Ledesma, Justine Laurice M.

2013120504

RE200

Table of contents:
A. Fundamentals of Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Systems
1. Thermal comfort,
2. Heat loss, heat gain
3. Climate, building materials
4. Computations, formulas
5. Architectural considerations
6. Building laws
B. Transportation systems
1. Elevators,
2. Escalators
3. Conveyors
4. Manufacturers
5. Architectural considerations
6. Building laws
C. Fire and Signal Alarm systems
1. Fire protection
2. Sprinklers
3. Security
D. Hi Tech Systems
1. Building automation
2. Robotics
3. Computer applications
4. Electronics
5. Architectural considerations
6. Building laws
E. Communication Systems
1. Telephone
2. TV
3. Radio
4. Intercom and sound
5. Special applications
6. Architectural considerations
7. Building laws
F. Fundamentals of Electrical Systems
1. Definition of terms
2. The ampere, volt, ohm
3. Circuits
4. Sources of energy
5. Electrical equipment and apparatus, fixtures, & materials
G. The National Electrical Code
H. Electrical Engineering Law and other related laws
I. Basic electrical engineering design, layout, wiring and installation
 A. Fundamentals of Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Systems
In the broadest sense, the term “air conditioning” means that, to the extent required for a particular space
condition, a quantity of air must be;

Mixed with the required amount of outside (fresh) air.

Filtered to remove specified amounts of particulate and/ or gaseous elements.
Heated and/or cooled as conditions dictate and as directed by an appropriate temperature control
system.
Humidifies or dehumidified to meet space requirements
Under certain conditions, ionized, ozonated or otherwise treated to provide specific space
conditions.
Delivered to the air-conditioned spaces and distributed in a quiet, draft-free manner.

1. Thermal comfort

Definition
- A feeling of well being
- Simply a lack of discomfort, thermally being unconscious of how one is losing or gaining heat
from the environment
- That condition of mind which express satisfaction with the thermal environment
- A subjective response or a state of mind when a person expresses satisfaction with the
surrounding environment
- Primarily controlled by a building’s heating ventilating, and aircon-conditioning systems,
through the architectural design of the building may also have significant influences on
thermal comfort

2. Heat loss, heat gain

-Heat transmitted through walls, roofs, floors, partitions, ceilings and glass owing to
differences between indoor and outdoor temperature
- Heat from solar radiation striking upon the exterior surfaces of walls and glass
- Heat from solar radiation striking upon the exterior surfaces of walls and glass

- Heat carried in by infiltrating or venting outside air

- Heat given off by occupants

- Heat given off by lights, cooking devices, motors, fans and industrial processes within
condition space

Heat Gains in Buildings

3 modes of heat transfer:

Conduction

o direct heat flow through matter. Results from actual physical contact of one part or of
one body with another

Convection

o Transport of heat within a gas or liquid, caused by the actual floe of the material itself.
In building spaces, natural convection heat flow is largely upward
Radiation
o Transmission of electromagnetic ray through space. Primary mode of heat transfer

Heat loss in Buildings

 o Heat loss through air
o Since air has some density, there wil be some heat transfer by conduction
o Heat loss through floors
o Heat is lost through floors primarily by radiation
o Condensation
o Water vapor will expand or contract to fill any space it may be in

3. Climate, building materials

Climate

o Usual condition of the temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall,

and other meteorological element in a area of the earth’s surface for a long time ( 30
years – the standard averaging period).

Classified by 2 majors factors: Temperature and Precipitation

Building Materials

Insulation – use of material to reduce the rate of heat transfer to improve comfort and energy
efficiency

R-value – indicator of a material’s insulator properties

The higher the R-value, the better the insulation

Insulation materials
Fiber Glass - Most common insulation, made of plastic
- Reinforced by extremely fine glass fibers
- Works by trapping pocket of air, keeping
rooms warm in the winter and cooler in
the summer
Mineral Wool - Made from molten glass, stone, or slag (
industrial waste) that is spun into a fiber-
like structure

- Glass wool – sand/recycled glass,

limestone, and soda ash
- Stone wool – volcanic rock: basalt or
dolomite

Cellulose - Made from recycled cardboard, paper,

and other similar materials and comes in
loose form

- - Perhaps the most eco- friendly form of

insulation
Polyurethane Foam - An extremely lightweight polymer with
superior insulating properties
- Has the highest thermal resistance (R-
value) at a given thickness and lowest
thermal conductivity
Polystyrene (EPS) - Very rigid insulation unlike its fluffier
alternative
- Can withstand extremes in temperature
and is also a noise reducer
- waterproof
 Air duct - Conduits or passages used in heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) to
deliver and remove air

- Ensures acceptable indoor air quality as well as thermal comfort

Air duct
Galvanized Steel The standard and most common material used in
fabricating ductwork because the zinc coating of this metal
prevents rusting and avoids cost of painting
Aluminum Lightweight and quick to install
custom or special shapes of duct can be easily fabricated in
the shop or on site
Polyurethane & Phenolic Polyurethane Duct – consist of
Insulation Panels (pre- aluminum panels and accessories
insulated air ducts) pre-insulated with PU

Phenolic Duct – consist of panels

with Pheonolic foam as the core
material with reinforcing
aluminum foil on both sides
Fiberglass Duct Board - Provide built – in thermal insulation
(pre-insulated non- - The interior surface absorbs sound,
metallic ductwork) helping to provide quiet operation of the
HVAC system
Flexible Ducting - (also known as flex) are typically made
of flexible plastic cover a metal wire coil
to shape a tube
- Very convenient for attaching supply air
outlets to the rigid ductwork
PVC Low Profile - It has a compact design that makes it
Ducting ideal for applications where space is
limited
- Features a smooth inner surface which
minimizes pressure loss and therefore
improves air flow

4. Computations, formulas

British thermal unit (BTU) - is the international measure of energy

o Measures the quantity of heat a conditioning unit can remove from a room per hour

Aircon condition sizing

Multiply the length with the width of the room to be cooled.
Then, as a practical number, multiply that area with 25 BTU

Example: The room is 12 feet by 15 feet long

12x15= square feet

180x25 = 4500 BTU

Therefore , an air conditioning unit with 4500 BTU cooling capacity is needed.
 HVAC formulas and Specific Terms

Ton of refrigeration – the amount of heat needed to melt one tons of ice at 32
degrees Fahrenheit, equivalent to 12,000 BTU per hour.

Air consistency
Dry Air= 78% nitrogen +21% oxygen +1% various other gases
Specific Density of Air = 1/13.33 = 0.75 lbs./cu.ft.
Standard Air = 24 Specific Heat (BTU’s needed 1 lb. 1 degree Fahrenheit)

Heat and Humidity

Enthalphy = h = Senisbleheat + Latent heat
Relative Humidity = Moisture present / Moisture air can hold
Specific Humidity = Grains of moisture per dry air 7000 GRAINS in 1 lb. of water
Dew Point = When wet bulb equals dry bulb
Total Pressure (Ductwork) = Static Pressure + Velocity Pressure
28 Inches Of Wc(water column) = 1 psi
Furnace Efficiency: % Efficiency = energy output / energy input

Determining heat in conditions other than Standard Air

Total Heat (BTU/hr) = 4.5 x cfm x Δh (std. air)

Sensible Heat (BTU/hr) = 1.1 x cfm x Δt (std. air)

Latent Heat (BTU/hr) = 0.69 x cfm x Δgr. (std. air)

Other formulas
Total Heat(BTU/hr) = 500 x gallons per minute (GPM) x Δt (water)

BTU/hr= 3.413 x watts = HP x 2546 = Kg Cal x 3.97

Lb.= 453.6 grams

Pounds per Square Inch(PSI) = ft. water / 2.31 = inch of mercury(HG) / 2.03 = inch of water
/ 27.7 = 0.145 x kilopascal (kPa)

GPM= 15.85 x liters per secondCFM= 2.119 x liters per second

Wattage per Square Foot= .0926 x wattage / mass²

Duct Sizing

Determine the Duct size depending on the required CFM

CFM–cubic feet per minute
–used to describe a fan’s efficiency in terms of airflow
The ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers) definition of HVACsystem, infact, describes a system that must be able to
simultaneously control the temperature, relative humidity, speed, and quality of air
in occupied space.
5. Architectural considerations

An HVAC (Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning) System is a requirement in virtually

all types and sizes of buildings. Second only to Structural System, HVAC system represent a
technical area of design, which must be generally understood and properly coordinated during
the design process.

• The design of HVAC System is not greatly influenced by building code requirements, except
in relation to energy efficiency, ventilation, and central plant equipment safety. Nonetheless,
HVAC System have a major impact on occupant satisfaction, on building construction and
operating costs, and often on building layout and spatial efficiency.

Zoning
 ▪ should be highly insulated.
▪ Each level of the zone should have identical zoning design.
▪ in case of repair is needed at a later stage, it can be easily carried out.
▪ cost effective manner.
▪ having less number of zones and fewer thermostats is considered an
effective design.

Each zone should have a separate branch duct which is connected to the main
duct of the HVAC system. Each branch end will have a damper in the respective
zones.

Ducting

This is to accommodate the sudden increase of “back pressure" so that the system is
not affected. More the number of zones more will be the size of the duct.
 AIRCONDITIONING STANDARDS
Heating and humidifying of air–A relative humidity of 30to 35 percent is found most
satisfying in winter.With this proportion a temperature of from 70 to 75F (21.1-23.9C)
is comfortable.

Cooling and dehumidifying– Fors ummer cooling, temperature of 76-80F (24.4-

26.6C) and 50 percent relative humidity area frequent design average.

AirMotion- A gentle motion of air produces are freshing and stimulating effect. The
velocity should average 15 to 25ft. per minute measured 36 inches above floor.

AirSupply–Many codes require about 30cu. Ft. per person. Since the indoor air is re-
circulated and reused in air conditioning, a smaller amount of outdoor air is required,
5 to 10 cu. Ft. per person is sufficient.

6. Building laws

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 4110 -AN ACT TO REGULATE THE PRACTICE OF AIR CONDITIONING
AND REFRIGERATION ENGINEERING IN THE PHILIPPINES
Sec. 5.Qualifications of Board Members. —Each member of the Board shall at the time of his
appointment:

1.Be a citizen of the Philippines and resident thereof;

2.Be at least thirty years of age and of good character.
3.Hold the degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering (BSME), or Bachelor of
Science in Air Conditioning and Refrigerating Engineering, conferred by an engineering school or
college, legally chartered and of recognized standing.
4.Be a registered Air Conditioning and Refrigerating Engineer (ACRE), or Professional
Mechanical Engineer (PME) engaged in the active practice of air conditioning and refrigerating
engineering for at least ten years previous to his appointment, (provided that one year after the
effectivity of this Act, only an Air Conditioning and Refrigerating Engineer shall be qualified for
appointment); and
5.Not connected directly or indirectly with any school for at least five years prior to his
appointment to the Board.

THE NEW NATIONAL BUILDING CODEIMPLEMENTING RULES AND

REGULATIONSRULE VIII LIGHT AND VENTILATION

1.General ProvisionsEverybuilding shall be designed, constructed and equipped to provide adequate light
and ventilation
2.The required open space shall be located totally or distributed anywhere within the lot in such a manner as
to provide maximum light and ventilation into the building

Habitable rooms provided with artificial ventilation shall

have ceiling heights not less than 2.40m.
For buildings of more than 1 storey, the minimum ceiling height of the
first storey shall be 2.70 m,
second storey, 2.40 m.
succeeding storeys, 2.10 m.

Above-stated rooms with natural ventilation shall have ceiling heights of not less than 2.70m.
Rooms intended for any use not provided with artificial ventilation shall be provided with a windowwith a
total free area equal to at least 10% but not less than 1.00 sq.m.
Toilet and bath rooms and laundry rooms shall be provided with window with an area not less than 1/20 of
the floor area but not less than 240 sq.mm.Such windows shall open directly to a court, yard, public street
or alley or open watercourse.
 B. Transportation Systems
1. ELEVATORS
• A lift or an elevator is a type of vertical transportation that moves people or goods between levels of a
building.
• Lifts are generally powered by electric motors that either drive traction cables or counterweight systems
like a hoist, or pump hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical piston like a jack.

Types of Elevator Lift Systems:

1. Hydraulic elevators (Push Elevators) - Are typically used in low-rise applications (2-8 story buildings),
and move up and down via a piston that supports the elevator cab from the bottom.

2. Traction elevators (Pull Elevators) - Use ropes that pass over a wheel attached to a motor that sits above
the elevator shaft. These elevators are used for mid- to high-rise applications due to their increased speeds
and maximum traveling heights.

3. Climbing elevators - Have their own electric or combustion engines mounted to them. You'll often find
these types of elevators used in construction areas and other work-zones.

4. Pneumatic elevators - Move their passenger cabs up and down by controlling air pressure within the
elevator's chamber. Vacuum pumps or turbines control the flow of air in the chamber in order to transport
the passenger to and from their respective floor.

Major Components:
1. Car
2. Cables
3. Elevator machine
4. Control equipment
5. Counterweights
6. Hoist-way
7. Rails
8. Pit

2. ESCALATORS
• An escalator is a moving staircase - a conveyors transport device for carrying people between floors of a
building.
• The device consist of a motor-driven chain of individually linked steps that move up or down on tracks,
allowing the step treads to remain horizontal.
• Escalators are used around the world to move pedestrian traffic in places where elevators would be
impractical.
• Escalators have the capacity to move large numbers of people, and they can be placed in the same physical
space as a staircase.

Types:
1. Parallel - up and down escalators “side by side or separated by a distance”, seen often in metro situations
and multilevel motion picture theaters.

2. Criscross - minimizes structural space requirements by “stacking” escalators that go in one direction,
frequently used in department stores or shopping centers.

3. Multiple parallel - two or more escalators together that travel in one direction next to one one or two
escalators in the same bank that travel in the other direction.

Major Components:
 1. Landing Platforms
2. Truss
3. Tracks
4. Steps
5. Handrail
6. Escalator Exterior (Balustrade)
7. Drive system
8. Auto-Lubrication System
9. Braking system
10. Safety devices
11. Electrical & Control Systems

3. CONVEYORS
• A conveyor system moves materials from one place to another within the building.
• They allow quick and efficient transportation for most materials that make them popular in the packaging
and material handling industries.

Types:
1. Pneumatic conveyor systems - Every pneumatic system uses pipes or ducts called transportation lines that
carry a mixture of materials and a stream of air.

2. Vibrating conveyor systems - A vibrating conveyor is a machine with a solid conveying surface which is
turned up on the side to form a trough.

3. Flexible conveyor systems - The flexible conveyor is based on a conveyor beam in aluminum or stainless
steel, with low-friction slide rails guiding a plastic multi-flexing chain.

4. Vertical conveyor systems and spiral conveyors - Vertical conveyors, also commonly referred to as
freight lifts and material lifts, are conveyor systems used to raise or lower materials to different levels of a
facility during the handling process.

5. Heavy-duty roller conveyors - Heavy-duty roller conveyors are used for moving items that weigh at least
500 pounds (230 kg). This type of conveyor makes the handling of such heavy equipment/products easier
and more time effective.

4. MANUFACTURERS

1. Hyundai Group
• is a South Korean conglomerate founded by Chung Ju-yung. The first company in the group was
founded in 1947 as a construction company.
• The Hyundai Group now focuses on elevators, container services, and tourism to Mount
Kumgang. As of March 2007, Hyundai Engineering and Construction is the main shareholder of
Hyundai Merchant Marine, which is the de facto holding company of Hyundai Group.

2. Hitachi
• is a Japanese multinational conglomerate company headquartered in Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan. It is
the parent company of the Hitachi Group (Hitachi Gurūpu) and forms part of the DKB Group of
companies.

3. Cibes Lift
 • Is a manufacturer of low speed, screw-driven platform lifts for installation in public and private
environments. The company's head office, sales, manufacturing and service offices are located in
Gävle, Sweden.

4. Fujitec
• is founded by late Honorary Chairman, Mr. Shotaro Uchiyama in February 1948 for the purpose
of research and development, manufacturing, sales, installation and maintenance of elevators,
escalators and travellators.

5. Kone
• founded in 1910 and headquartered in Espoo near Helsinki, Finland, is an international
engineering and service company employing some 55,000 personnel across 60 countries
worldwide.

5. ARCHITECTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

Elevator Design Considerations:

• Number of floor to be served
• Floor to floor distance
• Population of each floor
• Location of building
• Specialist services within building
• Type of building occupancy
• Maximum peak demand in passengers per five-minute period.

Escalator Design Considerations:

• The vertical and horizontal distance to be spanned
• The location
• Other building infrastructure
• Traffic patterns
• Carrying capacity
• Safety considerations
• Aesthetic preferences

Conveyor Design Considerations:

• Designing the system for continuous flow of material (idle time should be zero).
• Going in for standard equipment which ensures low investment and flexibility.
• Incorporating gravity flow in material flow system and
• Ensuring that the ratio of the dead weight to the payload of material handling equipment is minimum.

6. BUILDING LAWS

PD1096 – National Building Code of the Philippines

RA 9514 - Fire Code of the Philippines
C. FIRE AND SIGNAL ALARM SYSTEMS Stages of Fire and Influences of Growth
Fire Protection
- Is the study and practice of how to mitigate the
unwanted effects of potentially destructive fires.
Design Considerations for Fire Resistance
- Smoke Management
- Fire Suppression Systems
o Sprinklers
o Non-water based approaches
- Lighting Protection
- Fire detection and alarm systems
How does fire work? Sources of Ignition in Buildings
- Chemical
o Chemical Combustion / Spontaneous
Combustion – depends upon heat
generation, air supply and insulation by
the immediate surroundings.
- Electrical
o Most commonly supplied by resistance
- Fire is a chemical reaction of oxidation known as combustion heating which is a process most
commonly by appliances and in-space
which comes as a result of oxygen in the atmosphere and some
heating equipment
sort of fuel (wood or gasoline, etc.) combining together. - Mechanical
o Produced by friction, overheating of
- Fire has a triangle of needs which consists of fuel, high
machinery, and also by heat of
temperature and oxygen. These three influences building design. compression
Products of Combustion Fire Safety and Other Environmental Control Systems
- Desirable Design Approaches for Fire Safety:
o Thermal Mass
The ability of a material to absorb and
store heat energy.
o High Ceilings
o Windows
o Solid (non-combustible) Overhangs over
Windows
- Flame and Heat
o Elevated Water Storage
- Smoke
Protection of Life
- Carbon Monoxide
- First phase:
- Carbon Dioxide
cues such as smell of smoke, sounds associated
- Hydrogen Sulfide
with fire and sight of flames are detected
- Sulfur Dioxide
- Second phase:
- Fire Gases: Ammonia, Oxides of Nitrogen,
occupants define the situation. How serious is
- Cyanide, Phosgene, Hydrogen Chloride
the fire?
Objectives of Fire Safety
- Third phase:
- Protection of Life
coping behavior: fight or flight? Use firefighting
- Protection of Building
equipment or find an exit path?
- Protection of Contents
- Continuity of Operation
 - Horizontal Exits

Doors leading directly outside, enclosed hallways

(2-hour fire rated), moving walks, two fire doors
(one swinging in either direction), exit discharge
(area outside an exit that leads to public way)
Egress
the action of going out or leaving a place
- The stairs must be designed to allow people who is
already within the stairwell to continue down without
Maximum Allowable Distances to Exits
any interference from access doors.
Exits
- Stairs must have direct access to outdoor air in
each floor.
- Vertical Exits
- Fire stairs must allow firefighters to move up while
smoke proof towers, exterior and interior stairs
occupants are moving up and down.
and rams, escalator (should meet proper
- Provide refuge areas, where smoke penetration are
requirements)
less likely to happen
 Property Protection - Structural Protection – allows building to
- Site should permit access for firefighting equipment. Fire trucks continually stand during fire and enables it to be
should be able to pull on both exterior wall of the building. salvaged instead of being demolished after fire
Elevated tanks also can help in early moments of fire when most Continuity of Operations
likely firefighters are still not present. Design strategies to encourage continuity of
- Exposure Protection – common in areas where highly flammable operations include:
surroundings pose. It guards heat transfer by radiation and - Special fire alarm/ suppressions systems
convective currents and direct fire transfer. - HVAC system allowing 100% outdoor air
o Begins with the use of non-flammable materials for the - Provision for the speedy removal of water dumped
building’s exterior on a fire by sprinkler system. Floor should be
o Firewalls waterproof
o External Water Sprinklers Smoke Control
o Exterior doors with fire delaying characteristics Objective
o Windows with fire rated shutters - Reduce deaths and property damage due to
- Compartmentation – this is when a building’s floor area exceeds smoke and provide for continuity of operations
such limits and it must be divided by firewalls with minimal smoke interference
- Concealed Spaces – found in many contemporary buildings over Factors that contribute to the spread of smoke
suspended ceilings and also behind walls with pipe chases, in - Heat-induced convective air
attics, under raised floors, etc. Designer should utilize this spaces - Stack effect
as it may offer paths to spread the fire. They could install fire - Wind forces from outside
detection in the uninhabited spaces - Forced-air systems
 Confinement HVAC System, Sprinklers and Smoke
- A passive design response to smoke migration is to aim to confine - Two systems within a building must be
fire in an area itself. coordinated with smoke exhaust system: the
- Refuges – Specially protected areas as a technique to exclude HVAC and the fire detection/ suppression
smoke system
- Curtain Boards – Partial smoke barriers suspended from the Sprinkler System
ceiling Design Impact
Dilution and Exhaust - Sprinkler systems are widely relied on as
- Dilution - reducing a concentration of a chemical proven automatic fire suppressers.
- Exhaust - These systems employ both air velocity and air pressure - Designers must remember that the use of
to help smoke movement. sprinklers does not give one a license to ignore
- Advantages: fire code limitations, even though many codes
o Helps prevent toxic gases from entering refuge areas provide more leeway for sprinklered buildings.
o Help reduce concentrations of dangerous gases o adequate water supply,
o Creates desirable patterns of air pressure o adequate water pressure,
o Stack effect is less likely to overcome smoke control system in o backup power for pumping (if pumps
tall buildings are required).
o Helps remove smoke that remains after fire is extinguished o It may be wise to provide for water
drainage during and after a fire,
particularly in multistory buildings.
 o may require large supply pipes and valves, fire pumps, - Alarm Gong
and access for system monitoring and maintenance.
- Automatic Sprinkler System

An alarm gong mounted on the outside of the

building warns of water flow through the alarm
valve upon activation of a sprinkler head. This
warning gives the building personnel an
opportunity to make additional firefighting
usually consist of a horizontal pattern of pipes placed just arrangements that can minimize loss and speed
below or within the ceilings of industrial buildings, the termination of the fire; in this way, the
warehouses, stores, theaters, offices, homes, and other sprinklers can be turned off in a timely manner
structures at risk from fire.
 to prevent excessive water damage to building contents after Provisions for Drainage
the fire is out. - Sprinkler heads can release a great deal of water,
most of which will remain un-vaporized and quickly
Sprinkler alarms commonly are also connected to private collect at floor level.
regional supervisory offices that communicate promptly with - In addition to waterproofing the floors and lower
municipal fire departments upon receipt of a signal. All public walls, columns, and other elements, provision should
buildings, and other buildings as required, should be provided be made, where possible, for gravity drainage of water.
with fire detection and alarm systems that indicate, in the - Scuppers in exterior walls are preferable to floor
custodian’s office, the location of the fire. drains, which are more easily clogged by debris.
- Siamese Connections Scuppers are provided with hoods that protect against
infiltration, birds, and/or insects
Water Supply
- In tall buildings, sprinklers (and standpipes) can be
supplied with water from elevated storage tanks used
for domestic water.
- These tanks supply a constant pressure on the
distribution lines, store sufficient water to balance
supply and demand, prevent excessive starting and
permits fire engines to pump into the sprinkler system in a
stopping of a fire pump, and provide a dependable fire
manner similar to that used for standpipe systems
reserve.
- When gravity tanks are used with sprinkler systems, they should required so that it is always immediately obvious
provide enough water to operate 25% of the sprinkler heads for 20 whether such crucial valves are open (as they nearly
minutes. always should be) or closed.
- As in the case of standpipe and hose systems, this provision gives
the fire department a chance to arrive and take over.
- The principal objections to the use of tank have been their
unsightliness, the problem of freezing, and—in the case of large
buildings—the tanks’ tremendous weight, with resulting added
structural costs
Valves

Sprinkler Construction, Orientation, and Rating

- The common sprinkler head blocks water flow
Valves are required to allow the sprinkler system to be shut off for
by a plug or cap that is held tightly against the
maintenance, system modification, or replacement of sprinkler heads
orifice by levers or other restraining devices.
that have operated after a fire. Indicating valves of various types are
- These, in turn, are held in place by the arms of
the sprinkler body. In the past, the restraining
 device was usually a fusible metal link that melted at a Other types of Sprinklers
predetermined temperature.
- Today, the restraining device is typically a glass bulb that
contains both a colored liquid and an air bubble
- As the liquid expands due to increasing temperature resulting
- Quick response
from the heat of a fire, it compresses the air bubble until it is
absorbed. Then continued expansion ruptures the bulb (again,
at a predetermined temperature) and releases the water in a
solid stream through the orifice.
- A deflector converts this solid stream of water into a spray, - Standard response
whose pattern is determined by the design of the deflector.

- CMSA (control mode specific application)

The spray pattern from a typical upright or pendent sprinkler - Residential

- Most sprinklers direct the spray down and horizontally rather

than upward toward the ceiling. This yields better water
distribution close to the sprinkler head and more effective
coverage of burning material below. - ESFR (early suppression fast response)
Types of Sprinkler Heads
- Types of Sprinkler Heads:

o Concealed - Concealed
heads are entirely above a ceiling cover
- Upright (SSU) – Upright heads sit on top of the plate that falls away in a fire, exposing
exposed supply piping the thermo-sensitive element.
o Ornamental pendant are
manufacturer‐coated (never
field‐coated!) to match a desired decor.
- Pendent (SSP) - Pendent heads hang below the
piping, which can then be concealed above suspended
ceilings.

