Commercial Floriculture PDF

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4. Commercial Floriculture (HPF 103) 3(2+1)
Scope and importance of commercial floriculture in India,
production techniques of ornamental plants like rose, marigold,
chrysanthemum, orchid, carnation, gladiolus, jasmine, dahlia,
tuberose, bird of paradise, china aster and gerbera for domestic
and export market, growing of flowers under protected
environments such as glass house, plastic house etc., post-harvest
technology of cut flowers in respect of commercial flower crops,
dehydration technique for drying of flowers, production techniques
for bulbous.
Practical: Identification of commercially important floricultural
crops. Propagation practices in chrysanthemum, sowing of seeds
and raising of seedlings of annuals. Propagation by cutting,
layering, budding and grafting. Training and pruning of roses.
Use of chemicals and other compounds for prolonging the vase life
of cut flowers. Drying and preservation of flowers. Flower
arrangement practices.
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LECTURE-1
TOPICS
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Importance of floriculture in India
1.3 Scope to enter floriculture industry in India
1.4 Problems/constraints for Floriculture industry in India
1.5 Area and production of flowers in the state and the country.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
India has a long tradition of floriculture. As it is an ancient creative skill with
imagination and an advanced science that played a very important role in the
course of human civilization and its social development.
In most part of the country, flower growing is carried out on small holdings and
commercial floriculture has assumed importance only in the recent past.
Traditionally, flowers have been grown in India in the open fields, where they
have been exposed to both biotic and abiotic stresses. Hence, the quality is not up
to the standards.
However, in the era of globalization, the produce has to be of International quality
and globally competitive, as there is lot of demand for different floricultural
products in the export market. The modern floriculture will meet the above
demand of the present day‟s consumers.
Definition:
Floriculture can be defined as “a specialized branch of horticulture which deals not only
with the cultivation of flowers, foliage, climbers, trees, shrubs, cacti, succulents, etc., but also
with their marketing and production of value-added products from them”
Floriculture can also be defined as “a discipline of horticulture concerned with the
cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and floristry, comprising the floral
industry. Floriculture includes bedding plants, flowering plants, foliage plants or houseplants,
cut greens and cutflowers”.
Majority of floriculture crops are generally herbaceous.
Bedding and garden plants consist of young flowering plants especially annuals and
perennials.
The floriculture business is growing in the world at around 6-10 % per annum.
1 Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor, Deptt. of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, College of Horticulture, Mudigere, KNK
In spite of a long tradition of floriculture, India's share in the International market for
these flowers is negligible (At present it is < 0.70 %).
During the last few years, taking an advantage of the incentives offered by the
Government of India, a number of Floriculture units were established in India for
producing and exporting flowers to the developed countries. Most of them are located
near Mumbai, Pune, Bengaluru, Hyderabad and New Delhi and are getting the technical
know-how from Dutch as well as Israeli Consultants.
Tamilnadu is the leader in floriculture followed by Karnataka, accounting for 75% of
India's total flower production and the state is having the highest area under both modern
and traditional flowers.
The country's first and the only Digital Flower Auction Centre is located in Bengaluru,
running by Karnataka Agro Industrial Corporation (KAIC) at Hebbal.
1.2 IMPORTANCE OF FLORICULTURE IN INDIA:

Besides food and nutritional security, the aesthetic value is also equally important for our
daily lively hood as well as for environmental purity.
Floriculture is important from the following point of view;
1. Economic point of view
2. Aesthetic point of view
3. Social point of view
1.2.1.Economic point of view:

Floriculture is a fast emerging major venture in the world, especially as a potential
money-spinner for many countries in world.
Many flowers and ornamental plants are being grown for domestic as well as for
export market will provide more return/unit area than any other
agricultural/horticultural crops.
For example in markets such as Delhi and Mumbai and other metros a single
spike of gladiolus and gerbera cutflower may sell upto Rs. 3-5 in Kharif and Rs.
5-10/spike in Rabi/Summer.
Gestation period of flower crop is very less compared to other crops.
Modern-day floriculture refers to the production of high-value cutflowers such as
rose, gladiolus, carnation, mums, orchids, tuberose, anthurium, lilium, gerbera
etc,.
Now days, growing of these cutflower crops, suited for flower
arrangements/decorations for bouquets preparation and for floral boskets, have
increased substantially and its share of the total trade has also improved.
Dr. B. Hemla Naik, Professor, Deptt. of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, College of Horticulture, Mudigere, KNK 2
The sale of loose flowers of Jasmine, Crossandra, Marigold, China Aster,
Chrysanthemums, Berlaria and Gaillardia etc., are a roaring busyness in south
India.
The present trend in floriculture is for making dry flowers, extraction of natural
colours and essential oils.
There is lot of demand for good quality flower seeds and ornamental planting
materials.
At present the global ornamental crop industry is worth about US$ 70 billion.
The global consumption of the flowers is about US$ 35 billion.
More than three lakhs hectare area is under flower production in different
countries of the world.
Floriculture generates self employment opportunities round the year. The
employment opportunities in the field are varied such as.
i. One can join the floriculture field as farm/estate managers, plantation
experts, supervisors and project coordinators and so on.
ii. Teaching, Research and Extension scientists/ teachers are some other
avenues of employment in all SAUs and NARS.
iii. Marketing of Floriculture products for different ventures is emerging
as a potential segment of this field.
iv. Besides, one can also work as consultant, landscape architect etc with
proper training.
v. One can also work as entrepreneur and offer employment to others.
vi. In addition to these careers which involve research and actual growing
of crops.
vii. Floriculture also provides service career opportunities which include
such jobs like floral designers, grounds keepers, landscape designers,
architects and horticultural therapists.
viii. Professional qualification combined with an inclination towards
gardening and such other activities produces efficient floriculturists
and landscaping professionals all over the globe.
Presently more than 145 countries are involved in flower production on
commercial scale.
1.2.2. Aesthetic point of view:
Lot of scope for landscaping and is considered as billion dollar earning industry in
states which ultimately adds the monitory value of any building/property.
To a Japanese flower arranger each flower expresses one or more meaning (eg.
Ikebana).
The wealth of any nation is linked with the health of its people. Unless we can
ensure the healthy development of our citizens, especially for the younger
generation, by providing them for open breathing places through bio-aesthetic
planning like in Chandigarh city and landscape gardening, we cannot expect to
buildup a healthy society and prosperous nation.
Horticultural therapy - is the new dimension of horticultural sciences to heal the
psychic debility and the science is to use garden, landscape plants, parts of plants,
growing activity as tools to work.
The bio-force of plants offer a permanent solution to the problems of bio force of
human thus, bio aesthetic horticulture is emerging as a new occupational
therapeutic tool to restore the lost rhythm and harmony back to human self or
inner environment.
It is being utilized in psychiatric hospitals, general hospitals and physical
rehabilitation centers, homes for elderly, prisons and schools.
The patients can achieve higher level of personal development and satisfaction.
1.2.3. Social point of view:

Flowers symbolize the purity, beauty, peace, love, adoration, innocence and
passion etc. Hence, many flowers are used to express the most sensitive, delicate
and loving feelings eloquently what our words fail to express.
In our society no social function is complete without the use of flowers, floral
ornaments, bouquets or flower arrangements they are invariably used in all social
functions.
Used in social gatherings, birthday parties, welcoming friends or relatives and
honoring dignitaries. The concept of Valentine‟s Day is fast catching up in India
also.
The arrival of new born is rejoiced with flowers,
To an Indian, especially for Hindu‟s, flowers have a much greater significance in
religions offerings. It has estimated that more than 30-40 % of the total flower
productions are being consumed in Kolkata city alone used for worshiping
purpose.
Floral garlands, gajras and venis are required in marriage ceremonies for
adornment of hairs by women of all ages, especially in the south India.
In the present modern era sicks are wished for speedy recovery by offering
beautiful cutflowers, while the deads are bidden farewell with flowers along with
tear of sorrow.
Flowers are very closely associated with mankind from the dawn of human
civilization. There is increasing habit of „saying with flowers.‟ Any Indians born
with flowers live with flowers and finally dies with flowers.
1.3. SCOPE TO ENTER FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY IN INDIA

 India is blessed with varied and dynamic agro-climatic condition, good quality
soil and water made suitable for floriculture.
 Geographically India is well located between two major markets i.e., Europe
and East Asia.
 Winter is being very mild and hence there is lot of scope to export Indian
flowers to temperate countries during the winter season, when the demand is
in peak because of important winter festivals like Christmas, New Year Day
and Valentine‟s Day.
 Labour cost is very low in India, nearly 10-15 times cheaper than that of
similar employees in the Netherlands, Israel and Japan.
 The Government of India has identified floriculture as „Extreme Focus Thrust
Area‟ for export during IX plan.
 With the implementation of GATT agreement European nations has brought
down the import duty on floricultural products, which at present is 15 %.
 The International market is growing @ 8-10 % annually. The International
demand is around Rs. 90,000 crore/ year and domestic market at 20-25 %.
Hence, the scope to enter floriculture industry in India is unlimited.
 The Govt. of India has setup the infrastructure for floriculture industry in
major cities like New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Pune etc.
 APEDA is giving financial assistance to some extent for various activities
connected with export of floriculture products.
 Easy bank financing for hi-tech floriculture.
 100 per cent export oriented units (EOU‟s) are located in and around
Hyderabad (Andra Pradesh), Bengaluru, Hosur, Doddaballapur, Devanahalli
(Karnataka) in south and Gurgaun (Haryana) in north, Lonavala and Pune
(Maharashtra) in West.
 For 100 % EOU‟s the government has allowed to sale 50 per cent of produce
in domestic markets.
 100 per cent tax exemption has given on implements / raw materials used in
greenhouses.
 The rules and regulations related to import and exports have been minimized.
 Singapore is the nearest International standard flower auction centre, helpful
for Indian exports.
 Floriculture products posses 25-30 time more foreign exchange earning ability
than cereals or any other agricultural/horticultural products.
 Floriculture is capable of attracting and retaining large number of progressive
farmers / entrepreneurs.
 Due to ample sunlight and optimum temperature during winter, it does not
require artificial lighting or heating for green house production of cutflowers.
 The Government of India has identified product specific zones for selective
research and development (Table-1) of floriculture.
 APEDA and GOK have established four flower auction centers including one
in Bengaluru, Noida (UP), Mumbai and New Delhi.
 APEDA also has setup a marketing center at Aalsmeer (The Netherlands) to
promote Indian produce.
Table-1: Products specific intensive floriculture zones in India:
Sl.No. Zone Flower crops

Area around Delhi, UP
1 Rose, Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Gladiolus
and Punjab
Rose, Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Ornamental
2 Area around Bengaluru
Foliage Plants and Seeds
3 Area around Trivendrum Orchids, Anthurium and Foliage Plants
Area around Pune / Rose, Carnation, Gladiolus, Dahlia,
4
Nashik Chrysanthemum, Aster and Tuberose
North Eastern region Orchids, Gladiolus, Liliums, Gerbera, Salvia,
5
including Sikkim Anthurium and other Foliage Plants
6 Area around Kolkata Lotus, Tuberose, Jasmine, Chrysanthemum and Dahlia.
7 Area around Srinagar Gladiolus, Lilies Carnation and Rose
8 Area around Solan, H.P. Gladiolus, Other Bulbous Plants and Seeds
Area around Coimbatore Jasmine, Tuberose, Chrysanthemum, Rose,
9
including Nilgiris Carnation and Orchids
1.4. PROBLEMS /CONSTRAINTS /BOTTLE NECKS FOR FLORICULTURE

INDUSTRY IN INDIA
Lack of specific information on area and production of different flowers which, is a
handicap in planning production for domestic and export market.
Lack of information on new / ruling varieties which, continuously keep changing in the
International markets.
Lack of information on advanced cultivation practices like high density planting,
fertilizer and irrigation management, plant protection, packing and grading, etc,.
Lack of infrastructure facilities like green house/glass house and poly house as well as
cold chain.
There is no direct cargo flight from Bengaluru and Pune which are main production
centers, leads to double shipment which increases the cost besides more scope for
spoilage.
The freight rates in India are high which makes produce uncompetitive in the
International markets.
There are no organized marketing co-operatives of other bodies which can take care of
floriculture trade in India.
Lack of research and development in floriculture. Especially on new varieties, post-
harvest techniques, advanced cultivation method, etc.
No detailed economic feasibility studies with reference to establishment, maintenance
and cost of production in glass house conditions / protected cultivation.
Pot plants are produced in soil based container medium which is not allowed in most
middle-East and European markets.
Lack of streamlined quality control mechanism and poor co-ordination between
government and private agencies involved in import and export of floriculture products.
Exemption from import duty by importing countries is needed as some countries like
Columbia Mauritius etc. are exempted from such tariffs.
Phytosanitory certificates are given only in selected cities like Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai
and Chennai.
Lack of appropriate planting materials and production technologies for export.
Lack of knowledge about importing and exporting countries.
Lack of quality consciousness of the produce. This affects the floriculture industry as a
whole.
Lack of sale promotion activities in India.
Lack of market intelligence regarding leading varieties, selling price, etc.
1.5. AREA AND PRODUCTION OF FLOWERS IN THE STATE AND THE

COUNTRY
India ranks 2nd next to China with an area of 182.9 thousand hectare and produces 1020.6
thousand metric tons of loose flowers and 66,671 lakh cutflowers annually (2009-10).
Tamil Nadu is a leader in flower production; it occupies 31,970 ha followed by Karnataka
(25, 100 ha), West Bengal (21,940) ha and Andhra Pradesh (21,400 ha) (Table-).
FLORICULTURAL SCENARIO IN INDIA

Area and Production
Production
Year Area (ha.)
Loose (‘000 MT) Cut (million nos.)
2010-11* 191000 1031 6903
2009-10 182900 1020 6667
Leading States
Loose flower production Cut flower production
Loose Fl’s Cut Fl’s
State State
(lakh MT) (lakh nos.)
Tamil Nadu 247.3 West Bengal 22170
Karnataka 203.9 Maharashtra 7914
Andhra Pradesh Andhra
130.3 6202
Pradesh
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Trend of flower production in India
Expected trend in area and production of loose flowers in the next ten years
Expected growth in cut flower production in the next ten years
KNOWLEDGE ASSESSMENT:
Fill up the Blanks
1. The floriculture business is growing in the world at around -------- % per annum.
2. ---------- is the leader in floriculture accounting for 75% of India's total flower production.
3. The country's first and the only Digital Flower Auction Centre is located in --------------.
4. ---------- is the new dimension of horticultural science to heal the psychic debility.
5. ---------- is the nearest International standard flower auction centre, helpful for Indian exports.
(Key answers: 1) 6-10 , 2)Tamil Nadu, 3)Bengaluru, 4)Horticultural therapy , 5) Singapore )
Match the Following
1. Modern floriculture Flower arrangements

2. Cut flower Rose, gladiolus
3. KAIC Mumbai
4. Markets Self employment
5. Floriculture Bangalore
(Key answers:1- Rose, gladiolus, 2- flower arrangements, 3- Bengaluru, 4- Mumbai, 5- self employment
)
Expand:
1) GATT ___________________________________________________
2) APEDA ___________________________________________________
3) EOU‟s ___________________________________________________
4) KAIC _______________________________________________
5) GOK ___________________________________________________
GATT - General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, APEDA- Agricultural and Processed Food Products
Export Development Authority, EOU‟s-Export Oriented Units, KAIC- Karnataka Agro Industrial
Corporation, GOK –Government of Karnataka.
FLOWERS FOR EXPRESSION OF OUR FEELINGS
Flower meanings and symbolization are the key elements for flower choice since time
immemorial as they expresses the most sensitive, delicate and ever loving feelings
eloquently what our words fail to express.
Besides the above, flower also adds meaning to the actual life and reinforces faith in
nature by filling the whole atmosphere with its delicate fragrance.
So it may help the flower lovers to make the right decision in offering the right flowers to
their belongings.
The following is the list of flower types and the meanings/ sentiment/ feelings.
Flowers Flower meanings/ Symbolization /Feelings

