optical modulators, for example, Mach–zehnder
modulators, and electro-absorption modulator.

3.7 Quality of Service Parameters

The significance of network congestion management and Quality of
Service makes the network builders to recognize the data loss, delay and
its sensitivity has increased in these days. To reduce the delay, delay jitter
and losses in packet became the major charge to build the buffer
management tools for the network builders. It is requires to understand the
traffic for building the network management tools. To sustain the capacity
of the network maximum, QoS has to be complied with service provider
of the network is possible only when the traffic modelling is made accurate
by enhancing traffic resources. To provide the high critical QoS for the
network and its traffic network model will have their impact on it.
Applications of real time have severe necessities for delay jitter, loss and
delay. Quality of data near receiver is worse because of the delay in packet
and loss in packets. In data transmission there will adverse gaps and
interruption in data due losses in data packets. In real time applications,
the data which is just arrived will overrides the previous data, where the
loss of packet is comparably same as the packet large delay. The data
retrieved at the receiver is damaged by the large jitter delay. Delay
propagation and link error are some of the sources for the delay and loss
of packets. In this we have focused only on the delay in data because of
queuing in router and overflow of buffer. The interface among the network
and traffic will be affected by the delay and loss in data for example
congestion. Parameters of QoS and simulation analysis is explained.

3.8 Delay to transmission of packet

Occurrence of delay is due to transmission of packet in router and waiting
of packet in the barrier for the service. For service and queuing delay, we
use the word queuing delay for both of them. Therefore, the at which the
packets goes into the routers buffer up to the time it comes out of the
router, this duration time is comparable same for queuing delay. There are
two ways to for analyzing the delay, the delay pattern can be surveyed by
its auto correlation function and its distribution. Delay auto correlation
function is utilized for indication that how delay of packets will correlate
for packets of sequence. Autocorrelation function is defined as

Equation (3.1)

Where n is the total number of packets measured, μd is the average packet

delay, d is the packet delay random variable, di is the delay of the ith
packet, l is the lag of correlation.
Due to loss of packet, every time delay of the packet is not defined. In our
study, the lost packet delay is not defined and is omitted from the delay
autocorrelation and distribution function calculation. The omission of lost
packets delay, we can take into count them as missing sample in
measurement of delay.

3.9 Loss in number of packets

The ratio of number of packets that are dropped totally to the number of
packets that are input surrounded by a period of time.

Equation (3.2)
Loss rate is one of the network performance parameter- load of traffic that
effects the rate of lo

Since rate of packet loss is one of the significant constraint, it will not
satisfactorily capture the thorough pattern loss. Pattern losses are very
dissimilar, for a same loss rate. In a network, to know how packets are
dropped can be explored by inspecting the loss episode distribution.
Specifically we use loss episode exploration for a particular data traffic
basis, because real-time data solicitations are vulnerable to succeeding loss
of packet than the intermittent single loss of packet.

3.10 Other parameters of network performance and QoS

Furthermore to delay and loss, we also examine the buffer tenancy
probability (probabilities of buffer sizes) of the router, throughput per-
flow, traffic load per-flow, and loss rate per-flow, where every one of them
influence the arriving effects of traffic at the router and how it reacts to the
traffic.

The probability of tenancy of buffer calculates frequent size of the buffer

is equal to i packets, and which can be measured by calculating the changes
in the buffer size. For N packets to be of maximum buffer size, there should
be N+1 states, where empty buffer resembles to state 0 and full buffer
resembles to state N. At any time, if there is change in the state (buffer
size) it is recorded. The probability of tenancy of buffer state i is then
defined as
The number of packets delivered by the router is routers throughput. In per
flow throughput of every source packet traffic, it is easy to distinguish the
exactness and enactment of altered queue and scheduling management
systems, which can be defined as

Eventually, we can define the loss rate per flow loss and load traffic per
flow load
By

By relating, load, loss, and TPi , the bandwidth to different sources of

traffic can be calculated by queue and scheduling management methods.

3.11 Multiplexing in Fiber Optics

The bandwidth properties of optical fiber are well known and make it the
media of choice for high-speed data and video applications. However,
various forms of multiplexing are required to take advantage of this
bandwidth. Time division and wavelength division multiplexing are the
two most commonly used. As fiber is best suited to digital transmission,
many low-rate digital signals can be time division multiplexed (TDM)
using electronic parallel-to-serial converters like the Agilent G-Link or the
Cypress Hotlink. Several low rate signals are combined into a single high-
speed channel for transmission and then reconstructed or broken out at the
receiving end.