-
o Recessed - Recessed heads have part of Sidewall -are usually located adjacent to one
the sprinkler body and the deflector below the ceiling. wall of a smaller room— common in hotels,
o Flush - Flush heads have only the thermo-sensitive apartments, and so on—and throw a
element projecting below the ceiling. one‐quarter‐sphere spray of water entirely
across such rooms. Typically, only one sidewall
sprinkler head per small room is used.
- Temperature - It should be at least 25F° (14C°) higher than the open with extraordinary heat that is not
maximum ceiling temperature ordinarily expected. Ordinary fire‐associated. They are considered superior
sprinkler heads operate at between 135° and 170°F (57° and for life protection because of their earlier
77°C). operation.
Sprinkler Spacing and Hazard
- The spacing of sprinkler heads and the sizing of
supply pipes are complex matters, and most sprinkler
systems are designed by professionals working for
sprinkler manufacturers.
- The first consideration is the degree of hazard
faced by the occupants. Once this is known, sprinklers
and pipes can be approximately located in plan view.
Maximum floor areas (per floor) to be protected by
any single sprinkler system are shown, again by hazard,
Within each space, sprinklers should be located so as
to detect a fire readily and to discharge water over the
greatest area (considering obstacles such as joists and
- Newer quick‐response sprinkler heads are now required
beams, partial height partitions, etc.
throughout light hazard occupancies, including office
buildings. These more thermally sensitive heads open sooner
than ordinary heads, and thus tend to fight a fire with even
fewer heads operating, even though they may sometimes
 p = pressure, psi
o In SI units:
Q = flow rate, L/min
K = K factor (14.3 × I‐P K factor)
p = pressure in bars
- Sprinkler systems are usually designed for a
maximum working pressure of 175 psi
(1206 kPa). As a preliminary design
guideline:
- Light hazard systems need a minimum
residual pressure of 15 psi (104 kPa) and
- Piping for the sprinkler supply can be hydraulically designed,
500–750 gpm (32–47 L/s) at the base of the
using fundamental water flow principles.
system riser for 30 to 60 minutes.
- A detailed sizing procedure would consider both the available
- Ordinary hazard systems need a minimum
pressure at the highest sprinkler and the expected flow rate,
residual pressure of 20 psi (138 kPa) and
which can vary from 150 to 25,000 gpm (10 to 158 L/s). The
850–1500 gpm (54–95 L/s) at the base of
sprinklers’ actual performance is determined by:
the system riser for 60 to 90 minutes.
Quick-Response Sprinklers
o Q=
- All light hazard occupancies are now required
o Where:
to have quick‐response (also called
Q = flow rate, gpm
fast‐response) sprinklers.
K = K factor, published for each sprinkler head
- These include hotels, motels, offices, and other buildings CMSA (control mode specific application)
where faster sprinkler operation could enhance life safety. - These types of heads, destined to protect the
- RTI response time index - One measure of thermal sensitivity, most important storage risks (apart from
which indicates how fast the sprinkler can absorb sufficient flammable liquids) are characterized by high K
heat from its surroundings to cause activation. It is expressed factors. They create large droplets (hence the
as the square root of meters‐seconds. common denomination of Large Drop
- Quick‐response (fast‐response) sprinklers have an RTI of 50 or sprinklers).
less. Standard‐response sprinklers have an RTI of 80 or more— - As spray sprinklers, CMSA sprinklers are
usually substantially more. designed to control a fire, not to extinguish it.
- Conventional automatic sprinklers generally have an RTI of - The sensitivity of a CMSA systems to
250 to 300. obstructions (ducts, cable trays, etc) is a lot
- The fast‐response sprinkler’s operating element has a smaller higher that of spray sprinklers.
mass, enabling it to respond to the air temperature rise more Early Suppression Fast‐Response (ESFR)
quickly Sprinklers
Standard Response Sprinklers - These sprinkler heads are tested for their ability
- Standard response sprinkler heads work by wetting and to suppress specific high challenge fire hazards
cooling areas surrounding a fire to prevent it from spreading. encountered in high‐piled storage.
Once the fire consumes all of the fuel around it, it goes out. - They operate at a higher pressure and flow, and
Standard response fire sprinklers are individually activated, the water droplets produced depend upon
meaning only sprinkler heads directly above the fire will momentum rather than gravity to penetrate to
activate. the bottom of high‐velocity fire plumes.
 - These sprinkler heads require a minimum water pressure of specifically listed for flat, smooth ceilings of a
50 psi (345 kPa) and a minimum flow of 100 gpm (6.3 L/s). slope not exceeding 4 in. per foot (316 mm/m).
They have largely replaced large‐drop sprinklers that Future Developments
depended on the weight of the water droplet to penetrate the - Quick‐response, early suppression (QRES)
fire plume. sprinklers were proposed several years ago.
- The latest innovation to this day is the ESFR sprinkler. Thanks This approach would use the same principles as
to high K factors and very high delivery rates, ESFR sprinklers an ESFR sprinkler, but with a smaller orifice
are designed to completely extinguish a fire, ant not only to suitable to lighter‐hazard occupancies.
control it, as is the case for spray and CMSA heads. ESFR - The QRES approach never really materialized,
sprinklers are of the Quick Response type. replaced instead by control mode specific
- Installation criteria are for ESFR heads particularly strict. application (CMSA) sprinklers.
Extended Coverage Sprinklers - In future sprinkler systems, different types of
- These are limited to a type of unobstructed construction sprays may be ejected from a single sprinkler
consisting of flat, smooth ceilings of a slope not exceeding 2 head: one spray of larger droplets to penetrate
in. per foot (158 mm/m). the fire plume and thereby cool burning
- Note that a smooth ceiling means that luminaires and air surfaces as well as adjacent surfaces, and
grilles are flush or recessed, not suspended from the ceiling. another, finer spray to cool the ceiling itself.
- Such sprinklers, however, can also be specifically listed for Wet‐Pipe Systems
“noncombustible obstructed” construction, or as upright and - They are filled with water under pressure and
pendant sprinklers within trusses or bar joists having web are limited to spaces in which the air
members not more than 1 in. (25 mm) thick, or where temperature does not fall below 40°F (4.4°C).
 - In the wet‐pipe system, sprinklers in the affected area are
opened by heat‐sensitive elements within the sprinkler heads
themselves and immediately emit water.

- As soon as a sprinkler head opens, the

compressed air rushes out, allowing water to
enter the formerly dry‐pipe network through a
dry‐pipe valve.
- The system then functions like a wet‐pipe
system.
- The dry‐pipe valve must be within a heated
enclosure, since water under pressure is on one
This sprinkler design results in a nozzle spacing that one nozzle takes
side of the valve. Also, due to the delay in
care of 130 per square feet (12 meters square) of floor area
delivering water throughout a previously dry
Dry-pipe system
piping system, a maximum system capacity of
- These systems are filled with compressed air (or nitrogen)
750 gal (2839 L) is recommended.
rather than with water. They are used in unheated areas,
including loading docks and cold‐storage areas.
- Dry‐pipe systems require a device to maintain design air - When the heat or smoke detectors are
pressure within the pipes. Air pressure might be maintained activated, they open the pre-action valve, an
by a compressor, by an air receiver tank, or by connection to alarm is sounded, and water fills the pipes. The
an existing pressurized air system (as in manufacturing system then functions like a wet‐pipe system,
operations). with water flow into a space occurring only
- Dry‐pipe systems also require a heated main control valve upon the opening of a sprinkler head.
housing and the pitching of all piping to allow thorough - Combined dry pipe‐pre-action (or
drainage after use. double‐interlock pre-action) system, has pipes
Pre-action Systems filled with compressed air. Heat or smoke
detectors release the pre-action valve and
sound the alarm, but air pressure keeps water
out of the piping until a sprinkler head opens.

- The pipes are filled with air that may or may not be under
pressure. In addition to the sprinkler heads, either a heat‐ or a
smoke‐detection system is installed. The detectors are more
sensitive than the sprinkler head. Water is held back by the
pre-action valve.
 Deluge Systems • They also eliminate the cost of refilling a system
- These systems have open sprinkler heads on dry pipes. As with with expensive clean agent gases and allow a
pre-action systems, a separate heat‐ or smoke‐detection faster return to service after discharge.
system is installed. • These systems produce a much smaller water
- The detectors control a deluge valve, which, once opened, droplet, thanks to inlet pressures ranging from
floods the system with water, and all heads emit water. Huge 45 to 4100 psi (310 to 28,270 kPa), depending
quantities of water are thus released. upon the design of the sprinkler head. The
- Deluge systems are used where extremely rapid fire spread is heads are typically spaced closer together and
expected—in aircraft hangars, for example, or other places have more sensitive thermal elements.
where flammable liquid fires may break out. Mist Systems
Mist Systems 1. Class I mists have a droplet size ≤200 microns,
• A mist system offers fast initiation of an alarm as well as more the finest mists. These mists are most suitable
rapid response to a fire. Smaller volumes of water mean less where enclosure reduces the need for spray
water damage, and the mist can move more easily around momentum and fuel wetting is not critical
obstructions. (examples are liquid fuel fires and spray fires in
• As an alternative to halon or other clean agent gases, mist enclosed spaces).
systems are more tolerant of small amounts of ventilation, 2. Class II mists have a droplet size from 200 to
reduce the radiant heat transfer from a fire, and eliminate the 400 microns. With larger drops, it is easier to
residues associated with many clean agent gases. achieve higher mass flow rates, and
considerable surface wetting is possible. These
 mists are likely to be effective on fires involving ordinary - Two primary mechanisms are heat extraction
combustibles. (through rapid evaporation of the finely divided
3. Class III mists have a droplet size from 400 to 1000 microns. water droplets) and oxygen displacement.
They can be generated by small‐orifice sprinklers and fire hose - Mist systems perform best in smaller
fog nozzles, and deliver the highest mass flow rates. enclosures with restricted ventilation, aided by
Fire‐extinguishing Mechanisms heat entrapment and relatively easy oxygen
displacement.
- A third primary mechanism is the blocking of
radiant heat.
- Secondary mechanisms in pool and spray fires
are vapor/air dilution (mixing of water vapor
and entrained air in the flammable vapor zone
above the pool surface) and kinetic effects (the
velocity of the flame front may be inhibited by
small water droplets dispersed in a volume of
flame).
Other Fire‐Mitigating Methods
- When water damage poses almost as much of a
threat to a structure or its contents as does fire,
a variety of other fire‐mitigating methods are
available.
 - The most passive of such measures are intumescent materials, - The advantages of Halon 1301 (and other
which expand rapidly as they are touched by fire. This process halons) are:
creates air pockets that insulate a surface from the fire or o it can be released with relative safety
swell a material until it blocks openings through which fire (or through a flooding system into areas
smoke) could have passed. such as computer server rooms,
- Intumescent paints, caulks, and putties are available. o quickly extinguishing a fire with little
- Some intumescent materials come in (6.35‐mm)‐thick sheets, harm to the contents, no oxygen
with various facing materials. displacement to threaten life support,
The Rise and Fall of Halon 1301 o little demonstrated harm to people, and
no residue left on electronic
components.
o It is also lightweight and space‐saving
relative to other fire suppressants, as
seen in the following subsections
Foams

Halogenated hydrocarbons, known commonly as halons, are gases

(stored as liquids) in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been
replaced by halogen atoms.
 Foams is a masses of gas‐filled bubbles. It is lighter than water Clean Agent Gases
and flammable liquids, they float on the surface of a burning liquid,
smothering and cooling the fire and sealing in vapors. Foams can be
designed to inundate a surface or to fill cavities; they can be thin and
rapidly spread or thick, tough, and heat‐resistant.
Carbon Dioxide

An array of replacement gases for Halon 1301

can be expected to meet demand for this type of fire
suppressant. Initially, hydro chlorofluorocarbons
Among other inerting gases, CO2 has long been used to
(HCFCs) and hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs) are likely to be
prevent ignition of potentially flammable mixtures and extinguish
popular substitutes. .
fires involving flammable liquids or gases. Although inerting gases
Systems will typically resemble those used with
certainly help to extinguish fire by displacing oxygen, they are even
CO2. Confined and vital spaces such as control rooms,
more effective by acting as a heat sink, absorbing combustion energy
computer and communication facilities, and
and reducing the temperature of the flame/vapor mixture below that
emergency response centers are candidates for clean
necessary to sustain combustion.
agent systems
Portable Fire Extinguishers Class 1A to 40A

These extinguishers are used on “Class A” fires:

- Most fires in buildings can be extinguished at an early stage
involving ordinary combustibles such as wood, cloth,
with these commonly seen devices.
paper, rubber, and many plastics, and effectively
- Portable fire extinguishers are rated (or classified) based on
suppressed by the heat absorbing, cooling effects of
the type of fire they are designed to fight.
water, the coating effects of dry chemicals, or the
- How many extinguishers are required and where they are
interruption of the combustion chain reaction provided
located depend upon the hazard of the occupancy.
by dry chemicals.
Class 5B to 40B
These extinguishers are used on “Class B” fires:
involving flammable or combustible liquids, flammable
gases, greases, and similar materials that are best suppressed by kitchens, restaurants, and cafeterias. These
excluding oxygen, by inhibiting the release of combustible vapors, or extinguishers contain a potassium acetate–based,
by interrupting the combustion chain reaction. The numerals refer to low‐PH agent that discharges as a fine mist to help
the approximate area (in square feet) of deep‐layer liquid fire that an prevent fires from grease splashes while the appliance
inexperienced operator can extinguish. “B” refers to the contents: cools.
smothering or flame‐interrupting chemicals such as CO2, dry Lightning Protection
chemicals, AFFF, or FFFP. (Halogenated agents are being phased out.)
Class C
“Class C” fires involve energized electrical equipment. The
extinguisher contents are nonelectrically‐ conducting, such as CO2 or
dry chemicals. (Halogenated agents are being phased out.)
Class D
Class D fires involve combustible metals or metal alloys. The
extinguisher contains dry powders, such as copper or graphite
compounds or sodium chloride. These extinguishers are used on a
variety of combustible metals; the specific combustible metal for
which the extinguisher is intended is printed on the extinguisher’s
nameplate.
Class K
“Class K” fires involve cooking appliances that have vegetable
oils and animal oils and fats— such as those found in commercial
Lightning is nature’s most destructive force: closer an object to the ground and the mast, the better
o The average lightning discharge is estimated at 200 million V, the protection.
30,000 A, and courses through a grounded object in less than
a thousandth of a second.
o “Cold” lightning bolts have ample current, voltage, and
duration to shatter and kill, but not to ignite combustibles.
o Hot” bolts will ignite combustibles as well. Lightning
protection can protect not just a building itself, but also serve
to protect a building’s electrical distribution system.
FACTORS:
Overhead Ground Shield Wire
1. Frequency and severity of thunderstorms.
2. Value and nature of building and contents.
3. Hazard to building occupants.
4. Building exposure;
5. Indirect effects
Franklin Cone
A Franklin cone was named for Ben Franklin, is simply a mast with a
conductor running straight to ground. A “cone of protection” is
formed that protects the objects within it from strikes by absorbing
the lightning stroke at the mast and grounding it harmlessly. The
 Forming a continuous air terminal, this shield is linear and - The higher the air terminals and the denser the
horizontal, so the protected volume is a triangular prism, rather than mesh, the better the protection.
a cone. This is most commonly used to protect overhead transmission - An office tower, with high air terminals at close
lines. It is recommended that both the single mast and the overhead intervals, Because this is the most common
ground shield project above any structure within the protected zone method used to protect buildings.
by at least 6 ft (1.8 m), and more height is better. Lighting Arresters
Faraday Cage

Is a special type of surge arrester

Generally connected at one end to an overhead
electrical line and at the other end to the ground.
A lightning arrester operates only when it senses a
- Named for Michael Faraday,
voltage surge.
- It depends upon an open interconnected mesh covering a
It conducts the surge to the ground through its own
large, non-conducting mass (a building) to draw a lightning
low resistance and partially dissipates the energy of
stroke and conduct it to earth.
the surge in the body of the arrester.
Once the surge has passed, the arrester returns to its high‐impedance Fire Alarm Systems
quiescent state, presenting an open‐circuit connection to the normal - Fire alarm systems serve primarily to protect
voltage line to which it is connected. life and secondarily to prevent property loss.
High Rise Buildings - Buildings vary in occupancy, flammability; type
of construction, and value, a fire alarm system
- Lightning protection must be tailored to the needs of a specific
systems are particularly facility.
important for very tall - automatic detection will vary with construction
buildings. type, building height, specific area use,
furnishings, and staffing
- Fire alarm is part of the overall fire protection
system of a building.
- It overlaps with the design of safe egress and
smoke/fire control in matters such as fan
control and smoke venting, smoke door closers,
rolling shutters, elevator capture and the like
- These automatic functions are initiated by
operation of the alarm system but are designed in
accordance with the overall fire protection plan
Three Basic Parts Fire Codes, Authorities and Standards
- Signal initiation - NFPA (National fire protection association) –
o can be manual (pull stations and telephones) bear directly on the fire alarm system
automatic (fire and smoke detectors and or water flow arrangements.
switches) – alarm signal is processed by some sort of Types of Fire Alarm Systems
control equipment, which in turn activities audible and - Can be classified according to several different
visible alarms and, in some cases, alerts a central fire characteristics
station or municipal authorities. o Location
- Signal processing o Application
- Alarm indication o Connections
o Coding
o Degree of automation of the detection
system
- To avoid confusion, the classification system
found in the National fire alarm and signal code
(NFPA 72) is used herein. This code classifies
fire alarm systems essentially by location and
function:
o Household fire warning systems
o Protected – premises systems (local
alarm)
 o Off – premises systems (connection between local connections, arriving fire-fighters would
alarms and off – premises equipment and systems) always check the protected premises.
This category includes auxiliary, remote station, This type of system is usually applied to
proprietary, central station, and municipal fire alarm public buildings such as schools,
systems government offices, museums and the
- Household fire warning systems like.
- Protected – premises fire alarm system Central Station Fire Alarm System
o Intended to sound an alarm only in protected - This arrangement is similar to that described for
premises. Action in response to an alarm must be proprietary systems except that the system
taken locally, either manually or automatically. Thus, supervision and normally all of its equipment are
notification to the fire department is manual, although owned and operated by a service company. In lieu
fire – suppression systems can be set into operation of multiple buildings under one “ownership”, a
automatically. This arrangement is applicable to central station system supervises many individual
privately owned facilities. When a building is unrelated local systems for a fee. Operators of the
unoccupied, notification to the fire department can central supervisory installation receive all signals
come only incidentally, perhaps from a passerby. from individual users and provide the required
Auxiliary Fire Alarm System services, including alarm verification, fire reporting,
- Local system equipped with a direct connection to a and repairs when trouble signals are received. As
municipal fire alarm box. The received alarm signal is with proprietary systems, central station consoles
identical to the resulting from a manual alarm at that often supervise access control, intrusion alarms
city box. Since fire department is aware of all city box and related systems.
Circuit Supervision o Requiring activation of at least two
- Refers to the circuit arrangements in fire alarm systems that cross – zoned detectors in a single area
indicate a malfunction in the writing alarm devices by o Requiring that a detector repeat its
sounding a trouble bell. The trouble signal is separate and alarm after being reset
distinct from an alarm signal. The extent of circuit supervision o Requiring that a smoke detector
required varies with the type of facility and the specific code continue to alarm for a minimum period
adopted by a jurisdiction. of time, thus eliminating smoke puffs as
Conventional Systems the cause of the alarm
- Simplest and oldest system is the conventional system. It uses o Physically inspecting the site protected
detectors and manual stations that transmit an alarm signal by the detector to visually determine
only. When they are on standby or quiescent state, they do whether the alarm is actual or false
not transmit. Such detectors and manual stations are called
conventional units; the same name is used for the entire
system. The signals transmitted by all detectors, and by
manual stations as well, are identical and therefore
distinguishable from each other.
- The number of alarm – initiating devices that can be wired to a
single detector circuit is unlimited.
- Alarm Verification – can be accomplished in conventional
systems in a number of ways, including:
- The last technique for alarm verification is probably the most System Coding
foolproof, but it is also the most difficult because it requires - Noncoded systems
knowledge of the exact location of the alarming detector. This o Noncoded systems are continuous
is possible only if detectors are grouped into zones and each ringing evacuation arrangements using
zone is annunciated individually. manual and automatic alarm initiation.
- To assist in localizing areas in a building by annunciation, If desired, the devices can be zoned and,
zones are wired to contain as few devices as possible, the if the system is sufficiently large,
ultimate arrangement being separatae zone for each other. As annunciation can be provided. Audible
the number of zones increases, so does the necessary wiring devices are continuous ringing
and, as a result, so do the installation costs. (vibrating) bells an horns. Visual devices
- A balance must struck between two requirements are lights and strobes.
o The need for more zones to localize and thereby - Master – Coded systems
simplify alarm identification and verification o Also called common – coded and fixed –
o Limitation of the increased cost of zoning coded, generates four rounds of code
- The balance point depends upon the type of facility being that are sounded and flashed on all of
protected the building alarm devices when any
- Multiplexing signal – initiating device operates.
o Uses a time – sharing electronic technique to transmit Utilizes a single code transmitter at the
and receive multiple signals on a single two – wire panel. The system stops after four
communications circuit. rounds of code, although it can readily
be arranged to sound and flash
 continuously thereafter. When the code is set to ring sounded simultaneously – the coded
bells at 108strokes per minute, it is known as march alarm in the building’s maintenance
time because of the rhythmic cadence. This beats aids office, and the evacuation alarm on
in the rapid, panic – free evacuation of a building and separate audible and visual devices
therefore is frequently used in schools. throughout the building. A requisite to
- Zone – Coded systems the application of this system is a
o Identification of the alarmed zone in a system can be continuously staffed office in which the
accomplished with zone lights, with an annunciator, or coded identifying signal can be received
by coding. In the first two cases, it is necessary to go to and acted upon.
the panel or annunciator to determine the location of - Selective – Coded systems
the operated device, which entails a possibly critical o Fully coded systems in which all manual
delay. All coded systems avoid this drawback by devices are individually coded and all
sounding the code on all the gongs in a building, thus automatic devices are arranged to trip
immediately identifying the station and permitting the code transmitters a panel. Each manual
building staff to quickly investigate the cause of the station can be immediately identified by
alarm and take appropriate measures. its distinctive code. The combinations
- Dual – Coded systems and circuitry are entirely in the hands of
o Combination of noncoded and zone-coded systems. the designer. In large conventional
When an alarm device operates, it initiates two systems, which fully selective – coded
separate functions – an identifying coded alarm and a systems usually are, sprinkler
continuous ringing evacuation alarm. The alarms are transmitter and smoke detectors
 operate as integral subsystems of the main fire alarm visible device circuits, illuminates annunciator
panel panels, controls fans and door releases and so
- Presignaling on, all via dedicated wiring. This arrangement
o When it is desired to alert only key personnel, a system has the advantages of reliability and simplicity.
called presignaling is used. Small bells or chimes are - As a system grows, the wiring becomes heavy,
activated only at their work locations. These systems complex and expensive; panels become large
are always selectively coded, the personnel alerted can and bulky; and changes become difficult.
immediately investigate and, if necessary, manually Troubleshooting of a system faults becomes
turn in a general alarm by key operation of a station. time- consuming. Minimalizing false alarms is
Because of the delay involved, this type of system is problematic because alarm verification in
used only in buildings where evacuation is difficult and systems with large zones containing many
sufficient staff is available to immediately investigate alarm devices is very difficult within the
the cause of an alarm. extremely short time span permitted for this
Signal Processing operation
- Once a hazard has been detected, a signal is transmitted to a - Result of these problems, a system was
fire control center and appropriate action taken, in developed in which every device can be
conventional systems, the alarm signal is transmitted over individually identified and remotely checked,
dedicated conductors (“hard wiring”) to a control panel, without separate wiring to each. It is called
consisting of either electromechanical relays (in older addressable system because all the devices are
systems) or solid – state switching circuitry (in modern individually addressable.
systems). The control panel, in turn, actuates audible and
Addressable Fire Alarm Systems - Wiring costs for large systems are considerably
- One that uses addressable fire detection devices, both lower than those of conventional system. The
automatic and manual. These detectors are essentially process of measuring and calibrating detector
identical to conventional detectors except that they are sensitivity is essentially the same as in a
equipped with electronic circuitry, usually mounted in a conventional system; the detector must be
special base, that effectively makes each detector a separate physically demounted and checked.
zone. In the event of an alarm, the control can require alarm Automatic Fire Detection
confirmation from an adjacent detector or can require a Stages of Fire Detectors
repeat alarm from the same detector after a remote reset.
- Addressable devices are continuously polled from the control
panel, and each replies to the poll by reporting its condition as
“ok – standby, alarm, or trouble”. Each device is identified by
its address, an alarm or trouble signal from a detector can be
quickly and easily confirmed. Detector identification is
accomplished either visually on announciator panel or by
alphanumeric read-out on an LCD readout panel.
- Hardware costs of addressable systems are higher than those
of a conventional system because of the additional electronic
in the detector bases and the control panel. Maintenance
costs, are somewhat lower because the panel’s polling
operation checks some of the detector’s electronics.
Stage 1: Incipient Stage Detector:
- Invisible particulate matter given off (1) Photoelectric Smoke Detector
- No visible flames, smoke or appreciable heat
- Composed of a significant quantity of microscopic particles
(0.01 to 1.0 micron).
Detector:
Ionization-Type Detectors
- Photoelectric Smoke Detection operates on the
principle of beam obscuration.
- The presence of smoke in sufficient
concentration partially obscures the beam,
changing current flow in the photocell circuit
and setting off an alarm response.