1. Aster Symbol of Love, Daintiness
2. Azalea Take Care of Yourself for Me, Temperance, Fragile
Passion, Chinese Symbol of Womanhood
3. Carnation (General) Fascination, Woman Love
4. Carnation (Pink) I'll Never Forget You
5. Carnation (Red) My Heart Aches For You, Admiration
6. Carnation (Purple) Capriciousness, Whimsical
7. Carnation (Striped) No, Refusal, Sorry I Can't Be With You, Wish I Could Be With You
8. Carnation (White) Sweet and Lovely, Innocence, Pure Love, Woman's Good Luck Gift
9. Carnation (Yellow) You Have Disappointed Me, Rejection
10. Chrysanthemum You're a Wonderful Friend, Cheerfulness and Rest.
11. Chrysanthemum (White) Truth
12. Chrysanthemum (Yellow) Slighted Love
13. Daffodil Respect, Regard, Unrequited Love, You're the Only One, The Sun is
Always Shining when I'm with You
14. Daisy Innocence, Loyal Love, I'll Never Tell, Purity
15. Fern Magic, Fascination, Confidence and Shelter
16. Gladiolus Give Me a Break, I'm Really Sincere, Flower of the
Gladiators
17. Hydrangea Thank You for Understanding, Frigidity, Heartlessness
18. Ivy Wedded Love, Fidelity, Friendship, Affection
19. Lily (White) Virginity, Purity, Majesty, It's Heavenly to be with You
20. Lily (Yellow) I'm Walking on Air, False and Gay
21. Lily (Calla) Beauty
22. Lily (Day) Coquetry, Chinese Emblem for Mother
23. Lily (Eucharis) Maiden Charms
24. Lily (Tiger) Wealth, Pride
25. Marigold Cruelty, Grief, Jealousy
26. Orchid Love, Beauty, Refinement, Beautiful Lady, Chinese
Symbol for Many Children, Thoughtful, Maturity, Charm
27. Primrose I Can't Live Without You
1
28. Rose (Bridal) Happy Love
29. Rose (Dark Crimson) Mourning
30. Rose (Hibiscus) Delicate Beauty
31. Rose (Leaf) You May Hope
32. Rose (Pink) Perfect Happiness, Please Believe Me
33. Rose (Red) Love, I Love You
34. Rose (Tea) I'll Remember Always
35. Rose (Thorn less) Love at First Sight
36. Rose (White) Innocence and Purity, I am Worthy of You, You're
37. Rose (White And Red) Heavenly, Secrecy and Silence
38. Rose (White-Dried) Unity, Flower Emblem of England
39. Rose (Yellow) Death is Preferable to Loss of Virtue
40. Rosebud Decrease of Love, Jealousy, Try to Care, Friendship
41. Rosebud (Red) Beauty and Youth, A Heart Innocent of Love
42. Rosebud (White) Pure and Lovely
43. Rosebud (Moss) Girlhood
44. Roses (Bouquet of Mature Confessions of Love
Blooms) Gratitude
45. Roses (Single Full Bloom) I Love You, I Still Love You
46. Sweet pea Good-bye, Departure, Blissful Pleasure, Thank You

for a Lovely Time
47. Tulip (General) Perfect Lover, Frame, Flower Emblem of Holland
48. Tulip (Red) Believe Me, Declaration of Love
49. Tulip (Variegated) Beautiful Eyes
50. Tulip (Yellow) There's Sunshine in Your Smile
51. Wisteria Welcome
52. Zinnia (Magenta) Lasting Affection
Traditional colour choice
These traditional colour choices mainly apply to roses but may also be applied to other flower
types.
Red roses mean romantic love.
Purple roses signify that the giver has fallen in love with the recipient at first sight.
Orange roses signal desire.
Yellow roses are joy and friendship.
Pink roses express our gratitude and appreciation.
Light pink roses show feelings of admiration and sympathy.
Peach is more indefinite, as it can signify either sympathy or gratitude.
White roses show meaning of reverence and humility.
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LECTURE-2 : INTRODUCTION (Contd….)
Topics
2.1 Hi-Tech Floriculture

2.2 Export Market
2.3 World Floriculture Trade
2.4 Cut Flowers Export Potential
2.5. Top Ten Major Importers
2.6. Top Ten Cutflowers and Pot Plants in the World Trade
2.7 India’s Export Efforts
2.8. Major Import Markets for Floriculture Product
2.9. Per Capita Consumption of Flowers and Plants
2.10 Global Trade in Floricultural Products
2.11 Role of Indian Government and other Agencies for Export
2.12 Institutional Assistance to Floriculture
2.1. HI-TECH FLORICULTURE

The liberalized seed policy in late 80’s globalization of Indian economy and
economic reforms initiated in early 90’s paved the way for the advent of state of the
art of protected cultivation technology in India.
Indian horticulture which was hither to an individual driven become corporate driven,
which could sense the potential and scope the modern protected cultivation
technology can offer for furthering the floriculture industry.
As on today, Karnataka alone has more than 100 floriculture units surpassing all other
states (185 hi-tech units).
2.2. EXPORT MARKET:

Traditional flowers like jasmine and tuberose are being exported as fresh flowers to
Malaysia, Singapore, Sree Lanka and Gulf countries from India.
The international market price for Jasmine concrete and absolute oil is around
30,000/- and 60,000/- per kg, respectively. The exported flowers fetch 30
crores to 40 crores foreign exchange annually.
Extracting essential oils from flowers is another major industry in India.
Damask rose is widely cultivated particularly in Azmir, Udaipur areas in Rajasthan,
Palampur and Kullu districts in Himachal Pradesh, Aligarh, Kannauj and Lucknow in
Uttar Pradesh.
The rose petals are also used to prepare rose water and gulkand. These products are
being exported to UK, France, Germany and Middle East countries.
Tuberose flowers are used for extraction of oils and it is considered as the high value
concrete in the world market.
Tissue cultured plants of jasmine; scented rose etc. can also be propagated and
supplied to Taiwan, Korea and Japan.
All these floricultural products can be sold in the International market at Singapore.
The varied agro climatic conditions prevailing in the country with ample sunshine can
maintain regular supply of any floricultural commodity throughout the year.
India’s geographical location particularly its proximity to the developing Far East,
offers tremendous competitive advantage.
Keeping in view of pollution problems and other aesthetic values of the flowers, we
must try to sustain our floriculture industry.
Due to rapid urbanization and multistoried flats system the local demand of flowers
would definitely be increased.
2.3. WORLD FLORICULTURE TRADE:

The Global trade in floriculture products is recorded in terms of live plants and bulbs, cut
flowers and cut foliage. World imports cut flowers and foliage together accounts for a share of
51 to 55 % whereas, live plants and bulbs accounts for 45 to 49 %.
Floriculture industry has been the monopoly of a few countries (mainly Netherlands),
Netherlands is the largest trader of floricultural products, with a lion’s share of 70%
followed by
Columbia 12% and
Israel with 6% share of the global floriculture trade.
2.4. CUT FLOWERS EXPORT POTENTIAL:

The cut flowers generally grown under greenhouse/polyhouses are being exported to
The Netherlands, Japan and Germany.
Of the total export, 60% is being exported to the Netherlands.
In India, the export-oriented projects are sending the flowers through cool chain.
2
The international buyers are re-exporting the goods which they import from various
developing countries.
The Netherlands is the biggest exporter (59%), followed by Columbia (10%), and
Italy (6%).
Spain, Kenya and Israel have also started exporting the flowers, accounting 2, 1 and
4%, respectively.
The other countries including developing ones have only 20% of the total export,
India’s share in the total world export being less than 1%.
The new markets for Indian flowers may be Japan, Northern America, South East
Asia and the Gulf countries.
India’s geographical location particularly its proximity to a developing Far East offers
a tremendous competitive advantage.
Now the floriculture has become one of the extreme focus segments for development
of export by the Government of India.
The growth of floriculture industry from 1962 to 1990 was very slow but there has
been a significant rise in floricultural export from Rs.14.55 crores in 1991-92 to
Rs.30.60 crores in 1994-95, and Rs.57.80 crores in 1995-96.
Developing countries have only 6% share in the world market. This help in
increasing the export from India which is otherwise negligible.
2.5. TOP TEN MAJOR EXPORTER, IMPORTERS AND PRODUCERS:
S. No. Exporters Importers Producers

1. Netherlands United Kingdom The Netherlands
2. Colombia Germany Japan
3. Ecuador US Italy
4. Kenya The Netherlands Colombia
5. Italy France China
6. USA Japan France
7. Belgium Italy Germany
8. Denmark Switzerland South Korea
9. Costa Rica Belzium USA
10. Israel Russian Federation Ecuador
3
2.8. MAJOR IMPORT MARKETS FOR FLORICULTURE PRODUCT:
Europe is the largest market for floricultural products. Among the major importing
countries U. K, Germany, USA, Netherlands, France, Japan Italy and together accounts for
nearly 64 % of the world imports. Germany is the single largest market accounting for
nearly 25 % of the world imports.
2.6. TOP TEN CUT FLOWERS AND POT PLANTS IN THE WORLD TRADE
Sl No. Cut flowers Sl No. Pot plants
1. Rose 1. Ivy
2. Tulip 2. Kalanchoe
3. Chrysanthemum 3. Ficus
4. Gerbera 4. African Violet
5. Lily 5. Chrysanthemum
6. Alstoemeria 6. Spathiphyllum
7. Freesia 7. Hyacinth
8. Carnation 8. Dracaena
9. Iris 9. Potted Rose
10. Gypsophila 10. Primrose
2.7. INDIA’S EXPORT EFFORTS:

India has long recognized production and export potential of flowers and other
floriculture product.
The new seed policy of 1988 and liberation of Indian economy have encouraged many
investors to take to floriculture business mainly for export.
India’s exports of floricultural products are growing steadily as more and more investors
are evincing interest in the field supported by various measures and schemes launched by
Govt. of India through institutions such as
o National Horticultural Board (NHB) and
o Agricultural and Processed Food Product Export Development Authority
(APEDA) etc.
The economic, investment and EXIM policies are providing the Philip to the growth of
production and export of floricultural products.
India’s exports of floricultural product have increased from Rs. 5.57 crores in 1989-90 to
Rs. 100 crores in 1998-99
4
INDIAN SCENARIO
In India, floriculture industry comprises i.e., Income generating activities in Floriculture are,
Cut Flowers
Loose Flowers
Cut Greens
Foliage and Flowering Pot Plants
Dry Flowers
Production of bulbs and tubers
Hybrid seed production
Nursery production
Perfumery
Plant rental services
Garlands and venis
Flower arrangements and floral craft
Wild ornamental plants
Landscape Designing
Flower baskets, pots and containers etc.
Production of nursery plants and potted plants,
Seed and bulb production,
Micro propagation and
Extraction of essential oils.
2.9. PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF FLOWERS AND PLANTS:

The consumption of floriculture products is linked to the GDP of the countries.
Developed countries with high per capita income obviously are the major consuming
markets.
With rising income, consumption of floricultural products is on the increase both in
developed and developing countries. It is estimated that, the Global demand for
floricultural products is growing @ 8-10 %. In India the demand for cut flowers and pot
plants is growing @ 20-25 %.
2.10. CATEGORIES OF FLORICULTURAL PRODUCTS IN GLOBAL TRADE:
1. Live plants and buds,
2. Cutflowers
3. Cut foliages
4. Dry flowers
5. Seeds of different seasonals,
6. Pigments (Xanthophylls) and
7. Essential oils etc
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2.11. ROLE OF INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND OTHER AGENCIES FOR EXPORT:
In recent times, the Indian government has done a lot for promotion of exports of
floriculture products. The Government has identified floriculture industry as thrust
focus area for export.
The import duty on seeds, bulbs, cuttings etc. has reduced to zero and that to on
goods for green house items, seed development machinery has been brought down to
25%.
Income tax and other tax concessions have been granted to new floriculture exporting
companies.
Subsidy of freight charges equal to 25 % of IATA approved rates i.e., Rs. 10 per kg
Europe and United States and Rs.6 per kg for South East Asia and Middle East.
The eighth five year plan also contains a provision of Rs. 320 million to boost
horticulture and floriculture.
Reduction in the tariff from 55 to 10 % on import of live plants and other plant bulbs,
root, cut flowers and other ornamental foliage.
The import of flower seeds and tissue culture material of any plant origin is now
allowed without an import permit.
The Agricultural and Processed Food Product Export Development Authority
(APEDA) and National Horticulture Board (NHB) have also helped for export
promotion.
2.12. INSTITUTIONAL ASSISTANCE TO FLORICULTURE HI-TECH PROJECTS:
2.12.1 NABARD Soft Loan Assistance:

1. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) has evolved a scheme
for extending soft loan assistance to prospective entrepreneurs.
2. The entrepreneurs could be individual, proprietary / partnership firm, group of individuals,
co-operative societies etc.
3. The assistance will be restricted to the shortfall in promoters contribution stipulated under
relevant schemes.
2.12.2 NATIONAL HORTICULTURE BOARD (NHB):

1. NHB has evolved a scheme for development of post harvest infrastructure during the eighth
five year plan period.
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2. Registered farmer’s organization, Co-operative societies and corporate sector are eligible
for financial assistances.
3. Promoters have to contribute 20% of the project cost. 40% will be provided by NHB as soft
loan @ 5% p.a. Remaining cost of the project will be financed by commercial banks.
2.12.3 APEDA SCHEMES TO ASSIST EXPORT ORIENTED FLORICULTURE

1. For development of Infrastructure and services @ 25% of cost of the project and Rs. 1.5
lakhs for purchase of refer van.
2. For development of post-harvest infrastructure @ 50% of cost/ Rs. 5.0 lakhs for pre
cooling and cold storage units.
3. Scheme for packing development – 30% of cost; maximum Rs. 1.0 lakh.
4. Scheme for export promotion and market development; maximum Rs. 0.5 lakh.
5. Scheme for survey, feasibility, consultancy and data base, - 40% of cost and maximum
Rs. 20.0 lakhs.
6. Scheme for air freight subsidy – 25 % of IATA rates; maximum Rs. 10/- per kg for
Europe and USA and USA and Rs, 6/kg for West Asia and South-East Asia.
7. It has already setup cold storage and cargo handling facilities which are operational at
Indiga Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai and
Thiruvananthapuram.
2.12.4 Nationalized banks viz., SBI, Canara
2.12.5 Agri-Commercialization and Enterprise funded by the United States Agency for
International Development (ACE-UASIG)
2.12.6 State finance Corporations.
7
QUIZ:
I. Choose the correct answers:
1) Traditional flowers exported as fresh flowers to Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Gulf
countries from India.
A) Jasmine B) Tuberose C) Rose D) Both A & B
2) The high value concrete in the world market is for
A) Rose B) Jasmine C) Tuberose D) None
3) The largest trader of floricultural products in the world is
A) Columbia B) Israel C) Netherlands D) India
4) Top ten cut flower in the world trade
A) Gerbera B) Carnation C) Jasmine D)Both A & B
5) Major importer of cut flowers in the world
A) Netherlands B) USA C) Germany D) UK
6) Major exporter of cut flowers in the world
A) Netherlands B) USA C) Germany D) Columbia
7) The rose petals are also used for preparing
A) Rose Water B) Gulkand C) Attar D) All these
8) Top ten Pot plants in the world trade
A) Dracaena B) Chrysanthemum C) Azalea D) All these
Key answers: 1) a, 2) c, 3) c, 4) d, 5) a, 6) c, 7) d, 8) d
II. Expand:
NHB ______________________________
NABARD ______________________________
NHB - National Horticulture Board

NABARD - National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
☻☻☻☻
8
LECTURE-3 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWERS
Topics
3.1. Classification of Floricultural Products

3.2. Classification of Flowers
3.3. Industrial Importance of Commercial Flowers in Indian & abroad
3.4. Commercial Flower Industries in India Have Collaboration with Dutch
3.1. CLASSIFICATION OF FLORICULTURAL PRODUCTS FOR TRADE

Floricultural products are classified as per the International Classification (ITC) are as
follows.
1. Bulbs, Tubers and Tuberous roots
2. Live plants: Includes trees, shrubs, bushes, rooted cuttings and slips.
3. Cut flowers and flower buds: fresh or dried, dyed, bleached etc.,
4. Cut foliage, branches and other parts (other than flowers or buds) of trees,
shrubs,bushes and other plants i.e. twigs, grasses, shoots etc.
5. Masses, lichens & grasses, fresh or dried, bleached:
6. Dry flowers
7. Pigments (Natural colours)
8. Essential oils
9. Prepared/processed food products like gulkand, gulroghan, pankhuri etc
10. Seed production of different seasonals
3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWERS:

1) Based on Season of growing
a) Summer season annuals : Zinnia, Kochia, Portulaca, Tithonia, Gaillardia,
Gomphrena, Sunflower, Daisy, etc.
b) Rainy season annuals : Balsam, Cock’s comb, Celosia, Gaillardia, etc.
c) Winter season annuals : Antirrhinum, China aster, Cornflowers, Larkspur, Sweet
Sultan,
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Phlox, Verbena, Candy tuft, Petunia, etc
2) Based on flower colours:
a) White flowering: Antirrhinum. Alyssum, Dianthus, China aster, Zinnia,
Chrysanthemum, Gladiolus, Gerbera, etc.
b) Purple, Lavender or Blue: Daisy, Rose, Carnation, Dahlia, Ageratum, China aster,
Clitoria, Delphinium, Petunia, Viola, Verbena, Tithonia, Torenia, Daisy, etc.
c) Yellow or orange: Antirrhinum, Marigold Calendula, Zinnia, Gaillardia, Rose,
Gladiolus, Carnation, etc.
d) Red pink: Antirrhinum, Rose, Gladiolus, Carnation, Gerbera, Dahlia, etc.
3) Based on purpose of Growing

a) Rockery: Ageratum, Alyssum, Brachycome, Phlox, Portulaca, Linum, Nemesia,
Saponaria, Godetia, Euphorbia, etc.
b) Hanging basket: Dwarf Ageratum, Petunia, Portulaca, Verbena, Torenia, Begonia.
c) Edging of beds or path: Dwarf Ageratum, Alyssum, Brachycome, Dianthus, Nigella,
Portulaca, Mesembryanthemum , Pansy etc.
d) Fragrant flowers: Sweet Alyssum, Sweet Sultan, Sweet pea, Stock, Phlox, Carnation,
Rose, Jasmine, Tuberose, etc.
e) Bedding purpose: Dahlia, Marigold, Phlox, Verbena, Carnation, Petunia, Ice Plant,
Candy Tuft, Balsam, Portulaca, etc.
f) Aromatic: Rose, Jasmine, Tuberose etc.,
g) For pots: Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Dahlia, Rose, Antirrhinum, Petunia, Agloenema,
Alocasia, Anthurium, Orchids, Aralia, Begonia, Chlorophytum, Dracaena, etc.
h) For loose flowers: Marigold, Jasmine, Crossandra, Barlaria, Chrysanthemums, China
Asters, Sunflowers, Zinnia, Gaillardia, Rose, Dahlia, etc.
i) For Dry flowers: Statice, Helichrysum, Acroclinum, Gomphrena, Limonium, Marigold,
Rose, Lady’s Lace, Nigella, etc.
j) For Hedge purpose: Lawsonia, Duranta, Tecoma, Bougainvillea, Thevetia, Hibiscus,
Murraya, Dodonea, Acalypha, Aralia, Ipatorium, Clerodendron spp, etc.
k) Cut flowers/modern flowers: Rose, Chrysanthemum, Carnation, Gerbera, Anthurium,
Orchids, Gladiolus, Tuberose, etc.
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4) Based on Nature of Growth:
a) Annuals: Nasturtium, Ice plant, Holly hock, Sweet pea, Annual Chrysanthemum,
Carnation, Cornflower, Sweet Alyssum, Dahlia, Marigold, Verbena, Phlox, Pinks,
Calendula, etc.
b) Perennials: Rose, Jasmine, Crossandra, Anthurium, Orchids, Chrysanthemum, Berlaria,
Hibiscus, Gerbera, Carnation, Bulbous Crops.
5) Based on Mode of propagation:
1) Bulbous plants: Lily, Narcissus, Tulip, Tuberose
2) Cormellous plants: Gladiolus, Crocus
3) Rhizomatous plants: Canna, Iris
4) Tuberiferous plants: Dahlia
6) Based on their end use/purpose
1. Traditional flowers: They are offered in religious and social ceremonies, used as an
adornment by women, and offered for worships at home as well as in temples.
Eg. Jasmine, Rose, Mums, Marigold, Crossandra, Tuberose, Barlaria, Gaillardia, etc.
2. Non-traditional flowers: They are referred to as cut flowers or modern flowers.
Generally flowers are harvested along with a long stem/ stalk.
Eg. Hi-tech roses (Dutch roses), Gerbera, Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Gladiolus,
Orchids, Anthuriums, Goldenrod, Bird of Paradise, Limonium, Liatris, Stock, etc
3. Industrial Flowers/Value Added flowers: They are used as raw material in industries
for extraction of essential oil and also preparation of some edible products like gulkand,
gulroghan, pigments as natural colours and also dry flowers.
Eg. Tuberose, Jasmine, Rose, Marigold etc,.
3.3. INDUSTRIAL IMPORTANCE OF COMMERCIAL FLOWERS IN INDIAN &