Although high-speed TDM devices are available for aggregate data rates
of 10-40 Gbps for telecommunications applications, affordable
components, e.g.TDM ICs, fiber optic transceivers and test equipment, are
currently limited to 2.5 Gbps. TDM can also be done in several stages, e.g.
programmable logic devices (PLDs) can be used to combine many low-
rate signals. Over-sampling using a common clock is required when the
signals are asynchronous.

Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is used to transmit more than

one high-speed digital data stream on a single optical fiber. Different
wavelengths of light, i.e. different colors, propagate in a single fiber
without interfering as shown below. The devices that do the optical
combining and separation are referred to as WDMs. These are passive
optical devices that typically employ optical filters or gratings.
 Fig 3. 8 : multiplexer and de-multiplexer

3.12 Mathematical Model

There is some quality of service parameters is used to evaluate the
performance including the following:
3.12.1 Additive White Gaussian Noise
Additive is the affect on transmitted signal by noise. Additive white
Gaussian noise (AWGN) and interference of different nature and origin
are good examples of additive impairments. The relation between the
output Signal (t) and the input Signal (t) and Noise (t) is given by
Signal (t) = Signal (t) + Noise (t) (3.1)
Where
Noise (t): noise, is a random process with each realization modeled as a
random variable with a Gaussian distribution.

3.12.2 Large-Scale Propagation Effects

I. Path Loss
Path loss is an important effect that contributes to signal impairment by
reducing its power. Path loss is the attenuation suffered by a signal as it
propagates from the transmitter to the receiver. Path loss is measured as
the value in decibels (dB) of the ratio between the transmitted and received
signal power.

(𝑑)=10(𝑑𝑑°)+𝑐 (3.2)
where PL is path loss function measured in dB, d is the distance between
transmitter and receiver, v is the path exponent, c is a constant, and do is
the distance to a power measurement reference point (sometimes
embedded within the constant)

3.12.3 Data Rate

The data rate is calculated based on the modulation technique as
𝑅=𝐵𝑊 𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔2(𝑀) (3.7)
Where BW is the bandwidth for N users, M is the modulation order which
is always 2n, and r is the coding rate which is determined by the measured
SINR and depends on the used adaptive modulation.
3.12.4 Throughput
Throughput is a measurement of the average rate that data (in bits) can be
sent between a one user and another and is typically reported in kilobits
per second or megabits per second which are often used to define data
sizes as in kilobytes or megabytes).

3.12.4 Spectral Efficiency

The spectral efficiency is calculated as
𝑆𝐸=𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔2(𝑀) (3.8)
3.12.5 Bandwidth Utilization
The Bandwidth utilization is calculated as
𝐵𝑈= Σ𝐵𝑊𝑖𝑁𝑖=1𝐵𝑊 (3.9)
Where BWi is the bandwidth allocated for the ith user.
3.12.6 Transmission Delay
The transmission delay is calculated as
𝑑=𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑅 (3.10)
3.13 Computer Model
 Chapter Four

Simulation and Discussion

In this chapter the results and discussion was included, for the simulation
of QoS Parameters that effect the fiber network such as delay, throughput
BER.

Moreover the simulation was done based on OptiSystem software, and the
results was taken into Matlab script file for plotting the results. In addition
the output of each parameter according to the traffic density was included.

4.1 Results and Discussion

The following figures illustrate the performance of the FIBER

NETWORK in term of three QoS parameters Delay Time, Throughput
and SNR/BER

4.2 Simulation scenario

The project has three scenarios, the 1st scenario is based on the traffic
density, which is configured lite, and the 2nd is medium and the last is
heavy.
 Figure (4.1) simulation scenario

As shown in figure 4.1 a source with a different nano watts are placed as
an input to the multiplexer stage, in order to obtain the WDM principles,
the finer cable then was selected and the distance was set to optimal, then
a demultiplexing stage was placed in the receiver part, the analysis of the
signal can be determined through the total bits and error bits that can be
used to detect the value of the bit error rate.

4.3 Delay Comparison

While the simulation time increase in seconds the delay time in ms

decreases according to the traffic intensity, and it was found that the light
traffic has a delay time less while the medium and heavy traffic have a
high delay time.