- Detects the microscopic particles best (2) Projected Beam Photoelectric Smoke

- Contain a small amount of radioactive material that serves to Detector

ionize the air between two charged surfaces, causing a current

to flow.
Stage 2: Smoldering Stage
- Particles up to 10 microns in size.
- Although small, they are visible to the naked eye as smoke
- A beam‐type photoelectric detector consisting of two (5) Air-Sampling Detection System
separate units: a beam transmitter and a beam receiver,
normally wall‐mounted on opposite sides of a space,
somewhat below the ceiling.
(3) Scattered-Light Photoelectric Smoke Detector - Instead of waiting for air that may be carrying
- A pulsed light‐emitting diode (LED) beam is directed at a incipient smoke particles to reach the
supervisory photocell, which serves to provide a baseline detector(s) by thermal currents, this system
reference signal. samples air throughout the protected space by
- When smoke enters the unit, light is reflected from (scattered aspiration and brings it to the detector for
by) smoke particles and strikes the alarm cell. testing.
(4) LASER BEAM PHOTOELECTRIC SMOKE DETECTOR Stage 3: Flame Stage
- First detection of flame, which in turn produces
heat heading to the last stage, almost
instantaneously.
- and the prime requirement for a detector at
this stage is speed.
Detectors:
- A very‐high‐sensitivity laser diode source, scattered‐light type
Flame Detectors (The Two Types of Flame Detectors)
photoelectric smoke detector has been developed that is
- Ultraviolet (UV) radiation detectors operate by
classified by its manufacturer as an early warning device.
optically detecting the UV radiation produced
by flames
 - Infrared (IR) radiation detectors are sensitive to radiation in sensitive.
the IR region, between 650 and 6500 nm.
Stage 4: Heat Stage Special Types of Detectors
- The final stage of automatic fire detection, and most
hazardous.
- By this time, a fire is burning openly and producing great heat,
incandescent air, and smoke. False Alarm Mitigation
Detectors: - Function: minimizes
Heat Detectors (Two Types of Heat Detectors) annoying sound and
(1) Spot‐Type Heat potentially
Detectors dangerous false
- Collects heat alarms.
information on a MANUAL STATIONS
specific spot of the
detector only
(2) Linear Heat
Detectors

- Operated by hand
- The entire length of a - Function: Serve to spread an alarm that has
cable‐like already been detected by other means
element is heat - Location:
 o natural path of escape from fire alarm be a strobe light, flashing at less than 2
o unobstructed and at visible points Hz
Sprinkler Alarms General Fire Alarm Recommendations
Residential Fire Alarm Basics
- Alarm Requirement: System should provide
sufficient time for the evacuation of residents.
- System Elements:
o various alarm‐initiating devices
- Function: Automatically discharges water when activated by
o wiring and control panel
heat or combustion products from a fire
o audible alarm devices
- Construction: Integrated network of hydraulically designed
- Good basic system for a multi-unit installation
piping system installed in an area with outlets arranged in a
requires:
systematic pattern
o Smoke detectors
- Closed-head sprinkler is held closed by either a heat-sensitive
o Audible and visible alarms
glass or a two-part metal link held together with fusible alloy
o Control Unit
Audible and Visible Alarm Devices
o Backup power
- Audible: Signal will be sounded throughout
o Wiring
a building. Requires minimum alarm sound
Multiple‐Dwelling Alarm Systems
pressure level of 15 dBA above the average
- Exact requirements for the location and type of
ambient sound level
detectors
- Visible: Primary purpose is to be an alert to
- Design guidelines:
hearing‐impaired people. Requires visible
 o Audible and visible alarms o Water flow switches on all sprinklers
o Smoke detectors
o Alarm light over door Fire Code of The Philippines
o emergency voice / alarm communication system General Requirements
Commercial and Institutional Building Alarm Systems - A. Every building or structure, new or old, designed
- Requirements for these buildings are so varied that no specific for human occupancy shall be provided with exits
recommendations can be made sufficient to permit the fast and safe escape of
- Suggestions: occupants in case of fire or other emergency. The
o Pre-signaling design of exits and other fire safety construction
o Orderly evacuation shall be such that reliance for safety to life in case
o Alarm connection to fire Department of fire or other emergency will not depend solely
High-Rise Office Building Alarm System on any single fire safety construction. Additional
- Fire codes now require that high‐rise buildings be equipped safeguards shall be provided for life safety in case
with an emergency voice/alarm communication system. any single safeguard is ineffective due to some
Industrial Facility Alarms human or mechanical failure.
- In addition to manual stations at points of egress, these - B. Every building or structure shall be designed,
buildings use: constructed, equipped, maintained and operated
o Temperature and smoke detectors in storage areas to avoid danger to the lives and ensure safety of its
and laboratories occupants from fire, smoke, vapor and fumes,
o Smoke and flame detectors in record rooms and during the period of escape from the building or
continuous process laboratories structure.
- C. Every building or structure shall be provided with exits of kind, its possible confusion as an exit. Likewise, passage
number, location and capacity appropriate to the individual constituting a way to reach an exit shall be marked
building or structure, with due regard to the character of the to minimize confusion.
occupancy, the number of persons exposed, the fire protection - F. All means of egress shall be provided with
available and the height and type of construction of the building adequate and reliable illumination.
or structure, to afford all occupants convenient facilities for - G. Fire alarm systems or devices shall be provided
escape. in every building or structure of such size,
- D. Every exit of buildings or structures shall be arranged and arrangement, or occupancy, to provide adequate
maintained to provide free and unobstructed egress from all parts warning to occupants.
thereof at all times. No lock or fastening device that would - H. Every building or structure, section, or area
prevent escape from the inside of any building shall be installed thereof of such size, occupancy and arrangement
except in mental, penal, or correctional institutions where such that the reasonable safety of a number of
personnel are continually on duty and effective provisions are occupants may be endangered by the blocking of
made to evacuate occupants in case of fire or other emergencies. any single means of egress due to fire or smoke,
- E. Every exit shall be clearly visible. The route to the exit shall be shall have at least two means of egress remote
conspicuously marked in such a manner that every occupant of a from each other, so arranged as to minimize any
building or structure will readily know the direction of escape. possibility that both may be blocked by any one fire
Each route of escape, in its entirety, shall be so arranged or or other emergency conditions.
marked that the way to a place of safety outside is unmistakable. - I. Every vertical way of exit and other vertical
Any doorway not constituting an exit shall be marked to minimize openings between floors of a building shall be
suitably enclosed or protected to afford reasonable
 safety of occupants while using exits and to prevent spread of fire, 4. In building structures or facilities, such as
smoke, or fumes through vertical openings from floor to floor condominium and the like, where some units of the
before occupants have entered exits. building are not yet sold, the provisions of
- J. Required Fire Safety Programs/Measures paragraph “J” sub-para "3" above shall apply.
1. In addition to the requirements, lessees or occupants of When all condominium units have been sold,
buildings, structures or facilities shall observe all pertinent fire responsibility for fire safety measures in the
safety measures; common areas such as the means of egrees,
2. All occupants or lessees of buildings, structures or facilities shall utilities, building equipment/system and the
organize themselves and develop and implement fire safety building as a whole, shall devolve jointly upon all
programs to include among others, fire prevention in the individual unit owners or occupants.
premises, notification of the BFP on the existence of a fire, - K. Compliance with this Chapter shall not be
evacuation of persons and initial fire fighting. The building owner construed as eliminating or reducing the necessity
shall take the initiative of formulating the fire safety program for from complying with the other provisions for safety
his building and of organizing the occupants to implement the of persons using a structure under normal
programs. occupancy conditions. Also, no provision of the Fire
3. In buildings, leased to and used by one or several companies or Code of the Philippines and this IRR shall be
persons, the management of each company or each person shall construed as requiring or permitting any condition
be responsible for fire safety measures within the leased or that might be hazardous under normal occupancy
occupied areas. The building owner shall be responsible for the conditions.
common areas in the building such as the means of egress, - L. CONTRUCTION AND REPAIR OPERATIONS
utilities and building service equipment or systems. 1. New Construction
 ▪ a. No building or structure under construction shall be - III. Corridors shall provide exit access without
occupied in whole or in part until required means of egress passing through any intervening rooms.
(exits) required for the part to be occupied are completed, - IV. Remoteness shall be determined in accordance
inspected and approved for occupancy. with the following:
▪ b. Adequate escape facilities shall be maintained at all o a. When more than one exit is required
times in buildings under construction for the use of from a building or portion thereof, such
construction workers. exits shall be remotely located from each
2. Repairs or Alterations other and shall be arranged and
▪ a. Existing buildings may be occupied during repairs or constructed properly.
alterations provided that all existing fire o b. When 2 exists are required, they shall
protection/devices are continuously maintained. be located at a distance from one another
▪ b. Flammable or explosive substances or equipment not less than a one-half of the length of the
necessary for the repair or alteration of a building or maximum over- all diagonal dimensions of
structure may be introduced therein while it’s occupied. the building.
Arrangement of Exits o c. In buildings protected throughout by an
- I. Exits shall be located and exit access shall be arranged so that approved supervised automatic sprinkler
exits are readily accessible at all times. system, the minimum separation distance
- II. Continuous passageways, aisles, or corridors leading directly of exit doors shall not be less than one-third
to every exit shall be maintained and shall be arranged to provide the length of the maximum over all
access for each occupant to not less than two exits by separate diagonal dimension of the building.
ways of travel.
 o d. Where exit enclosures are provided as the required - FIRE EXIT
exits specified, hereof and are interconnected by not less - KEEP DOOR CLOSE
than an 1-hour fire resistance-rated corridor, exit - D. Doors on buildings of 4 storeys in height
separation shall be measured along the line of travel shall be provided with re-entry mechanism to
within the corridor. provide access out of the stairway to another
o e. Where more the 2 exits or access doors are required, exit.
at least 2 of the required exits or access doors shall be - E. Door not allowing re-entry shall be
arranged comply with the minimum separation distance provided with a sign indicating the location of
requirement. the nearest door, in each direction travel that
- V. Interlocking or scissor stairs shall be considered only as a allows re-entry exit.
single exit for new buildings o No Re-Entry
Locks, Latches and Alarm Devices o Proceed To ______ Floor
- A. A door shall be arranged to be readily opened from the o And _______ Floor
side from which egress is to be made at all times when the
building served thereby is occupied
- B. A latch or other fastening device on a door shall be
provided with a knob, handle, panic bar, or other simple type
releasing device.
- C. A door to a stair or horizontal exit, shall be provided
with a reliable self-closing mechanism. A door should bear a
sign like:
 D. Hi Tech Systems

1. Building Automation

Complete autonomous control of an entire facility is the goal that any modern automation system attempts to
achieve. The distributed control system - the computer networking of electronic devices designed to monitor
and control the mechanical, security, fire, lighting, HVAC and humidity control and ventilation systems in a
building or across several campuses.

The Building Automation System (BAS) core functionality is to keep building climate within a specified range,
light rooms based on an occupancy schedule, monitor performance and device failures in all systems and
provide malfunction alarms. Automation systems reduce building energy and maintenance costs compared to a
non-controlled building. Typically they are financed through energy and insurance savings and other savings
associated with pre-emptive maintenance and quick detection of issues.

A building controlled by a BAS is often referred to as an intelligent building or "smart building". Commercial
and industrial buildings have historically relied on robust proven protocols like BACnet.

Almost all multi-story green buildings are designed to accommodate a BAS for the energy, air and water
conservation characteristics. Electrical device demand response is a typical function of a BAS, as is the more
sophisticated ventilation and humidity monitoring required of "tight" insulated buildings. Most green buildings
also use as many low-power DC devices as possible, typically integrated with power over Ethernet wiring, so
by definition always accessible to a BAS through the Ethernet connectivity. Even a passivhaus design intended
to consume no net energy whatsoever will typically require a BAS to manage heat capture, shading and venting,
and scheduling device use.
1.1 Communication of a Building Automation System

Buses and protocols

Most building automation networks consist of a primary and secondary bus which connect high-level controllers
with lower-level controllers, input/output devices and a user interface devices. ASHRAE's open protocol BACnet or
the open protocol LonTalk specify how most such devices interoperate. Modern systems use SNMP to track events,
building on decades of history with SNMP-based protocols in the computer networking world.

Physical connectivity between devices was historically provided by dedicated optical fiber, ethernet, ARCNET, RS-
232, RS-485 or a low-bandwidth special purpose wireless network. Modern systems rely on standards-based multi-
protocol heterogeneous networking. These accommodate typically only IP-based networking but can make use of
any existing wiring, and also integrate powerline networking over AC circuits, power over Ethernet low power DC
circuits, high-bandwidth wireless networks such as LTE and IEEE 802.11n and IEEE 802.11ac and often integrate
these using the building-specific wireless mesh open standards.

Current systems provide interoperability at the application level, allowing users to mix-and-match devices from
different manufacturers, and to provide integration with other compatible building control systems. These typically
rely on SNMP, long used for this same purpose to integrate diverse computer networking devices into one coherent
network.

Types of Inputs and Outputs

Analog inputs are used to read a variable measurement. Examples are temperature, humidity and pressure sensors. A
digital input indicates if a device is turned on or not. Analog outputs control the speed or position of a device, such
as a variable frequency drive or a valve or damper actuator. Digital outputs are used to open and close relays and
switches. An example would be to turn on the parking lot lights when a photocell indicates it is dark outside.
1.2 Devices
Controllers

BAS Controllers are purpose-built computers with input and output capabilities. These controllers come in a range
of sizes and capabilities to control devices commonly found in buildings and to control sub-networks of controllers.
Inputs allow a controller to read temperatures, humidity, pressure, current flow, air flow, and other essential factors.
The outputs allow the controller to send command and control signals to slave devices, and to other parts of the
system. Inputs and outputs can be either digital or analog. Digital outputs are also sometimes called discrete
depending on manufacturer.

Controllers used for building automation can be grouped in 3 categories. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs),
System/Network controllers, and Terminal Unit controllers. However an additional device can also exist in order to
integrate 3rd party systems (i.e. a stand-alone AC system) into a central Building automation system).

System/Network controllers may be applied to control one or more mechanical systems such as an Air Handler Unit
(AHU), boiler, chiller, etc., or they may supervise a sub-network of controllers. In the diagram above,
System/Network controllers are often used on the IP backbone.

Terminal Unit controllers usually are suited for control of lighting and/or simpler devices such as a package rooftop
unit, heat pump, VAV box, or fan coil, etc. The installer typically selects 1 of the available pre-programmed
personalities best suited to the device to be controlled, and does not have to create new control logic.
Air handlers

Most air handlers mix return and outside air so less temperature/humidity conditioning is needed. This can save
money by using less chilled or heated water (not all AHUs use chilled/hot water circuits). Some external air is
needed to keep the building's air healthy. To optimize energy efficiency while maintaining healthy indoor air quality
(IAQ), demand control (or controlled) ventilation (DCV) adjusts the amount of outside air based on measured levels
of occupancy. Analog or digital temperature sensors may be placed in the space or room, the return and supply air
ducts, and sometimes the external air. Actuators are placed on the hot and chilled water valves, the outside air and
return air dampers. The supply fan (and return if applicable) is started and stopped based on either time of day,
temperatures, building pressures or a combination.

Constant volume air-handling units

The less efficient type of air-handler is a "constant volume air handling unit," or CAV. The fans in CAVs do not
have variable-speed controls. Instead, CAVs open and close dampers and water-supply valves to maintain
temperatures in the building's spaces. They heat or cool the spaces by opening or closing chilled or hot water valves
that feed their internal heat exchangers. Generally one CAV serves several spaces

Variable volume air-handling units

A more efficient unit is a "variable air volume (VAV) air-handling unit," or VAV. VAVs supply pressurized air to
VAV boxes, usually one box per room or area. A VAV air handler can change the pressure to the VAV boxes by
changing the speed of a fan or blower with a variable frequency drive. The amount of air is determined by the needs
of the spaces served by the VAV boxes.

Each VAV box supply air to a small space, like an office. Each box has a damper that is opened or closed based on
how much heating or cooling is required in its space. The more boxes are open, the more air is required, and a
greater amount of air is supplied by the VAV air-handling unit. Some VAV boxes also have hot water valves and an
internal heat exchanger. The valves for hot and cold water are opened or closed based on the heat demand for the
spaces it is supplying. These heated VAV boxes are sometimes used on the perimeter only and the interior zones are
cooling only. A minimum and maximum CFM must be set on VAV boxes to assure adequate ventilation and proper
air balance.

Chilled water system

Chilled water is often used to cool a building's air and equipment. The chilled water system will have chiller(s) and
pumps. Analog temperature sensors measure the chilled water supply and return lines. The chillers are sequenced on
and off to chill the chilled water supply.

A chiller is a refrigeration unit designed to produce cool (chilled) water for space cooling purposes. The chilled
water is then circulated to one or more cooling coils located in air handling units, fan-coils, or induction units.
Chilled water distribution is not constrained by the 100 foot separation limit that applies to DX systems, thus chilled
water-based cooling systems are typically used in larger buildings. Capacity control in a chilled water system is
usually achieved through modulation of water flow through the coils; thus, multiple coils may be served from a
single chiller without compromising control of any individual unit. Chillers may operate on either the vapor
compression principle or the absorption principle. Vapor compression chillers may utilize reciprocating, centrifugal,
screw, or rotary compressor configurations. Reciprocating chillers are commonly used for capacities below 200
tons; centrifugal chillers are normally used to provide higher capacities; rotary and screw chillers are less commonly
used, but are not rare. Heat rejection from a chiller may be by way of an air-cooled condenser or a cooling tower
(both discussed below). Vapor compression chillers may be bundled with an air-cooled condenser to provide a
packaged chiller, which would be installed outside of the building envelope. Vapor compression chillers may also be
designed to be installed separate from the condensing unit; normally such a chiller would be installed in an enclosed
central plant space. Absorption chillers are designed to be installed separate from the condensing unit.

Hot water system

The hot water system supplies heat to the building's air-handling unit or VAV box heating coils, along with the
domestic hot water heating coils (Calorifier). The hot water system will have a boiler(s) and pumps. Analog
temperature sensors are placed in the hot water supply and return lines. Some type of mixing valve is usually used to
control the heating water loop temperature. The boiler(s) and pumps are sequenced on and off to maintain supply.

The installation and integration of variable frequency drives can lower the energy consumption of the building's
circulation pumps to about 15% of what they had been using before. If that sounds hard to believe, I'll explain, and
we can do the math. A variable frequency drive functions by modulating the frequency of the electricity provided to
the motor that it powers. In the USA, the electrical grid uses a frequency of 60 Hertz or 60 cycles per second.
Variable frequency drives are able to decrease the output and energy consumption of motors by lowering the
frequency of the electricity provided to the motor, however the relationship between motor output and energy
consumption is not a linear one. If the variable frequency drive provides electricity to the motor at 30 Hertz, the
output of the motor will be 50% because 30 Hertz divided by 60 Hertz is 0.5 or 50%. The energy consumption of a
motor running at 50% or 30 Hertz will not be 50%, but will instead be something like 18% because the relationship
between motor output and energy consumption are not linear. The exact ratios of motor output or Hertz provided to
the motor (which are effectively the same thing), and the actual energy consumption of the variable frequency drive
/ motor combination depend on the efficiency of the variable frequency drive. For example, because the variable
frequency drive needs power itself to communicate with the building automation system, run it's cooling fan, etc., if
the motor always ran at 100% with the variable frequency drive installed the cost of operation or electricity
consumption would actually go up with the new variable frequency drive installed. The amount of energy that
variable frequency drives consume is nominal and is hardly worth consideration when calculating savings, however
it did need to be noted that VFD's do consume energy themselves. Due to the fact that the variable frequency drives
rarely ever run at 100% and spend most of their time in the 40% output range, and the fact that now the pumps
completely shut down when not needed, the variable frequency drives have reduced the energy consumption of the
pumps to around 15% of what they had been using before.

2. Robotics

Robotics is a branch of engineering that involves the conception, design, manufacture, and operation of robots. This
field overlaps with electronics, computer science, artificial intelligence, mechatronics, nanotechnology and
bioengineering.

Science-fiction author Isaac Asimov is often given credit for being the first person to use the term robotics in a short
story composed in the 1940s. In the story, Asimov suggested three principles to guide the behavior of robots and
smart machines. Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics, as they are called, have survived to the present:

1. Robots must never harm human beings.

2. Robots must follow instructions from humans without violating rule 1.

3. Robots must protect themselves without violating the other rules.

Parts of a Robot

Robots can be made from a variety of materials including metals and plastics. Most robots are composed of 3 main
parts:

o The Controller ‐ also known as the "brain" which is run by a computer program. Often, the program is very
detailed as it give commands for the moving parts of the robot to follow.

o Mechanical parts ‐ motors, pistons, grippers, wheels, and gears that make the robot move, grab, turn, and lift.
These parts are usually powered by air, water, or electricity.

o Sensors ‐ to tell the robot about its surroundings. Sensors allow the robot to determine sizes, shapes, space
between objects, direction, and other relations and properties of substances. Many robots can even identify the
amount of pressure necessary to apply to grab an item without crushing it.

Nanorobots

Nano-robots or nanobots are robots scaled down to microscopic size in order to put them into very small spaces to
perform a function. Currently nanobots are still in the developmental stage. Future nanobots could be placed in the
blood stream to perform surgical procedures that are too delicate or too difficult for standard surgery. Nanobots
could fight bacteria by tracking down and eliminating each bacterial cell or could repair individual organ cells in the
body.

Imagine if a nanobot could target cancer cells and destroy them without touching healthy cells nearby. Nanobots
would probably carry medication and surgical tools on board. They would need to be able to navigate through the
human body and then find their way out too. Nanobots could be used in other situations too. Tiny nanobot gears and
tools could allow construction of objects at the tiniest of scale. Some of the things we only imagine in science fiction
could one day be reality. Maybe you will one day be a scientist who works with nanobots.
Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence is also known as machine intelligence or AI for short. Some computers and robots have been
given the opportunity to act with human-like behavior. Face recognition software, complicated scheduling software,
or computer games that give players a response based on the players actions are all forms of artificial intelligence.
The goal for AI was, at one time, to recreate the intelligence of a human being. At the present time, insect
intelligence is the focus of research and development because insects and their behavior are easier to mimic.
Nanobots could be based on insect behavior, working in swarms together to perform a function.

Some robots and computers have been given the ability to learn and to use information from previous activities to
make future decisions. A robot that fills a box with cookies might be able to “count” the number of cookies in the
box, or a computer could determine the amount of traffic on a street to calculate when to change the light. This
science is in the early stages, but robots are being developed that can make decisions in order to serve food, translate
words from one language to another, and get information from outside resources to solve problems.

Robot Limitations

Unlike in the movies, Robots are unable to think or make decisions; they are only tools to help us get things done.
Robots are machines with programed movements that allow them to move in certain directions or sequences.
Artificial intelligence has given robots more ability to process information and to “learn.” But, they are still limited
by the information that they are given and the functions they are given to perform.

Robotics and its Role in Architecture

Just as computers and computation have become integrated into virtually every discipline, robotics is also being
integrated into all fields of knowledge including industrial, space, agricultural, construction, disaster relief, mining,
surveillance, security, transportation, medical, domestic and other applications.

Robots, as things, can be found in a variety of places. They can be found in the home, on factory floors, in the sky,
in the water, on the road, at the malls, in the hospitals, in outer space, on Mars, in toddlers’ play pens, in sports
stadiums, in television media and even inside the human body. Robots can be more than consumer products or
objects in space. They can be environments such as vehicles, planes, ships and even buildings.

Unlike automobiles, ships, airplanes and other environments that are made to constantly move, architecture is
usually made to resist change. Architecture has been often described as a timeless anchor amid a relentless passage
of time. Hence, to speak of robotics in architecture might initially sound like an oxymoron. It is not easy to reconcile
agile and dynamic robotic technologies with the static built environment.

Robotic Technologies: Digital Fabrication

Digital fabrication—the use of advanced manufacturing technologies such as CNC mills, 3D printers, laser cutters,
waterjet cutters and other digitally-driven making technologies—has been typically framed in servile,
instrumentalist, formalist and functionalist terms. Surely, these technologies, together with other advancements in
design computation such as BIM and CAM, have transformed how we conceptualize, design, fabricate, assemble
and construct large scale architectural artifacts.

3. Computer Applications

A computer application is defined as a set of procedures, instructions and programs designed to change and improve
the state of a computer's hardware. Applications are made in a machine-understandable language to accomplish a
variety of individual or organizational jobs. They are made with user-friendly interfaces for easy use. Applications
are either sold, licensed, run online, or require installation on the computer. Some systems can be downloaded as
freeware, used and copied without restraint. Those that are shareware are downloadable, but a user often needs to
pay a certain amount to be able to use them.

Common examples of word processors are Microsoft Word, WordPad and Notepad. Database application software
includes MS Access and Oracle. Microsoft Excel and Lotus 1-2-3 are examples of spreadsheet applications.
Multimedia application examples are Media Player and Real Player. The most common presentation software is
Microsoft PowerPoint. Examples of educational computer applications are Encarta, Britannica, NASA World Wind,
and Google Earth.

Types of Computer Applications

Embedded Systems

When we save a name, address and other information in to our Mobile Phone or Digital Diary, You know How it
gets saved in it? Nothing but which is a small computer program 'Embedded' into a chip in the device inside the
mobile phone or digital diary known as Embedded Systems.

Windows applications

Windows Applications is a form based standard Windows, Microsoft word; Paint is example to the Windows
application, and also called 'Desktop applications'.
Web Applications

A web site is also called 'web Applications'. A web applications is a collection of web pages hosted on a special
computer called 'web server'. Web server can be located anywhere and visitors can be located anywhere .It will work
through Browsers (EG. Internet Explorer, Mozilla, Netscape).

Web Services

Web services are web applications that give services to other applications through the internet, example Google
search engine, Yahoo Search engine etc. which allows other applications to delegate the task of searching over the
internet.

Console Applications

Console applications runs inside the command prompt i.e. DOS window, It is a light weight program and which is
used commonly for test applications.

CAD Software

The idea of designing with the help of computers began in the 1960s with the growth of automobile and aerospace
companies. The CAD industry became firmly established in the 1970s with software and hardware sold together in
very expensive, dedicated machines. It wasn't until the 1980s that personal computing (PC) was possible and
affordable, with the goal of having a PC on every desk in the office.

CAD software let the designer become more efficient, and in business time is money. With CAD a designer could
switch between two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) views; zoom in and out for close-up and distant
views; rotate images to view them from different perspectives; manipulate the shape of images; and change the scale
of images — when one value changed, related values automatically adjust.
BIM

Many building and design professionals have moved from CAD to BIM or Building Information
Modeling applications for many reasons, including its advanced capabilities for parametric modeling.

All components of built structures have "information." For example, imagine a "2-by-4." You visualize the
component because of its information. A computer can do this for thousands of components, so an architect can
easily change a design model by changing the information that makes up the design. This flexibility without
redrawing can produce interesting and daring designs that can be tested without risk and at little cost.

The construction process is integrated with the design process. After a design is complete, the BIM application lists
the component parts for the builder to put together. BIM software not only digitally represents the physical, but also
the functional aspects of a building. Combined with file-sharing and collaboration software ("cloud computing"),
BIM files can be tweaked and updated across all parties in the project — sectors of the Architecture, Engineering
and Construction (AEC) Industry. BIM keeps track of the nuts and bolts of design, literally.

4. Electronics

Environmental and policy changes, together with increasing consumer expectations, have greatly influenced the
energy and utility sectors in recent years. Besides ensuring system reliability and delivery, utility service providers
are also looking to use technology to reduce cost, drive efficiencies and secure critical infrastructure.

The Hi-Tech Utilities provides end-to-end secure utilities and an entire network of smart sensors solutions for utility
service providers, along with a service delivery life-cycle from design, implementation to assurance.