ABROAD:
Flowers are traded round the year all-over the country and bulk of them are used in
making garlands, bouquets, venis, gajras and other adornments.
1. Perfumery Industry:
The extracts from fragrant flowers such as rose, lavender, champak, Jasmine, tuberose,
marigold, etc
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2. Dry flower industry:
Some of the flowers are used for drying purpose and are traded as dry flowers in the
flower trade.
Example: Helichrysum, Acroclinum, Gomphrena, Marigold, Rose, Limonium/ Statice, Gerbera,
Zinnia, China Aster, some foliage plants also.
3. Pigment extraction:
Some of the flowers are grown for extraction of their natural colours and used in various
preparations viz, foods, poultry feeds, textile, pharmaceuticals, etc.
Example: Marigold, Calendula, Hibiscus, Carnation, Bixas, Saffron, Safflower, etc.
3.4. COMMERCIAL FLOWER INDUSTRIES IN INDIA HAVE

COLLABORATION WITH DUTCH
1. Bumbna major Biotech Ltd, Jambhul village pune. Collaboration with Moerheim Roses
and Trading BV., Holland with 6 million flowers. Rs. 7.5 crores; 100% EOU
2. Deccan Flora Base Ltd. with a transaction of Rs. 7.0 crores, 100% EOU of roses, 9
million cut roses (11.25ha). Talegaun (Pune); collaboration with Flodae B.V.,
Netherlands.
3. Essar Agrotech Ltd.: Lonarala (Pune). 6 Million roses, (7 ha); Rs. 5.5 crores, collaborated
with Moerhein roses a trading B.V., Holland.
4. Harrisons Universal Flowers Ltd. Collaborated with Universal Plants SA of France
(Meilland groups in France) – Bangalore; 6.0 crores; 2 ha.
5. Indryani Biotech: Rs. 7.14 crores, 6 million cut flowers; near Pune, collaborated with
Florax Max of Malaysia.
6. Indo Bloom Pvt. Ltd, Bangalore.
7. Karishma Floriculture Ltd. Collaborated with Dalsem BV of Holland at Sohana in
Haryana.
1. Laxmi Flori-tech Ltd: Bangalore (Nelamangala) with Flodae BV. Holland.
2. Oriental Flori- tech Ltd. (by TATA Industries) in 1990 collaborated with Van Dijk Flora
BV of Holland (Pune); 4 million roses in 3.2 ha.
3. Meghana Flori-tech Ltd, Bangalore.
4. Vasavi Florex Ltd. Bengaluru
5. Sachin Flori-tech Ltd Bengaluru, etc.
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QUIZ:
1) Summer season Annuals are

A) Zinnia B) Kochia C) Portulaca D) All Of These
2) Rainy season annuals
A) Sweet Sultan B) Phlox C) Verbena D) Gaillardia
3) Winter season annuals
A) China Aster B) Larkspur C)Both A & D)Balsam
4) Purple, Lavender or Blue coloured flowers
A) Tithonia B) Ageratum C) Gaillardia D) Both A & B
5) White coloured flower
A) Marigold B) Calendula C) Gaillardia D) Chrysanthemum
6) Flowers Annual in habit
A) Berlaria B) Orchids C) Gerbera D) None of These
7) Flowers Perennial in habit
A) Nasturtium B) Holly Hock C) Verbena D) Anthurium
8) Bulbous plants
A) Gladiolus B) Crocus C) Lily D) Dahlia
9) Traditional flowers
A) Carnation B)Marigold C) Limonium D) Goldenrod
10) Flowers used in Perfumery Industry
A) Marigold B) China Aster C) Lavender D) Zinnia
(Key answers:1) d, 2) d, 3) d, 4) d, 5) d, 6) d, 7) d , 8) c, 9) b, 10) c)
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
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1
LECTURE- 4
ROSE
TOPICS
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Scenario in the world
4.3. Important Rose Importers
4.4. Morphology of Rose
4.5. Importance and uses
4.6. Origin & History
4.7. Evolution
4.1. INTRODUCTION:
 Rose is ‘Eros’ (The Greek Love - God).

 It is one of the „Nature‟s Beautiful Creations‟.
 Hence, it is universally acclaimed as the „Queen of flowers‟ called by a „Sappho‟
a poetess about more than 2500 years ago.
 No other flower is a better symbol of love, adoration, innocence, peace,
friendship, affection, passion and other virtues than the rose since thousands of
years.
 It is certainly the best known and most popular of all the cut flowers throughout
the world and has been growing on this earth for many million years before the
man himself appeared on earth.
 Rose is considered as National flower of England.
 In India, it was referred in old Sanskrit literature as Tarnipushpa, Atimanjula,
Simantika, etc.
 The rose adorned not only the royal palaces but also the ashrams of saints.
 It has become the part and parcel of life being connected with all phases of our
life right from „birth to death‟.
 The growing of roses in India developed with the distillation of roses as
mentioned in Ayurveda by Charaka around 100 AD.
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 The interest in cultivation however increased considerably mainly during the last
four five decades and at present it has become most important commercial flower.
 As a result of the great demand for modern roses (HT roses) / standard roses,
many nurseries have been established in an around the big cities.
 It is the largest traded flowers in the world, worth 1.5 billion dollars globally.
 The Holland alone 500 million dollars and is growing 7-8% annually.
4.2. WORLD SCENARIO:
The area in rose production in the Netherlands has stayed the same or is infact increasing
as growers change from small to large varieties and rootstock. Where as in USA it is declined
and in Italy, France, Hungary, Poland and Russia the production for home consumption is
increasing so also in India and China.
Columbia 980 ha. Zimbabwe 230 ha.

Holland 900 ha. Israel 180 ha.
Kenya 900 ha. India 180 ha.
Japan 600 ha. Tanzania 25 ha.
USA 450 ha. Zambia 55 ha.
Germany 250 ha. Uganda 90 ha.
4.3. IMPORTANT ROSE IMPORTERS AND EXPORTERS:
 Germany is the highest importer followed by USA, The Netherlands, France,

Switzerland and U.K.
 Whereas, the main exporter is the Netherlands followed by Columbia, Ecuador,
Kenya, Israel and Zimbabwe.
4.4. MORPHOLOGY OF ROSE:
 The rose is an ornamental shrub/bush with upright or climbing stems usually prickly.
 Leaves are alternate, compound, oddly pinnate with stipules adherent to the leaf stalk.
 Flowers are solitary (single) or in corymbs (cluster).
 Calyx is five lobed, either simple or compound.
 Petals & sepals are generally five; however Rosa sericea has only four petals and sepals.
 Carpels are many, inserted at the base of the calyx tube and with simple projecting style
and stigma.
3
 Fruits are known as hips, contain many seeds and are rich in Vit. C, A1, B2, K & E.
 Seeds are hard and fresh seeds have dormancy.
4.5. IMPORTANCE AND USES:
 The rose because of its multi-utility occupies a prominent place amongst the
flower crops and is one of the ancient fragrant flowers cultivated by man.
 Its different types having beautiful flowers of exquisite shape, different shades,
bewitching colours and most delightful fragrance has made it an important flower
for the varied uses.
USES:
1) Garden display:
 Shrub or bush is prepared by budding the desired cultivars on a root stock at a

height of 5-10 cm above the ground level.
 They are planted in small groups to create excellent mass effect in a rose garden.
 They are also the most important garden plant in almost all every part of the
world due to its perennial growth habit.
 They can be used as bush, standards, climbers, hedges and edges, hangers and in
rock gardens.
2) Standard roses (Hybrid Tea roses): Also called as tree roses. HT roses and floribundas
having vigorous growth and spreading habit hence are budded on straight vertical stem of
a suitable root stock at different height from the ground level to make standards.
Classification of Standard Roses:
According to height of budding the standard roses are classified into;
a. Full standards: The height of the budding has to be done at 100-115 cm
above the ground level. H T roses and few Grandifloras are suitable.
b. Half standards: In this case the budding may be done at 45-60 cm height.
Floribundas and Polyantha roses are excellent for growing as half standards.
c. Weeping standards: 150 cm or even higher the budding may be done on

drooping branches. The growing crown is look like hanging crown.
Example, Climbers / Rambler roses
3) CLIMBERS: The climbing and rambling roses can be used to cover the walls of the
houses or fencing or pergolas, arbours and arches.
4
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAMBLER AND CLIMBER ROSES:
RAMBLER ROSES CLIMBER ROSES
1). Rambler produces flowers once in a year. 1). Flowers perpetually (round the year).
2). Produces flowers in clusters. 2). Produces singly or in groups of 2‟s or 3‟s.
3). Flowers lasting for several weeks. 3). Flowering spreads over the season.
4). Rambler is very vigorous. 4). Medium in vigor.
5). Produces heavy crops of small flowers in 5). Produces bigger flower than ramblers
clusters for several weeks. round the year.
4) Hedges or Edges: Any rose cultivars can be used for these purposes for protection,
beautification and demarcation of different features in the landscaping.
3.1. Hedge: Any thorny cultivars are suitable for the purpose preferably floribundas
are ideal as they are vigorous types. Ex. Border Coral, Circus, Frensham and Rumba
3.2. Edge: Button /miniature roses are commonly used to form edges for demarcation
of one feature to another. Ex. Carolin, Lady Reading, Magic, White Button etc.,
5) Rockeries: Some hardy miniature roses may be grown to beautify the rock
garden. Hardy miniatures and pompon cultivars such as Fairy Queen
and Magic may be selected..
6) Pot plants: Roses as pot plants in suitable containers are also commercially grown.
Miniature and dwarf Polyanthas should be selected for the purpose. The cultivars like
Baby darling, Cindrella, Starina, Sweet Dream etc.,
7) Hangers: Button roses can also be used for growing in hanging pots / baskets.
Climbing miniatures like Red Cascade and Yellow Doll may be used.
8) Loose flowers: Used for garland making, extraction of essential oils, for button holes
i.e. Coat button holes and Cora sages (a single rose with foliage) – referred as mini
bouquet.
9) CUT- FLOWERS: Besides garlands, bouquets, buttonholes and preserves and their
use for worship it makes one of the best cut flowers. In floriculture, roses are of
foremost commercial importance and cut-roses have the highest demand throughout
the world and year round. European countries, USA, Canada, Japan, Korea, Kenya,
Colombia, etc. are the largest producers of cut-roses under protected structures.
5
10) PERFUME AND ALLIED PRODUCTS:
a) Rose water: Important commercial product obtained from rose petals, used as
perfume, medicine and confectionary. It‟s important uses are,
 Cools the body, used in eye lotions, eye drops for its soothing qualities.
 Used in drinking water.
 It is sprinkled on guests at weddings, feasts & other social functions.
b) Rose oil (Rose perfume): It is also obtained from rose petals, sweet fragrance;
medicinal properties; used in Ayurveda. Bulgarian „rose otto‟ is largely used in
perfuming soaps & cosmetics.
 Used in flavoring soft drinks and alcoholic liqueurs.
 It has antibacterial properties against Shigella dysenteriae and Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
Species suitable are: Rosa demascena, R. borboniana, R. centifolia, R. alba & R.
gallica. In India R. demascena and R. borboniana are cultivated for rose
oil.
c) Gulkand: Rose petals are also preserved for direct consumption prepared by beating
equal proportion of petals and sugar – considered as tonic and laxative. R.
damascene, R. chinensis, R. gallica, R. pomifera & some other scented roses like
Edouard roses are commonly used.
d) Pankhuri: Dried rose petals are known as pankhuri, they are occasionally used for
preparing sweetened cold drinks.
e) Gulroghan: The rose hair oil is prepared from rose petals by effleurage (fragrance)
with wet sesamum seeds.
11) As a source of vitamins:

 Rose hips are very good source of ascorbic acid (Vit C). Every 100 g of rose hip
contains 150 mg of ascorbic acid compared with only 50 mg in fresh orange
juice, 20 mg in tomato and 5 mg in apples.
Species: R. rugosa, R. amblyotis, R. Acicularis, R. davurica, R. pendulina, R.
glauca and R. canina.
 The hips of R. roxburghii, R. acicularis, R. rugosa, R. davurica also found to
contain Vitamins A1, B2, K & E.
6
12) Other uses:

 In Europe, roses are also used for preparation of pot-pourri, conserves, rose
vinegar and rose petal wine.
 Jams, jellies and syrups have been made for centuries in Bulgaria and
exported. Rose jam aids in digestion and it also has certain curative
properties.
 In Czechoslovakia, fruits of wild roses are used for preparing hot drinks like
tea and a popular wine.
 In America, R. multiflora bushes are being utilized as shock absorber or crash
barrier.
4.6. ORIGIN & HISTORY:
o It is said that rose came first and man afterwards. It is estimated to be more than
30 million years old.
o According to Klougart and Fairbrother (1966), the history of man and of the rose
is linked together for about 5000 years.
o The rose was called „Queen of flowers‟ by „Sappho‟ a poetess more than 2500
years ago.
o No other flower has such a remarkable written record.
o There is evidence that, roses reached Rome before Christ.
o Preparation of rose water and attar was also in practice even before the 17 th
century.
“The rose is the perfume of the Gods, the joy of men, it adores and graces at the
blossoming of love”. Rose is the favored flower of Venus.
MYTH AND LEGEND STORIES ON THE EARLY HISTORY AND EVOLUTION:

 It is said that when „Cybele‟ became angry with „Venus‟, she took her revenge by
bringing to life something more beautiful than the Goddess of beauty herself and thus
created the roses.
 According to Myth story the rose blooming in the „Garden of Eden‟ was white in colour
and became red when „Eve‟ (Acc to Bible she is the first women name mentioned in
Bible) saw it and kissed it.
 Another story relates that, roses which were originally white which became red from the
blood of „Venus‟ dropped from her foot wounded by a thorn while hurrying through.
 According to a Legendry story, once Lord „Vishnu‟ taking bath and Lord „Brahma‟ came
out of one lotus and claimed that, lotus is the beautiful flower in the Universe.
7
 Then Vishnu took „Brahma‟ to his Paradise „Vaikunta‟ and showed him a rose flower
which was very beautiful with “Pale Moon Beam colour and heavenly fragrance”. After
seeing this Brahma also agreed rose is the most beautiful than lotus.
 Muslim‟s believed that, the roses were born from the sweat of the Prophet Mohammed
and hence, they show great respect to rose.
 The Roman king „Nero‟ loved rose so much that, he had them every where in his palace.
Flower petals were used by the women in their baths and for the decoration of special
beds, feasts and graves.
 Rose is also mentioned in the Bible and is believed to be known before the Bible era and
was under cultivation before the birth of Christ.
DISTRIBUTION:
 There are about 150 recognized and described species were identified; all are indigenous
to the „temperate regions of the northern hemisphere‟ have been reported to be growing.
 In India, several species are found growing wild mostly in the Himalayan ranges.
 There are eleven species were reported to be growing wild in India. They are as follows,
1. Rosa brunonii (Himalayan Musk rose),
2. R. eglanteria (Syn R.. foetida, Austrian rose),
3. R. involucrate (Syn. R. sempervirens),
4. R. leschenaultiana (Syn. R. sempervirens),
5. R. longicuspis,
6. R. macrophylla,
7. R. moschata (Musk rose),
8. R. rubiginosa (Sweet briar/ Eglantine rose),
9. R. walpoleana,
10. R. sericea (Ladakh rose)
11. R. multiflora
4.7. EVOLUTION:
 In the beginning some of the rose species were hybridized in nature and the
present day improved forms have been evolved over centuries.
 Till the 19th century only four species of roses played a role in the development of
varieties cultivated at that time. These are
1) Rosa gallica (Red rose) (French rose)
2) R. canina (Dog rose).
8
3) R. moschata (Musk rose)