From 5 seconds to 10 the system decrease the delay time to the minimum
value.
 Figure (4.2) Simulation Time vs. Delay

In figure (4.2) while set the network traffic to low it was found that the
delay time of the network has a minimum delay compared to the medium
and heavy traffics.

Moreover the heavy traffic has a max of delay time compared with the
medium and lite traffic.

4.4 Throughput Comparison

While the simulation time increase in seconds the delay time in ms

decreases according to the traffic intensity, and it was found that the light
traffic has a throughput identical to the traffic intensity.
From 5 seconds to 10 the system the throughput gone to maximum
increasing the efficiency and stability.

Figure (4.3) Simulation Time vs. Throughput

In figure (4.3) while set the network traffic to low it was found that the
throughput of the network has a maximum goodput compared to the
medium and heavy traffics.

Moreover the heavy traffic has a min of maximum goodput compared

with the medium and lite traffic.

4.5 Bit Error Rate vs. Signal to Noise Ratio

While the simulation runs, it was found that the lite traffic to the heavy
traffic, it was found increased data rate and requires high power.

The signal to noise ratio was set between the 0 and 25 db and it was found
that increasing the power decreases the bit error rate, and increasing the
power required while increasing the data rate.

Figure (4.4) Signal to Noise Ratio vs. Bit Error Rate

In figure (4.4) while set the network traffic to low it was found that the
signal to noise ratio of the network has a minimum required power
compared to the medium and heavy traffics.

Moreover the heavy traffic has a maximum power required compared

with the medium and lite traffic.
Table (4.2) SNR vs, BER for different user configuration

The following table illustrate the signal to noise ratio for different traffic
configurations

No. SNR BER(1) BER(2) BER(3)

1 0 0.1998 0.2477 0.2546
2 1 0.1779 0.2272 0.2361
3 2 0.1570 0.2065 0.2171
4 3 0.1372 0.1858 0.1977
5 4 0.1185 0.1656 0.1783
6 5 0.1008 0.1463 0.1593
7 6 0.0838 0.1281 0.1411
8 7 0.0676 0.1111 0.1240
9 8 0.0523 0.0950 0.1079
10 9 0.0385 0.0796 0.0928
11 10 0.0265 0.0650 0.0786
12 11 0.0169 0.0511 0.0650
13 12 0.0097 0.0383 0.0521
14 13 0.0049 0.0271 0.0400
15 14 0.0022 0.0177 0.0291
16 15 0.0008 0.0106 0.0198
17 16 0.0002 0.0057 0.0124
18 17 0.0000 0.0026 0.0070
19 18 0.0000 0.0010 0.0035
20 19 0.0000 0.0003 0.0015
21 20 0.0000 0.0001 0.0005
22 21 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001
23 22 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
 24 23 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
25 24 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
26 25 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Table (4.3) Throughput for different traffic configurations

The following table illustrate throughput for different traffic

configurations

No. SNR BER(1) BER(2) BER(3)

1 0 0.1638 0.6400 0.5120
2 1 0.0281 0.3202 0.2562
3 2 0.0106 0.2134 0.1707
4 3 0.0055 0.1601 0.1280
5 4 0.0033 0.1280 0.1024
Table (4.4) Delay for different user configuration

The following table illustrate the delay for different user configurations

No. SNR BER(1) BER(2) BER(3)

1 0 0.1999 0.24799 0.2546
2 1 0.1998 0.2477 0.2361
3 2 0.1779 0.2272 0.2171
4 3 0.1570 0.2065 0.1977
5 4 0.1372 0.1858 0.1783
6 5 0.1185 0.1656 0.1593
7 6 0.1008 0.1463 0.1411
8 7 0.0838 0.1281 0.1240
9 8 0.0676 0.1111 0.1079
10 9 0.0523 0.0950 0.0928
11 10 0.0385 0.0796 0.0786
12 11 0.0265 0.0650 0.0650
13 12 0.0169 0.0511 0.0521
14 13 0.0097 0.0383 0.0400
15 14 0.0049 0.0271 0.0291
16 15 0.0022 0.0177 0.0198
17 16 0.0008 0.0106 0.0124
18 17 0.0002 0.0057 0.0070
19 18 0.0000 0.0026 0.0035
20 19 0.0000 0.0010 0.0015
21 20 0.0000 0.0003 0.0005
22 21 0.0000 0.0001 0.0001
 23 22 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
24 23 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
25 24 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
26 25 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Chapter Five
Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Conclusion

Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and

computer networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables.
It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because
light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to
electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few
repeaters.