Electrical utility services are used in many applications. Some examples include providing utilities such as electric
power transmission, waste disposal, natural gas distribution and telephone lines to commercial, residential, and
industrial clients. Electrical utility services should adhere to knowledge provided by the Electrical and Utilities
Safety Association

Electrical utility services are involved in the design, site location, construction, service, repair, and inspection of
electrical utility facilities, substations, and transmission and distribution lines. There are several types of electrical
utility services. Examples include rural utility service, underground utility locating service, electrical services,
electrical contractor services and public electric utility service. Rural utility service provides reliable and affordable
electricity for the well being of the rural residents.

5. Architectural Considerations

Also known as Structural Expressionism, is a type of Late Modern architectural that emerged in the 1970s,
incorporating elements of high-tech industry and technology into building design. High-tech architecture appeared
as revamped modernism, an extension of those previous ideas helped by even more technological advances.

6. Building Laws

8 Considerations In Hi-Tech Systems

o Alternative and renewable energy

o Healthy spaces
o Controlled flood, storm surge, and tsunamis
o Light-controlled structures
o Oxygenated spaces
o Safe for everyone
o Intricate waste management
o Temperature control
 E. COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

In telecommunication, a communications system or communication system is a collection of

individual communications networks, transmission systems, relay stations, tributary stations, and data terminal
equipment (DTE) usually capable of interconnection and interoperation to form an integrated whole. The
components of a communications system serve a common purpose, are technically compatible, use common
procedures, respond to controls, and operate in union.

Telecommunications is a method of communication (e.g., for sports broadcasting, mass media, journalism, etc.).
Communication is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of
mutually understood signs and semiotic rules

E.0.1 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
The word “Optical” stands for light. As the name itself suggests, optical communication system depends on
light as the medium for communication. In an optical communication system the transmitter converts the
information into an optical signal (signal in the form of light) and finally the signal then reaches the recipient. The
recipient then decodes the signal and responds accordingly. In optical communication system, light helps in the
transmission of information. The safe landing of helicopters and aeroplanes work on the above principle. The pilots
receive light signals from the base and decide their next movements. On the roads, red light communicates the
individual to immediately stop while the individual moves on seeing the green light. In this mode of communication
light travels through the optical fibre.

RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

In the radio communication system the information flows with the help of a radio. Radio communication
system works with the aid of a transmitter and a receiver both equipped with an antenna.

The transmitter with the help of an antenna produces signals which are carried through radio carrier wave.
The receiver also with the help of an antenna receives the signal. Some information is unwanted and must be
discarded and hence the electronic filters help in the separation of radio signals from other unwanted signals which
are further amplified to an optimum level Finally the signals are decoded in an information which can be easily
understood by the individuals for them to respond accordingly.

DUPLEX COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM

In Duplex communications system two equipments can communicate with each other in both the directions
simultaneously and hence the name Duplex. When you interact with your friend over the telephone, both of you can
listen to each other at the same time. The sender sends the signals to the receiver who receives it then and there and
also give his valuable feedback to the speaker for him to respond. Hence the communication actually takes place
between the speaker and the receiver simultaneously. In the Duplex communication system, two devices can
communicate with each other at the same time.

A type of communication system involves the sender and the receiver where the sender is in charge of
sending signals and the recipients only listen to it and respond accordingly. Such communication is also called
Simplex communication system.

HALF DUPLEX COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

In half Duplex communication system, both the two parties can’t communicate simultaneously. The sender
has to stop sending the signals to the recipient and then only the recipient can respond.

A walkie talkie works on the half duplex communication system. The military personnel while interacting
has to say “Over” for the other person to respond. He needs to speak the security code correctly for the other person
to speak. The other party will never communicate unless and until the code is correct and complete.
TACTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Another mode of communication is the tactical mode of communication. In this mode of communication,
communication varies according to the changes in the environmental conditions and other situations.

E.1 TELEPHONE
A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a
conversation when they are not in the same vicinity of each other to be heard directly. o First patented in 1876 by
Alexander Graham Bell and further developed by many others, the telephone was the first device in history that
enabled people to talk directly with each other across large distances.

It is a device which converts human speech in the form of sound waves produced by the vocal cord to electrical
signals. These signals are then transmitted over telephone wires and then converted back to sound waves for human
ears.

• Microphone
• Earphone
• Signaling functions

E.1.1 HOW IT WORKS

THE TRANSMITTER.
The transmitter is the ear of the telephone in that it "hears" the voice of the person speaking into it. The
transmitter is a miniature carbon pile rheostat. A rheostat is a device that controls an electric current by varying the
resistance in the circuit, similar to the action of a dimmer switch control. The variations in sound pressure from the
voice vibrating against the diaphragm change the compression of the carbon granules. This varies the resistance of
the transmitter. The transmitter has two contacts that are insulated from each other. Current can only flow through
the carbon granules. As sound pressure from the voice presses against the diaphragm, the carbon is more closely
compressed within the chamber. Compressing the carbon granules lowers the resistance of the transmitter resulting
in more current flow through the transmitter circuit. When the pressure on the diaphragm is released, it momentarily
snaps out farther than its original position. The carbon is under less pressure than normal and the resistance of the
transmitter is momentarily greater. The current flow decreases.

Figure 1: The Transmitter

The diaphragm of a transmitter is made of lightweight phosphor bronze, duraluminum or a similar material.
Either an extra inner cone of the same material strengthens the center or it is corrugated to act as a stabilizer. The
flexible outer edge is securely clamped in the transmitter housing. This design enables the diaphragm to move in and
out at the center like a piston. Since the diaphragm is sensitive to sound waves, the carbon granules are compressed
and released as the corresponding pressure from the sound wave's changes.

The telephone transmitters in use today are, in principle, like the ones invented more than 100 years ago by
Thomas Edison. Many modern electronic telephones use real microphones connected to related speech processing
equipment to vary the line current. Small microchips allow economy and space saving, enabling inexpensive, high
quality "throwaway" telephones. The output now generated by microchip-based telephones must emulate the same
variations created by the carbon granule type of transmitter.

What is known as the basic 500 set, a single-line telephone like the one that was in use in most homes, has
dictated the industry's electrical standard for the telephone instrument and all related signal processing equipment.

All types of 2- and 4-wire circuits are still designed around that 500 set.

THE RECEIVER
The receiver is the "mouth" of the telephone in that it speaks into the ear of the person using the telephone.
It also contains a diaphragm whose movement is caused by the strengthening and weakening of the field created by
the magnet within the receiver. The receiver converts the varying electrical current representing the transmitted
speech signal to variations in air pressure perceived as sound by the human ear. An electromagnetic receiver consists
of coils of many turns of fine wire wound on permanently magnetized soft iron cores that drive an armature. The
armature is a diaphragm made of a soft iron material.
 Figure 2: The Receiver

When someone speaks a word into a transmitter, the current flow in the circuit is alternately increased and
decreased as the moving electrode moves in and out of the carbon chamber. A requirement for an electromagnetic
receiver is a permanent magnet to provide a constant bias field for the varying electromagnetic field to work against.
Otherwise, both positive and negative currents would push the armature in the same direction. The varying electrical
current representing speech flows through coils and produces a varying electromagnetic field. It alternately aids and
opposes the permanent magnetic field; thus, it alternately increases and decreases the total magnetic field acting on
the diaphragm. This causes the diaphragm to vibrate in step with the varying current and moves the air to reproduce
the original speech that caused the current changes. Other types of receivers operate similarly, except that the
armature is a separate part and is connected to a conical non-magnetic diaphragm. The rocking action of the
armature causes the aluminum diaphragm to vibrate to reproduce the original speech. In some telephones this
receiver is created with the use of microprocessors.

The electromagnetic receiver was a central element of Alexander Graham Bell's original telephone patent.
Part of the design of the telephone handset that enables you to hear your own voice while talking is called side tone
or side noise. The reason for this is to give you some feedback that the telephone is working. Too much side tone
causes an echo. The ringer. There is a wide variety in types of ringers. Telephones run on DC (direct current) where
electrons flow in one direction. The bell or ringer operates on AC (alternating current), which means that electrons
are moving in two different directions to activate the bell. This AC sent on the local loop (telephone line) is called
ring generator (90 to 105 volts AC at 20-Hz). Minus 48 volts DC is always on the line, which is used to operate the
telephone after is answered.

There is a good analogy for understanding these electrical signals. Envision a garden hose. The hose
represents the wire. The water is the current. The water pressure is the voltage (electrical pressure). Stepping on the
hose with your foot is equivalent to resistance on an electrical circuit.

MICROPROCESSORS
The microprocessors in electronic telephones may replace any of the above internal components and may
also add additional capabilities and functions to the telephone, such as speed dialing, etc. Many telephones look the
same, but there is wide variation in the capabilities and prices. You can buy a throwaway single-line telephone for
less than ten dollars or a multi-line multi-featured telephone to work with a business telephone system for six
hundred dollars. As with many manufactured items, there is variation in the quality of the components that is
reflected in the price. The price also tends to be higher on the proprietary telephones, which work with a specific
manufacturer's system, even though they may look the same as those you, buy in your neighborhood telephone store.
E.1.2 PARTS OF A TELEPHONE

THE TELEPHONE HANDSET

also called the receiver. In fact, it includes both the receiver enabling you to hear and the transmitter
through which you speak. It may also have a volume control or a bar that you can depress to mute either the
receiving or transmitting capability. (Buttons on the telephone may also control these functions.)

Handsets come in different shapes and sizes and are usually made to work with a telephone from a specific
manufacturer.

THE HANDSET
may be directly wired (also called hardwired) to the telephone cord, which in turn is directly wired into the
telephone instrument, or there may be a plastic modular connector at one or both ends of the cord.

People who spend the entire day on the telephone such as customer service representatives, stock brokerage
traders and switchboard attendants often use a headset instead of a handset. On many telephones, you must leave the
handset attached and "off the hook" while using a headset, which is cumbersome.

THE HANDSET CORD

Also known as the curly cord. This often gets very twisted which can break or damage the wires inside
causing interference (static or "noise" on the line). Holding it up and letting the handset dangle at the end, enabling
the cord to unwind, can straighten it out. As mentioned above, most handsets are connected to the telephone with a
small plastic modular connector that plugs into a jack opening on the telephone. Some handsets are hardwired into
the telephone and cannot be unplugged.

The mounting cord. A straight cord (cable), usually gray or a translucent gray called silver satin. Typical
lengths are 6 feet, 9 feet, 13 feet and 25 feet. This cord sometimes has a modular connector at each end, one
plugging into a jack opening on the telephone and the other plugging into a jack opening in the wall. In some cases
the mounting cord is wired directly to the telephone or the wall or to both and cannot be unplugged.

THE DIAL PAD.

Also called the keypad, touch-tone pad, touch-tone buttons or DTMF pad ("DTMF" stands for dual tone
multi-frequency, referring to the touch-tone signals). Most telephones use the DTMF method for sending a
telephone number to the telecommunications service provider. The local telephone company central office and the
business telephone system (PBX) must have the capability to process these tones. The telephone is equipped with
the dial pad having 12 buttons that represent the numbers 0 through 9 and the symbols * and #. Pressing one of the
buttons causes an electronic circuit to generate two tones. There is a low-frequency tone for each row and a high-
frequency tone for each column. Pressing button number 5, for example, generates a 770-Hz tone and a 1,336-Hz
tone. By using this dual tone method, only seven tones produce 12 unique combinations. The frequencies and the
dial pad layout have been internationally standardized, but the tolerances for variations in frequencies may vary in
different countries.

THE TOUCHTONE SIGNALS

are used not only to dial telephone numbers, but also to interact with Voice Processing systems such as
Voice Mail, Automated Attendant. (for Sales press 1, for Service press 2, etc.) and Interactive Voice Response.

Some telephones may have a round rotary dial, but this is becoming less common. The signals sent out by a
rotary dial telephone are called dial pulse.

ROTARY DIAL TELEPHONES

are still in use. In general, their dial pulses are not recognized by voice processing systems. Some of the
newer voice processing systems use voice recognition (Say "Yes" for the Sales Department.)

THE FEATURE BUTTONS

also known as feature keys or function keys. These can serve a variety of functions. They enable different
outside lines and extensions to be answered. They may activate telephone system functions such as call transfer, call
conferencing, call forwarding, etc. They can also be used to speed dial frequently called numbers. Every telephone
system manufacturer treats these feature buttons differently, so what you learn about one system may not apply to
another. Some feature buttons are flexible, meaning that they can be programmed for a variety of functions. Some
are fixed, meaning they can provide only a specific function. Some systems have soft keys meaning that the same
button performs different functions at different times.

THE DISPLAY
also known as the LCD (liquid crystal display). Not all telephones have displays, although most newer
ones do. All business telephone system manufacturers provide them, but the display telephones may cost more. In
most cases they are worth the investment since operating the telephone on a business telephone system without the
benefit of the information provided in the display can be cumbersome. Different systems provide different
information in the display. Some show the date and time when the telephone is not in use. Some provide instruction
prompts to the person attempting to use system functions. Most show the name or extension number of the person
calling you, if the call is coming from someone else within your office. Some show the name or telephone number
of the person calling you from another location (known as Caller ID or ANI - automatic number identification - if
this information is being delivered to your PBX over your outside lines.). A few systems enable you to leave a pre-
selected message so that when someone calls your telephone from within your office, his display will read that you
are "out to lunch" or "in a meeting." Other systems enable a secretary to send a silent message to the boss while the
boss is on another call, although this is not common. As with the feature buttons, the important thing to remember is
that telephones and telephone systems from different manufacturers use the display differently. No two are exactly
the same.
LIGHTS

(also called lamps or LEDs - light emitting diodes) On some systems there may not be a light, but an LCD
(liquid crystal display) indicator instead. Most people find the lights easier to see than the LCD. The purpose of the
light or LCD is to indicate the status of a call in progress on one of the outside lines or extensions. The light may be
red, green, white or amber and more than one color may be lit at the same time. This differs considerably depending
upon the manufacturer and model of the system. A light flashing on and off slowly may indicate a new incoming
call and is sometimes accompanied by an audible ring. If the same extension appears on more than one telephone it
may simply flash at some telephones and audibly ring on others. A steady light usually indicates that the line is in
use on either your telephone or another telephone that picks up the same line. A rhythmically flickering light may
indicate that a call is on hold. Some telephones have a light next to the button of the extension number that remains
lit even when the telephone is not in use.

THE SWITCHHOOK
This refers to those two little plastic buttons that press down on a conventional telephone when you hang
up the receiver. When you hang up you are actually breaking an electrical circuit that connected you to the person at
the other end while you were talking. On some telephones, the switchhook may be a single bar that depresses when
you hang up. Other telephones have a magnetic switchhook inside the telephone, directly under the receiver when it
is hung up, that cannot be seen from the outside. In very old movies, we often see someone frantically tapping the
switchhook trying to get help as the intruder is banging on the front door. This method was once used to reach an
"operator" or switchboard attendant. Instead you would now dial 0. In telephone systems introduced in the 1960's
and 1970's, the switchhook was used as a means of activating the system functions such as call transfer. If you held
the switchhook down for a second too long, you'd disconnect the call! These functions are now accomplished more
easily with feature buttons.

SPEAKER

Most multi-line and a few single-line telephones are equipped with some type of speaker. A speakerphone
enables the person using the telephone to have hands-free conversation with another person at a distant location
without lifting the handset. Some speakers are one way only. This may be called a monitor rather than a
speakerphone, which is two-way. The monitor enables the person using the telephone to dial out or wait on hold
without lifting the handset. They can hear what is on the open line, but cannot speak back to the caller without
picking up the handset. Another capability, also called monitoring, enables others in the room to hear both sides of a
telephone call in progress, while the person in the room who is speaking uses the handset and the caller at the other
end does not sense that he is on a speaker. This is sometimes used for training staff members on how to handle
particular types of calls. Speakers may also be used for internal intercom communication only, where someone in on
the same premises can call you and his voice will be projected over the speaker. Some systems will allow you to
answer back hands-free while others will not. Not surprisingly, this feature is known as hands free answer back!

MESSAGE WAITING INDICATOR

If the system is working with a Voice Mail system, this lamp or LCD indicator lets you know that you
have a message waiting in your Voice Mailbox. There may also be a message on the display of the telephone such as
MW for "message waiting." Any of these may also indicate a message waiting at the reception desk or message desk
if there is no Voice Mail. Although this use is less common most telephone systems enable a receptionist to
manually activate a message-waiting indicator on any telephone in the system. In some systems, the message
waiting indicator is a button that, when pressed, will automatically connect you to the Voice Mail system or
receptionist to retrieve your messages. Base of the telephone; telephone housing. This is generally a molded plastic
casing designed to house a specific type of telephone.

FACEPLATE OR FACE LAYOUT

Most telephones that work with business telephone systems enable you to print a layout of the front (face)
of the telephone including the extension numbers and system features that correspond to each button. This printed
layout may slip into place over the buttons and under a clear plastic cover that is often called the faceplate.
E.1.3 TYPES OF TELEPHONE SYSTEMS
PTSN
Landline telephone systems are part of the Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS), the analog service with
copper wiring that is the direct descendant of the original telephone system courtesy of Alexander Graham Bell. The
advantages of this system include standardized equipment, predictable sound quality, and — due to direct
connections to the central office of the company — no need to share the system’s capacity with others. Because
switches are in place, creating a private circuit for each phone call, it is also called the Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN).

CELLULAR PHONES
Another system is for cellular phones, with individual companies having their own networks with varying
technology. Like POTS systems, cellular telephone systems are full-duplex systems, meaning that both people on
the call can talk at the same time, but cell phones use radio frequencies, rather than copper wire. Though cellular
networks began as mobile voice networks only, they now carry both voice and data. Some networks are national,
while others are international, and new technologies are continually in development. The networks known as 3G
support not only cell phones, but also netbook computers, smartphones, and wireless modem aircards.

INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)

Internet Protocol (IP), also called Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), another type of telephone system
that is in use in the 21st century. This service piggy-backs on existing Internet connections, either cable service or
DSL broadband. A device called an Analog Telephone Adaptor is the go between that connects whatever phone a
person happens to have with either the broadband modem or the router.

IP systems can be set up with a single line for both Internet and telephone service, which can save money.
With an Integrated T1 line, instead of being set up for voice or data, the T1 line is able to handle both. With
Dynamic T1, the line is capable of assigning bandwidth as needed, given the current use.

E.2 TELEVISION
Television is a widely used telecommunication system for broadcasting and receiving moving pictures and sound
over a distance. The word “television” is derived from Latin word “tele” which means far and Latin word “visio”
means “sight”.
E.2.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES
THE SOUND AND LIGHT SPECTRUM
Video is a combination of light and sound, both of which are made up of vibrations or frequencies. Hertz
(HZ) is the unit to measure vibrations per second. Sound vibrations occur in the lower region of the spectrum

LUMINOSITY

Besides differing in color (frequency), light can also differ in luminosity, or brightness. A table lamp emits
less light than a halogen lamp, but even a halogen source cannot be compared with bright sunlight, as far as
luminosity is concerned. Luminosity depends on the amount of available light. It can be measured and recorded in a
numeric value. In the past, it was expressed in Hefner Candlepower, but nowadays Lux is used to express the
amount of luminosity.

COLOR MIXING
There are two kinds of color mixing: additive and subtractive color mixing. The mixing of colorants, like paint,
is called subtractive mixing. The mixing of colored light is called additive mixing. Color TV is based on the
principle of additive color mixing. Primary colors are used to create all the colors that can be found in the color
spectrum.

• ADDITIVE COLOR MIXING

Making colors in this way is based on blending, or adding up colored light, which is why it is
called additive color mixing. Combining the three primary colors in specific ratios and known amounts
enables us to produce all possible colors.

LIGHT REFRACTION
Light refraction is the reverse process of color mixing. It shows that white light is a combination of all the
colors of the visible light spectrum. To demonstrate refraction a prism is used, which is a piece of glass that is
polished in a triangular shape. A light beam travelling through a prism is broken twice in the same direction, causing
the light beam to change its original course.

Beams with a long wavelength (the red beams) are refracted less strongly than beams with a short wavelength (the
violet beams), causing the colors to fan out. The first fan out is enlarged by the second fan out, resulting in a color
band coming out, consisting of the spectrum colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. There are no
clear boundaries between the various colors, but thousands of transitional areas. A rainbow is a perfect example of
the principle of light refraction in nature.
COLOR TEMPERATURE
Color temperature relates to the fact that when an object is heated, it will emit a color that is directly related
to the temperature of that object. The higher the color temperature, the more 'blue' the light, and the lower the color
temperature the more 'red' the light. Color temperature of light can be measured in degrees Kelvin (K). Daylight has
a color temperature between 6000 and 7000 K. The color temperature of artificial light is much lower:
approximately 3000 K. In reality, color temperatures range from 1900 K (candlelight) up to 25,000 K (clear blue
sky). Television is set to 6500 K, simulating 'standard daylight'.

THE HUMAN EYE

The eye tends to retain an image for about 80 milliseconds after it has disappeared. Advantage is taken of
this in television and cinematography, where a series of still pictures (25 per second) create the illusion of a
continuously moving picture. Other characteristics of the human eye are that it is less sensitive to color detail than to
black-and-white detail, and that the human eye does not respond equally to all colors. The eye is most sensitive to
the yellow/green region, and less in the areas of red and (particularly) blue.

Coupled to the output of the transmitter for broadcasting the encoded signals

E.2.2 ELEMENTS OF A TELEVISION

• Image Source. This is the electrical signal representing the visual image, and may be from a camera in the
case of live images, a video tape recorder for playback of recorded images, or a film chain-telecine-flying
spot scanner for transmission of motion pictures (films).
• Sound Source. This is an electrical signal from a microphone or from the audio output of a video tape
recorder or motion picture film scanner.
• Transmitter, which generates radio signals (radio waves) and encodes them with picture and sound
information.
• Antenna coupled to the output of the transmitter for broadcasting the encoded signals.
• Antenna to Receive the broadcast signals.
• Receiver (also called a tuner), which decodes the picture and sound information from the broadcast signals,
and whose input is coupled to the antenna.
• Display Device, which turns the electrical signals into visual images.
• Audio Amplifier and loudspeaker, which turns electrical signals into sound waves (speech, music, and
other sounds) to accompany the images.

TV SIGNAL - occupies a significant amount of spectrum space because it contains a great deal of intelligence.

SIGNAL BANDWIDTH

AUDIO SIGNAL - The sound carrier is at the upper end of the spectrum. Frequency modulation is used to impress
the sound signal on the carrier.
VIDEO SIGNAL- The picture information is transmitted on a separate carrier located 4.5 MHz lower in frequency
than the sound carrier.

TV SPECTRUM ALLOCATION - TV signals are assigned to frequencies in the VHF and UHF range. U.S. TV
stations use the frequency range between 54 and 806 MHz.

E.2.3 GENERATING THE VIDEO SIGNAL

In order to convert them into electrical signals, the scene to be transmitted is collected and focused by a
lens upon a light-sensitive imaging device. Both vacuum and semiconductor devices are used for converting the
light information into an electrical signal. The scene is divided into smaller segments that can be transmitted serially
over a period of time. The camera subdivides the scene in an orderly manner so that an acceptable signal is
developed.

SCANNING
Is a technique that divides a rectangular scene into individual lines. The standard TV scene dimensions
have an aspect ratio of 4:3; that is, the scene width is 4 units for every 3 units of height. To create a picture, the
scene is subdivided into many fine horizontal lines called scan lines. Each line represents a very narrow portion of
light variations in the scene.
COLOR SIGNAL GENERATION
The R, G, and B signals also contain the basic brightness
or luminance information. The color signals must be transmitted
with the luminance information in the same bandwidth allotted to
the TV signal. This is done by a frequency-division multiplexing
technique that combines the three-color signals into I and Q color
signals.

These signals comprise different proportions of the R,

G, and B signals: I = 60 percent red, 28 percent green, −32
percent blue Q = 21 percent red, −52 percent green, 31 percent
blue The I and Q signals are called chrominance signals. To
transmit them, they are phase-encoded; they modulate a
subcarrier which is mixed with the luminance signal to form a
complete video signal. The resulting signal is called the NTSC
composite video signal.

TUNER
The signal from the antenna or the cable is connected to the tuner, which consists of an RF amplifier,
mixer, and local oscillator. The tuner is used to select which TV channel is to be viewed and to convert the picture
and sound carriers plus their modulation to an intermediate frequency (IF). Most TV set tuners are prepackaged in
sealed and shielded enclosures.

• TUNING SYNTHESIZER: The local oscillators are phase-locked loop (PLL) frequency synthesizers
set to frequencies that will convert the TV signals to the IF. Tuning of the local oscillator is typically
done digitally. The PLL synthesizer is tuned by setting the feedback frequency-division ratio. Most TV
sets are tuned by IR remote control.

VIDEO INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY AND DEMODULATION

The standard TV receiver IFs are 41.25 MHz for the sound and 45.75 MHz for the picture. Because the
local oscillator frequency is above the frequency of incoming signals, the relationship of the picture and sound
carriers is reversed at the intermediate frequencies, the picture IF being 4.5 MHz above the sound IF. The IF signals
are sent to the video IF amplifiers. Selectivity is usually obtained with a surface acoustic wave (SAW) filter.

SOUND INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY AND DEMODULATION

To recover the sound part of the TV signal, a separate sound IF and detector section are used. The 4.5-MHz
output of the sound detector is the sound IF signal and contains both the AM picture and the FM sound modulation.
It is passed to the sound IF amplifiers, which also perform a clipping-limiting function that removes the AM, leaving
only the FM sound. The audio is recovered with a quadrature detector or differential peak detector.

SYNCHRONIZING CIRCUITS
A major part of the TV receiver is dedicated to the sweep and synchronizing functions that are unique to
TV receivers. To display the picture on a picture tube, special sweep circuits are needed to generate the voltages and
currents to operate the picture tube, and sync circuits are needed to keep the sweep in step with the transmitted
signal. The sweep and sync operations begin in the video amplifier.

PICTURE TUBE
A picture tube is a vacuum tube called a cathode-ray tube (CRT). Monochrome (B&W) and color picture
tubes are available. The CRT used in computer video monitors works like the TV picture tube.

• Monochrome CRT: The tube is housed in a bell-shaped glass enclosure. A filament heats a cathode
that emits electrons, which are attracted and accelerated by positive-bias voltages on the elements in an
 electron gun assembly. The electron gun focuses the electrons into a very narrow beam. A control grid
controls the intensity of the electron beam and the brightness of the spot it makes.
• Color CRT: To produce color, the inside of the picture tube is coated with many tiny red, green, and
blue phosphor dots arranged in groups of three, called triads. Some tubes use a pattern of red, green,
and blue stripes. These dots or stripes are energized by three separate cathodes and electron guns
driven by the red, green, and blue color signals.