4) R. phoenicia (Phoenician rose)
 Rosa gallica (French rose) came originally from „Caucasus‟ and the Middle-East
and is an ancestor of Moss roses.
 R. centifolia (Cabbage rose) came to France in 1580 from Mediterranean region.
 R. damascena (Damask rose) is natural variation of R. gallica, R. damascene in
course of time produced variant with a tendency to bloom in the autumn and
summer and this variant was named as Autumn Damask (R. damascena bifera
and R. damascena semperflorens).
 In the modern roses apart from these species R. chinensis (Pink China rose) was
also used in breeding of modern roses.
 In the early 19th century itself, one or two hybrids closely related to R. chinensis,
due to their recurrent flowering habit were introduced to Europe from China.
 These were actually hybrid between R. odorata and R. gigantea and these gave
rise to the popular „Tea roses‟.
 These Tea roses so named because they had the flavour as found in the chest of
leaves of China Tea which are delicately sweet with some what smoky aroma.
 “Thunberg” a Swedish botanist, described a rose which he had seen in Japan and
collected the R. multiflora by virtue of its many flowers. This was later called R.
polyantha by Zuccarini, the German botanist.
 ‟Multiflora„ in ‟Latin„ and ‟Polyantha„ in Greek both meant “Many flowered
roses. These roses were crossed with the Tea roses and gave rise to low growing,
permanently flowering forms which came to be known as Polyantha roses.
 Later R. polyantha x R. moschata and produced Hybrid musk rose: This played an
important part in the development of floribundas.
 In India, several species are found mostly in the Himalayan ranges.
 The cultivation of rose was perhaps taken up during the Mughal period. Babar
introduced the Persian or Damask rose into India (1526).
 The Edouard rose (R. borboniana) was introduced in 1840 during the British rule.
 These two roses viz. Damask and Edourd roses are highly scented and are being
extensively cultivated in the country. Commercial cultivation of roses for cut
flower trade has increased during last four decades.
 The major rose producing regions in India are Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab,
Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Chandigarh, while in Gujarath, Haryana, Himachal
9
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal they are
being grown to a limited extent.
KNOWLEDGE ASSESSMENT
I. Choose the appropriate answers from the following:
1) Queen of flowers is
a) Tulip b) carnation c) gladiolus d) Rose
2) The word “ROSE” is derived from_______word.
a) Latin b) Greek c) French d) none
3) ROSE is national flower of ________
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a) England b) Japan c) Italy d) UK

4) Fruit of rose is known as
a) Hips b) Heps c) Heeps d) all
5) Hips are the rich source of ______
a) Vitamin A b) Vitamin B c) Vitamin K d)Vitamin C
6) Standard Roses are classified as
a) Full standards b) Half standards c) either a or b d) both a & b.
7) In Climber roses flowering spreads
a) over the season b) for few weeks c) throughout the year d) none
8) Roses suitable for hedges
a) Floribundas b) miniatures c) Button roses d) all
9) Dried rose petals are known as _________
a) Pankhuri b) potpourri c) Gulroghan d) both a& b
10) Species of rose utilized as shock absorber or crash barrier in America
a) R. cannina b) R. multiflora c) R. grandiflora d) R. moschata
(Key answers:1)d, 2)b, 3)a, 4)a, 5)d, 6)d, 7)a, 8)a, 9) d, 10)b)
11
Match the Following
A B
1) R.sericea French rose
2) Rosa brunonii Cabbage rose
3) R. moschata Ladakh rose
4) R. canina Damask rose
5) Rosa gallica Himalayan Musk rose
6) R. centifolia Edouard rose
7) R. damascene Dog rose
8) R. borboniana Phoenician rose
9) R. Phoenicia Austrian rose
10) R. eglanteria Musk rose
(Key answers: 1) Ladakh rose,2) Himalayan Musk rose,3) Musk rose,4) Dog rose, 5) French
rose,6) Cabbage rose,7) Damask rose,8) Edouard rose, 9) Phoenician rose,10) Austrian rose )
********
LECTURE - 5
ROSE
TOPICS
5.1. Classification
5.2. Classes of present day garden roses.
5.3. Rose species
5.1. CLASSIFICATION:
Family: Rosaceae
According to Rehder (1940) the American taxonomist, the genus Rosa, contains about
120 species.
Rosa
Sub-Genera
1) Eurosa 2) Platyrhodon 3) Hesperhodos 4) Hulthemia
10- Sections
7- Sections with adnate stipules are more significant for garden roses.
2- Sections are different with respect to their „exerted styles‟
i) Indicae (Style is free) ii) Synstylae (Style is fused)
Both sections are diploid (2n = 14) in nature. The short styled sections includes,
1) Pimpinellifoliae (Have both diploid and tetraploid species) – which contain R.

spinosissima and R. foetida
2) Gallicanae – (Tetraploid) contains R. gallica and the ancient hybrids which originated
from it, viz., the Damasks, the Centifolias, the Mosses and the „Albas‟
3. Cinnamomeae (48 species) contains R. rugosa and R. cinnamomea which have

played minor role in development of modern roses.
1
The genus Rosa contains 150 species; only 7 have contributed to the development of
modern cultivars (Veda, 1994)
5.2. CLASSES OF PRESENT DAY GARDEN ROSES:
1) Hybrid Tea: Originally developed from crossing between hybrid perpetuals and Tea roses
Most popular rose.
Bearing large highly centered flowers.
Eg: „La France‟ (1867) – First cultivar of hybrid tea group.
2) Floribunda (Hybrid polyanthas)
Developed in 1924 from the cross between a Hybrid Tea x Polyantha.
They combined the beautiful forms of the Hybrid Teas with the perpetual
flowering habit of the Polyanthas.
Flowering in clusters with small size and open centre.
Good for garden display.
Eg: Wekplapep (2000), Jumpin Jack (1998)
3) Hybrid perpetuals
They are the immediate forerunners of Hybrid Teas. These are considered to be the
offspring‟s of R. chinensis, R. gallica and R. centifolia.
They are not perpetual flowering types, as the name suggests, but may be called
“remontants” being the type which flower more than once in a season/year.
Eg: Princesse Helence
4) Teas: Also called “Tea scented China roses” they derived their names from their distinct
aroma, believed to be feet when a chest of tea leaves are opened.
They known to have originated from R. chinensis and R. gigantean (Manipur Tea
rose)
Free flower types.
Eg: Anna Olivies., Lady Hillingdon
5) Grandifloras: Mainly obtained from crosses between „Hybrid Tea‟ and „Floribunda‟ type.
Produces large number of flowers in cluster with fine form.
2
Eg: Buccaneer (1952), June Bride (1957), Montezuma (1955), Queen Elizabeth
(1954), Jazor (2000).
6) Polyanthas:
Dwarf with small flowered polyanthas are the forerunner of Floribundas. Blooms
for several months.
Their Ancestry includes crosses of R. multiflora and R. wichuraiana (Climber)
and the Bengal hybrid R. indica major(R. chinensis)
Eg: La paquorette (1875), Baby Faurax (1924), Echo (1914)
7) China roses: (R. chinensis)
It is responsible for nearly all the present day popular roses.
Bears red to nearly white flowers in small clusters.
Also called „Bengal rose‟ or „Monthly roses‟
Perpetually flowering types.
Green roses also included in this group R. chinensis viridiflora
Eg: Comtessedu cayla (1902)
8) Miniature / Button Roses

Popularly known as „Baby roses‟ with small leaves & flowers.
They are hardy and good for pot culture.
Multiplied by cuttings as well as budding on root stocks.
Eg: Baby gold star (1940), Baby Masquerade (1956), Cindrella (1952), peon (1936), etc.
9) Climbers and Ramblers: They bears large clusters of small, single or double flowers, mainly
belong to two groups.
a) Multiflora ramblers from R. multiflora,
Eg: Blush Rambler (1903), Crimson Rambler (1890)
b) Wichuriana ramblers from R. wichuriana
Eg: American Pilla (1902)
Used for training on arches, pergolas, etc.
3
10) Damask roses
These are belongs to the species R. damascene.
Originated from cross between R. phvenicia and R. gallica.
Bears clusters of very fragrant pale pink to red, double petalled flowers.
Eg: Madame Hardy (1832), Celsiana Hebe‟s Lip (1921)
11) Bourbon roses: (Rosa borboniana)

They have originated from a natural cross between China rose and the Damask rose. It is
named after the name Island i.e., Isle de Bourbon (1817). Floriferous over a long season
Flowers are scented have large petals, double and silky
Borne singly or in cluster.
Eg: Rose Edouard, Bourbon Queen (1935)
12) Cabbage roses: These belong to the species R. centifolia and they are also called as
„Provence rose‟. Petal arrangement is like cabbage, hence the name. They bear large, solitary,
very fragrant pink flowers.
Eg: Demeaux and chapeau de Napoleon (1827)
13) Moss Roses: They belong to cabbage rose class and arose as sports of the centifolias.
Growing closely like moss, all over the seed pod and sepals.
Eg: Old pink Moss (1845)
14) French roses: Also known as „Gallica roses‟ having developed from R. Gallica.
These are perhaps the oldest types of cultivated roses known.
Includes pink or crimson colours with good fragrance.
Having medicinal properties.
Eg: Belle de Crecy, Cardinal de Richelieu.
15) Albas: Along with the Gallicas and the Damasks, the Albas constitute the truly old garden
roses.
Originated from cross between R. corymbifera and R. gallica.
4
Very hardy and bear white or pinkish flowers with delightful fragrance.
Eg: Celestial, Queen of Denmark.
16) Musk roses: R. moschata is the musk rose, derived its name from the musky fragrance of the
flowers. They make good shrub roses as well as pillar roses.
Eg: Eva, Felicia, Moon light, etc.
17) Noisette roses: Originated from R. chinensis and R. moschata (hybrid of China rose and
musk roses). Climbing in nature.
Eg: Lamarque, Marechal Niel.
18) Rugosas: (R. rugosa)

Very hardy type, which do well on the seashore.‟
Very vigorous and resistant to cold.
Good for hedge, because of its highly thorny nature.
Bears large, red or white flowers. Eg: Blanc Double de Coubert.
19) Austrian briars: (R. foetida/ R. lutea)
Considered to be the main source of yellows in the modern rose.

Eg: Austrian copper (R. foetida bicolor),
Persian yellow is introduced by Babar (R. foetide persiana)
5.3. SPECIES:
The number of species under the genus Rosa recorded in different literatures, varies from
120 – 200.
SOME IMPORTANT SPECIES AND THEIR DESCRIPTIONS ARE AS FOLLOWS.
1. Rosa X alba (White rose) [R. corymbifera x R. gallica)

An erect bush with glaucous (grayish blue) foliage.
Flower white, semi double, fragrant and born in clusters.
It was under cultivation before 1597.
5
2. R. banksiae (Banksian rose;1796)
A vigorous evergreen climber, grow upto 9 m hight.
Stems are thorn less with yellow-green foliage.
Flowers are white or pale yellow.
Originated in Western China.
3. R. borboniana (R. chinensis x R. damascena semperflorens) Bourbon Rose

Vigorous shrub with erect shoots.
Stem dark green with hooked prickles.
Floriferous over a long season.
Flowers double, deep rosy red, scented and flowers are 7.5 cm diameter.
It was under cultivation in 1817.
4, R. canina (Dog Rose)
Vigorous and very prickly shrub having stout stem.

Foliage toothed all round margins.
Flowers single, white or pink scented, small and in clusters.
Hips are oval in shape.
Chiefly used as root stock for budding or grafting.
Popular in Britain, N-Europe and W-Asia
5. R. centifolia (Cabbage Rose) (1596)
Is a complex hybrid which contains four species viz., R. gallica, R. phoenicia, R.

moschata and R. camria.
Loose growing shrub.
Medium in vigour.
Flowers large, fully double with overlapping petals, deep pink with a slight
purplish blue towards centre.
6. R. chinensis {Syn. R. indica (China Rose;1759)}
A large climbing evergreen shrub.

Flowers single, blush-pink, pink or crimson, rarely white in colour.
Non fragrant.
Native of China.
6
7. R. clinophyllia Syn. R. involucrate (Wild rose of Bengal)
An erect or semi-climbing compact shrub with blackish bark.

Leaves are composed of 5-9 leaflets.
Flowers are white, appear solitary or in small clusters.
Fruits roundish, hairy and pale.
Native of Bengal.
8. R. damascene (Damask Rose)

R. gallica x R. phoenicia (Summer damask rose );
R. gallica x R. inoschata or R. canina
A strong climber with white flowers in clusters.
Autumn Damask – R. bifera came from Rosa gallica
Crossed with R. moschata x R. canina
Vigorous shrub with exquisite fragrance (Sweet scented)
Flowers in large clusters, semi-double.
9. R. eglanteria syn. R. rubiginosa (Sweet Brier) (1551)
Vigorous shrub with dense prickly branches.

Small leaflets with scented foliage.
Flowers bear singly or in clusters.
Hips are bright red and rounded.
Native to North-Europe including Britain.
10. R. foetida syn. R. lutea, R. eglanteria (Austrian Briar rose)
Erect shrub, with prickly stem.

Flowers single, bright golden yellow
Native to India
11. R. gallica syn. R. rubra (French rose) (1542)
Thorn less but an abundance of small prickles.

Foliage dark green.
Flowers single, purplish – crimson, in small clusters.
Hips sub-globose dark red.
Native to Central and Southern Europe.
7
12. R. giganteana syn. odorata var. gigantean (Manipur Tea Rose)
Very vigorous climber with thick, hooked prickles on the glabrous stem.
Foliage dark glassy green, partially evergreen.
Flowers large (7.5 – 12.5 cm across), white or pale yellow.
Fragrant, borne singly.
Common in Manipur, Nagaland and Sikkim
Native to Western China.
An important ancestor of the Tea, Hybrid Tea and Noisette roses.
13. R. moschata (Musk rose)
A vigorous climber with reddish, sparsely prickly stem and evergreen.

Foliage very fine and flossy, bright green.
Flowers white, usually semi-double but sometimes single with musk fragrance.
Hips ovate, orange – red or dark brown.
Native to Middle East Himalayas.
14. R. multiflora
A deciduous shrub with vigorous climbing branches.

Foliage with upto 9 leaflet.
Flowers single, white with golden yellow stamens.
Born in clusters, scented.
Hips are small, red, oval.
Originated in North China, Korea & Japan.
Introduced to India in 1872.
15. R. wichuraiana (Memorial rose)
A vigorous rambler, producing single flowers – white with yellow centre.

Scented, produce in large clusters.
Hips small, ovoid, dark red.
Originated in Japan, East China, Korea & Taiwan.
Introduced to India in 1891.
8
16. R. persica syn. berberifolia (Rose of Persia)
Dwarf shrub with silvery-grey foliage.

Flowers deep golden yellow, single.
Hips are small.
Native to Iran, Afghanistan and USSR.
17. R. rugosa (Ramanas rose, Rugosa rose)

A vigorous erect shrub distinguished by strong, sturdy growth and bright apple-
green foliage on very prickly stems.
Flowers in small clusters, single, large, purplish rose to violet – carmine.
Slightly scented, variable in colour
Hips large, rounded, orange-scarlet and very decorative.
Originated in China, Japan & Korea.
Used as root stock also.
9
1) Rose belongs to _____ family.
a) Compositae b) Rosaceae c) Araceae d) Caryophyllaceae
2) According to Rehder (1940) the American taxonomist, Rosa contains ______species.
a) 120 b) 200 c) 122 d) 140
(Key answers: 1) b, 2) a)
3) Match the Following
A B
1 Hybrid Tea Hybrid Tea x Floribunda type,
2 Floribunda R. indica
3 Hybrid perpetuals Hybrid Tea x Polyantha
4 Teas Baby roses
5 Grandifloras Tea scented China roses
6 Polyantha Isle de Bourbon
7 China roses Training on arches, pergolas
8 Button Roses Hybrid perpetual x Tea roses
9 Climber and Rambler Remontants
10 Bourbon rose Baby Faurax
(Key answers: 1) Hybrid perpetual x Tea roses,2) Hybrid Tea x Polyantha,3) Remontants,4) Tea
scented China roses, 5) Hybrid Tea x Floribunda type.,6) Baby Faurax,7) R. indica,8) Baby
roses, 9) Training on arches, pergolas,10) Isle de Bourbon)
4) State True or False:
a) Rosa alba are called as White roses.

b) Parents of R. borboniana are R. chinensis x R. d. semperflorens.
c) R. chinensis is native to India.
d) R. rubra is commonly called as Manipur Tea Rose.
e) R. eglanteria is native to India
( Key answers: a) True ,b) True, c)False ,d) False, e) True )
******
10
LECTURE - 6
ROSE
Topics
6.1. Rose Cultivation in Open Condition

6.2. Cultivars
6.3. Crop Improvement in Rose
6.4. Genetics and Breeding of Rose
6.5. Breeding of Roses
6.6. Methods of Breeding
6.7. Techniques of Hybridization
6.8. Rose Breeding in India
6.9. Biotechnology
9.10. Protected Cultivation
6.1. ROSE CULTIVATION:
Roses are grown in gardens in all parts of the world.
 In Temperate countries, the most important period of flowering is summer.

 In Tropical climate winter and spring, whereas,
 In Subtropical climate round the year
SOIL:
 Although any soil is good for rose cultivation. However, for proper drainage, the
medium loamy soil with sufficient organic matter is essential.
 It grows well in a soil with a pH of 6.0 to 7.5. It can sustain little acidity (5.5 to
6.5), good aeration;
 The land with high water table is not suitable.
CLIMATE:
 The most important factors are light (photoperiod, intensity and quality),
temperature (aerial and root zone), humidity, CO2, ventilation, etc.
1
LIGHT:
 Light is one of the important growth factors which influence both temperature and water.
 Primarily light is necessary for assimilation (photosynthesis). Through chlorophyll in the
leaves, light is transformed into sugars, a process also requiring CO2 and water.
 This energy source is essential for growth and development of flowers, stems, leaves and
roots.
 The degree to which a plant can use the amount of light available depends on several
factors, for example chlorophyll contents of the leaves, CO2 supply, temperature and
humidity.
 The other indirect effect of light is the stimulation of vascular transport through the plant.
 Rose prefers bright sunshine for the whole day, if not at least for the normal part
of the day i.e., the forenoon.
 Sunshine for six hours is ideal for better growth and flowering.
 The plants should be free from shades of trees and protected from the strong
winds.
 As light raises the leaf temperature, the leaves respond by opening the stomata to allow a
higher evaporation in order to cool down.
 This process also increases the water transport, enabling nutrients, necessary for plant
growth, to be distributed through the plant.
TEMPERATURE:
 Temperature influences almost all processes of life.