Moreover, the development on telecommunication applications that

requires a high data rate with a dedicated Quality of Service levels, thus
the implementation of fiber network require a good planning and
configuration among the physical connection and coupling and the internal
device calibration that increase or decrease the network performance such
as Distance of fiber cable, Attenuation power and Hardware mismatching.
5.2 Recommendation
It’s recommended to add more parameters to evaluate the system, also try
to add an application to the network such as Ethernet optical fiber network
and compare between the different optical network topologies
5.3 Reference
1. "Future Trends in Fiber Optics Communication" (PDF). WCE,
London UK. July 2, 2014. ISBN 978-988-19252-7-5.
2. Bell Labs breaks optical transmission record, 100 Petabit per second
kilometer barrier, Phys.org, 29 September 2009
3. "Guide To Fiber Optics & Permises Cabling". The Fiber Optics
Association. Retrieved December 22, 2015.
4. Mary Kay Carson (2007). Alexander Graham Bell: Giving Voice
To The World. Sterling Biographies. New York: Sterling
Publishing. pp. 76–78. ISBN 978-1-4027-3230-0.
5. Alexander Graham Bell (October 1880). "On the Production and
Reproduction of Sound by Light". American Journal of Science,
Third Series. XX (118): 305–324. also published as "Selenium and
the Photophone" in Nature, September 1880.
6. Buzzelli, S., et al. "Optical fibre field experiments in Italy: COS1,
COS2 and COS3/FOSTER." International Conference on
Communications. Seattle. 1980.
7. Rigby, P. (2014). Three decades of innovation. Lightwave, 31(1),
6–10."14 Tbit/s over a single optical fiber: successful demonstration
 of world's largest capacity". News release. NTT. September 29,
2006. Retrieved June 17, 2011.
8. Berenguer, P. W.; Nölle, M.; Molle, L.; Raman, T.; Napoli, A.;
Schubert, C.; Fischer, J. K. (2016). "Nonlinear Digital Pre-
Distortion of Transmitter Components". Journal of Lightwave
Technology. 34: 1739–1745 – via IEEE Xplore.
9. Khanna, G.; Spinnler, B.; Calabro, S.; De Man, E.; Hanik, N.
(2016). "A Robust Adaptive Pre-Distortion Method for Optical
Communication Transmitters". IEEE Photonics Technology
Letters. 28: 752–755 – via IEEE Xplore.
10.Duthel, T.; Hermann, P.; Schiel, J.; Fludger, C. R. S.; Bisplinghoff,
A.; Kupfer, T. (2016). "Characterization and Pre-Distortion of
Linear and Non-Linear Transmitter Impairments for PM-64QAM
Applications". 42nd European Conference and Exhibition on
Optical Communications (ECOC): 785–787 – via IEEE Xplore.
11.An optical fiber will break if it is bent too sharply. Alwayn, Vivek
(2004-04-23). "Splicing". Fiber-Optic Technologies. Cisco
Systems. Retrieved 2006-12-31.
 ‫اآليـــــة‬

‫قال تعالى‪:‬‬

‫ت ْالعَ ِلي ُم‬ ‫س ْب َحانَك ََل ِع ْل َملَنَا ِإ ََل َما َ‬

‫علَ ْمتَنَا ِإنَ َك أَ ْن َ‬ ‫﴿قَالُوا ُ‬
‫ْال َح ِكي ُم﴾‬

‫صدق هللا العظيم‬

 Acknowledgement
We extend our thanks to all who stood
With us to achieves this research which
It com because of grace of God
And reconcile.
We would like to give special thanks
Our supervisor
Doctor: XXXXXXXXXXXXXX
For his great help and support.
And
Our teachers that gave us information and all staff in
Ataqana University.
 Finally yet importantly we dedicate this project for
everyone that helped us to be at the place that we are today.

Dedication
Dedication to my mother…
Whit warmth and faith...
Dedication to my father…
Whit love and respect …
Dedication to my friends..
Whom we cherish their friendship
Dedication to my special people
Who mean so much to me…
Dedication to all my teachers …
In whom I believe so much …