OTHERS:
• Plasma: A plasma screen is made up of many tiny cells filled with a special gas. When the gas is excited
by an electric signal, the gas ionizes and becomes a plasma that glows brightly in shades of red, blue, and
green. The cells are organized to form triads that are mixed and blended by your eye to form the picture.
• LCD. Liquid-crystal displays use special chemicals, sandwiched between pieces of glass, that are designed
to be electrically activated so that they block light or pass light. When a bright white light is placed behind
the screen, the red, blue, and green sections of the screen pass the desired amount of light.
• Projection screens. A very bright light is passed through a smaller LCD screen and then through a lens,
creating a picture from 40 to 60 in. diagonally.
• Digital Light Processing (DLP): These chips are made with microelectromechanical systems (MEMS),
which consist of thousands of tiny mirror segments, each of whose tilt angle is controllable.

CABLE TV
The trunk cable is usually buried and extended to surrounding areas. A junction box containing amplifiers
takes the signal and redistributes it to smaller cables called feeders, which go to specific areas and neighborhoods.
From there the signals are again rejuvenated with amplifiers and sent to individual homes by coaxial cables called
drops. The overall system is referred to as a hybrid fiber cable (HFC) system.

A cable TV company uses many TV antennas and receivers to pick up the stations whose programming it
will redistribute. These signals are processed and combined or frequency-multiplexed onto a single cable. The main
output cable is called the trunk cable. In older systems is was large, low-loss coaxial cable. Newer systems use a
fiber-optic cable.
SATELLITE TV
One of the most common methods of TV signal distribution is via communication satellite. A
communication satellite orbits around the equator about 22,300 miles out in space. It rotates in synchronism with the
earth and therefore appears to be stationary. The satellite is used as a radio relay station. The TV signal to be
distributed is used to frequency-modulate a microwave carrier, and then is transmitted to the satellite.

The path from earth to the satellite is called the uplink. The satellite translates the signal to another
frequency and then retransmits it back to earth, which is called the downlink. A receive site such as a cable company
or individual consumer picks up the signal. Satellites are widely used by the TV networks, the premium channel
companies, and the cable TV industry for distributing their signals nationally.

DIGITAL TV

Digital TV (DTV), also known as high-definition TV (HDTV), was designed to replace the National
Television Standards Committee (NTSC) system. The goal of HDTV is to greatly improve the picture and sound
quality. The HDTV system is an extremely complex collection of digital, communication, and computer techniques.
 HDTV uses the scanning concept to present a picture on the CRT. The HDTV screen is made up of
thousands of tiny dots of light called pixels. The greater the number of pixels on the screen, the greater the
resolution and the finer the detail that can be represented. HDTV uses progressive line scanning, in which each line
is scanned one at a time from top to bottom.

E.3 RADIO
It is the radiation (wireless transmission) of electromagnetic signals through the atmosphere or free space.
Information, such as sound, is carried by systematically changing (modulating) some property of the radiated waves,
such as their amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width. The information in the waves can be extracted and
transformed back into its original form

• Transmitter
• Receiver

The transmitter takes some sort of message (it could be the sound of someone's voice, pictures for a TV set,
data for a radio modem or whatever), encodes it onto a sine wave and transmits it with radio waves. The receiver
receives the radio waves and decodes the message from the sine wave it receives. Both the transmitter and receiver
use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.

E.3.1 HOW RADIO WORKS

"Radio waves" transmit music, conversations, pictures and data invisibly through the air, often
over millions of miles -- it happens every day in thousands of different ways! Even though radio
waves are invisible and completely undetectable to humans, they have totally changed society.
Whether we are talking about a cell phone, a baby monitor, a cordless phone or any one of the
thousands of other wireless technologies, all of them use radio waves to communicate.
Here are just a few of the everyday technologies that depend on radio waves:
• AM and FM radio broadcasts
• Cordless phones
• Garage door openers
• Wireless networks
• Radio-controlled toys
• Television broadcasts
• Cell phones
• GPS receivers
• Ham radios
• Satellite communications
• Police radios
SIMPLE TRANSMITTERS
To create a simple radio transmitter, what you want to do is create a rapidly changing electric
current in a wire. You can do that by rapidly connecting and disconnecting a battery, like this:

When you connect the battery, the voltage in the wire is 1.5 volts, and when you disconnect it, the voltage is
zero volts. By connecting and disconnecting a battery quickly, you create a square wave that fluctuates
between 0 and 1.5 volts.

A better way is to create a continuously varying electric current in a wire. The simplest (and
smoothest) form of a continuously varying wave is a sine wave like the one shown below:

A sine wave fluctuates smoothly between, for example, 10 volts and -10 volts.
By creating a sine wave and running it through a wire, you create a simple radio transmitter. It is
extremely easy to create a sine wave with just a few electronic components -- a capacitor and an
inductor can create the sine wave, and a couple of transistors can amplify the wave into a
powerful signal (see How Oscillators Work for details, and here is a simple transmitter
schematic). By sending that signal to an antenna, you can transmit the sine wave into space
TRANSMITTING INFORMATION
FREQUENCY

One characteristic of a sine wave is its frequency. The frequency of a sine wave is the number of times it
oscillates up and down per second. When you listen to an AM radio broadcast, your radio is tuning in to a sine wave
with a frequency of around 1,000,000 cycles per second (cycles per second is also known as hertz). For example,
680 on the AM dial is 680,000 cycles per second. FM radio signals are operating in the range of 100,000,000 hertz,
so 101.5 on the FM dial is a transmitter generating a sine wave at 101,500,000 cycles per second. If you have a sine
wave and a transmitter that is transmitting the sine wave into space with an antenna, you have a radio station. The
only problem is that the sine wave doesn't contain any information. You need to modulate the wave in some way to
encode information on it. There are three common ways to modulate a sine wave:

• Pulse Modulation - In PM, you simply turn the sine wave on and off. This is an easy way to send Morse
code. PM is not that common, but one good example of it is the radio system that sends signals to radio-
controlled clocks in the United States. One PM transmitter is able to cover the entire United States

• Amplitude Modulation - Both AM radio stations and the picture part of a TV signal use amplitude
modulation to encode information. In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the sine wave (its peak-to-
peak voltage) changes. So, for example, the sine wave produced by a person's voice is overlaid onto the
transmitter's sine wave to vary its amplitude.
 • Frequency Modulation - FM radio stations and hundreds of other wireless technologies (including the
sound portion of a TV signal, cordless phones, cell phones, etc.) use frequency modulation. The advantage
to FM is that it is largely immune to static. In FM, the transmitter's sine wave frequency changes very
slightly based on the information signal.

E.3.2 ANTENNA BASICS

Antennas come in all shapes and sizes, depending on the frequency the antenna is trying to receive. The
antenna can be anything from a long, stiff wire (as in the AM/FM radio antennas on most cars) to something as
bizarre as a satellite dish. Radio transmitters also use extremely tall antenna towers to transmit their signals. The
idea behind an antenna in a radio transmitter is to launch the radio waves into space. In a receiver, the idea is to pick
up as much of the transmitter's power as possible and supply it to the tuner. For satellites that are millions of miles
away, NASA uses huge dish antennas up to 200 feet (60 meters) in diameter.

The size of an optimum radio antenna is related to the frequency of the signal that the antenna is trying to
transmit or receive. The reason for this relationship has to do with the speed of light, and the distance electrons can
travel as a result. The speed of light is 186,000 miles per second 10 (300,000 kilometers per second). On the next
page, we'll use this number to calculate a real-life antenna size.

Antenna: Real-life Examples

A radio tower for radio station 680 AM. It is transmitting a sine wave with a frequency of 680,000 hertz. In
one cycle of the sine wave, the transmitter is going to move electrons in the antenna in one direction, switch and pull
them back, switch and push them out and switch and move them back again. In other words, the electrons will
change direction four times during one cycle of the sine wave. If the transmitter is running at 680,000 hertz, that
means that every cycle completes in (1/680,000) 0.00000147 seconds. One quarter of that is 0.0000003675 seconds.
At the speed of light, electrons can travel 0.0684 miles (0.11 km) in 0.0000003675 seconds. That means the optimal
antenna size for the transmitter at 680,000 hertz is about 361 feet (110 meters).

AM radio stations need very tall towers. For a cell phone working at 900,000,000 (900 MHz), on the other
hand, the optimum antenna size is about 8.3 cm or 3 inches. This is why cell phones can have such short antennas.

E.4 INTERCOMS

An intercom (intercommunication device), talkback or doorphone is a stand-alone voice communications

system for use within a building or small collection of buildings, functioning independently of the public telephone
network. Intercoms are generally mounted permanently in buildings and vehicles. Intercoms can incorporate
connections to public address loudspeaker systems, walkie talkies, telephones, and to other intercom systems. Some
intercom systems incorporate control of devices such as signal lights and door latches.

There are simple house intercoms and intercoms developed for collective apartments. Some are equipped
with video, and its wiring (electrical installation), can be connected to the outside with few pairs (4-6 pairs) while
controlling an electric strike. The last generations are even compatible with computers and some models include
TCP/IP.
E.4.1 BASIC INTERCOM SYSTEM TERMS
• Master Station or Base Station – These are units that can control the system, i.e., initiate a call with any
of the stations and make announcements over the whole system.
• Sub-station - Units that are capable of only initiating a call with a Master Station but not capable of
initiating calls with any other stations (sometimes called slave units).
• Door Station - Like sub-stations, these units are only capable of initiating a call to a Master Station. They
are typically weather-proof.
• Intercom Station - Full-featured remote unit that is capable of initiating and receiving party-line
conversation, individual conversation and signalling. May be rack-mounted, wall-mounted or portable.
• Wall Mount Station – fixed-position intercom station with built-in loudspeaker. May have flush-mounted
microphone, hand-held push to talk microphone or telephone-style handset.
• Belt Pack - portable intercom station worn on the belt such as an interruptible feedback (IFB) with an
earpiece worn by talent.
• Handset - permanent or portable telephone-style connection to an intercom station. Holds both an earpiece
and a push to talk microphone.
• Headset - portable intercom connection from a belt pack to one or both ears via headphones with integrated
microphone on a boom arm. Connects to a belt pack.
• Paging Signal - An audible and/or visual alert at an intercom station, indicating that someone at another
station wants to initiate a conversation.
• Power Supply - Used to feed power to all units. Often incorporated into the design of the base station.
• Telephonic - Intercom systems that utilize a transmitter (talk) and receiver (listen) to communicate, similar
to standard telephone systems.
• Amplified - Intercom systems that utilize a single speaker to transmit and receive communications.
• Amplifier - An intercom systems main or central component that is responsible for switching or connecting
communication paths between master and substations in addition to distributing or switching power to
auxiliary connected devices i.e. door strikes to allow entry.

E.4.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF INTERCOM SECURITY SYSTEMS:

Wireless Intercoms
In applications where wires cannot be run, a wireless system is used.

Wired Intercom Systems

A wired system can give you a little more privacy and eliminate possible interference from neighboring
systems.

Video Intercom
Typically includes a unit that has a camera, speaker, and a push button going to an entrance door, and an
internal monitor unit that can communicate with the entrance unit.

Apartment Intercoms
A visitor presses the correct button for the apartment they want to speak to, and the tenant can speak back
and then press a button to unlock the door.

Two-Way Radios
There are two-way radios that communicate with base station intercoms. So you can have the flexibility of
a mobile radio that communicates over long distances mixed with the capability a fixed intercom gives you.

Security intercom systems

Security intercom systems are used to provide voice communications between two or more locations for
security purposes. Security intercom systems are frequently used between a locked building entrance door and a
constantly attended location in the building.
 A simple security intercom system consists of one “Master Station” and one “Sub-Station”. The Master
Station is typically located at the point inside the building where communications is to be received. The Sub-
Station is typically located at the point where the communication is to be originated.

E.4.3 SOUND
Sound is a continuous wave that travels through the air. Sound System is an integrated equipment for
producing amplified sound, as in a hi-fi or a mobile disco, or as a public-address system on stage. Any system of
sounds, as in the speech of a language or communication system to the public/ audience

BASIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS: INPUT TRANSDUCERS

• MICROPHONE: Used for sound reinforcement are positioned and mounted in many ways, including base
weighted upright stands, podium mounts, tie clips instrument mounts, and headset mounts. Headset
mounted and tie clip mounted microphones are often used with wireless transmission to allow performers
or speakers to move freely
• POWER AMPLIFIERS: Boosts a low-voltage level signal and provide electrical power to drive a
loudspeaker. All speakers require power amplification of the low-level signal by an amplifier, including
headphone. Most professional audio amplifiers also provide protection from overdriven signals, short
circuits across the output, and excess temperature.

BASIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS: OUTPUT TRANSCENDERS

• LOUDSPEAKER: Is an electro acoustic transducer a device which converts an electrical audio signal into
a corresponding sound. Speakers are typically housed in an enclosure which is often a rectangular or square
box made of wood or sometimes plastic. Miniature loudspeakers are found I devices such as radio and TV
receivers, and many forms of music players. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound
reinforcement in theatres and concerts, and in public address systems

E.7 LAWS

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7298

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7298 - AN ACT GRANTING TO OMNINET PHILIPPINES, INC., A FRANCHISE TO
ESTABLISH, INSTALL, MAINTAIN, LEASE AND OPERATE WIRE AND/OR WIRELESS
TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS, LINES, CIRCUITS AND STATIONS WITHIN AND WITHOUT THE
PHILIPPINES AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

Section 1. Nature and Scope of Franchise. — Subject to the provisions of the Constitution and applicable laws,
rules and regulations, there is hereby granted to the Omninet Philippines, Inc., hereunder referred to as the grantee,
its successors or assigns a franchise to establish, install maintain, lease and operate for commercial purposes and in
the public interest wire and/or wireless telecommunication systems, lines, circuits and stations, fibre optics,
microwave and other facilities that are appropriate to the provision of up-to-date telecommunication facilities within
and without the Philippines for public communications including but not limited to two-way radio communications
systems, paging, mobile/cellular services, packet switched system, satellite transmit and receive systems, switches,
pay television and/or program services by wire or wireless means and other telecommunication systems and their
value-added services.

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 3846

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR THE REGULATION OF RADIO STATIONS AND RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES

SEC. 1. No person, firm, company, association or corporation shall construct, install, establish,
or operate a radio transmitting station, or a radio receiving station used for commercial purposes, or a
radio broadcasting station, without having first obtained a franchise therefor from the Congress of the
Philippines; Provided however, that no franchise from the Congress of the Philippines shall be
necessary for the construction, installation, establishment or operation of an amateur station, an
experimental station, a training station, a station on board a mobile vessel, train, or aircraft, or a private
station in a place so outlying and so remote as to afford no public communication system with the outside station in
a place so outlying and so remote as to afford no public communication system with the outside world: Provided,
further, That radio broadcasting stations established and operating at the time of the approval of this Act without the
franchise herein required shall be exempt for obtaining such franchise.
Unless otherwise specified, “station” or “radio station” as used in this Act shall refer to a radio
transmitting station and its receiving equipment, a radio receiving station used for commercial purposes, or a radio
broadcasting station. (As amended by Com. Act. No. 365 and by Com Act No. 571, approved
June 17, 1940).

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9266

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR A MORE RESPONSIVE AND COMPREHENSIVE REGULATION FOR THE
REGISTRATION, LICENSING AND PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE, REPEALING FOR THE PURPOSE
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 545, AS AMENDED, OTHERWISE KNOWN AS "AN ACT TO REGULATE THE
PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE IN THE PHILIPPINES," AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.

(g) the planning, architectural lay-outing and utilization of spaces within and surrounding such buildings or
structures, housing design and community architecture, architectural interiors and space planning, architectural
detailing, architectural lighting, acoustics, architectural lay-outing of mechanical, electrical, electronic, sanitary,
plumbing, communications and other utility systems, equipment and fixtures;
 F. Fundamentals of Electrical Systems
1. Definition of Terms

• Electrical Components- an electronic component is any basic discrete device or physical entity in an
electronic system used to affect electrons or their associated fields.
• Electromagnetism- is the study of the electromagnetic force which is a type of physical interaction that
occurs between electrically charged particles.
• Electric Charge- is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an
electromagnetic field. There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative.
• Electric Potential Difference/ Potential Difference- is another term used for voltage.
• Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)- is a process that can produce electricity by using the
temperature difference between deep cold ocean water and warm tropical surface waters.
• Conductors- in physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is an object or type of material that allows
the flow of electrical current in one or more directions.
• Resistors- is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit
element. Resistors can act to reduce current flow and, at the same time, act to lower voltage levels within
circuits.
• Trolley Ducts- is a transport feeder system developed with the wiring of the electrical equipment that is
used while transporting things such as electric hoist, mobile crane, automated warehouse system, and
conveyor.
• Busbar- in electrical power distribution, a busbar is a strip or bar of copper, brass, or aluminum that
conducts electricity within a switchboard, distribution, board, substation, battery bank, or other electrical
apparatus.
• Electrical Ballast- is a device intended to limit the amount of current in an electrical circuit. A familiar and
widely used example is the inductive ballast used in fluorescent lamps, to limit the current through the tube,
which would otherwise rise to destructive levels due to the tube’s negative resistance characteristic.
• Channel (Transistors)- is a conductive path followed by electrons or holes through a semiconductor.
• Incandescent Lamp- is an electric light which produces light with a wire filament heated to a high
temperature by an electric current passing through it until it glows.

Electrical Systems
- are groups of electrical components connected to carry out some operation
- this can be as simple as a flashlight cell connected through two wires to a light bulb
- Simple systems can be created by one person and require large teams of people and many paper and electronic
records
2. The ampere, volt, ohm

Properties of Electricity (Current, Voltage, and Resistance)

Current
- An electric current is a flow of electric charge
- In electric circuits this charge is often carried by moving electrons in a wire. It can also be carried by ions and
electrons such as in plasma.
- The unit for electric current is ‘Ampere’
- The symbol for electric current is ‘I’, while the symbol for its unit, Ampere is “A”
- 1A = 1C/s or C/t (1C= 6.24x1018 charge)
- Ammeter- instrument used for measuring current

Voltage
- Is the electric energy charge difference of electric potential energy transported between two points
- It is equal to the work done per unit of charge against a static electric field to move the charge between two points
- The unit for Voltage is ‘Volts’ (Alessandro Volta)
- The symbol for Voltage is ‘E’ or ‘V’ while the symbol for its unit, Volts, is ‘V’
- V= Joule (work) / Coulomb (Charge)
- Voltmeter- instrument used for measuring voltage

Resistance
- The electrical resistance is the opposition to the passage of an electric current through that conductor.
- The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, the ease with which an electric current pass.
- The unit for Resistance is ‘Ohms’ (Georg Simon Ohm)
- The symbol for Resistance is ‘R’, while the symbol for its unit, Ohms, is ‘Ω’
- R= V (Voltage) / I (Current)
- Ohmmeter- instrument used for measuring resistance

Quantity Symbol Unit of Measurement Unit Abbreviation

Current I Ampere (“Amp”) A

Voltage E or V Volt V

Resistance R Ohm Ω
 Ohm’s Law Triangle

* Cover the value you want to find and perform the resulting calculation (Multiplication or Division) as indicated.

3. Circuits

Electric Circuits
- An electric circuit is a path in which electrons from a voltage or current source flow.
- Electric current flows in a closed path called an electric circuit. The point where those electrons enter an electrical
circuit is called the “source” of electrons.
- The point where the electrons leave an electrical circuit is called the “return” or “earth ground”. The exit point is
called the “return” because electrons always end up at the source when they complete the path of an electrical
circuit.

Definitions Related to Circuits:

• Short Circuit- electricity flow through the circuit and back to its source rapidly
• Open Circuit- circle is broken so that current cannot flow through it.

Electric Circuits Requirements

• Power Source
- Battery, Alternator, Generator, etc.
- supply the flow of electrons
• Protection Device
- Fuse, Fusible Link, or Circuit Breaker
- prevents damage to the circuit
• Load Device
- Lamp, Motor, Winding, Resistor, etc.
- converts the electricity into work
- it is any device that consumes electricity and control the amount of current flowing in a circuit
• Control
- Switch, Relay, or Transistor
- turn the circuit on or off
• Conductor
- A return path, Wiring to Ground
- provide an electrical path
Loads
- any device that consumes electricity
- regarded as resistance
- use up voltage and control the amount of current flowing in a circuit

Breaker
- it acts to limit the current in a single circuit in most household applications
- the heating effect on a bimetallic strip causes it to bend and trip a spring-loaded switch
- a small electromagnet consisting of wire loops around a piece of iron will pull the bimetallic strip down instantly in
case of a large current surge

Fuse
- the metal filament in the fuse melts and breaks the connection

Ohm’s Law
- states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference
across two points.

Three Types of Circuits:

1. Parallel
2. Series
3. Combination of Series

Parallel Circuit
- it has more than one path for current flow
- the same voltage is applied across each branch
- current flow through each branch can be different
- the resistance of each branch can be different
- a circuit that has two or more paths for current to flow
- sum of the current flowing though each individual path equals the total input current
- voltage is the same across each load in parallel
- total resistance in a parallel circuit will always be lower that the lowest resistance in its circuit

Parallel Circuit Rules

- the total current in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of the currents in all the branches of the circuit
- the total voltage across any branch in parallel is equal to the voltage across any other branch and is also equal to
the total voltage
- the total resistance in a parallel circuit is found by applying Ohm’s law to the total values of the circuit

Series Circuit
- the conductors, control, and protection devices, loads, and power source are connected with only one path to
ground for current flow
- an open in the circuit will disable the entire circuit
- the voltage divides (shared) between loads
- the current flow is the same throughout the circuit
- the resistance of each load can be different
- a circuit that has only one path for current to flow
- all resistances are added together to determine total resistance
- total voltage equals the sum of the voltages across each of the resistances
- current is the same throughout a series circuit
- an open switch, load, or conductor anywhere in the circuit will stop current flow through the circuit

Series Circuit Rules

- the total current in a series circuit is equal to the current in any other part of the circuit
- the total voltage in a series circuit is equal to the sum of the voltages across all parts of the circuit
- the total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of the resistances of all the parts of the circuit

Series-Parallel Circuits
- the power source and control or protection devices are usually in series; the loads are usually in parallel
- the same current flows in the series portion, different currents in the parallel portion
- the same voltage is applied to parallel devices, different voltages to series devices
- series- parallel circuits are a combination of a series circuit and a parallel circuit connected together
- most commonly in the HVAC/R field, electrical controls are connected in series with loads that are wired in
parallel with each other

Electrical Circuit Defects

• Open Circuit
- an unwanted break in an electric circuit
• Grounded Circuit
- an unwanted copper-to-metal connection
• Shorted Circuit
- an unwanted copper-to-copper connection

4. Sources of Energy

Energy
- can neither be created nor it can be destroyed, it can only be converted from one form to another
- is the amount of force or power when applied can move one object from one position to another
- defines the capacity of a system to do work
- exists in everybody whether they are human beings or animals or non-living things (e.g. Jet, light, machines, etc.)
- is intimately related to power
- can make all possible outcomes and process and could be divided into two:
- Stored Energy: Potential Energy
- Moving Energy: Kinetic Energy

Forms of Energy
• Mechanical Energy
- Potential Energy, stored in a system
- Kinetic Energy, from the movement of matter
• Radiant or Solar Energy - comes from the warmth and light of the sun
• Thermal Energy- related to the heat of an object
• Chemical Energy- stored in chemical bonds of molecules
• Electrical Energy- associated in the movement of electrons
• Electromagnetic Energy- associated with light waves (e.g. infrared, microwaves, x-rays, etc.)
• Mass Energy- found in the nuclear structure of atoms.

Electricity
- is a process and phenomenal physical occurrence related to flow and presence of electric charge
- it is the basic element on an electrical system and the most convenient way to transfer energy
- is the dominant power product that humanity uses in daily lives and operations, it helps in providing the functions
to machines, giving light, helps on transportation operation, etc.
- is usually produced by electro-mechanical generators but on present time, many discoveries from ways of
producing electricity is made possible by the different sources of energy

Different Sources of Energy

- according to the law of conservation of energy, any form of energy can be converted into another form; the total
energy will remain the same
- sources of energy is usually classified based on the energy reserves on the energy source used and generation
capacity, which are the ‘Renewable Energy’ and the ‘Non-renewable Energy’

Renewable Sources
- Renewable Energy is energy which is generated from natural sources i.e. sun, wind, rain, tides and can be
generated again and again as and when required.
- they are available in plenty and by far most the cleanest sources of energy available on this planet

Difference Between Renewable and Non-renewable Source of Energy

Renewable Source Non-renewable Source

• Definition: Renewable Energy can be generated • Definition: Non-renewable can’t be generated
continuously practically without decay of source continuously without decay of source

• Responsible for 3-4% of carbon dioxide in • Responsible for 91-94% of carbon dioxide in
environment environment

• Not a reason behind “global warming” • Main reason behind “global warming”
 • Example: biomass, hydro power, wind energy, • Example: petroleum products, coal, uranium,
solar energy, etc. etc.