 Too much light at a low temperature causes an unnecessary surplus of sugars.
 Due to the high temperature the respiration process works at maximum capacity, while
production of energy (photosynthesis) is maintained at a low level.
 The differences in temperature during the day/night (light/dark) period have a major
effect on plant growth.
 It is assumed that through a raise in temperature early in the night period, more energy is
put in generative growth (flower development).
 Higher temperatures during the night period, compared to the day period, will stretch
internodes and vice versa.
 Under poor light conditions this is a possibility to obtain the required 24-hour
temperature without creating a weak and elongated crop.
 The greenhouse temperature is generally maintained from 200C to210C on cloudy
days and 240C –280C on sunny days. Whereas the night temperature is 16-17o C.
 However, the temperature range of 15-270C is optimum.
2
HUMIDITY:
 Plays an important role in the incidence of pests and diseases affecting the growth
and flowers. Mildews are highly associated with high humidity.
 The climactic condition of India is well suited for rose production.
 In the northern plains rose flowers best during winter where as in temperate hilly
region of the Himalayas best flowers are produced in summer.
 Under Bangalore, Pune and such other mild climatic region we can produce good
quality roses round the year.
6.3. CULTIVARS:
 The beauty of roses seems to have no limit, no end and that is the reason that, the
search for a more beautiful rose will always continues.
 Every year many new cultivars are added and marketed all over the world.
 The success of rose culture greatly depends upon the proper choice of class and
cultivars.
 At present there are more than 20,000 cultivars of roses, differing widely in form,
shape, size, colour, fragrance and flowering habit.
SELECTION OF ROSE CULTIVARS: Depends on the purposes of growing, viz

i. Garden display
ii. Cut flower, for decoration, sale and export for making garlands and
worshipping.
iii. Exhibition purposes.
1. Garden display:
 The first step in the selection of rose cultivation for this purpose will be the kind
of roses, which will suit the location and fulfill the object.
 Form, size, shape, floriferous-ness, color and fragrance have to be taken into
consideration.
 Cultivars should be resistant to insect pests and diseases.
2. Cut flowers:
 The HT cultivars producing beautiful shaped blooms of long lasting quality,
 Born singly on long straight stalks.
 The cultivars which open slowly and the blooms last for a longer period when
placed in water are suitable for export purpose.
3
Eg. Cultivars like Passion, First Red, Sonia Milland, Mercedes, Red
Success, Miracle, Orange Gate, Prophyta, Nobless, Somantha etc., are in
great demand.
3. Exhibition: For this purpose certain specific qualities are essential.

In “Rose show” under different classes are required. The most important sections are as
follows
a. H.T. specimen bloom
b. Floribundas
c. Polyanthas
d. Miniature /button roses.
e. Fragrant roses
f. Climbers
a. H. T. Specimen bloom:
 These are major attractions in a rose show.
 Specimen blooms are the top quality blooms of large sized, high centered having
sufficient number of petals which are arranged symmetrically in an attractive
outline, forming a high circle 3-6 flowers are arranged in specimen section.
b. Floribundas:
 In this section the main considerations is the floriferousness and quality of the
spray.
 The floribundas are judged on the basis of inflorescence.
 The arrangement of flowers and number of symmetrical and well balanced spray.
 They are called „Spray roses‟.
c. Polyanthas: They are mostly miniature like but single petals.
6.4. CROP IMPROVEMENT IN ROSE:
6.5. GENETICS AND BREEDING OF ROSE:

 The present day gardens roses are complex hybrids involving inter specific
hybridization, polyploidy with high female and male sterility.
 The basic chromosome number n=7.
 Species of Asian origin are diploid (2n=14).
 Whereas, the species found in Siberia and Alaska are polyploidy with n=14, 28,
42 and 56 chromosomes.
4
 Western species were crossed with Asian diploid (n=14) to produce modern
roses‟ (R. moschata, R. gigantean) R. multiflora, R.chinensis),
 Tetraploid species like, R. gallica, R. foetida, R. damoscena & R. centifolia
(2n=28),
 The hybrids arising from the crosses between European and Asian parents are
triploids with 21 chromosome numbers.
 Colours in roses is governed by the expression of water soluble pigments called
anthocyanidin,
 The three important Anthocyanidins are pelargonidin, cynidine and delphinidines.
 „Pelargonidin‟ is present in Orange-Red to scarlet flowers.
 Cynidine is present in Crimson to blush red flowers and
 Delphinidin present in blue and violet flowers.
 Besides anthocyanidin there are other numbers of pigment. Such as flavonols and
carotenoids for white, yellow and brown pigments in flowers.
 The reds and pinks derived their colour from the presence of cynidine, while the
pale yellow is due to flavonols.
 The deep yellow colour in rose came from the crosses made with bright yellow
rose species R. foetida in 1930.
 The gene for production of pelargonidine is inherited in roses.
 The pink colour is dominant over dark red, orange-yellow, yellow, white and
scarlet. Deep yellow colour is recessive to light yellow and white is recessive to
cream & light yellow.
 The greenish white is dominant over pure white. Crosses between parents having
multi colour or bicolour produced a range of variable.
 The fragrance in rose is due to the presence of various substances like phenyl
ethyl alcohol (PEA), Citronello (Rhodinol), Geraniol Nerol, Nonylaldehyde etc.
 The inheritance of fragrance do not follow a definite pattern as its, expression is
governed by the ultimate effect of many genes similarly the other characters like
vigorous of plant thorniness, strength of neck, leaf width, stalk length, shape &
bud and open flowers are also due to the interaction of many genes.
6.6. BREEDING OF ROSES:

Creation of a new form of a plant is truly very fascinating, creating a new rose is not
different but creating a good new rose is a matter which requires special skills, tools etc.
1. To create novelties with different colour pigment.

2. To introduce the fragrance and extend the vase life.
3. Resistance to vase water bacteria.
4. Resistance to beetles and caterpillars.
5
5. Resistance to mildew and black spot
6. Resistance to whitefly, red spider mites and thrips.
7. Resistance to root knot bacteria.
8. Resistance to root knot nematode
9. Breeding in rootstock with increased vigour.
10. Cultivars that root more easily.
11. Cultivars that are thorn less.
12. Resistance to mechanical damage in harvest and transport. (i.e. withstanding long
transport by surfaces, air or water )
13. High yielding varieties/cultivars.
6.7. METHODS OF BREEDING:

1. Introduction- simple method, introduce any new cv. from new source and evaluate for
their performance.
2. Selection: Selection among the introduced/existing cultivars.
3. Mutation: Natural mutants – Dwarf habit in R.chinensis
Chemical treated –Methyl Ethyl Sulphonate, EMS, 2, 4-D, etc.,
Irradiation – X-rays, radio isotopes etc. Gamma-rays @3-4 KR (K. rads)
4. Hybridization:
 Hybridization is an important method for obtaining new forms of roses and almost
all modern roses (HT floribundas) are developed by hybridization.
 Rose breeding now practiced extensively in many countries including UK,
Australia, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, and the united states have strong
research programmes for creating new forms.
 Breeding in roses is a continues process some of the early workers in rose are
Darkness, Wheatcraft, Meilland, Kordes, Morey, Ratsek, Flory Yarnell, and many
other nursery men worked an breeding and roses.
 In India Dr. B.P. Pal, Shahare & Shashtri, Banda, Banerjee, Kasturirangan, M.S.
Veeraghavan, M.N. Hardikar, J.P. Agarwal & Lata etc. However, B.P. Pal is the
pioneer rose breeder in India.
6
6.4.1. TECHNIQUES OF HYBRIDIZATION:
STEPS:
1. The anthers of stamens are removed from female parents just before the flower open/ bud
stage. It is done with scissor/sharp knife without damaging the stigma this process is
called ‘emasculation’.
2. Petals of the flower which is selected as the male parent are removed and when the
anthers burst they are gently rubbed on the stigma of the female parents.
3. Butter paper bag is covered over the crossed flower to avoid further cross-pollination by
insects.
4. The pollinated flowers are labeled indicating the cross and date of crossing.
5. Within a week of pollination the ovary swells if it is successfully crossed and forms the
hip‟ when the hip turns yellow/orange/red is the indication of its maturity. It takes about
3-6 months for maturity after pollination.
6. Harvest at brown stage, dry them and extract the seeds. Most of the rose seeds are in
dormancy when they mature. Before sowing the fresh seeds they have to be stratified at
1.6 –4.4oC for 6 weeks in cold storage. In some species it requires up to 10 weeks it is
better to treat the seeds with warm and then cold stratification for uniform germination.
7. Sow the seeds about 5cm deep in carefully prepared media.
8. It takes several days to weeks for germination.
9. When the seedlings are 10-12 cm they are transplanted into pots and
10. Subsequently they may be used for budding on the best root stock.
6.9. ROSE BREEDING IN INDIA:
 The rose breeding work in India is comparatively a recent origin and was taken up in
right earnest in the last five decades or so.
 Though B.S. Bhattacharjee a rose nurseryman from Deoghar (Bihar) is acclaimed the
pioneer rose breeder in India who evolved a fairly large number of roses,
 The breeding work done by Dr. B.P. Pal, evolved several outstanding cultivars like Dr.
Homi Bhabha (white), Delhi princes and Banjaran (Red) under his guidance, a
comprehensive rose breeding programme was started in 1960 at IARI leading to the
evolution of more than 100 rose cultivars so far more than 300 cultivars have been
developed in India.
7
IMPORTANT CULTIVARS DEVELOPED BY DR. B.P. PAL AT IARI, NEW DELHI:
HT ROSES - Anurag, Arju, Bhim, Chitwan, Dr. B.P. Pal, Homi-Bhabha, Jawahar, Kanakangi,
Mridula, Mrinalini, Poormina, Rajasurendra Singh of Nalagradh and Raktagandha
among Hybrid Tea groups.
Pusa Garima Pusa Manhar Pusa Arun Pusa Mohit
Pusa Ajay Pusa Shatabdi Pusa Komal
FLORIBUNDAS GROUP:
Banjaran, Chandrama, Delhi Princes Loree, Mohini, Neelambari, Prema, Rupali,
Sadabahar, Shabnam, Sindoor, Suchitra and Suryairan.
DEVELOPED BY AMATEURS AND NURSERYMEN:

Srinivasa, Sugandha, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dr. Radha Krishnan in H.T. Roses.
Several cultivars have been evolved through natural mutation or as bud sports of
the existing cultivars.
At IARI three cvs were developed through induced mutation.
1. Abhisarika from Kiss of Fire;
2. PUSA Christina from Christian Dior and
3. Madhosh from Gulzar.
8
6.10. BIOTECHNOLOGY:
1. Tissue culture:
2. Anther culture
3. Protoplast culture
4. Protoplast fusion
i. Somatic embryogenesis – leaf, internodes, filament of stamen, root and zygotic
embryo
ii. Embryo development and germination of somatic embryos.
iii. Somaclonal variation.
5. Biochemical and molecular markers
Genetic linkage and identification of genotypes.
Iso-zymes- acid phosphatease, malate dehydrogenase and phospho glucose
isomerase, all the three enzymes are useful in identification of the
species.
Molecular markers: to study the genetic background with the help of iso-
enzymes and RAPD markers-are produce specific DNA banding pattern.
Detection of pathogen: by use of RFLP & RAPD pattern.
b. Genetic transformation:
Transgenic rose plants were developed using an embryogenic callus line. Friable
embryogenic callus was cocultivated with Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain RBA 4404.
9
1) _________ parts are used in somatic embryogenesis of rose
a) Leaf b) internodes c) filament of stamen d) all of these.
2) Detection of pathogens is done by_______ techniques.
a) RFLP b) RAPD c) both a & b d) none of these.
3) Transgenic rose plants were developed by

a) Protoplast culture b) Protoplast fusion c) Anther culture d) Genetic
transformation
4) In Subtropical climate rose flowering is in ________ season.
a) Summer b) winter c) spring d) round the year
5)An ideal soil pH for rose cultivation is
a) 5.5- 6 b) 6-7.5 c) 4.5- 5.5 d) 5.5 – 6.5
6)An ideal sunshine duration sunshine for better growth and flowering in rose .
a) 4 hours b) 8 hours c) 6 hours d) none of these .
7) The basic chromosome number of rose
a) 2n=14 b) 2n= 28 c) n= 7 d) n=14
8) Anthocyanin responsible for blue colour in rose
a) Pelargonidin b) Cynidine c) flavonols d) delphinidin
9) Methods of Breeding in rose
a) Introduction b) Selection c) Hybridization d) all of these
10) The pioneer rose breeder in India.
a) B.P. Pal b) Veeraghavan c) Kasturirangan d) all of these
11) The cultivar Dr. Homi-Bhabha developed by B.P. Pal is of colour
a) Red b) pink c) yellow d) white
12) The varieties evolved at IARI
a) Poormina b) Jawahar c) only a d) both a & b
13) Mutent from Kiss of Fire
a) Banjaran b) PUSA Christian c) Madhosh d) Abhisarika
14) Mutent from Christian Dior
a) PUSA Christian b) sharadha c) Abhisarika d) none of these
15) Mutent from Gulzar
a) Abhisarika b) Delhi princess c) Mrinalini d) none of these
(Key answers:1)d, 2)c, 3)d, 4)d, 5)b, 6)c, 7)c, 8)d, 9) d, 10)a, 11)d, 12) d, 13) d, 14) a,15) d )
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
10
LECTURE - 7
ROSE
Topics
7.1. Propagation of roses

7.2. Root stocks
7.2.1. Characteristics of good rootstock
7.2.2. Some of the common rootstocks
7.3. Micro-propagation
7.4. Growth and Flowering of Roses
7.5. Layout and preparation of Beds
7.6. Preparation of Rose beds
7.7. Irrigation
7.8. Manures and Fertilizers
7.9. Mulching
7.10. Weed control
7.1. PROPAGATION OF ROSES:

Methods:
I. Seed propagation and
II. Vegetative propagation:
II. Vegetative propagation:
1. Cutting:
Propagation of roses by cuttings normally done to raise root stocks for grafting or budding.
Also for multiplying vigorous types of cultivars.
Climbers, ramblers, polyanthus and miniature roses respond quite well to this method.
a. Stem cuttings:
Easiest and least expensive method. Each shoot should be cut clean just below the node and
lower leaves are removed.
Cuttings may be single, double or triple-eyed below for rooting.
b. Root cuttings:
Some rose species like R-blanda R. nitida and R. Virginiana can be propagated by root
cuttings.
More resistant to frost than stem cuttings but the growth & flowering is poor in root
cuttings.
The growing point should be always top.
2. Layering:
Usually practiced in climbing and rambling cultivars.
Practiced in early monsoon or early spring.
Not good due to the fibrous root.
a. Air layering:
It consists of removing of the bark, about 2.5cm long and apply rooting hormone
IBA/NAA @10ppm and cover with rooting media.
The use of damp sphagnum moss around the ringed portion and cover with polyethylene
film for quick rooting.
b. Ground layering:
It is performed by bending the shoots to the ground and covering it with soil, but leaving
the terminal and exposed.
Cutting or notching should be given in the underside of the stem.
Rooting take place in a month or so and the layered shoots is detached 15-20 days after
root formation.
3. Grafting: Inarching is another method of propagating roses, but has many disadvantages.
Failure is common
Flowering wood is scarified.
The cost of grafted plant is costlier than budded plants.
Not popular due to above drawbacks.
4. Budding: Budding is the most popular and successful method for multiplying roses.
o Provides larger number of plants than cuttings, layering or grafting, as a single shoot of
the desired scion furnishes a number of buds for budding.
o Rooted cuttings of stock or seedlings with roots are used as in grafting.
o T-budding, inverted T and slit method (I).
o Shield or T-budding is commercially practiced.
o On the selected rootstocks, the buds are inserted into a T-shaped incision and then tied
with suitable wrapping material or polyethylene sheets /tape, adhesive tape, binding
rubber strip.
Time of budding:
 The time of budding varies from place to place.
 The right stage of budding is when the plants have good sap flow and the cambium tissue
is highly active.
 The best times for budding in different regions are as follows.
In eastern India January-March due to the ideal temperature in spring season.
Northern India – December-February.
 In places with mild climate, all the year round, like in Bengaluru, Pune, Dharwad etc.
budding can be done almost any time.
 Bud woods can be stored at 0oC and utilized for budding.
 Should be preferably done 5-7cm above the ground.
 It takes 3-4 weeks for bud union. The ideal temperature is 10-25oC.
7.2.1 ROOT STOCKS:

 For grafting or budding proper selection of root stock is very important.
 Root stocks are known to impart marked effects on the
 Vigour, Precocity (early maturity), Productivity, Quality of bushes and Disease
resistance
 Adoptability to varied soil and climatic conditions etc. therefore, it is necessary to choose
the most suitable root stock for budding or grafting roses.
7.2.3. CHARACTERISTICS/ QUALITIES OF GOOD ROOT STOCK:

 It should produce strong fibrous root system.
 It can be easily propagated by cuttings.
 It should have vigorous growth habit, healthy and resistant to pests, disease and frost.
 Plant should have uniform growth rate.
 It should have thick bark to hold the bud.
 It should be reasonably free from suckers.
 It should support the budded plant to survive for a long tissue.
 It should withstand a wide range of soils and climatic conditions.
7.2.3. COMMON ROOTSTOCKS:
1. Rosa bourboniana (Edourad rose) – Popular in northern plains of India.They have straight
and long stem.
2. R. canina inermis (Dog rose): popularly used in Europe, very hardy and is an excellent
rootstock.
3. R. indica var adorata: Tolerent to powdery mildew & other insects. Resistance to extreme
soil conditions.
4. R. laxa: common in Europe.
5. R. maneth: Common in Europe, used for dwarf roses. Resistant to veticillium wilt.
6. R multiflora: Var. incremis good for outdoor roses. Resistant to nematodes .
7. R. rugosa: Widely used in Europe for standard roses
8. R. fortuneana:
9. R. moschata:
10. R. egalnteria
11. R. sempervirens
12. R. rubiginosa;
13. R. chinensis etc.
7.3. MICRO-PROPAGATION:
 Propagation invitro is a rapid and cheaper method.
 Explants: shoot apices, axillary buds, leaf blade,
 Media; Murashige & Skoog’s (BA @2.0mg and NAA @0.1 mg/litre), MS Media:
contains 20g sucrose + 6-8 g agar/litre +1 mg IBA
 Usually breeders use this method for faster way of multiplication to bulk up a new
variety.
 These are free from pests and diseases.
Drawbacks:
They take long time for establishment.
Takes minimum one year to produce saleable flowers.
These are used for multiplication of pot roses.
Cost of plantlets is also high.
Not commonly used in rose propagation.
7.4. GROWTH AND FLOWERING OF ROSES:

There are many factors which affects the growth and flowering of roses, viz.,
1. Genetic or inherent factors
2. Environmental factors (light, temp., RH, Aeration, and CO2.)
3. Managerial factors (nutrition and soil factors, pruning, pinching, defoliation,plant growth
regulators).
1. Genetic or inherent factors:
Like other plants, growth and flowering behavior of roses is governed by genetic factors.
Significant difference in growth & flowering of different rose species and cultivars have
been observed which are due to genetic variation existing among them.
There are tall cultivars growing several meters high and are suitable for planting in back
yard as hedge, on the other hand, Miniature roses with dwarf habit and producing small
flowers.
Several cultivars are bushy in nature while many are climbers and ramblers, similarly
there is wide, variation with respect to days to flowering, flowering duration, size, quality
and flowers etc.
2. Environmental factors:
Moderately cool climate with bright sunshine and free aeration/ventilation is very good
for rose growing.
I. Light: Light is one of the most important factors influencing the flowering, light
intensity, duration and quality of light plays an important role.
1. Light intensity:
6000-8000 ft candles or 6-8 K is good for roses and it was observed that, during
winter season flower colour is better than any other season.
During summer flower colour fades.
In general rose requires bright sunshine for the whole day. It should be free from
shades of trees and protected from the strong winds.
2. Temperature:
It is another imported factor regulating growth and flowering of roses.
It affects both quality and quantity of flowers.
Mild temperature is very important about 15.5oC is ideal for its cultivation
because of this reason in winter we get good crop.
On sunny days 25-30oC. Whereas on cloudy day it must be 18-20oC.
However a maximum of 28oC in day and 15-18oC in the night will be ideal for
rose production.
3. Humidity:
RH is very important with respect to pests and disease incidence especially
mildews and black spot as they are closely associated with high RH in
greenhouses as the high humidity results in condensation of water on flowers and
leaves.
About 60% RH is the most ideal for rose production.
4. Aeration/Ventilation:
An exchange of air in greenhouse is desirable for normal growth and development
of roses.
Air circulation ensures an adequate supply of CO2 and O2 for physiological
process occurring in the plants and also reduces the RH.
5. Carbon dioxide:
In western countries an additional 1000-3000 ppm of CO2 are ejected into the
greenhouse to increase the growth of the plant as well as quality flower
production.
It also helps in increasing the stem length and reduces the incidence of flower
abortion.
7.5. LAYOUT OF BEDS:
 The plan of rose garden and design of the beds should be simple and formal or
informal.
 Rose beds may be of various designs, depending upon the preference of the
grower.
 However rectangular beds are advantageous for maintenance.
 The width of the bed should be such that operations like weeding, hoeing forking,
cutting of flowers, etc. can be done from both the sides of the bed without
stepping in the bed.
 The width should be 1.2-1.6 m and the length depends on the size of the garden,
preferably not exceeding 6m each.
7.6. PREPARATION OF ROSE BEDS
 Preparation of soil is the key of success with roses.

 It should be rich, porous and well drained.
 The initial preparation of rose beds should preferably be started during summer
season so that the soil gets exposed to hot sun and air and during the monsoon it
gets a chance to settle down before planting.
 Grasses any perennial weeds should be removed along with their roots, knots,
rhizomes, etc. by deep digging.
 The soil should be pulverized; gravels, stones, brick pieces and other foreign
materials removed and exposed to sun for at least a week.
 Land should be thoroughly prepared.
 Pits or trenches are to be made and basal dusting with Malathian has to be done.
The pit / trench should be filled with soil and FYM mixture (2:1).
 In Trench system, trenches of about 2.5 feet width and between trenches 2-3 feet
with any convenient length with 1 – 1.5 feet depth.
PLANTING :
There are two types of planting systems are commonly followed in rose production, viz,
1. Pit system: 45 cm3(Length x Breadth x Depth)

2. Trench system:
 60 – 75 cm (2-2 ½ ft) Wide
 30-45 cm (1- ½ ft) Depth
 Any length depending upon availability.
 60-90 cm (2-3 ft path) between the trenches.
SPACING: It varies from types of roses, soil to soil and place to place and purpose of planting.
Protected cultivation Outdoor cultivation

60x30 cm. 75x75 cm for Hybrid
30x20 cm. 60x60cm for other varieties
30x30 cm.
However from the management point of view 60 x 60 cm is ideal for outdoor cultivation.
PLANTING: This operation should receive very careful attention and to do this job well there
are few operations / steps have to be attended for preparation of planting materials.
1. Remove all immature, dead, inward growing or diseased shorts.

2. Remove all the suckers growing below the point of bud union.
3. Reduce the possibility of loss of moisture by removing some leaves including
dried and yellow.
4. If the rose plants are procured with shriveled bark, immerse the plants in water for
24 hours to plump up.
5. Before planting the plants should be immersed in 0.1 % Blitox solution (i.e. 1.0 g
In 1 liter of water) to lessen the risk of attack of fungi.
6. Planting should be done in thoroughly prepared beds or trenches or pits.
7. At the time of planting the soil should not be too wet or too dry.
8. The plant should be planted at a proper depth by keeping the bud union 2.5 – 5.0
cm above the soil level.
9. The gap in the hole is to be filled with the soil which was dugout and pressed
properly to anchor the plant firmly.
10. Then the soil around the stem should be rammed firmly by treading over with
feet. This will press out air pockets in the soil which will help the roots coming in
contact with the soil particle and intake of water and nutrients through the
rootlets.
11. The beds after planting thoroughly have to be irrigated immediately.
12. The best planting time depends mainly on the climatic conditions of the region.
In countries with severe winter, planting may be done either in autumn (or) in the
spring when plants are in dormant condition and easy to handle.
13. The best season is rainy & winter for better establishment (June – October)
14. Immediately after planting stake the plants.
7.7. IRRIGATION:
 Adequate soil moisture is very much essential throughout the vegetative and flowering
stages of roses,
 Water logging condition is not good for rose cultivation.
 The frequency of irrigation depends on
Stage of growth
Soil texture/ Media
Climate and
Type of production-field or pot culture.
 Normally the lighter soil requires more frequent irrigation than heavy soils.
 In general water the rose beds once in a week or 10 days in winter and twice a week
during the summer season.
 Different system of irrigation is prevalent in various parts of the world.
 Drip irrigation is deal for roses.
 High concentration of salt in water is harmful to the rose plant which results in chlorosis;
tip burning and reduction in flower yield and stem length.
7.8. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS:
Rose is a nutrient loving plant and all 16 essential nutrients are known to play an
important role for its proper growth and development.
In addition to major nutrients like N, P2O5, K2O, Ca, Mg & S and micronutrients like Fe,
Mn, Cu, B, Mo, Zn, etc.
The dosage of nutrients varies from soil types and climate as well.
Basic manuring with bulky organic matter has to be done before planting.
After establishment as well as immediately after pruning both organic and inorganic
manures have to be applied.
Supplementary manuring should be done after the first flush of blooming is over and
there is a pause for the next flush.
It was reported that monthly application is better for healthy growth and flowering.
The recommended fertilizers dose for rose is 10: 10 : 15 g of NPK / plant after each
pruning. Along with this 100 g of rose mixture (complex) has to be given normally
twice a year i.e. after each pruning.
 First dose – 15 days after pruning (when the new growth has started)
 Second dose – After the first flush is over.
 Third dose – After second flush is over, before the spring blooming.
 FYM – 05-10 kg / bush
 The fertilizers should be applied 20 – 25 cm away from the stem.
Liquid fertilizers
Are also been practices through fertilizers for spray hardening the limp stem and getting
good blooms for exhibition purpose.
Dissolve Potassium nitrate @ 680 g, ammonium sulphate @ 340 g and potassium
phosphate @ 170 g in 96 gallon of water & applied @ 0.5 gallon / plant .
Micronutrients like Rose mixture / multiplex, etc. are given through foliar spray
o 7.09 g – pot. Sulphate
o 14.17 g – Amm. Sulphate
o 28.35 g – pot. Nitrate in 8 gallon of water and be applied @ 1.36 g / liter of water
7.9. MULCHING:
Mulches are used for a number of purposes on rose beds or in green houses.They
conserve;
 Soil moisture
 Supply humus
 Suppress the weeds
 Keep the soil somewhat cooler in summer months
 Results in improvement of growth and flowering of roses.
 For mulching well decomposed garden compost, FYM, peat straw, saw dust,
ground or whole corn cobs, Black polythene sheets (0-18 mm thickness).
7.10. WEED CONTROL:
o Weeds pose very serious problems in rose cultivation.

o The weeds not only consume water and nutrients but also act as hosts for a
number of diseases and pests.
o Manual method is effective, if it is done properly and frequently.
o However, chemical method is economical, convenient and efficient in eradicating
weeds by one or two applications.
 Eg: 2, 4-D @ 2 kg 1600 liter per hectare (before flowering) controls broad leaved
needs.
 Nitrofan @ 9 lb ai / acre gave 95% control
☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE - 8
ROSE
TOPICS
8.1. Pruning in rose

8.1.1. Objectives of pruning
8.1.2. Time of pruning
8.1.3. Where and how to prune?
8.1.4. Types of pruning
8.2. Special cultural practices to improve the quality
8.3. Harvesting
8.3.1. Time of harvesting
8.4. Post harvest technology
8.5. Yield
8.6. Pests & Diseases of roses
8.7. Protected cultivation
8.1. PRUNING IN ROSES:
 Pruning refers to the removal of certain portion of the plant.

 It is an important operation for maintenance of floriferousness and
 To improve the quality of flowers along with vigor of roses.
 The pruning consists of two operations thinning and shortening of stem.
1) Thinning: Thinning comprises removal of old, weak, dry, twiggy and diseased
stems and branches from the point of start.
2) Shortening: Means shortening of the remaining shoots, aims to cutting down the
last year’s growth to a desirable height.
8.1.1. OBJECTIVES OF PRUNING:
i. To remove the unproductive growth, because rose plant bears flowers on a new shoot.
ii. To ensure production of large number of strong and healthy shoots.
iii. To improve the flower production with quality.
iv. Pruning will force the eye bud to produce the strongest shoot.
v. It keeps the rose bush in proper shape and size.
vi. To allow light and air to reach the centre of the rose bush.
vii. To facilitate various cultural operations like hoeing, weeding, soil scraping, sterilization,
manuring so also harvesting the long and straight stems.
viii. To rejuvenate the old plants. Cut off the old plants from the base to get strong shoots.
8.1.2 TIME OF PRUNING:
 The purpose of pruning will not serve, if it is done at the wrong time.
 Sufficient time must be allowed for the new shoots to mature and flower.
 Late pruning delays flowering as well as reduce the production considerably.
 The best time for pruning in rose is the period when the activity of the rose plant is least
and the plant is at dormant to near dormant stage.
 Pruning time will depends entirely on the climate condition of the region.
 In temperate climate it is normally done in spring.
 Over a large area in India (Indo-Gangetic plains) pruning is done only once in a year.
 The most usual time for pruning is during October-November – after rains are well over
and the cold season is approaching.
 The staggering of pruning at weekly interval from September end to October end will
provide a regular supply of flowers throughout the Winter.
 In some regions pruning is practiced twice a year, i.e. in May and October for monsoon
and winter flowering, respectively.
8.1.3. WHERE AND HOW TO PRUNE?
 Every rose stems has eyes (buds) alternating on opposite sides in the leaf axils (usually
outward and inward).
 The basic rule in pruning is always to make the cut about half a centimeter above a
vigorous bud that finds in the direction one desires the new shoot to grow.
 Since the rose bush has to be kept open in the centre.
 The cut is made at an outward growing bud in standard roses as well as in floribundas.
 Where as in climbing roses the pruning is done at a bud pointing more or less upward.
 Always encourage outward bud to expose the center open.
 Whichever the bud is selected the cut should be slightly slant. As the horizontal cut
retains moisture / sap and therefore, is liable to cause fungal growth,
 While making the cut care should be taken not to make it too high above the eye (bud) as
there may be chance of die back of shoot.
 On the other hand if the cut is very nearer to the bud, it may die due to sap flow. So cut
one inch above the bud.
 It is absolutely necessary to cut the sharp end clean because the broken tissues, bruises or
hanging shreds of bark will invite for infestation of pests & diseases.
 All the cut ends should be pasted with cane sealer (copper fungicide) against the attack of
fungus and cane boring insects.
 Within a fortnight after pruning new flush of growth will start and within 45 days of
pruning new flowers are ready for harvesting.
8.1.4. TYPES OF PRUNING:

The intensity of pruning markedly influences the growth and flowering of roses
depending upon the extent and level of shortening. There are three types of pruning practiced in
rose viz.
1. Light pruning :
2. Moderate pruning :
3. Hard pruning :
1. Light pruning:
 Dried and dead branches are trimmed off.
 Cut either at the 2nd or 3rd eye bud immediately below the flower bearing stalk.
 Removing of tips upto 2-3 buds and is practiced in standard roses, climbers and
ramblers.
2. Moderate pruning:
 Healthy shoots are pruned back to 45-60cm from the base.
 Commonly practiced in floribundas and HT roses.
3. Hard pruning:
 Here keeping only three or four shoots of the last year growth and heading back at
about three or four eyes from the base.
 Practiced for rejuvenation of old bushes and weak plants
 Pruning is done by leaving 10-30cm from the bud joint.
8.2. SPECIAL CULTURAL PRACTICES TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF ROSES:
1. Thinning:
Removal of the undesirable growth like inward growth, weak stems, blind
shoots, crowded growth.
2. De-suckering:
The operation of removal of suckers from root stock i.e. the shoots produced
below the bud union on rootstocks is called de-suckering.
3. Pinching:
Removal of a part of terminal growing portion of stem is called pinching.
It is done to reduce the plant height and to promote auxiliary branching.
Pinching of blind shoot is beneficial to increase flowering.
4. Disbudding:
Removal of undesirable buds is known as disbudding.
Keeping only the central bud and removal of others cause development of a
quality bloom.
It is done in standard/HT roses to reduce number of flowers.
5. Removal of young vegetative shoots:
This practice is also known as de-shooting.
It is generally followed in HT roses.
Young vegetative shoots developing from the axils of leaves of basal and
lateral shoots are removed to allow only one terminal shoots.
It is important from the point of stalk length.
6. Defoliation:
Under special conditions it is followed, but it has reported that removal of
leaves from rose plants will increase number of blind shoots,
It will force the plants to produce growth and flowering during desired period.
7. Use of growth substances:

To some extent some growth regulators like GA3 and retardants like CCC are
used to get more number of flowers with good quality.
GA3 @ 250ppm has been found to increase the stalk length, flower size and
reduce number of blind shoots.
8. Removal of faded flowers:
If the opened blooms are not removed in time, there is chance of developing
fruits bearing seeds.
Once the hips are formed and reach the advanced stage of development,
growth and flowering are severely reduced during the season;
Cutting of faded flowers will force to produce strong lateral shoots which will
produce good quality flowers.
8.3. HARVESTING:
 The stage at which flowers should be cut, either for decoration or for cut flower dispatch
is the tight bud stage.
 When the bud shows full color but the petals have not yet started unfolding.
 Harvesting at this stage will help the flower to last longer in vases or during
transportation for better retention of colour and freshness.
 The optimum stage may varying slightly depending on cultivar and one has to experience
to judge the right stage for cutting.
 Because a flower bud of a red cultivar when cut at a little early stage may fail to open
later.
 Most pink and red cultivars should be allowed to develop a stage where one of the two
outer petals begins to unfurl at the upper point.
 Loose flowers used for preparing perfumes and various other products also for
worshipping are harvested only when they are fully opened.
8.8. TIME OF HARVESTING:
The flowers should be cut before sunrise i.e. early morning or late in the afternoon when
the sun is about to set so as to avoid damage of buds due to high temperature during the
day.
Late harvest result in short vase life of cut flower and low oil content.
In greenhouses for every two hours flowers can be harvested. The stem cut should
always be given above a healthy outward pointing bud with clean and sharp secateurs.
It has to be cut above two five leaflet leaves. The cutting of the stem just above the
‘Knuckle’ (i.e., the point at which the shoot originate is called ‘Knuckle’) significantly
reduces the flower yield per plant compared to the cutting made above the 1st or 2nd five
leaflet leaf stage.
8.9. POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY:
 Immediately after cutting the stem should be dipped in clean water up to the neck or base
of the flower bud. The delay in keeping the cut flowers in water will leads to air entry
and results in vascular blockage.
1. Pre-cooling:
In a cold storage at the temperature of 4.4-7.2oC the flowers have to be kept
immediately after harvesting to remove latent heat which enhances the keeping
quality of flowers
Then they have to be dispatched to market with maintaining cold chain
it should be transported to Airport by ‘Refrigerated Van’ and store them in cold
storage at airport and directly shifted to refrigerated cargo frights.
Usually pre-cooling is done for 6-8 hours in winter and 8-12 hours in summer.
2. Pulsing:
Treating of cut flowers with 2-4% sucrose solution for 3-4 hours. This intern
makes the cut flower very hardy and turgid to improve the quality of cut flowers,
also have lees neck bending.
3. Grades:
The flowers which are in uniform stem length and developing flower buds should
be grouped together at the time of cutting and kept them in separate container.
For easy handling the basal foliage and thorns may be removed up to 20 cm at the
time of cutting of the flowers.
It is necessary to dispatch the flowers within 24-30 hours after harvesting.
4. Packing:
 The graded cut blooms have to be packed in corrugated cardboard boxes (CCB).
 The size of the boxes varies with the quality and quantity of roses to be packed.
 A box of 100cm length x 32.5cm width and 6.5cm height will accommodate 80
roses of 65-70cm long stem.
 The inside area of the box is lined with thin polythene film and very fine
newspaper. Moist tissue papers are spread out end to end of the box to provide a
cushion to blooms.
 The blooms are generally packed in bundles of 20 each and bundles are tied with
string or rubber band
 The upper portion of the each bundle having flower buds and are wrapped in a
corrugated paper which is fixed with an adhesive tape or rubber sheet.
 The labeling of cultivars is made on the paper. The lower half of the bundle is
wrapped with tissue paper.
 Two bundles are placed opposite to one another all along the length of the boxes
in such a way that their flower buds will face the side of the box and their stem
end towards the center of the boxes and at the sides there will be cushioning have
to be provided.
 After this the stem ends of two bundles on either side are secured firmly with a
wooden stick fixed along the width of the box.
 This wooden stick is placed over a strip of foam rubber to avoid damage of stem.
 The inside of the box is finally covered with a sheet of tissue paper before
putting the cover of the box.
 Labeling is done with all details includes cultivars, colour, stem length, number of
flower/bundle, total quantity of flowers in a box and the firm etc.
 All along the outer edges of the boxes either adhesive tapes or plastic tying strips
with tying machine
 The final box will weighs about 5-6 kg.
8.10. YIELD:
 The yield depends as several factors viz., cultivars, plant density/unit area,
flowering duration, pruning method, nutrition, other cultural operations adopted
from time to time.
 On an average the outdoor rose cultivation produces about 60-80 flowers/m2/year
 Plant density has much influence on total yield. Normally closure spacing yields
more number of flowers than wider spacing.
INTERNATIONAL QUALITY STANDARDS OF ROSE CUT FLOWERS FOR EXPORT
General requirements
Straight, strong stem capable of holding the flowers in upright position.
Uniform stem length
Tight bud and open slowly
Size of the flower should be representative of the cultivars
Flower Should be free from blemishes, bruising, injuries from diseases and pests
Flower should have more number of petals arranged capacity
Table . ROSE – Rosa hybrida the Society of American Florist standards (SAF)
8.11. Vase life:
Senescence in cut roses is characterized by decrease in concentration of anthocyanin,

protein and tannic acid and an increase in most amino acids, glutamine, Maleic acid and
free ammonia in the petal tissue.
The advances in senescence are due to increase in ethylene production and membrane
permeability.
Pre-cooled and pulsed flowers stored better in general. However some of the
preservatives like 8HQC @ 300ppm, 8HQS @ 150pm, AgNO3 @20-30ppm, citric acid
@ 200ppm have been found to be good for prolonging the vase life of cut roses.
8.11. PESTS & DISEASES OF ROSES:
Important pests like White Flies, Red Scales, Aphids, Thrips, Chafer Beetles, Red Spider
Mites, Mealy Bugs White Flies, Jassids (Leaf Hoppers), Digger Wasps, Nematodes (Root knot &
lesion nematodes) etc. and diseases like,
DISEASE: Die back (Diplodia rosarum + Collectotrichum sp), Powdery mildew:
(Sphaerotheca pannosa var. Rose), Black spot: (Diplocarpon rosae), Leaf spot (Alternaria
alternata) ,Stem blight,Botrytis blight (Botrytis cineria),Root fungus – (Trichoderma viridae),
Rose wilt and Rose mosaic virus.
PROTECTED CULTIVATION OF ROSES

Roses are the most beautiful flowers tops among the cut flowers grown under protected
cover and marketed in the world. Excellent shape and size, bewitching colours and good
keeping quality attracts people worldwide.
TYPES OF GREENHOUSE REQUIRED:
 Under mild climatic conditions (Bangalore and Pune) roses can be successfully cultivated under
naturally ventilated polyhouses.
 However, under warm and high temperatures (Hyderabad and Delhi) it needs forced ventilation
system (cool-cell pad) to get quality flowers.
ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS:
 Rose is a sun loving plant requires high light intensity,
 Optimum day and night temperature requirement is 24 – 26o C and 15 – 17oc, respectively,
 75 per cent relative humidity and
 CO2 level up to 1000 ppm.
IMPORTANT VARIETIES:
First Red Lambada Ambassidor

Noblesse Sasha Papillon
Grand Gala Skyline Polo
Confetti Ravel Lovely Red
Osiana Golden gate Tunike
CULTIVARS OF ROSE
Grand Gala First Red Golden Gate
Konfetti Grand Prix Cream Prophyta
CULTIVATION PRACTICES:
BED SIZE:
1-1.6 m wide,
30-40m long and
15-20cm/ 30-40cm height
0.5-0.75m between two beds.
SPACING:
30-40cm between rows,
14-18cm or 15-20cm between plants,
6-9 plants/m2, However, 7 plants/m2 is optimum,
MEDIA:
Both soil and soil-less substrates (rockwool, peat, sphagnum moss, vermiculites, perlite,
leaf mould, coco peat, rice husk etc.,)
pH 5.5-6.8
30-40cm deep well drained, porous, rich in organic content.
Pasteurize with steam at 70-100oC for 30 minutes or use methyl Bromide @ 25-30g/ M2/
10ml/cuft for 24-48 hr or Formalin @ 7.5-10.0 l /100 M2 or Basamid (Dazomet) @ 30-
40g/ M2
PLANTING:
6-18 month old budded plants may be planted during May-June.
The soil should be loose and humid but not too wet nor muddy.
Planting may be in 2-row system.
Per compartment of 6.40 metre 6 rows of plants can be planned.
The distance between the plants in one row varies around 15-20 cm.
This results at 7 to 8 plants per metre square (depending on cultivar and cultivation
system).
GROWTH REGULATION:
Primary bending : Have to be takenup 5-6 weeks after planting to build a strong
frame work.
Secondary bending : 4-5 weeks after first bending to get more number of strong
shoots.
Gradual pruning : Harvesting of flower shoot will take care of this operation.
Direct pruning
De-shooting,
Disbudding etc.
MANURING:
 Depends on variety, type of medium used, growth stage, irrigation system etc.
 Well decomposed FYM have to be incorporated into the bed @ 100 t/ha.
 Nutrient composition of rose plant based on leaf analysis is 3.0 per cent N, 0.2 per
cent P, 1.8 per cent K, 1.0 per cent Ca and 0.25 per cent Mg.
 Nutrient requirement @ 1:0.2:1.2:0.3 NPK & Mg
 Fertigation requirement 170ppm N, 34ppm P, 160ppm K, 120ppm Mg per every
watering.
IRRIGATION:
The first week watering has to be done with sprinklers or hose pipe 5-8 times a day.
3-4 weeks after planting drip irrigation may be employed for uniform watering.
Each plant has to be watered @ one liter/plant/day.
DRIP IRRIGATION.
A drip irrigation system is recommended; as each plant receives the equal amount of
water.
By supplying the water directly on the potting mix, the plant itself does not become wet
(so preventing diseases).
The dripper line of the irrigation system are placed on the ground between the two rows,
this prevent the dripper line becoming empty and keep the water temperature low and the
dripper line out the reach of direct sunlight.
A capacity of 2 liters per hour is preferred as the chance of congestion is smaller.
By using a drip system, a wet (water) column is created through which the roots grow.
Place the drippers by planting in the jiffy pot, after 2-3 weeks when the roots are growing
out of the jiffy pot into the potting soil replace them approximately 1 - 5 cm from the jiffy
pot.
CROP MAINTENANCE AFTER PLANTING:
BENDING IN ROSES:
After planting, shoots will develop quickly.
Only after the flower bud becomes clearly visible the shoots are bend-out towards the path and the
flowers are removed, this process is known as ‘bending’.
Since the plants grow about 40 cm above the ground, it is possible to bend down the stems deeply.
Be careful not to break the shoots, the plant should remain capable of transporting sugars from
these areas to the new developing shoots.
The shoots should be bending down so the grafting place or, if a cutting is used, the old top of the
cutting will become the top of the plant.
The flower buds on these bend-out shoots have to be removed. This system allows the leaves to
continue their production of energy.
When the dominating primary shoots (apical dominance) is removed, causing the plant to respond
by developing more basal buds.
In the plant hormonal changes take place, which promote shoot development (balance cytokinins/
auxins).
After cutting or bending out results in an increased cytokine level, causing buds to break. The
shoots formed are producing auxins, so restoring the hormonal balance in the plant.
BASAL SHOOTS.
Depending upon the growth and potentiality of a cultivar the number of basal shoots are formed.
Per plant 2 to 3 well-formed shoots are allowed to continue growing, if more shoots were formed it
is recommended for bending out of these shoots.
This way a plant has got the use of more active leaf canopy to supply enough energy for
development of a heavy crop with first quality flowers.
SPECIAL OPERATION:
1. Bud Capping: The flower buds are inserted with nylon a cap which helps for
increasing bud size, avoids damage in transportation and maintains the microclimate
in package.
HARVESTING AND YIELD:
Yield starts 4-5 months after planting.

Harvest the flower buds at tight bud stage for longer distance.
Stem length vary from 40-90cm.
At harvest it often was practice to cut back to the first 5-leaf stage.
Hence, it is recommended for cutting back to just above the original cutting.
The length of the remaining stem decides the number of shoots (flower stems) which will grow
back.
If too much (4-6 cm) stem is left, many shoots are formed of a poor quality. Therefore it is
advised to cut back to 1 cm.
After 1 to 1.5 year the rose bush is cut back to approximately 10 cm above the original cutting, so
creating a new top. Now again only 1-cm stem is left after harvest.
Flower yield ranges from 100-150 stems, 200-225 and 250-350 stems per m2 in large hybrid tea,
medium types and small and sprays, respectively.
QUIZ:
1) Rose is commercially propagated by
A) Seeds B) Budding C) Tissue Culture D) Cuttings
2) Explants used in micro propagation of roses
A) Shoot Apices B) Auxiliary Buds C) Leaf Blade D) All of These
3) ideal light requirement of rose
A) 6000-8000 ft Candles B) 5500-6000 ft Candles C) 5000-5500 ft Candles D) 6000-
7000 ft candles
4) Normal spacing followed for rose cultivation outdoor
A) 75x75cm B) 60x60cm C) Both A & B D) 45x45
5) Mulching is done in rose
A) Suppress The Weeds B) Soil Moisture C) Supply Humus D) All of These
6) Pruning in Roses is done to
A) Develop Frame Work B)To Remove Dead And Diseased Branches C)Both A& B
D) None of these
7) Removal of certain portion of the plant is referred as
a) Pruning b) Thinning c) Shortening d) both a & b
8) In moderate pruning healthy shoots are pruned back to _____centimeters from the base.
a) 45-60 b) 20-25 c) 30-45 d) 60-65
9) Pruning done for rejuvenation of plants
a) Light pruning b) Moderate pruning c) Hard pruning d) Thinning
10) The correct stage of harvesting of rose
a) Tight bud stage b) full bloom stage c) colour break up stage d) none
11) Pre-cooling temperature for rose
a) 4.4-7.2oC b) 3.5- 3.8oC c) 2-3oC d) 2.5 - 4oC
12) Most serious disease in rose after pruning
a) Canker b) die back c) stem rot d) rose wilt
(Key answers:1)b, 2)d, 3)a, 4)c, 5)d, 6)c, 7)d, 8)a, 9) c, 10)a, 11)a, 12) b )
☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE - 9
CHRYSANTHEMUM (Asteraceae)
(Chrysanthemum morifolium /Dendranthema grandiflora)
TOPICS
9.1. INTRODUCTION:
9.2. ORIGIN
9.3. IMPORTANCE AND USES
9.4. CLASSIFICATION
9.5. CULTIVARS
INTRODUCTION:
Chrysanthemum is a popular commercial flower crop of the many countries.
It is next only to rose in value of flower trade in the world market.
The word Chrysos means ‘golden’ and anthos means ‘flower’.
It is commonly known as ‘Queen of East/ autumn queen/ guldaudi.
Japanese National Flower.
10.1 ORIGIN:
Native to Europe and Asia

It originated in Europe and Asia (China).
Species involved in the development are C. sinense, C. indicum, C.japonicum,
C. ornatum.
10.2. IMPORTANCE AND USES

 In India too, chrysanthemum occupies a place of pride both as a
commercial crop and as a popular exhibition flower.
 It has a wide range of type, size and colour and also ‘forms’.
 Short day plant – ‘Photo sensitive’ (10 hours day light)
 The erect and tall growing cultivars are suitable for background planting
in borders or for cut flowers.
 The cultivars with the dwarf and compact growing habit, on the other
hand, are suitable for front row plantation or pot culture.
 The decorative and fluffy bloomed small-flowered cultivars are ideal for
garland making and hair decoration.
 The extra large-bloomed cultivars for their exhibition value.
 Tall growing type suitable for background planting in borders.
 Dwarf growing for flower beds and pot culture (pot mums)
 Loose flowers – garland, veni, worship etc.
 Long stem flowers – cut flowers for Bouquet, Vase etc.
 Chrysanthemum morifolium is also an important source of essential oil and
sesquiterpenoid alcohol.
 The species like Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and C. coccineum are
also being cultivated as sources of pyrethrum and an important insecticide.
 Chrysanthemums are the most popular cut flower sold in the United
States.
 The chrysanthemum is one of the most beautiful and perhaps the oldest
flowering plants, commercially grown in different parts of the world.
 It is important both as cut flower and as potted plant in the international
market.
 In Dutch cut flower auction, chrysanthemum ranks 2nd after rose.
10.3. CLASSIFICATION
◊ The species of the genus Chrysanthemum are annual, perennial herbs,

sometimes partly woody.
◊ The genus Chrysanthemum belongs to the family Compositae / Asteraceae.
Class 1. Single
◊ Ray florets in a single row at right angles to the stem.
◊ Disc is flat to slightly round and may be of contrasting colours, e.g., Potomac.
Class 2. Semi-double
Ray florets in more than one row at right angles to the stem but may curve downward
at the tips.
Disc as in class 1.
Class 3. Anemone
Ray florets variable, from flattened, broad and equal in length to reflexing, pointed at
tip and unequal in length.
Disc florets are numerous tube-like and elongated so as to form a prominent disc
which may range from flat to hemispherical in form.
Class 4. Pompon
Bloom globular, somewhat flat in young stage or small button type.

Ray florets broad, incurved, smooth and firm with good substance.
Class 5. Incurve
Breadth and depth should be equal to produce a globular bloom.
Ray florets narrow to broad, smooth and incurve in a regular to an irregular manner
without producing an open centre, e.g., Snow Ball, Mountaineer, Nob Hill.
An Irregular Incurve chrysanthemum, or å¤§èŠ ogiku in Japanese, meaning "big

chrysanthemum". The size of this flower is around 20cm (about 8 inches).
Class 6. Reflexing incurve
Ray florets usually broad and smooth. Breadth and depth nearly equal to form a
globular bloom, sometimes flattened, may be less compact than incurve.
All mature florets not completely incurving and not all completely reflexed.
The lower florets sometimes reflexing to give a skirted effect, e.g., Dream Castle,
Indianapolis.
Class 7. Decorative
Ray florets from short and broad to narrow, long and pointed, they generally reflex,
although upper florets may tend to incurve.
Blooms more flattened than globular,
e.g., Otome Pink, Princess Anne.
Class 8. Reflex
Bloom globular with equal depth and breadth and a full centre, or somewhat
flattened.
Ray florets narrow to broad, gracefully overlapping in either a regular or in an
irregular manner and reflexed.
e.g., Coronation Pink.
Based on the size, shape of flower, arrangements of florets and purpose used, the
chrysanthemums are classified into several groups.
i) Small flowered types.
ii) Large flowered types
iii) Classification based on plant growth
iv) Based on usage.
I. SMALL FLOWERED
1. Singles – The petals are arranged in one or not more than five rows with
prominent central disc.
2. Anemones – Prominent centrally raised hemispherical cushiony disc florets
surrounded by short rounded or flat or twisted or quilled ray florets. Ex.
Golden sands, White sands.
3. Korean single – Small flowers with a prominent central disc, ray florets are
flat, number of whorls or ray florets are five and less than five. Ex: Cardinal,
Gul-e-Sahir, Chairman.
4. Korean double – The number of whorls of ray florets are more than five and
the central disc is open. Ex: Flirt, Man Bhawan.
5. Spoon – The outer ray florets are tubular with a spatula or spoon like opening
at the tips. Ex: Anokha.
6. Decorative – Fully double flowers with flat petals and central disc is
generally absent or not seen, ray florets are longer. Ex: Aretic, Elegance, Blue
chip, Dolly.
7. Quilled – Small flowers, ray florets are tubular. Ex: Golden crystal, Snow
crystal.
8. Button – Very compact, small flowers, produce numerous flowers. Ex:
Golden dust.
9. Pompon – The flowers small, freely opened, compact, hemispherical or ball
shape, the central disc is concealed or absent, florets neatly arranged. Ex:
Apsara, Jayanthi, Lameo, Dandy, Eve.
II. LARGE FLOWERED TYPES
1. Incurved regular – The outer ray florets curve upwards and inwards towards
the disc florets to forma globular shape. Ex: Snow ball, Sonar Bangla,
Chandrama.
2. Incurve irregular – The outer ray florets incurve loosely and irregularly and
do not from a ball as in case of regular.
3. Refluxed – The outer ray florets curved outwards and downward away from
the centre so that only their upper surface is seen. Ex: Cresta, City Beauty,
Golden Rule, Day dream, Peach blossom, Sweet Heart.
4. Intermediate – The inner florets incurved and outer florets are refluxed, they
are intermediate in shape to incurved and refluxed. Ex: John Reid, Lady Hope
town.
5. Spider – The outer ray florets are large, elongated, tubular and curved to form
a hook or coil like structure at the tip of the petals. Ex: Rupasi Bangla,
Mahatma Ganthi.
6. Quill – The outer ray florets are elongated, straight and tubular like a quill
with tips open but not flattened.
7. Exhibition - The outer florets are refluxed and inner florets incurred, the ray
florets are generally twisted, irregularly overlapped each other and looks
attractive.
8. Ball type – Ray florets are straight and radiated in all directions to give a
complete ball shape.
III. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PLANT GROWTH

1. Standards – plants with single flower, other buds are removed if arise
from the laterals and produce big flower.
2. Spray – The main apex bud is removed and lateral buds are allowed.
3. Pot mums – Small flowered mums with 6-9” height are beautiful in
decorating the places.
IV. BASED ON USAGE.