Renewable technologies are suited to:

- large-scale production
- small off grid applications

Main forms of renewable energy:

a. Wind Energy
b. Hydro Energy
c. Solar Energy
d. Biofuel
e. Geothermal Energy

a. Wind Energy
- wind energy generated by wind turbines is mainly used to generate electricity
- it is advisable to install wind turbines near the shore or at high altitude for constant wind
- airflows can be used to run wind turbines
- wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production, or 40 times current electricity
demand
- this could require large amounts of land to be used for wind turbines, particularly in areas of higher wind
resources. Offshore resources experience wind speeds of 90% greater than that of land
- wind power produces no greenhouse gases during operation, and power is growing at the rate of 30% annually,
with a worldwide installed capacity of 157,900 MW.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Wind Turbines (often called windmills) do not • Installation and maintenance cost is very high
release emissions and greenhouse gas that
pollute the air or water
• Only few places are there in the world where
wind blow continuously throughout the year

- Wind Power Energy System is widely used in the world. In the Philippines, provinces of Ilocos, Mindoro, and at
Pilillia Rizal use these energy sources.
- Small wind turbines were also used as alternatives to solar panel system where wind is abundant

b. Hydro Energy
- Hydro energy is generally generated from running water using various mechanical methods
- Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for large-scale hydroelectric dams
- Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of power. They are
often used in water rich areas as a remote-area power supply (RAPS)
- Damless hydro systems derive kinetic energy from rivers and oceans without using a dam
- Ocean energy describes all the technologies to harness energy from the ocean and the sea. This includes marine
current power, ocean thermal energy conversion, and tidal power.
- E.g. Dams, Tidal Barrages, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) System

Advantages Disadvantages
• Produces very less amount of Carbon Dioxide • Natural environment is destroyed
• It is also being used to control flood and for
irrigation
c. Solar Energy

- Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans using various equipment
- Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and photovoltaics
- Examples: Solar cooker, Solar Heater, Solar cells
- Is the energy derived from the sun through the form of solar radiation
- Solar powered electrical generation relies on photovoltaics and heat engines. A partial list of other solar
applications includes daylighting, solar hot water, solar cooking and high temperature process heat for industrial
purposes
- Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they
capture, convert, and distribute solar energy.
- Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy
- Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or
light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Solar energy doesn’t produce carbon dioxide • It is not constant, it depends on weather
conditions, time, location
• It has minimal impact on environment

d. Biofuel / Biomass
- is an organic material made from plants and animals (microorganisms)
- when burned, the chemical energy in biomass is released as heat
- e.g. Methanol (from animal waste), Ethanol, Biodiesel (liquid biomass)
- Bio-diesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. Bio-diesel can be used as a diesel additive
to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles
- Bio-diesel is produced from oils or fats and is the most common bio-fuel in Europe. Bio-fuels provided 1.8% of the
world’s transport fuel in 2008.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Equipment (biogas plant) installation cost is • Releases high amount of sulfurous gas
less
• Helps in garbage reduction
e. Geothermal Energy
- is the heat from within the earth, we can recover this heat as steam or hot water and use it to heat buildings or
generate electricity
- e.g. hot springs, fumaroles, geysers
- three types of power plants are used to generate power from geothermal energy: dry stream, flash, and binary
• Dry stream plants take steam out of fractures in the ground and use it to directly drive a turbine
that spins a generator
• Flash plants take hot water, usually at temperatures over 200 ⁰C, out of the ground, and allows it to
boil as it rises to the surface then separates the steam phase in steam/water separators and then
runs the stream through a turbine
• In binary plants, the hot water flows through heat exchangers, boiling an organic fluid that spins
the turbine. The condensed steam and remaining geothermal fluid from all three types of plants are
injected back into the hot rock to pick up more heat

Advantages Disadvantages
• Carbon dioxide emission levels are very low. • Installation cost is very high
They release less than 1% of the carbon
dioxide
• Release various kinds of harmful gases

Non-Renewable Energy
- a non-renewable source is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re-grown at a scale comparable to its
consumption
- non-renewable energy can’t be generated again and again from the same source
- examples are coal, petroleum, and uranium

a. Uranium/ Nuclear Energy

- Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of a uranium- 235 atom. Atoms are tin particles that make up every
object in the universe.
- It can be released from atoms in two ways: nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

Advantages Disadvantages
• Even a small amount can release enough • After using it in nuclear reactor then also its
energy to light-up thousand of energy for radioactive substances is very dangerous for
months (1 kg uranium- 235 corresponds to 2.7 human. E.g. carbonyl accident and Fukushima
million kg coal equivalent) plant accident

b. Coal Energy
- Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock composed mostly of carbon and hydrocarbons
- For millions of years, a layer of dead plants at the bottom of the swamps was covered by layers of water and dirt,
trapping energy of the dead plants
- The heat and pressure from the top layers helped the plant remains turn into what we today call coal
- Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock composed mostly carbon and hydrocarbons
- For millions of years, a layer of dead plants at the bottom of the swamps was covered by layers of water and dirt,
trapping the energy of the dead plants
- The heat and pressure from the top layers helped the plant remains turn into what we today call coal

Disadvantages
• Responsible for 57% of carbon dioxide in the air
c. Petroleum/ Oil
- Oil was formed from the remains of animals and plants that lived millions of years ago in a marine (water)
environment before the dinosaurs
- Over the millions of years, the remains of these animals and plants were covered by layers of sand and silt
- Heat and pressure from these layers helped the remains turn into what we today call crude oil

Disadvantages
• Responsible for 38% of carbon dioxide in the environment

5. Electrical Equipment and Apparatus, Fixtures, and Materials

Electrical Equipment
- includes any machine powered by electricity. It usually consists of an enclosure, a variety of electrical components,
and often a power switch
- refers only to components part of the electrical distribution system

a. Electric Meter

- an electricity meter, electric meter, or energy meter is a device that

measures the amount of electric energy consumed by a residence,
business, or an electrically powered device. The most common unit
of measurement on the electricity meter is the kilowatt hour (kWh)

b. Panelboard

- a distribution board (also known as panelboard or breaker panel) is

a component of an electricity supply system which divides an
electrical power feed into subsidiary circuits while providing a
protective fuse or circuit breaker for each circuit in a common
enclosure
c. Electric Switchboards

- Electric Switchboards are devices that direct electricity from one

or more sources of supply to several smaller regions of usage. The
source can be an electric generator or some other device that feeds
the current to the electric switchboard, which then allocates the
current as needed to other devices. There are several features of the
board that help to control the flow of the current, making it easier to
avoid overloads that could damage the board and any of the
recipient devices.

d. Electric Generator

- In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts

mechanical energy to electrical energy for use in an external circuit.
The source of mechanical energy may vary widely from a hand
crank to an internal combustion engine. Generators provide nearly
all the power for electric power grids.
- The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical
energy is done by an electric motor, motors and generators can be
mechanically driven to generate electricity and frequently make
acceptable generators.

d. Transformer
- is an electrical device that transfers energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction
- Transformer Substations- a transformer substation as a part of the
transmission system is a facility where voltage increases (or
decreases)
- The word ‘transformer’ comes from the word ‘transform’
- Transformer is not an energy conversion device, but it is a device
that changes AC electrical power at one voltage level into AC
electrical power at one voltage level into AC electrical power at
another voltage level through the action of magnetic field but with a
proportional increase or decrease in the current ratings, without a
change in frequency

Distribution (Single Phase Transformer)

- simple and fast to install
- immersed in oil, self-cooled
- primarily mounted on outdoor poles
- durable and corrosion resistant finish meets all standards for single phase pole mounted transformer
- single phase pole mounted transformer is used for power transmission and distribution, with low loss and high
efficiency
 High Voltage Terminals (Primary Inputs)- an insulated coil of
copper wire, with a low cross section built to receive or deliver the
highest voltage of the transformer

Low Voltage Windings (Secondary Inputs)- an insulated coil of

copper wire, with a bigger cross section built to receive or deliver
the lowest voltage of its transformer

Liquid Filled Tranformer

- With a proven track record of more than a century, oil filled

(liquid filled) transformers remain the most commonly used
transformer system today for a variety of industrial, commercial
and power utility applications

Typical Applications:
- Subway & rapid transit
- Utilities & Power plants
- Generator Station
- Primary substation
- Unit auxiliary transformer
- Generator step-up
- Chemical plants
- Mining operations
- Paper & steel mills
- Oil & gas
- Office & Shopping complexes
- Water treatment plants
- Research facilities
 Dry Type Transformer

- Primarily mounted on indoor walls and floors

- A transformer whose core and coils are not immersed in an oil
bath

Transformer Vaults
- Underground Distribution Substation transformers change the sub transmission voltage to the level use by the
consumer. Typical distribution voltages very from 34,500Y/19,920Y volts to 4,160Y/2400Y volts. Underground
distribution substations are at the end-user’s location. Manhole is also called splicing chamber or cable vault. They
are of various sizes usually from 2 to 6 inches in diameter.

- Underground System Components Conduits are hollow tubes running from manhole to manhole in an underground
transmission or distribution system. Conduits can be made of plastic (PVC), fiberglass, fiber, tile, concrete, or steel.
PVC and fiberglass are most commonly used Conduit on a grade Duct run within conduit showing drainage in both
directions, electrical cables run through ducts. He diameter of a duct should be at least 1/2 to 3/4 inch greater than
the diameter of the cable(s) installed in the duct. They can be made of plastic (PVC), fiberglass, fiber, tile, concrete,
or steel. PVC and fiberglass are most commonly used.

Electrical Materials

a. Electrical Conduit- is a tube that carries electrical wire of power or communications. Conduit is made in rigid
steel; lighter steel called IMC or intermediate conduit; EMT or thin wall conduit; PVC or plastic; aluminum; or PVC
coated; which is rigid covered with 40 mil PVC jacket. Conduit for electrical ranges in sizes from 3/8” to 6”.
b. Conduit Fittings- is a part that is used to join or adapt other parts or conduit carrying electrical power, or
communication wire. Conduit fittings can be indoor, set screw or outdoor, watertight. They can be bushings,
locknuts, connectors, couplings, and Condulets, etc. They come in all sizes from 3/8” to 6”. They can be corrosive
protect by PVC coating, or explosion protected by design.
c. Clamps- electrical materials used to hold and anchor electrical conduits in its proper position

d. Electrical Connector- is a part that will join or adapt one part to another. Connector range in size from 3/8” to
6”. They can be indoor, outdoor, corrosive protected or explosion proof.

e. Electrical Box- is an enclosure used for many purposes such as pulling, connecting or terminated an electrical
circuit. Electric box can be set screw or indoor; it can be rain tight, or outdoor. They can be made of steel,
aluminum, plastic, stainless steel, or cast iron. Requirement can include corrosive protected or explosion protected
by design.

• Junction Box- an octagonal shaped electrical material

where the connections or joints of wires are being done. It
is also where the flush type lamp holder is attached. This
could be made of metal or plastic (PVC) Polyvinylchloride.

• Utility Box- a rectangular shaped metallic or plastic (PVC)

material in which flush type convenience outlet and switch
area attached.

e. Electrical Wire- is drawn material, copper or aluminum that carries electricity through an electrical circuit. Wire
may be run overhead, underground, through conduit or flex or open wire is protected by design with a jacket
depending on usage. It can also be flexible as in the use of extension cords. It can be very small in size as 26 gauges
to as large as 2000 MCM.
• Standard Wire which is made of multiple strands joined together to make a single wire.
• Solid Wire is made of a single strand of copper or aluminum wire. These are used in wiring installation
inside and outside the buildings.
 • Flat cord- is a duplex standard wire used for temporary wiring installation and commonly used in
extension cord assembly. It comes in a roll of 150 meters and with sizes of gauge # 18 and gauge # 16 awg
(American wire gauge).

f. Convenience Outlet- a device that act as a convenient source of electrical energy for current consuming
appliances. It is where the male plug of an appliance is inserted and usually fastened on the wall or connected in an
extension cord. It maybe single, duplex, triplex, or multiplex, and could be surface type or flush type.

g. Plug- a device inserted to a convenience outlet to conduct electric current. A flat cord is attached to it on one end
and to other end is connected to a current consuming instrument or appliance.

h. Lamp Holders- devices that hold and protect the lamp and are also called as- Lamp Sockets/Receptacles. These
come in many design and sizes. They are classified as flush, hanging (weatherproof/chain) and surface types.

i. Circuit Breakers- are devices that automatically interrupt the follow of an electric current to protect against a
short or overload. Circuit breakers are made by several manufacturers including Cutler Hammer/ Westinghouse,
General Electric, Square D, ITE Sieonans, and Federal Pacific. Circuit Breakers protect the smallest house circuit to
the largest industrial requirements.

j. Control Gear
- Contactors- is an electrically controlled switch used for switching a power circuit, similar to a relay except with
higher current ratings
- Contactors range from 9A- 630A. The contactors provide reliable and safe switching and the thermal relays offers
close & accurate protection against overload.
- Types of Contractors:
• CN Series: AC contactor woth AC coil
• CD Series: AC contactor with DC coil
• CH Series: AC contactor with AC/DC coil
k. Relay- is a sensing device which is used to sense the abnormal condition and break of circuit.

A thermal overload relay is a device to protect an electrical device like a motor/generator from catching fire/ burning
out due to excessive heat produced during operation. The relay has a bi-metallic contact that operates with
temperature. When the temperature of the system goes above a pre-set value, contact goes from closed position to
open, and the power supply to the circuit is cut and the device is saved from damages. So it keeps the system within
the safe operating temperatures.

l. Capacitor- originally known as condenser, is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy
electrostatically in an electrical field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two
electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. insulator).
- is a electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single
constant value, capacitance, measured in FARADS, practically in MICRO-FARDS (MFD). This is the ratio of
electrical charge on conductor to the potential difference between them. C= Q/V

Types of Capacitors:
• MFD- Micofards- these are made by the MFD rating for the general purpose
• KVAR- these are the power capacitor, which are made for the special purpose of improving the power
factor. These are also called PFC capacitor

m. Dielectric- insulating material or a very poor conductor of electric current. When dielectrics are placed in an
electric field, practically no current flows in them because, unlike metals, they have no loosely bound, or free,
electrons that may drift through the material Instead, electric polarization occurs.

n. Metal Plate- forged, rolled, or cast metal in sheets usually thicker than 1/4 inch (6 millimeters).
 G. National Electrical Code of the Philippines
CHAPTER 1-GENERAL

a. Purpose

• Practical safeguarding of persons and property from hazards arising from the use of electricity.

• Contains provisions that are considered minimum requirements necessary for safety

b. Scope

• This Code covers the installation of electrical conductors, equipment, and raceways; signaling and
communications conductors, optical fiber cables in Public and private buildings, including but not limited
to residential, commercial, industrial, institutional, cultural, agricultural, agro-industrial, planned unit
development etc.

• Does not cover installations in railway rolling stock, aircraft, or automotive vehicles

c. Authority

• Approved and adopted by the Board of Electrical Engineering and PRC by virtue of authority vested in the
Board under RA 7920 (New Electrical Engineering Law)

d. Enforcement

• This Code is intended for mandatory application by government bodies exercising legal jurisdiction over
electrical installations nly through a licensed electrical practitioner.

e. Mandatory Rules, Permissive Rules, and Explanatory Material

• Includes rules and actions that are specifically required or prohibited by the code, those that identify actions
that are allowed but not required and alternative methods, such as references to other standards, references
to related sections of this Code.

f. Interpretation

• In case of controversy, the recommendation of the Code Committee and concurrence of the Board of
Electrical Engineering shall be the final interpretation.

g. Examination of Equipment for Safety

• It is the intent of this Code that factory-installed internal wiring or the construction of equipment need not
be inspected at the time of installation of the equipment, except to detect alterations or damage, if the
equipment has been listed by a qualified electrical testing laboratory

h. Wiring Planning

• Future Expansion and Convenience - Plans and specifications that provide ample space in raceways, spare
raceways, and additional spaces allow for future increases in electric power and communication circuits.
Distribution centers located in readily accessible locations provide convenience and safety of operation.

• Number of Circuits in Enclosure- It is elsewhere provided in this Code that the number of wires and
circuits confined in a single enclosure be varyingly restricted. Limiting the number of circuits in a single
enclosure will minimizes the effects from a short circuit or ground fault in one circuit.

i. Metric Units of Measurement

• International System of Units (SI) e.g volt, ampere, ohm etc.

 DEFINITIONS

1. Accessible (as applied to equipment). Admitting close approach; not guarded by locked doors, elevation,
or other effective means.
2. Accessible (as applied to wiring methods). Capable of being removed or exposed without damaging the
building structure or finish or not permanently closed in by the structure or finish of the building.
3. Accessible, Readily (Readily Accessible). Capable of being reached quickly for operation, renewal, or
inspections without requiring those to whom ready access is requisite to climb over or remove obstacles or
to resort to portable ladders, and so forth.
4. Ampacity. The current, in amperes, that a conductor can carry continuously under the conditions of use
without exceeding its temperature rating.
5. Appliance. Utilization equipment, generally other than industrial, that is normally built in standardized
sizes or types and is installed or connected as a unit to perform one or more functions such as clothes
washing, air conditioning, food mixing, deep frying, and so forth.
6. Approved. Acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction.
7. Askarel. A generic term for a group of nonflammable synthetic chlorinated hydrocarbons used as electrical
insulating media. Askarels of various compositional types are used. Under arcing conditions, the gases
produced, while consisting predominantly of noncombustible hydrogen chloride, can include varying
amounts of combustible gases, depending on the askarel type.
8. Attachment Plug (Plug Cap) (Plug). A device that, by insertion in a receptacle, establishes a connection
between the conductors of the attached flexible cord and the conductors connected permanently to the
receptacle.
9. Authority Having Jurisdiction (AHJ). The organization, office, or individual responsible for approving
equipment, materials, an installation, or a procedure.
10. Automatic. Self-acting, operating by its own mechanism when actuated by some impersonal influence, as,
for example, a change in current, pressure, temperature, or mechanical configuration.
11. Accessible, Readily (Readily Accessible). Capable of being reached quickly for operation, renewal, or
inspections without requiring those to whom ready access is requisite to climb over or remove obstacles or
to resort to portable ladders, and so forth.
12. Ampacity. The current, in amperes, that a conductor can carry continuously under the conditions of use
without exceeding its temperature rating.
13. Appliance. Utilization equipment, generally other than industrial, that is normally built in standardized
sizes or types and is installed or connected as a unit to perform one or more functions such as clothes
washing, air conditioning, food mixing, deep frying, and so forth.
14. Bathroom. An area including a basin with one or more of the following: a toilet, a tub, or a shower.
15. Bonding (Bonded). The permanent joining of metallic parts to form an electrically conductive path that
ensures electrical continuity and the capacity to conduct safely any current likely to be imposed.
16. Bonding Jumper. A reliable conductor to ensure the required electrical conductivity between metal parts
required to be electrically connected.
17. Bonding Jumper, Equipment. The connection between two or more portions of the equipment grounding
conductor.
18. Bonding Jumper, Main. The connection between the grounded circuit conductor and the equipment
grounding conductor at the service.
19. Bonding Jumper, System. The connection between the grounded circuit conductor and the equipment
grounding conductor at a separately derived system.
20. Branch Circuit. The circuit conductors between the final overcurrent device protecting the circuit and the
outlet(s).
21. Branch Circuit, Appliance. A branch circuit that supplies energy to one or more outlets to which appliances
are to be connected and that has no permanently connected luminaires (lighting fixtures) that are not a part of an
appliance.
22. Branch Circuit, General-Purpose. A branch circuit that supplies two or more receptacles or outlets for
lighting and appliances.
23. Branch Circuit, Individual. A branch circuit that supplies only one utilization equipment.
24. Branch Circuit, Multiwire. A branch circuit that consists of two or more ungrounded conductors that have a
voltage between them, and a grounded conductor that has equal voltage between it and each ungrounded
conductor of the circuit and that is connected to the neutral or grounded conductor of the system.
25. Building. A structure that stands alone or that is cut off from adjoining structures by fire walls with all openings
therein protected by approved fire doors.
26. Cabinet. An enclosure that is designed for either surface mounting or flush mounting and is provided with a
frame, mat, or trim in which a swinging door or doors are or can be hung.
27. Circuit Breaker. A device designed to open and close a circuit by nonautomatic means and to open the circuit
automatically on a predetermined overcurrent without damage to itself when properly applied within its rating.
28. Adjustable (as applied to circuit breakers). A qualifying term indicating that the circuit breaker can be set to
trip at various values of current, time, or both, within a predetermined range.
29. Instantaneous Trip (as applied to circuit breakers). A qualifying term indicating that no delay is purposely
introduced in the tripping action of the circuit breaker.
30. Inverse Time (as applied to circuit breakers). A qualifying term indicating that there is purposely introduced
a delay in the tripping action of the circuit breaker, which delay decreases as the magnitude of the current
increases.
31. Nonadjustable (as applied to circuit breakers). A qualifying term indicating that the circuit breaker does not
have any adjustment to alter the value of current at which it will trip, or the time required for its operation.
32. Setting (of circuit breakers). The value of current, time, or both, at which an adjustable circuit breaker is set to
trip.
33. Concealed. Rendered inaccessible by the structure or finish of the building. Wires in concealed raceways are
considered concealed, even though they may become accessible by withdrawing them.
34. Conductor, Bare. A conductor having no covering or electrical insulation whatsoever.
35. Conductor, Covered. A conductor encased within material of composition or thickness that is not recognized
by this Code as electrical insulation.
36. Conductor, Insulated. A conductor encased within material of composition and thickness that is recognized by
this Code as electrical insulation.
37. Conduit Body. A separate portion of a conduit or tubing system that provides access through a removable
cover(s) to the interior of the system at a junction of two or more sections of the system or at a terminal point of
the system. Boxes such as FS and FD or larger cast or sheet metal boxes are not classified as conduit bodies.
38. Connector, Pressure (Solderless). A device that establishes a connection between two or more conductors or
between one or more conductors and a terminal by means of mechanical pressure and without the use of solder.
39. Continuous Load. A load where the maximum current is expected to continue for 3 hours or more.
40. Controller. A device or group of devices that serves to govern, in some predetermined manner, the electric
power delivered to the apparatus to which it is connected.
41. Cooking Unit, Counter-Mounted. A cooking appliance designed for mounting in or on a counter and
consisting of one or more heating elements, internal wiring, and built-in or mountable controls.
42. Coordination (Selective). Localization of an overcurrent condition to restrict outages to the circuit or
equipment affected, accomplished by the choice of overcurrent protective devices and their ratings or settings.
43. Copper-Clad Aluminum Conductors. Conductors drawn from a copper-clad aluminum rod with the copper
metallurgically bonded to an aluminum core. The copper forms a minimum of 10 percent of the cross-sectional
area of a solid conductor or each strand of a stranded conductor.
44. Cutout Box. An enclosure designed for surface mounting that has swinging doors or covers secured directly to
and telescoping with the walls of the box proper.
45. Dead Front. Without live parts exposed to a person on the operating side of the equipment.
46. Demand Factor. The ratio of the maximum demand of a system, or part of a system, to the total connected load
of a system or the part of the system under consideration.
47. Device. A unit of an electrical system that is intended to carry or control but not utilize electric energy.
48. Disconnecting Means. A device, or group of devices, or other means by which the conductors of a circuit can
be disconnected from their source of supply.
49. Dusttight. Constructed so that dust will not enter the enclosing case under specified test conditions.
50. Duty, Continuous. Operation at a substantially constant load for an indefinitely long time.
51. Duty, Intermittent. Operation for alternate intervals of (1) load and no load; or (2) load and rest; or (3) load, no
load, and rest.
52. Duty, Periodic. Intermittent operation in which the load conditions are regularly recurrent.
53. Duty, Short-Time. Operation at a substantially constant load for a short and definite, specified time.
54. Duty, Varying. Operation at loads, and for intervals of time, both of which may be subject to wide variation.
55. Dwelling Unit. A single unit, providing complete and independent living facilities for one or more persons,
including permanent provisions for living, sleeping, cooking, and sanitation.
56. Dwelling, One-Family. A building that consists solely of one dwelling unit.
57. Dwelling, Two-Family. A building that consists solely of two dwelling units.
58. Dwelling, Multifamily. A building that contains three or more dwelling units.
59. Electric Sign. A fixed, stationary, or portable self-contained, electrically illuminated utilization equipment with
words or symbols designed to convey information or attract attention.
60. Electrical Practitioner, Licensed. One who has undergone training in electrical engineering and has complied
with the requirements of Republic Act 7920 or otherwise known as the New Electrical Engineering Law.
61. Electrical Practitioner, Non-Licensed. An electrical practitioner that has not complied with the requirements
of RA 7920 or a qualified person with relevant education and experience to enable him or her to perceive risks
and to avoid hazards which electricity can create.
62. Enclosed. Surrounded by a case, housing, fence, or wall(s) that prevents persons from accidentally contacting
energized parts.
63. Enclosure. The case or housing of apparatus, or the fence or walls surrounding an installation to prevent
personnel from accidentally contacting energized parts or to protect the equipment from physical damage.
64. Energized. Electrically connected to a source of voltage.
65. Equipment. A general term including material, fittings, devices, appliances, luminaires (fixtures), apparatus,
and the like used as a part of, or in connection with, an electrical installation.
66. Explosionproof Apparatus. Apparatus enclosed in a case that is capable of withstanding an explosion of a
specified gas or vapor that may occur within it and of preventing the ignition of a specified gas or vapor
surrounding the enclosure by sparks, flashes, or explosion of the gas or vapor within, and that operates at such
an external temperature that a surrounding flammable atmosphere will not be ignited thereby.
67. Exposed (as applied to live parts). Capable of being inadvertently touched or approached nearer than a safe
distance by a person. It is applied to parts that are not suitably guarded, isolated, or insulated.
68. Exposed (as applied to wiring methods). On or attached to the surface or behind panels designed to allow
access.
69. Externally Operable. Capable of being operated without exposing the operator to contact with live parts.
70. Feeder. All circuit conductors between the service equipment, the source of a separately derived system, or
other power supply source and the final branch-circuit overcurrent device.
71. Festoon Lighting. A string of outdoor lights that is suspended between two points.
72. Fitting. An accessory such as a locknut, bushing, or other part of a wiring system that is intended primarily to
perform a mechanical rather than an electrical function.
73. Garage. A building or portion of a building in which one or more self-propelled vehicles can be kept for use,
sale, storage, rental, repair, exhibition, or demonstration purposes.
74. Ground. A conducting connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electrical circuit or equipment
and the earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth.
75. Grounded. Connected to earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of the earth.
76. Grounded, Effectively. Intentionally connected to earth through a ground connection or connections of
sufficiently low impedance and having enough current-carrying capacity to prevent the buildup of voltages that
may result in undue hazards to connected equipment or to persons.
77. Grounded, Solidly. Connected to ground without inserting any resistor or impedance device.
78. Grounded Conductor. A system or circuit conductor that is intentionally grounded.
79. Ground-Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI). A device intended for the protection of personnel that functions to
de-energize a circuit or portion thereof within an established period of time when a current to ground exceeds
the values established for a Class A device.
80. Ground-Fault Protection of Equipment. A system intended to provide protection of equipment from
damaging line-to-ground fault currents by operating to cause a disconnecting means to open all ungrounded
conductors of the faulted circuit. This protection is provided at current levels less than those required to protect
conductors from damage through the operation of a supply circuit overcurrent device.
81. Grounding Conductor. A conductor used to connect equipment or the grounded circuit of a wiring system to a
grounding electrode or electrodes.
82. Grounding Conductor, Equipment. The conductor used to connect the non–current-carrying metal parts of
equipment, raceways, and other enclosures to the system grounded conductor, the grounding electrode
conductor, or both, at the service equipment or at the source of a separately derived system.
83. Grounding Electrode. A device that establishes an electrical connection to the earth.
84. Grounding Electrode Conductor. The conductor used to connect the grounding electrode(s) to the equipment
grounding conductor, to the grounded conductor, or to both, at the service, at each building or structure where
supplied by a feeder(s) or branch circuit(s), or at the source of a separately derived system.
85. Guarded. Covered, shielded, fenced, enclosed, or otherwise protected by means of suitable covers, casings,
barriers, rails, screens, mats, or platforms to remove the likelihood of approach or contact by persons or objects
to a point of danger.
86. Guest Room. An accommodation combining living, sleeping, sanitary, and storage facilities within a
compartment.
87. Guest Suite. An accommodation with two or more contiguous rooms comprising a compartment, with or
without doors between such rooms, that provides living, sleeping, sanitary, and storage facilities.
88. Handhole Enclosure. An enclosure identified for use in underground systems, provided with an open or closed
bottom, and sized to allow personnel to reach into, but not enter, for the purpose of installing, operating, or
maintaining equipment or wiring or both.
89. Hoistway. Any shaftway, hatchway, well hole, or other vertical opening or space in which an elevator or
dumbwaiter is designed to operate.
90. Identified (as applied to equipment). Recognizable as suitable for the specific purpose, function, use,
environment, application, and so forth, where described in a particular Code requirement.
91. In Sight From (Within Sight From, Within Sight). Where this Code specifies that one equipment shall be “in
sight from,” “within sight from,” or “within sight,” and so forth, of another equipment, the specified equipment
is to be visible and not more than 15 m distant from the other.
92. Interrupting Rating. The highest current at rated voltage that a device is intended to interrupt under standard
test conditions.
93. Isolated (as applied to location). Not readily accessible to persons unless special means for access are used.
94. Labeled. Equipment or materials to which has been attached a label, symbol, or other identifying mark of an
organization that is acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction and concerned with product evaluation, that
maintains periodic inspection of production of labeled equipment or materials, and by whose labeling the
manufacturer indicates compliance with appropriate standards or performance in a specified manner.
95. Lighting Outlet. An outlet intended for the direct connection of a lampholder, a luminaire (lighting fixture), or
a pendant cord terminating in a lampholder.
96. Listed. Equipment, materials, or services included in a list published by an organization that is acceptable to the
authority having jurisdiction and concerned with evaluation of products or services, that maintains periodic
inspection of production of listed equipment or materials or periodic evaluation of services, and whose listing
states that the equipment, material, or services either meets appropriate designated standards or has been tested
and found suitable for a specified purpose.
97. Live Parts. Conductor or conductive part intended to be energized in normal use.
98. Location, Damp. Locations protected from weather and not subject to saturation with water or other liquids but
subject to moderate degrees of moisture. Examples of such locations include partially protected locations under
canopies, marquees, roofed open porches, and like locations, and interior locations subject to moderate degrees
of moisture, such as some basements, some barns, and some coldstorage warehouses.
99. Location, Dry. A location not normally subject to dampness or wetness. A location classified as dry may be
temporarily subject to dampness or wetness, as in the case of a building under construction.
100. Location, Wet. Installations under ground or in concrete slabs or masonry in direct contact with the earth; in
locations subject to saturation with water or other liquids, such as vehicle washing areas; and in unprotected
locations exposed to weather.
101. Luminaire. A complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp or lamps together with the parts designed to distribute
the light, to position and protect the lamps and ballast (where applicable), and to connect the lamps to the power
supply.
102. Metal-Enclosed Power Switchgear. A switchgear assembly completely enclosed on all sides and top with
sheet metal (except for ventilating openings and inspection windows) containing primary power circuit
switching, interrupting devices, or both, with buses and connections. The assembly may include control and
auxiliary devices. Access to the interior of the enclosure is provided by doors, removable covers, or both.
103. Motor Control Center. An assembly of one or more enclosed sections having a common power bus and
principally containing motor control units.
104. Multioutlet Assembly. A type of surface, flush, or freestanding raceway designed to hold conductors and
receptacles, assembled in the field or at the factory.
105. Nonautomatic. Action requiring personal intervention for its control. As applied to an electric controller,
nonautomatic control does not necessarily imply a manual controller, but only that personal intervention is
necessary.
106. Nonlinear Load. A load where the wave shape of the steady-state current does not follow the wave shape of the
applied voltage.
107. Outlet. A point on the wiring system at which current is taken to supply utilization equipment.
108. Outline Lighting. An arrangement of incandescent lamps, electric discharge lighting, or other electrically
powered light sources to outline or call attention to certain features such as the shape of a building or the
decoration of a window.
109. Overcurrent. Any current in excess of the rated current of equipment or the ampacity of a conductor. It may
result from overload, short circuit, or ground fault.
110. Overload. Operation of equipment in excess of normal, full-load rating, or of a conductor in excess of rated
ampacity that, when it persists for a sufficient length of time, would cause damage or dangerous overheating. A
fault, such as a short circuit or ground fault, is not an overload.
111. Panelboard. A single panel or group of panel units designed for assembly in the form of a single panel,
including buses and automatic overcurrent devices, and equipped with or without switches for the control of
light, heat, or power circuits; designed to be placed in a cabinet or cutout box placed in or against a wall,
partition, or other support; and accessible only from the front.
112. Plenum. A compartment or chamber to which one or more air ducts are connected and that forms part of the air
distribution system.
113. Power Outlet. An enclosed assembly that may include receptacles, circuit breakers, fuseholders, fused
switches, buses, and watt-hour meter mounting means; intended to supply and control power to mobile homes,
recreational vehicles, park trailers, or boats or to serve as a means for distributing power required to operate
mobile or temporarily installed equipment.
114. Premises Wiring (System). That interior and exterior wiring, including power, lighting, control, and signal
circuit wiring together with all their associated hardware, fittings, and wiring devices, both permanently and
temporarily installed, that extends from the service point or source of power, such as a battery, a solar
photovoltaic system, or a generator, transformer, or converter windings, to the outlet(s). Such wiring does not
include wiring internal to appliances, luminaires (fixtures), motors, controllers, motor control centers, and
similar equipment.
115. Raceway. An enclosed channel of metal or nonmetallic materials designed expressly for holding wires, cables,
or busbars, with additional functions as permitted in this Code. Raceways include, but are not limited to, rigid
metal conduit, rigid nonmetallic conduit, intermediate metal conduit, liquidtight flexible conduit, flexible
metallic tubing, flexible metal conduit, electrical nonmetallic tubing, electrical metallic tubing, underfloor
raceways, cellular concrete floor raceways, cellular metal floor raceways, surface raceways, wireways, and
busways.
116. Rainproof. Constructed, protected, or treated so as to prevent rain from interfering with the successful
operation of the apparatus under specified test conditions.
117. Raintight. Constructed or protected so that exposure to a beating rain will not result in the entrance of water
under specified test conditions.
118. Receptacle. A receptacle is a contact device installed at the outlet for the connection of an attachment plug. A
single receptacle is a single contact device with no other contact device on the same yoke. A multiple receptacle
is two or more contact devices on the same yoke.
119. Receptacle Outlet. An outlet where one or more receptacles are installed.
120. Remote-Control Circuit. Any electric circuit that controls any other circuit through a relay or an equivalent
device.
121. Sealable Equipment. Equipment enclosed in a case or cabinet that is provided with a means of sealing or
locking so that live parts cannot be made accessible without opening the enclosure. The equipment may or may
not be operable without opening the enclosure.
122. Separately Derived System. A premises wiring system whose power is derived from a source of electric
energy or equipment other than a service. Such systems have no direct electrical connection, including a solidly
connected grounded circuit conductor, to supply conductors originating in another system.
123. Service. The conductors and equipment for delivering electric energy from the serving utility to the wiring
system of the premises served.
124. Service Cable. Service conductors made up in the form of a cable.
125. Service Conductors. The conductors from the service point to the service disconnecting means.
126. Service Drop. The overhead service conductors from the last pole or other aerial support to and including the
splices, if any, connecting to the service-entrance conductors at the building or other structure.
127. Service-Entrance Conductors, Overhead System. The service conductors between the terminals of the
service equipment and a point usually outside the building, clear of building walls, where joined by tap or splice
to the service drop.
128. Service-Entrance Conductors, Underground System. The service conductors between the terminals of the
service equipment and the point of connection to the service lateral.
129. Service Equipment. The necessary equipment, usually consisting of a circuit breaker(s) or switch(es) and
fuse(s) and their accessories, connected to the load end of service conductors to a building or other structure, or
an otherwise designated area, and intended to constitute the main control and cutoff of the supply.
130. Service Lateral. The underground service conductors between the street main, including any risers at a pole or
other structure or from transformers, and the first point of connection to the service-entrance conductors in a
terminal box or meter or other enclosure, inside or outside the building wall. Where there is no terminal box,
meter, or other enclosure, the point of connection is considered to be the point of entrance of the service
conductors into the building.
131. Service Point. The point of connection between the facilities of the serving utility and the premises wiring.
132. Show Window. Any window used or designed to be used for the display of goods or advertising material,
whether it is fully or partly enclosed or entirely open at the rear and whether or not it has a platform raised
higher than the street floor level.
133. Signaling Circuit. Any electric circuit that energizes signaling equipment.
134. Solar Photovoltaic System. The total components and subsystems that, in combination, convert solar energy
into electrical energy suitable for connection to a utilization load.
135. Special Permission. The written consent of the authority having Jurisdiction
136. Structure. That which is built or constructed.
137. Supplementary Overcurrent Protective Device. A device intended to provide limited overcurrent protection
for specific applications and utilization equipment such as luminaires (lighting fixtures) and appliances. This
limited protection is in addition to the protection provided in the required branch circuit by the branch circuit
overcurrent protective device.
138. Switch, Bypass Isolation. A manually operated device used in conjunction with a transfer switch to provide a
means of directly connecting load conductors to a power source and of disconnecting the transfer switch.
139. Switch, General-Use. A switch intended for use in general distribution and branch circuits. It is rated in
amperes, and it is capable of interrupting its rated current at its rated voltage.
140. Switch, General-Use Snap. A form of general-use switch constructed so that it can be installed in device boxes
or on box covers, or otherwise used in conjunction with wiring systems recognized by this Code.
141. Switch, Isolating. A switch intended for isolating an electric circuit from the source of power. It has no
interrupting rating, and it is intended to be operated only after the circuit has been opened by some other means.
142. Switch, Motor-Circuit. A switch rated in horsepower that is capable of interrupting the maximum operating
overload current of a motor of the same horsepower rating as the switch at the rated voltage.
143. Switch, Transfer. An automatic or nonautomatic device for transferring one or more load conductor
connections from one power source to another.
144. Switchboard. A large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels on which are mounted on the face, back, or
both, switches, overcurrent and other protective devices, buses, and usually instruments. Switchboards are
generally accessible from the rear as well as from the front and are not intended to be installed in cabinets.
145. Thermally Protected (as applied to motors). The words Thermally Protected appearing on the nameplate of a
motor or motor compressor indicate that the motor is provided with a thermal protector.
146. Thermal Protector (as applied to motors). A protective device for assembly as an integral part of a motor or
motor-compressor that, when properly applied, protects the motor against dangerous overheating due to
overload and failure to start.
147. Utilization Equipment. Equipment that utilizes electric energy for electronic, electromechanical, chemical,
heating, lighting, or similar purposes.
148. Ventilated. Provided with a means to permit circulation of air sufficient to remove an excess of heat, fumes, or
vapors.
149. Volatile Flammable Liquid. A flammable liquid having a flash point below 38°C, or a flammable liquid
whose temperature is above its flash point, or a Class II combustible liquid that has a vapor pressure not
exceeding 276 kPa at 38°C and whose temperature is above its flash point.
150. Voltage (of a circuit). The greatest root-mean-square (rms)(effective) difference of potential between any two
conductors of the circuit concerned.
151. Voltage, Nominal. A nominal value assigned to a circuit or system for the purpose of conveniently designating
its voltage class (e.g.,120/240 volts, 480Y/277 volts, 600 volts). The actual voltage at which a circuit operates
can vary from the nominal within a range that permits satisfactory operation of equipment.
152. Voltage to Ground. For grounded circuits, the voltage between the given conductor and that point or conductor
of the circuit that is grounded; for ungrounded circuits, the greatest voltage between the given conductor and
any other conductor of the circuit.
153. Watertight. Constructed so that moisture will not enter the enclosure under specified test conditions.
154. Weatherproof. Constructed or protected so that exposure to the weather will not interfere with successful
operation.
155. Electronically Actuated Fuse. An overcurrent protective device that generally consists of a control module
that provides current sensing, electronically derived time–current characteristics, energy to initiate tripping, and
an interrupting module that interrupts current when an overcurrent occurs. Electronically actuated fuses may or
may not operate in a current-limiting fashion, depending on the type of control selected.
156. Fuse. An overcurrent protective device with a circuit-opening fusible part that is heated and severed by the
passage of overcurrent through it.
157. Controlled Vented Power Fuse. A fuse with provision for controlling discharge circuit interruption such that
no solid material may be exhausted into the surrounding atmosphere.
158. Expulsion Fuse Unit (Expulsion Fuse). A vented fuse unit in which the expulsion effect of gases produced by
the arc and lining of the fuseholder, either alone or aided by a spring, extinguishes the arc.
159. Nonvented Power Fuse. A fuse without intentional provision for the escape of arc gases, liquids, or solid
particles to the atmosphere during circuit interruption.
160. Power Fuse Unit. A vented, nonvented, or controlled vented fuse unit in which the arc is extinguished by being
drawn through solid material, granular material, or liquid, either alone or aided by a spring.
161. Vented Power Fuse. A fuse with provision for the escape of arc gases, liquids, or solid particles to the
surrounding atmosphere during circuit interruption.
162. Multiple Fuse. An assembly of two or more single-pole fuses.
163. Switching Device. A device designed to close, open, or both, one or more electric circuits.
164. Circuit Breaker. A switching device capable of making, carrying, and interrupting currents under normal
circuit conditions, and also of making, carrying for a specified time, and interrupting currents under specified
abnormal circuit conditions, such as those of short circuit.
165. Cutout. An assembly of a fuse support with either a fuseholder, fuse carrier, or disconnecting blade. The
fuseholder or fuse carrier may include a conducting element (fuse link) or may act as the disconnecting blade by
the inclusion of a nonfusible member.
166. Disconnecting (or Isolating) Switch (Disconnector, Isolator). A mechanical switching device used for
isolating a circuit or equipment from a source of power.
167. Disconnecting Means. A device, group of devices, or other means whereby the conductors of a circuit can be
disconnected from their source of supply.
168. Interrupter Switch. A switch capable of making, carrying, and interrupting specified currents.
169. Oil Cutout (Oil-Filled Cutout). A cutout in which all or part of the fuse support and its fuse link or
disconnecting blade is mounted in oil with complete immersion of the contacts and the fusible portion of the
conducting element (fuse link) so that arc interruption by severing of the fuse link or by opening of the contacts
will occur under oil.
170. Oil Switch. A switch having contacts that operate under oil (or askarel or other suitable liquid).
171. Regulator Bypass Switch. A specific device or combination of devices designed to bypass a regulator.
CHAPTER 2- WIRING AND PROTECTION

Use and Identification of Grounded Conductors

The conductor used to connect the non–current-
carrying metal parts of equipment, raceways, and other
enclosures to the system

Branch Circuits
The circuit conductors between the final overcurrent
device protecting the circuit and the outlet(s)

Feeders
All circuit conductors between the service equipment,
the source of a separately derived system, or other
power supply source and the final branch-circuit
overcurrent device.

Branch-Circuit, Feeder, And Service Calculations

This article provides for general requirements for
calculation methods. Part 2.20.2, 2.20.3 and 2.20.4
respectively.
Outside Branch Circuits and Feeders
This article covers requirements for outside branch
circuits and feeders run on or between buildings,
structures, or poles on the premises.

Services
This article covers service conductors and equipment
for control and protection of services and their
installation requirements.

Overcurrent Protection
This article provides the general requirements for
overcurrent protection and overcurrent protective
devices not more than 600 volts, nominal.

Grounding and Bonding

This article covers general requirements for grounding
and bonding of electrical installations, and specific
requirements
• Circuit conductor to be grounded on
grounded systems
• (Location of grounding connections
• Types and sizes of grounding and bonding
conductors and electrodes
• Methods of grounding and bonding
• Conditions under which guards, isolation, or
insulation may be substituted for grounding
Surge Arresters
This device to protect electrical equipment from over-
voltage transients caused by external (lightning) or
internal (switching) events

Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors

The purpose of a TVSS is to eliminate or reduce
damage to data processing equipment and other critical
equipment by limiting transient surge voltages and
currents (surges) on electrical circuits.
CHAPTER 3- WIRING METHODS AND MATERIALS

1. Conductors
(a) Single Conductors. Single conductors specified in Table
3.10.1.13 shall only be installed where part of a recognized wiring
method of Chapter 3.
(b) Conductors of the Same Circuit. All conductors of the same
circuit and, where used, the grounded conductor and all equipment
grounding conductors and bonding conductors shall be contained
within the same raceway, auxiliary gutter, cable tray, cablebus
assembly, trench, cable, or cord, unless otherwise permitted in
accordance with 3.0.1.3(b)(1) through (b)(4).

1. Paralleled Installations
2. Grounding and bonding conductors
3. Nonferrous wiring methods
4. Enclosures

(c) Conductors of Different Systems.

(1) 600 Volts, Nominal, or Less. Conductors of circuits rated 600
volts, nominal, or less, ac circuits, and dc circuits shall be permitted to
occupy the same equipment wiring enclosure, cable, or raceway. All
conductors shall have an insulation rating equal to at least the
maximum circuit voltage applied to any conductor within the
enclosure, cable, or raceway.
(2) Over 600 Volts, Nominal. Conductors of circuits rated over
600 volts, nominal, shall not occupy the same equipment wiring
enclosure, cable, or raceway with conductors of circuits rated 600
volts, nominal, or less unless otherwise permitted in (c)(2)(a) through
(c)(2)(e).
a. Secondary wiring to electric-discharge lamps of 1000 volts or
less, if insulated for the secondary voltage involved, shall be permitted
to occupy the same luminaire (fixture), sign, or outline lighting
enclosure as the branch-circuit conductors.
b. Primary leads of electric-discharge lamp ballasts insulated for
the primary voltage of the ballast, where contained within the
individual wiring enclosure, shall be permitted to occupy the same
luminaire (fixture), sign, or outline lighting enclosure as the branch circuit
conductors.
c. Excitation, control, relay, and ammeter conductors used in
connection with any individual motor or starter shall be permitted to
occupy the same enclosure as the motor-circuit conductors.
d. In motors, switchgear and control assemblies, and similar
equipment, conductors of different voltage ratings shall be permitted.
e. In manholes, if the conductors of each system are
permanently and effectively separated from the conductors of the other
systems and securely fastened to racks, insulators, or other approved
supports, conductors of different voltage ratings shall be permitted.
Conductors having no shielded insulation and operating at
different voltage levels shall not occupy the same enclosure, cable, or raceway.
2. Wiring methods

1. Cables and raceways through wood members

a. Bored holes
b. Notches in wood
2. Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cables and electrical nonmetallic tubing through metal framing members
a. Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable. In both exposed and concealed locations where nonmetallic-
sheathed cables pass through either factory or field punched, cut, or drilled slots or holes in metal
members, the cable shall be protected by listed bushings or listed grommets covering all metal
edges that are securely fastened in the opening prior to installation of the cable.
b. Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable and Electrical Nonmetallic Tubing. Where nails or screws are likely
to penetrate nonmetallic sheathed cable or electrical nonmetallic tubing, a steel sleeve, steel plate,
or steel clip not less than 1.60 mm in thickness shall be used to protect the cable or tubing.
3. Cables through spaces behind panels designed to allow access
4. Cables and raceways parallel to framing members and furring stir-ups
5. Cables and raceways installed in shallow grooves
6. Insulated fittings
7. Underground Installations
(a) Minimum Cover Requirements. Direct-buried cable or conduit or other raceways shall be installed to meet
the minimum cover requirements of Table 3.0.1.5.
(b) Listing. Cables and insulated conductors installed in enclosures or raceways in underground installations
shall be listed for use in wet locations.
(c) Underground Cables Under Buildings. Underground cable installed under a building shall be in a raceway
that is extended beyond the outside walls of the building.
(d) Protection from Damage. Direct-buried conductors and cables shall be protected from damage in
accordance with 3.0.1.5(d)(1) through (d)(4).
(1) Emerging from Grade. Direct-buried conductors and enclosures emerging from grade shall be protected
by enclosures or raceways extending from the minimum cover distance below grade required by 3.0.1.5(a)
to a point at least 2 400 mm above finished grade. In no case shall the protection be required to exceed 450
mm below finished grade.
(2) Conductors Entering Buildings. Conductors entering a building shall be protected to the point of
entrance.
(3) Service Conductors. Underground service conductors that are not encased in concrete and that are
buried 450 mm or more below grade shall have their location identified by a warning ribbon that is
placed in the trench at least 300 mm above the underground installation.
(4) Enclosure or Raceway Damage. Where the enclosure or raceway is subject to physical damage, the
conductors shall be installed in rigid metal conduit, intermediate metal conduit, Schedule 80 rigid
nonmetallic conduit, or equivalent.
(e) Splices and Taps. Direct-buried conductors or cables shall be permitted to be spliced or tapped without the
use of splice boxes. The splices or taps shall be made in accordance with 1.10.1.14(b).
(f) Backfill. Backfill that contains large rocks, paving materials, cinders, large or sharply angular substances, or
corrosive material shall not be placed in an excavation where materials may damage raceways, cables, or other
substructures or prevent adequate compaction of fill or contribute to corrosion of raceways, cables, or other
substructures. Where necessary to prevent physical damage to the raceway or cable, protection shall be
provided in the form of granular or selected material, suitable running boards, suitable sleeves, or other
approved means.
(g) Raceway Seals. Conduits or raceways through which moisture may contact live parts shall be sealed or
plugged at either or both ends.
FPN: Presence of hazardous gases or vapors may also necessitate sealing of underground conduits or raceways
entering buildings.
(h) Bushing. A bushing, or terminal fitting, with an integral bushed opening shall be used at the end of a
conduit or other raceway that terminates underground where the conductors or cables emerge as a direct burial
wiring method. A seal incorporating the physical protection characteristics of a bushing shall be permitted to be
used in lieu of a bushing.
(i) Conductors of the Same Circuit. All conductors of the same circuit and, where used, the grounded
conductor and all equipment grounding conductors shall be installed in the same raceway or cable
or shall be installed in close proximity in the same trench.
(j) Ground Movement. Where direct-buried conductors, raceways, or cables are subject to movement by
settlement or frost, direct-buried conductors, raceways, or cables shall be arranged so as to prevent damage to
the enclosed conductors or to equipment connected to the raceways.
(k) Directional Boring. Cables or raceways installed using directional boring equipment shall be approved for
the purpose.
3. Cabinets, Cutout Boxes, And Meter Socket Enclosures
Installation:
1. Damp, wet, hazardous locations
2. Position in wall
3. Repairing plaster and drywall or plasterboard
4. Cables
Exception: Cables with entirely nonmetallic sheaths shall be
permitted to enter the top of a surface-mounted enclosure through one
or more nonflexible raceways not less than 450 mm and not more than
3 000 mm in length, provided all of the following conditions are met:
(a) Each cable is fastened within 300 mm, measured along the
sheath, of the outer end of the raceway.
(b) The raceway extends directly above the enclosure and does
not penetrate a structural ceiling.
(c) A fitting is provided on each end of the raceway to protect the
cable(s) from abrasion and the fittings remain accessible after
installation.
(d) The raceway is sealed or plugged at the outer end using
approved means so as to prevent access to the enclosure through the
raceway.
(e) The cable sheath is continuous through the raceway and
extends into the enclosure beyond the fitting not less than 6 mm (¼
in.).
(f) The raceway is fastened at its outer end and at other points in
accordance with the applicable article.
(g) Where installed as conduit or tubing, the allowable cable fill
does not exceed that permitted for complete conduit or tubing systems
by Table 1 of Chapter 9 of this Code and all applicable notes thereto.

4. Outlet, Device, Pull, And Junction Boxes; Conduit Bodies; Fittings; And Handhole Enclosures
1. Round boxes
2. Non-metallic boxes
3. Metal boxes
4. Short radius conduit bodies
5. Armored Cable: Type AC
Type AC cable shall have an armor of flexible metal tape and shall have an internal bonding strip of copper
or aluminum in intimate contact with the armor for its entire length.

6. Flat Cable Assemblies: Type FC

An assembly of parallel conductors formed integrally with an insulating material web
specifically designed for field installation in surface metal raceway.

7. Flat Conductor Cable: Type FCC

Bottom Shield. A protective layer that is installed between the floor and Type FCC flat conductor cable to
protect the cable from physical damage and may or may not be incorporated as an integral part of the
cable.
Cable Connector. A connector designed to join Type FCC cables without using a junction box.
FCC System. A complete wiring system for branch circuits that is designed for installation under carpet
squares. The FCC system includes Type FCC cable and associated shielding, connectors, terminators,
adapters, boxes, and receptacles.
Insulating End. An insulator designed to electrically insulate the end of a Type FCC cable.
Metal Shield Connections. Means of connection designed to electrically and mechanically connect a metal
shield to another metal shield, to a receptacle housing or self-contained device, or to a transition assembly.
Top Shield. A grounded metal shield covering under-carpet components of the FCC system for the
purposes of providing protection against physical damage.
Transition Assembly. An assembly to facilitate connection of the FCC system to other wiring systems,
incorporating (1) a means of electrical interconnection and (2) a suitable box or covering for providing
electrical safety and protection against physical damage.
Type FCC Cable. Three or more flat copper conductors placed edge-to-edge and separated and enclosed
within an insulating assembly.

8. Integrated Gas Spacer Cable: Type IGS

A factory assembly of one or more conductors, each individually insulated and enclosed in a
loose fit, nonmetallic flexible conduit as an integrated gas spacer cable rated 0 through 600 volts

9. Medium Voltage Cable Type MV

A single or multiconductor solid dielectric insulated cable rated 2 001 volts or higher.

10. Metal-Clad Cable: Type MC

A factory assembly of one or more insulated circuit conductors with or without optical fiber members
enclosed in an armor of interlocking metal tape, or a smooth or corrugated metallic sheath.

11. Mineral-Insulated, Metal sheathed Cable: Type MI

A factory assembly of one or more conductors insulated with a highly compressed refractory mineral
insulation and enclosed in a liquidtight and gastight continuous copper or alloy steel sheath.

12. Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable: Types NM, NMC, And NMS

Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable. A factory assembly of two or more insulated conductors enclosed within an
overall nonmetallic jacket.
Type NM. Insulated conductors enclosed within an overall nonmetallic jacket.
Type NMC. Insulated conductors enclosed within an overall, corrosion resistant, nonmetallic
jacket.
Type NMS. Insulated power or control conductors with signaling, data, and communications
conductors within an overall nonmetallic jacket.

13. Power And Control Tray Cable: Type TC

A factory assembly of two or more insulated conductors, with or without associated bare or covered
grounding conductors, under a nonmetallic jacket.

14. Service-Entrance Cable: Types SE And USE

 Service-Entrance Cable. A single conductor or multiconductor assembly provided with or without an
overall covering, primarily used for services, and of the following types:
Type SE. Service-entrance cable having a flame-retardant, moisture-resistant covering.
Type USE. Service-entrance cable, identified for underground use, having a moisture-resistant
covering, but not required to have a flame-retardant covering.

15. Underground Feeder And Branch-Circuit Cable: Type UF

A factory assembly of one or more insulated conductors with an integral or an overall covering of
nonmetallic material suitable for direct burial in the earth.

16. Intermediate Metal Conduit: Type IMC

A steel threadable raceway of circular cross section designed for the physical protection and routing
of conductors and cables and for use as an equipment grounding conductor when installed with its integral
or associated coupling and appropriate fittings.

17. Rigid Metal Conduit: Type RMC

A threadable raceway of circular cross section designed for the physical protection and routing of
conductors and cables and for use as an equipment grounding conductor when installed with its integral or
associated coupling and appropriate fittings. RMC is generally made of steel (ferrous) with protective
coatings or aluminum (nonferrous). Special use types are silicon bronze and stainless steel.

18. Flexible Metal Conduit: Type FMC

A raceway of circular cross section made of helically wound, formed, interlocked metal strip.

19. Liquidtight Flexible Metal Conduit: Type LFMC

A raceway of circular cross section having an outer liquidtight, nonmetallic, sunlight-resistant jacket over
an inner flexible metal core with associated couplings, connectors, and fittings for the installation of
electric conductors.

20. Rigid Nonmetallic Conduit: Type RNC

A nonmetallic raceway of circular cross section, with integral or associated couplings, connectors, and
fittings for the installation of electrical conductors and cables.

21. High Density Polyethylene Conduit: Type HDPE Conduit

A nonmetallic raceway of circular cross section, with associated couplings, connectors, and fittings for the
installation of electrical conductors.

22. Nonmetallic Underground Conduit With Conductors: Type NUCC

A factory assembly of conductors or cables inside a nonmetallic, smooth wall conduit with a circular cross
section.

23. Liquidtight Flexible Nonmetallic Conduit: Type LFNC

A raceway of circular cross section of various types as follows:
(1) A smooth seamless inner core and cover bonded together and having one or more
reinforcement layers between the core and covers, designated as Type LFNC-A
(2) A smooth inner surface with integral reinforcement within the conduit wall, designated as
Type LFNC-B
(3) A corrugated internal and external surface without integral reinforcement within the conduit
wall, designated as LFNC-C LFNC is flame resistant and with fittings and is approved for the
installation of electrical conductors.

24. Electrical Metallic Tubing: Type EMT

An unthreaded thinwall raceway of circular cross section designed for the physical protection and routing
of conductors and cables and for use as an equipment grounding conductor when installed utilizing
appropriate fittings. EMT is generally made of steel (ferrous) with protective coatings or
aluminum (nonferrous).
 Flexible Metallic Tubing (FMT). A raceway that is circular in cross section, flexible, metallic,
and liquidtight without a nonmetallic jacket.
Electrical Nonmetallic Tubing (ENT). A nonmetallic pliable corrugated raceway of circular
cross section with integral or associated couplings, connectors, and fittings for the installation of
electric conductors. ENT is composed of a material that is resistant to moisture and chemical
atmospheres and is flame retardant. A pliable raceway is a raceway that can be bent by hand with
a reasonable force but without other assistance.

25. Auxiliary Gutters

Metallic Auxiliary Gutters. Sheet metal enclosures with hinged or removable covers for housing and
protecting electric wires, cable, and busbars in which conductors are laid in place after the wireway has
been installed as a complete system.
Nonmetallic Auxiliary Gutters. Flame retardant, nonmetallic enclosures with removable covers for
housing and protecting electric wires, cable, and busbars in which conductors are laid in place after
the wireway has been installed as a complete system.

26. Busways
A grounded metal enclosure containing factory-mounted, bare or insulated conductors, which are usually
copper or aluminum bars, rods, or tubes.

27. Cable bus

An assembly of insulated conductors with fittings and conductor terminations in a completely enclosed,
ventilated protective metal housing. Cablebus is ordinarily assembled at the point of installation from the
components furnished or specified by the manufacturer in accordance with instructions for the specific job.
This assembly is designed to carry fault current and to withstand the magnetic forces of such current.

28. Cellular Concrete Floor Raceways

Cell. A single, enclosed tubular space in a floor made of precast cellular concrete slabs, the direction of the
cell being parallel to the direction of the floor member.
Header. Transverse metal raceways for electric conductors, providing access to predetermined cells of a
precast cellular concrete floor, thereby permitting the installation of electric conductors from a distribution
center to the floor cells.

29. Cellular Metal Floor Raceways

The hollow spaces of cellular metal floors, together with suitable fittings, that may be approved as
enclosures for electric conductors.

30. Metal Wireways

Sheet metal troughs with hinged or removable covers for housing and protecting electric wires and cable
and in which conductors are laid in place after the wireway has been installed as a complete system.

31. Nonmetallic Wireways

Flame retardant, nonmetallic troughs with removable covers for housing and protecting electric wires and
cables in which conductors are laid in place after the wireway has been installed as a complete system.

32. Multioutlet Assembly

Use:
(a) Permitted. The use of a multioutlet assembly shall be permitted in dry locations.
(b) Not Permitted. A multioutlet assembly shall not be installed as follows:
(1) Where concealed, except that it shall be permissible to surround the back and sides of a metal
multioutlet assembly by the building finish or recess a nonmetallic multioutlet assembly in a
Baseboard
(2) Where subject to severe physical damage
(3) Where the voltage is 300 volts or more between conductors unless the assembly is of metal
having a thickness of not less than 1.02 mm (0.040 in.)
 (4) Where subject to corrosive vapors
(5) In hoistways
(6) In any hazardous (classified) locations except Class I, Division 2 locations
Metal Multioutlet Assembly Through Dry Partitions- It shall be permissible to extend a metal
multioutlet assembly through (not run within) dry partitions if arrangements are made for removing the cap
or cover on all exposed portions and no outlet is located within the partitions.

33. Nonmetallic Extensions

An assembly of two insulated conductors within a nonmetallic jacket or an extruded thermoplastic
covering. The classification includes surface extensions intended for mounting directly on the surface of
walls or ceilings.

34. Strut-Type Channel Raceway

A metallic raceway that is intended to be mounted to the surface of or suspended from a structure, with
associated accessories for the installation of electrical conductors and cables.

35. Surface Metal Raceways

A metallic raceway that is intended to be mounted to the surface of a structure, with associated couplings,
connectors, boxes, and fittings for the installation of electrical conductors.

36. Surface Nonmetallic Raceways

A nonmetallic raceway that is intended to be mounted to the surface of a structure, with associated
couplings, connectors, boxes, and fittings for the installation of electrical conductors.

37. Underfloor Raceways

Use:
(a) Permitted. The installation of underfloor raceways shall be permitted beneath the surface of concrete or
other flooring material or in office occupancies where laid flush with the concrete floor and covered with
linoleum or equivalent floor covering.
(b) Not Permitted. Underfloor raceways shall not be installed (1) where subject to corrosive vapors or (2)
in any hazardous (classified) locations, except as permitted by 5.4.1.20 and in Class I, Division 2 locations
as permitted in 5.1.2.1(b)(3). Unless made of a material judged suitable for the condition or unless
corrosion protection approved for the condition is provided, ferrous or nonferrous metal underfloor
raceways, junction boxes, and fittings shall not be installed in concrete or in areas subject to severe
corrosive influences.

38. Cable Trays

A unit or assembly of units or sections and associated fittings forming a structural system used to securely
fasten or support cables and raceways.

39. Concealed Knob-And-Tube Wiring

A wiring method using knobs, tubes, and flexible nonmetallic tubing for the protection and support of
single insulated conductors.

40. Messenger Supported Wiring

An exposed wiring support system using a messenger wire to support insulated conductors by any one of
the following:
(1) A messenger with rings and saddles for conductor support
(2) A messenger with a field-installed lashing material for conductor support
(3) Factory-assembled aerial cable
(4) Multiplex cables utilizing a bare conductor, factory assembled and twisted with one or more insulated
conductors, such as duplex, triplex, or quadruplex type of construction

41. Open Wiring On Insulators

An exposed wiring method using cleats, knobs, tubes, and flexible tubing for the protection and support
of single insulated conductors run in or on buildings.
CHAPTER 4 – EQUIPMENT FOR GENERAL USE

1. Luminaires (Lighting Fixtures), Lampholders, And Lamps

2. Lighting Systems Operating At 30 Volts Or Less
3. Appliances
4. Fixed Electric Space-Heating Equipment
5. Fixed Electric Heating Equipment For Pipelines And Vessels
6. Fixture (Luminaires) Wires
7. Motors, Motor Circuits, And Controllers
8. Air-Conditioning And Refrigerating Equipment
9. Generators
10. Switches
11. Transformers And Transformer Vaults (Including Secondary Ties)
12. Phase Converters
13. Capacitors
14. Receptacles, Cord Connectors, And Attachment Plugs (Caps)
15. Resistors and Reactors
16. Storage Batteries
17. Switchboards And Panelboards
18. Equipment, Over 600 Volts, Nominal
19. Industrial Control Panels

CHAPTER 5 – SPECIAL OCCUPANCIES

1. Hazardous (Classified) Locations, Classes I, II, And III, Divisions 1 And 2

2. Hazardous (Classified) Locations – Specific
3. Commercial Garages, Repair And Storage
4. Aircraft Hangars
5. Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities
6. Bulk Storage Plants
7. Spray Application, Dipping, And Coating Processes
8. Health Care Facilities
9. Assembly Occupancies
10. Class I Locations
11. Theaters, Audience Areas Of Motion Picture And Television Studios, Performance Areas, And Similar
Locations
12. Carnivals, Circuses, Fairs, And Similar Events
13. Class II Locations
14. Motion Picture And Television Studios And Similar Locations
15. Class III Locations
16. Motion Picture Projection Rooms
17. Manufactured Buildings
18. Agricultural Buildings
19. Intrinsically Safe Systems
20. Mobile Homes, Manufactured Homes, And Mobile Home Parks
21. Recreational Vehicles And Recreational Vehicle Parks
22. Park Trailers
23. Floating Buildings
24. Marinas And Boatyards
25. Class I, Zone 0, 1, And 2 Locations
26. Zone 20, 21, And 22 Locations For Combustible Dusts, Fibers, And Flyings
27. Temporary Installations
CHAPTER 6 – SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

1. Electric Signs And Outline Lighting

2. Cranes And Hoists
3. Elevators, Dumbwaiters, Escalators, Moving Walks, Wheelchair Lifts, And Stairway Chair Lifts
4. Electric Vehicle Charging System
5. Electric Welders
6. Audio Signal Processing, Amplification, And Reproduction Equipment
7. Information Technology Equipment
8. Sensitive Electronic Equipment
9. Manufactured Wiring Systems
10. Pipe Organs
11. Office Furnishings (Consisting Of Lighting Accessories And Wired Partitions)
12. X-Ray Equipment
13. Induction And Dielectric Heating
14. Electrolytic Cells
15. Electroplating
16. Industrial Machinery
17. Electrically Driven Or Controlled Irrigation Machines
18. Swimming Pools, Fountains, And Similar Installations
19. Natural And Artificially Made Bodies Of Water
20. Integrated Electrical Systems
21. Solar Photovoltaic Systems
22. Fuel Cell Systems
23. Fire Pumps

CHAPTER 7 – CONDITIONS

1. Emergency Systems
2. Legally Required Standby Systems
3. Circuits And Equipment Operating At Less Than 50 Volts
4. Class 1, Class 2, And Class 3 Remote-Control, Signaling, And Power-Limited Circuits
5. Instrumentation Tray Cable: Type ITC
6. Optional Standby Systems
7. Interconnected Electric Power Production Sources
8. Fire Alarm Systems
9. Optical Fiber Cables And Raceways
10. Closed-Loop And Programmed Power Distribution

CHAPTER 8 – COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

1. Communications Circuits
2. Radio And Television Equipment
3. Community Antenna Television And Radio Distribution Systems
4. Network-Powered Broadband Communications Systems
 H. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING LAW
Republic Act no. 7920
An act providing for a more responsive and comprehensive regulation for the practice, licensing and
registration of electrical engineers and electricians

Section 3
Practice of Electrical Engineering – a person is deemed to be in the practice of electrical engineering when
he renders or offers to render [professional] electrical engineering service
Electrical system refers to the following:
1. Lighting system (Illumination engineering, decorative, intelligent lighting & control)
2. Power system (AC/DC)
3. Power generation, transformation, transmission and distribution systems
4. Power quality monitoring and management systems.
5. Power factor correction system
6. Automatic voltage regulation systems
7. Building management and automation systems
8. Energy converter, inverter, drives systems
9. Renewable energy stystems
10. Electrical drives, apparatus, machineries, and equipment
11. Power electronics system
12. Grounding/earthing, bonding system
13. Surge and lightning protection system
14. Process and machinery instrumentation, control and automation, measurement, monitoring
and management system such as Distributed Control System, Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition, Computer-based control systems, etc.
15. Electrical safety system/public address/evacuation system
16. Fire, liquid and gas leak detection, alarm and suppression system
17. Emergency and standby power system
18. Uninterruptible power supply system
19. Energy storage and battery system
20. Electric heating and space heating system
21. Structured cabling system
22. Electric charging system
23. Cathodic protection system
24. Technologies and electro-technical systems integration
25. Electric billboards, signages, traffic and street lighting system
26. Medical electricity
27. Wire and cable engineering
28. Extra Low Voltage (ELV) systems
29. Electric insulation and dielectric systems
30. Magnetic and electromagnetic systems
31. Various technologies, electro-technical systems and phenomena
32. Other devices, systems and apparatus utilizing electrical energy as provided in the Philippine
Electrical Code and Philippine accepted international electrical standards and codes, except
voice and data communication, telecommunication, satellite, broadcast, computer,
information technology and small electronics systems shall be for ECE.

FACILITIES COVERED IN THE PRACTICE OF EE:

1. Agricultural lands, farms, structures, infrastructures and facilities (such as barns, warehouse,
rice mills, drying systems, machineries among others)
2. Watercrafts (ships, submarine, floating buildings/structures)
3. Marinas and boatyards/dockyards
4. Electrical transportation (locomotives, electric vehicles, hybrids)
5. Mobile homes and recreational vehicles
 6. Industrial plants (manufacturing plants, chemical plants, refineries, basic/light/medium/heavy
industries)
7. Power plants/stations (dendrothermal, wind farms, solar farms, geothermal, hydroelectric,
nuclear, tidal, etc)
8. Substations and switchyards
9. Transmission and distribution lines
10. Low, medium and high-rise buildings
11. Commercial buildings
12. Residential buildings
13. Institutional buildings
14. Parks
15. Stadia, gymnasia, arenas, coliseum, sports complex, etc.
16. Carnival, circuses, fairs and similar events
17. Airfields, airports, airstrips, etc
18. Military, navigational and aerospace facilities and installations
19. Quarries and mining industry
20. Offshore facilities
21. Civil structures with electrical systems (roads, bridges, dams, tunnels, docks, railways and
train stations, shipyards, oil depots, gasoline stations etc)
22. Server rooms, data centers, telecommunications and broadcast facilities, but not limited to TV
production, advertising, film making and others
23. All buildings, structures, infrastructures and other facilities that use electrical energy as
provided in the Phil Electrical Code

Electrical documents – means the electrical design, electrical plans, drawings, specifications, technical
documents, data sheets, material take-off/estimates, bill of quantities, calculations, permits and other
instruments of service prepared, signed and sealed by a licensed electrical practitioner.
Electrical permit – means the mandated document issued by any regulating government entity based on
electrical documents authorizing the repair, installation, construction, addition, upgrading,
modification, retrofitting, renovation, restoration, development, redevelopment, remodeling, testing,
commissioning and utilization of electricity within and surrounding of building or structure. It includes
but not limited to the Electrical Permit, Certificate of Final Electrical Inspection (CFEI) and other
related documents.
Electrical plans – includes but not limited to, single line/elementary/interconnection/wiring/schematic
diagrams; block diagrams; logic diagrams; load/cable/panelboard schedules; lighting and power
systems; lighting protection/ grounding; load calculations; short circuit calculation; illumination
calculations; voltage drop calculations; fire, liquid and gas detection and alarm system layout and
details; paging system layout and details; emergency/evacuation systems; auxiliaries systems;
signaling/communication system layout and details; structured cabling systems;
control/automation/instrumentation system layout and details; device/equipment installation layout and
details; raceway/cable tray/cable system layouts and details.
Electrical Safety Certificate Sticker – is a specially manufactured piece of paper with adhesive back
that is issued by the approving agency of the government to the practicing electrical
engineers/registrants that can be fastened to a visible surface of the establishment containing the logo
of the issuing office/agency, control number, the name of the establishment and owner, name and
signature of the practitioner who conducted inspection and who issued the certificate, PRC registration
number, date of inspection, notes/findings and record logbook page number.
Section 4
THREE TYPES OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS
1. PROFESSIONAL ELECTRICAL ENGINEER – practice electrical engineering in all scope
including the authority to sign and seal electrical plans and other related documents but
limited to the capacity covered by the specific specialty regardless of phase and rated
voltages;
2. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS AS GENERAL PRACTICIONERS – limited to the capacity up
to 500 kVa regardless of phase and rated voltages.
3. MASTER ELECTRICIANS – limited up to 500 kVa at rated voltage up to 600 volts.
Supervision and inspection including the authority to sign and seal electrical plans and other
related documents specifically to single family dwelling units and limited up to 25 kVA.
Section 33
Personnel Required – every electric plant, industrial plant, or factory, commercial establishment,
institutional building, watercraft, electric locomotive or in any other installation where persons and
properties are exposed to electrical hazards shall not have less than the following complement of
professional electrical engineer:
For industrial plants and factories, commercial establishments or institutional buildings having a connected
kVa load of any size and employing voltages of any standard rating, there should be atleast one
professional electrical engineer or one registered electrical engineer.
For connected loads up to five hundred kilovolt-amperes (500 kVa) and employing voltages up to six
hundred volts (600 V), there should be one registered master electrician.
Watercrafts or electric locomotives with installed generating capacity up to the maximum size and voltage
available for these units, there should be at least two electrical engineers, one of whom must be a
professional or registered electrical engineer.
When the operation requires more than one shift of personnel every 24 hours, the minimum complement of
qualified personnel shall be employed in each shift.
Section 36
This section requires the owner, manager, or the person in charge if an electric plant, industrial plant or
factory, commercial establishment, institutional building, watercraft, or electric locomotive, to post or
cause to be postponed in a conspicuous place within such plant or establishment the certificate of
registration of the engineers or electricians in its employ, put in a frame protected by transparent glass or its
equivalent.
 I. Electrical Engineering Symbols, Design and Layout
Basic Electrical Plan
Basic Electrical Wiring

Types of Wire
Wires (conductors) are the means by which electricity travels from the source of power to the place of use. A
residential wiring system is usually made up of copper, aluminum or a combination of both. The amount of current
wires can carry is measured in amperes (amps). The larger the wire diameter, the more amperes it can carry without
it overheating. Copper wire is most often used to wire homes since it is a good conductor of electricity. Some older
homes have been wired with aluminum wire. (Note: Aluminum wire is no longer approved for general purpose
circuits. Aluminum tends to oxidize over time and can create poor electrical connections with those items to which it
connects. Also, Aluminum connections tend to become loose over time which can cause the possibility of arcing to
occur.) Service Entrance Conductors, however, are usually Aluminum because Copper conductors that size are very
expensive. When choosing devices, receptacles, switches, or wire connectors, make sure you choose ones that are
made to be used with the type of wire you are working with.
• Copper wire should be used for devices with no markings or those marked CU-AL or CO-ALR.
• Copper-clad aluminum wire (CO-ALR) can be used with devices marked CO-ALR.
• Aluminum wire can only be used with devices marked CO-ALR.
Types of Wire Insulation
There are four basic types of wire covering (insulation):
1. Type T - Thermoplastic coated wire. Most commonly used in homes in dry locations.
2. Type TW - Thermoplastic coated, moisture resistant wire. Used in basements and for outdoor wiring.
3. Type THW - Thermoplastic coated, heat resistant, and moisture resistant wire. May be used in both wet
and dry locations.
4. Type THHN - Thermoplastic coated, heat resistant. Used in dry locations.
Wire Sizes and Use
Wires come in a variety of sizes designed for specific jobs and amp loads (Figure 14). It is available in either solid
or stranded (for increased flexibility) conductor types. Conductor sizes are numbered using the American Wire
Gauge (AWG) rating system. Smaller numbered wires are larger in size and are more capable of carrying larger
loads of electricity (amps). 14 AWG wire is used for general purpose/lighting branch circuits. 12 AWG wire is used
for small-appliance branch circuits. 6-10 AWG wire is used for higher power appliances such as clothes dryers,
ranges, furnaces and central air-conditioners. Conductors 2 AWG and larger are normally reserved for use by the
main service entrance conductors or to feed a sub-panel.
Table of Electrical Symbols
Symbol Component name Meaning

Wire Symbols

Electrical Wire Conductor of electrical current

Connected Wires Connected crossing

Not Connected Wires Wires are not connected

Switch Symbols and Relay Symbols

SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open

SPDT Toggle Switch Selects between two connections

Pushbutton Switch (N.O) Momentary switch - normally open

Pushbutton Switch (N.C) Momentary switch - normally closed

DIP Switch DIP switch is used for onboard configuration

SPST Relay

Relay open / close connection by an electromagnet

SPDT Relay

Jumper Close connection by jumper insertion on pins.

Solder Bridge Solder to close connection

Ground Symbols

Used for zero potential reference and electrical

Earth Ground
shock protection.

Chassis Ground Connected to the chassis of the circuit

Digital / Common Ground

Resistor Symbols

Resistor (IEEE)

Resistor reduces the current flow.

Resistor (IEC)

Potentiometer (IEEE)

Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.

Potentiometer (IEC)

Variable Resistor /
Rheostat (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals.
Variable Resistor /
Rheostat (IEC)

Trimmer Resistor Preset resistor

Thermal resistor - change resistance when

Thermistor
temperature changes
Photoresistor / Light dependent Photo-resistor - change resistance with light
resistor (LDR) intensity change

Capacitor Symbols

Capacitor
Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as
short circuit with AC and open circuit with DC.
Capacitor

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Polarized Capacitor Electrolytic capacitor

Variable Capacitor Adjustable capacitance

Inductor / Coil Symbols

Inductor Coil / solenoid that generates magnetic field

Iron Core Inductor Includes iron

Variable Inductor

Power Supply Symbols

Voltage Source Generates constant voltage

Current Source Generates constant current.

AC Voltage Source AC voltage source

Electrical voltage is generated by mechanical

Generator
rotation of the generator

Battery Cell Generates constant voltage

Battery Generates constant voltage

Generates voltage as a function of voltage or current

Controlled Voltage Source
of other circuit element.

Generates current as a function of voltage or current

Controlled Current Source
of other circuit element.

Meter Symbols

Measures voltage. Has very high resistance.

Voltmeter
Connected in parallel.

Measures electric current. Has near zero resistance.

Ammeter
Connected serially.

Ohmmeter Measures resistance

Wattmeter Measures electric power

Lamp / Light Bulb Symbols

Lamp / light bulb

Generates light when current flows through

Lamp / light bulb

Lamp / light bulb

Diode / LED Symbols

Diode allows current flow in one direction only - left

Diode
(anode) to right (cathode).

Allows current flow in one direction, but also can

Zener Diode flow in the reverse direction when above breakdown
voltage

Schottky Diode Schottky diode is a diode with low voltage drop

Varactor / Varicap Diode Variable capacitance diode

Tunnel Diode

Light Emitting Diode (LED) LED emits light when current flows through

Photodiode allows current flow when exposed to

Photodiode
light

Transistor Symbols

Allows current flow when high potential at base

NPN Bipolar Transistor
(middle)

Allows current flow when low potential at base

PNP Bipolar Transistor
(middle)

Made from 2 bipolar transistors. Has total gain of

Darlington Transistor
the product of each gain.

JFET-N Transistor N-channel field effect transistor

JFET-P Transistor P-channel field effect transistor

NMOS Transistor N-channel MOSFET transistor

PMOS Transistor P-channel MOSFET transistor

Misc. Symbols

Motor Electric motor

Transformer Change AC voltage from high to low or low to high.

Electric bell Rings when activated

Buzzer Produce buzzing sound

Fuse
The fuse disconnects when current above threshold.
Used to protect circuit from high currents.
Fuse

Bus

Bus Contains several wires. Usually for data / address.

Bus
 Optocoupler / Opto-isolator Optocoupler isolates connection to other board

Loudspeaker Converts electrical signal to sound waves

Microphone Converts sound waves to electrical signal

Operational Amplifier Amplify input signal

Schmitt Trigger Operates with hysteresis to reduce noise.

Analog-to-digital converter
Converts analog signal to digital numbers
(ADC)

Digital-to-Analog converter
Converts digital numbers to analog signal
(DAC)

Crystal Oscillator Used to generate precise frequency clock signal

Direct current is generated from constant voltage

⎓ Direct current
level

Antenna Symbols

Antenna / aerial

Transmits & receives radio waves

Antenna / aerial

Dipole Antenna Two wires simple antenna

Logic Gates Symbols

NOT Gate (Inverter) Outputs 1 when input is 0

AND Gate Outputs 1 when both inputs are 1.

NAND Gate Outputs 0 when both inputs are 1. (NOT + AND)

OR Gate Outputs 1 when any input is 1.

NOR Gate Outputs 0 when any input is 1. (NOT + OR)

XOR Gate Outputs 1 when inputs are different. (Exclusive OR)

D Flip-Flop Stores one bit of data

Multiplexer / Mux 2 to 1

Connects the output to selected input line.

Multiplexer / Mux 4 to 1

Demultiplexer / Demux 1 to 4 Connects selected output to the input line.