 Cut flowers –
i) Disbudded inflorescence
ii) Spray inflorescence
 Loose flowers
 Potted/bed plants
SPECIES AND CULTIVARS
 The number of species under the genus Chrysanthemum varied from 100-200.
 Some important species are:
 n=9 (2n=18 to 90)
1. Chrysanthemum boreale : Abura – Giku

2. C. carinatum : Tricolor chrysanthemum
3. C. coronarium : Garland chrysanthemum
4. C. cinerariifolium : Dalmatian pyrethrum
5. C. rubellum – sturdy species used for breeding of hardy cultivars.
6. C. satsumense : Satsuma-nogiku
7. C. sinensis- One of the sourses of todays florists’ mums.
8. C. sibiricum is one of the parents for Korean hybrids.
9. C. coccineunm :Painted daisy
10. C. indicum :Chinese/ Japanese mums
11. C. morifolium :Florists’ chrysamthemum
 C. morifolium is a hybrid species and is the result of repeated
cycles of inter-specific crossing among elemental species
extending over a period of 2500 years.
 Plants are perennial.
C. carinatum : Tricolor mums C. coronarium C. frutescens

Florists’ chrysanthemum (C. morifolium) :
C. indicum: C. japanicum:
10.4. CULTIVARS
More than 15000 cultivars are listed in Japan alone.
The National Chrysanthemum Society of Britain lists over 6000 cultivars.
In India also more than 500 cultivars.
PROMISING CULTIVARS OF CHRYSANTHEMUM
Birbal Sahni Fiji Baggi
Mountaineer Snowball Sonar Bangla

Tata Century Thai Ching Queen Nanako
Fiji Yellow Surf Ajay
SPRAY TYPES
White : Super white, White spider

Yellow : Sunbeam, Super yellow
Pink : Blue Marble, Blue Winner
Pale pink : Pink Marble, Snapper
Red : Red Fandango, Red Nero, Red,
Bronze : Bronze Nero, Tuneful
Light bronze : Apricot Marble, Orange Aglow
Purple : Fandango, Flamenco
Salmon : Coral Marble
STANDARD TYPES
White : Giant Indianapolis White, Snow Ball

Yellow : Bright Golden Anne, Chandrama
Pink : Cassandra, Deep Champagne
Red : Red Anne
Bronze : Resilient, Alfred Wilson
Light bronze : Gay Anne
Purple : Purple Anne
SMALL-FLOWERED FOR POT CULTURE
White : Mercury, Honeycomb

Yellow : Aparajita,
Mauve : Megami
SMALL-FLOWERED FOR CUT-CULTURE

Yellow : Sujata
Mauve : Nilima
SMALL-FLOWERED FOR GARLAND
White : Birbal Sahni, Sharad Shobha
Yellow : Basanti
VARIETIES DEVELOPED AT NBRI, LUCKNOW
1. Ajina Purple:
• It is a regular incurve type of chrysanthemum with very large flowers.
• Ray florets are narrow to broad.
• Florets are very smoothly incurved in a pattern to form a perfect ball.
• Disc is not visible.
2. Snowball:
• It is a regular incurve type of chrysanthemum with very large flowers.
• Ray florets of this variety are narrow to broad.
• Florets are very smoothly incurved in a pattern to form a perfect ball.
• Disc is not visible.
3. Potomac :
• It is a single large flowered type of variety.
• Ray florets of this variety are long, elongated and strap like.
• Number of whorl of florets restricted up to four.
• The disc is conspicuously visible.
4. M-24 :
• It is a large flowering variety of spoon type.
• Ray florets of this variety are tubular with spatula like open tips.
• The size of open portion varies.
• Disc visible.
5. Agnishikha :
• It is a gamma ray induced new mutant.
• It is a small flowering variety of decorative type producing erythrite red flowers.
• Ray florets are strap-like.
• Number of whorls of ray florets is more than five.
• Disc is not visible due to developed ray florets.
6. Batik :
• It is a gamma ray induced new mutant, which unique colour combination of
yellow stripes on red background
7. Harvest Home:
It is a small flowered variety of stellate type.
Ray florets of this variety are strap-like but both the side of ray florets are
reflexed downward.
Florets may not be twisted.
Disc flat with short florets.
8. Gypsy Queen :
It is a large flowering variety of spider type.
The ray florets are tubular and elongated with tips open or closed.
Tips may be open or closed but in either case they are coiled or hooked.
The rays may either fall or spread.
9. Navneet Yellow :
It is a gamma ray induced new mutant, which produces yellow flower heads.
10. NBRI Indiana:

• It is a small flowered, yellow, pompon type, suitable for mini and pot culture.
• It is also a very good cut flower and garland variety.
• It has been developed by crossing `Little Darling' (orange) as female and
`Nanako' (yellow) as male parents
11. Gamit :
• It is a large flowering variety of reflexed type.
• Ray florets of this variety are narrow to broad.
• Ray florets bent backward and downward.
• Inner florets remain incurved at the early stage concealing the disc florets of the
bloom.
• Outer florets turn outward from the central tuft.
• Blooms look globular but may be somewhat flattened.
• Average bloom size 15-20cm.
12. Nanako :
• It is a small flowered variety of pompon type.
• Ray florets of this variety are short, broad and very systematically and uniformly
arranged .
• Width and breath almost equal.
• Ray give florets may be incurved or reflexed.
• Disc is normally covered or inconspicuously open.
13. Gauri :
• It is small flowered variety producing white flower yellow heads in the centre.
• A gamma ray induced new mutant of this variety has also been developed which
produces yellow colour flowers.
14. Rosa :
• It is a small flowering variety of anemone type.
• Disc florets of the flowers are well developed and prominent.
• Ray florets may be flat, twisted and quilled.
15. Shabnam :
• It is a small flowering variety of decorative type.
• The disc is not visible due to developed ray florets.
• Ray florets regular or irregularly reflexed .
16. Taruni :
• It is a large flowered variety of reflex incurve.
• Ray florets of the flowers are narrow to broad.
• Ray florets bent backward and downward.
• Inner florets remain incurved at the early stage concealing the disc florets of the
bloom.
• Outer florets turn outward away from the central tuft.
• Blooms look globular but may be somewhat flattened.
• Average bloom size 15-20cm.
17. Pournima :
• It is a large flower pompon type producing white flowers.
• Ray florets of the flowers are short, broad and very systematically and uniformly
arranged to give bloom a contact hemispherical shape.
• Width and breath almost equal.
• Ray give florets may be incurved or reflexed.
• Disc normally covered or inconspicuously open.
The Floriculture Division of NBRI has recently developed four new varieties of
chrysanthemum through selective crossing and seedling collection.
These varieties, are being released as `NBRI Golden Jubilee Year Varieties
1. NBRI KUSUM
It is a small flowered, yellow open disc, single Korean type chrysanthemum good
for pot culture.
It is a bushy compact with profuse blooming habit in late November. The plant
habit and shape is most attractive for exhibition.
Plant height – 45 to 50 cm, 255 flower heads/plant, 22 flowers/stem, 42
florets/flower head, floret length 2.1 cm, floret width 0.40 cm, flower head
diameter 4.2 cm, floret colour bright yellow [09/A (Fan1)].
It has been developed by crossing `Haldighati' (yellow) as female and `Sharad
Kanti' (yellow) as male parents.
2. NBRI LITTLE DARLING

• It is a small flowered, terracotta pompon type mini chrysanthemum.
• It requires neither `Pinching' nor `Staking'.
• It is a unique genetic strain with dwarf, bushy, compact round shape, profuse
blooming habit in early December.
• The plant habit and shape is most attractive for `mini culture'.
• It has been developed by crossing `White Charm' (white) as female and `Jubilee'
(bronze) as male parents
3. NBRI MINI JESSIE

 It is a small flowered, cineraria type mini chrysanthemum.
 It requires neither `Pinching' not `Staking'. It is a unique genetic strain with dwarf,
bushy, compact round shape, profuse blooming habit in early December.
 The plant habit and shape is most attractive for `mini culture'.
 It has been developed by crossing `Cameo' (pink) as female and `Jessie' (purple)
as male parents.
IIHR VARIETIES:
1. Indira:
Is a hybrid developed from crosses between ID14 and Fxv-1.
2. Neelima:
• It is also a hybrid, developed from crosses between Flirt &Valentine.
3. Chandrakant : It yields about 150 flowers/plant

4. Chandrika : Hybrid between angela and gp-1.
5. Keerthi : Hybrid between angela and gp-1.
6. Pankaj : Early variety.
7. Rakhee : Seedling progeny of lord doonex.
8. Ravikiran : Hybrid between flirt & valentine.
9. Red gold : It is hybrid between flirt & valentine.
10. Yellow gold : Mutant induced from flirt.
11. Yellow star : It produces yellow flowers, 150 flowers/plant.
PUNJAB GOLD:
It is a hybrid between Flirt & Gel-e-sahir ,

Released from PAU in 1999.
Ray florets are coppery red which turn to golden at full bloom.
Good for pot culture and resistant against septoria leaf spot.
Quiz
I. Chose the correct from the following
1. Important species of chrysanthemum.
a) C. carinatum b) C. rubellum c) C. sibiricum d) all of these
2.Spray cultivars of chrysanthemum.
a) Snow Ball b) Super white c) Megami d) Alfred Wilson
3) Standard cultivars of chrysanthemum.
a) Snow Ball b)Chandrama c) Aparajita d) both a & b
4) Small-flowered chrysanthemum for garland
a) Sujata b)Nilima c) Birbal Sahni d) Chandrama
5) Stem Length of Export standard chrysanthemum
a) 88-100 cm b) 68-80 cm c)75-88 cm d) 98-110 cm
6) Chrysanthemum requires a well drained loamy soil with soil pH ranging between
a)5.0-6.0 b) 6.0-7.0 c) 5.5-6.5 d) 6-7.5
7) The suckers or slips of chrysanthemum are planted at spacing
a) 30 x 20 cm b)30 x 15 cm c)30 x30 cm d)30 x 45 cm
8) Planting of chrysanthemum is done during
a) May-June b) April-May c) June d) Sept- Oct
9) Propagation of chrysanthemum is done by
a) Sucker b ) Cuttings c) Micro propagation d)all of these
10) Chrysanthemum is a
a) Short day plant b) Long day plant c) day neutral plant d) short long
day plant
(Key answers: 1)d, 2)b, 3)d, 4)c, 5)a, 6)b, 7)a , 8)b 9)d, 10) a)
II. Match the following

A B
1) Chrysanthemum Basanti
2) Short day plant Sujata
3) C. carinatum Mercury
4) C. coronarium Alfred Wilson
5) C. satsumense Coral Marble
6) Spray cultivar Satsuma-nogiku
7) Standard cultivars Garland Chrysanthemum
8) Small-flowered for pot culture Tricolour chrysanthemum
9) Small-flowered for cut-culture Photo sensitive
10) Small-flowered for garland Queen of the East
(Key answers: 1) Queen of the East, 2) Photo sensitive, 3) Tricolour chrysanthemum, 4)

Garland chrysanthemum, 5) Satsuma-nogiku, 6) Coral Marble, 7) Alfred Wilson , 8)
Mercury, 9) Sujata, 10) Basanti)
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
Contd…
LECTURE - 10
CHRYSANTHEMUM (Asteraceae)
TOPICS
10.1. Propagation
10.2. Culture -soil requirement
10.3. Climatic requirement
10.4. Planting density
10.5. Planting:
10.6. After care -irrigation
10.7. Manuring and fertilization
10.8. Pinching
10.9. Disbudding and Dis-shooting
10.10. De-suckering
10.11. Staking of plants
10.12. The art of training
10.13. Green house cultivation
10.14. Environmental Factors
10.15. Growth regulators
10.16. Harvest and Yield
10.1. PROPAGATION
 Chrysanthemum can be propagated both by vegetative and sexual methods.
 Maintain the purity of cultivar seeds are used to develop hybrids.
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
1. SUCKERS :
• Suckers arise from the underground stem and these are separated and planted in prepared
nursery beds during January for stock plants.
• Regular pinching is performed in these plants for vigorous and profuse branching.
• Some of these stock plants are used for preparation of cuttings.
• The first pinching is performed in April, followed by monthly pinching up to June.
• After 3rd pinching in June, cuttings are taken from these mother plants.
2. CUTTINGS
Terminal Cuttings:
• Cuttings of 5-7 cm in length are taken form healthy stock plants in June.
• The cuttings are prepared removing basal leaves and reducing the leaf area of
remaining leaves to half.
• The basal portions (less than half inch) of cuttings are dipped rooting hormone
(1000 ppm solution of IBA) for better rooting.
• Sometimes the lower portion of cuttings is treated with some copper fungicide to
avoid fungal growth.
• These rooted cuttings are ready for planting in the field.
3. Micro propagation
4. Grafting
Among these, propagation through cutting is the most common and popular method.
10.2. CULTURE
10.2.1. SOIL REQUIREMENT

Chrysanthemum with a shallow but fibrous root system is sensitive to water-logging
and prone to attack by diseases, such as root rot and wilt due to lack of aeration.
Clay and clay loam soils retain too much of moisture and thereby hinder proper
aeration, resulting in rotting of roots.
Sandy soils drain too quickly and require frequent irrigation and also suffer from loss
of nutrients due to leaching.
Sandy loam soils are ideal for chrysanthemum growing.
pH ranging between 6.2 and 6.7
10.2.2. LAND PREPARATION:

 Chrysanthemum requires well prepared soil for proper growth and development.
 The field should be ploughed 2 to3 times before preparing the beds and leveled well.
 A basal dose of well decomposed FYM should be applied @ 5kg/meter square.
 Addition of peat or organic matter improves the soil structure & helps in the development
of the plant.
 Proper soil sterilization with carbendazim should be done before planting to avoid soil
borne diseases.
10.2.3. CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Light and temperature are the two important environmental factors influencing the
growth and flowering.
As far as light is concerned, both photoperiod and the intensity have profound effects
on growth and flowering of chrysanthemum.
It is a short-day plant normally initiates and flowers during September to December
under South Indian conditions. Hence, planting during April-May is recommended.
10.2.4. PLANTING DENSITY

 The best plant population was 32 cuttings/m2.
 For cv. Chandrama, a large flowered cultivar, spacing of 30 x 30 cm.
 The suckers or slips are planted at a spacing of 30 x 20 cm on one side of the ridges.
10.2.5. PLANTING:
May-June planting resulted in well developed plants with good flowers.

Cut flower production was the highest from May plantings.
90,000 to 1, 10,000 suckers or slips obtained from 15 cents of the previous crops are
required to plant one hectare.
Before planting, the roots of the suckers or slips are dipped in wet Cerasan or Agallol
0.1% to protect against wilt.
The field has to be ploughed thrice during March and beds or ridges and furrows are
formed.
10.3. AFTER CARE

10.3.1. IRRIGATION
 The plants need adequate water during active vegetative growth when new leaves are
being formed.
 After the formation of flower buds no further leaf is formed and less amount of water
is needed.
 Hence, chrysanthemum are to be irrigated twice a week in the first two weeks and
subsequent by at weekly intervals.
 Chrysanthemum roots are very sensitive to water logging but tolerate water stress
appreciable.
 Different systems of irrigation are prevalent in various part of the world.
 These include overhead mist spray lines.
 Sprinkler and self-travelling sprayers.
10.3.2. MANURING AND FERTILIZATION

• Chrysanthemum is a heavy feeder and requires large amount of both Nitrogen and
Potassium.
• Nitrogen is required at early stage and the plants need P throughout the growth period.
• As the buds appear, the proportion of K should be increased and N should be reduced.
Chrysanthemums are heavy feeders and hence they are to be adequately manured.
They are applied with 25 t of FYM along with 250,120, 25 kg NPK/ha.
Half of the N and the entire quantity of P and K are to be applied basal by just
before planting.
The other half of N is to be applied 30 days after planting the suckers.
The same dose can be repeated if a ratoon crop is raised and hoeing should be
done once in a month.
Micronutrient application
 Coated fertilizers
 Liquid feeding
 Foliar feeding
Recommend doses for various centers

centers N P K
Karnataka 200 200 200
Ludhiana 400 400 200
10.3.3. PINCHING
Pinching is one of most important operations in chrysanthemum culture.
The operation of removal of terminal growing portion of stem pinching reduces plant
height and promotes axillary branches.
Time and severity of pinching depend on the type of chrysanthemum and the desired
objectives.
After planting, the growth is mostly upward with very little branching.
To arrest such tall growth, a simple procedure called ‘pinching’ is used. It is also
called ‘stopping’.
Only soft vegetative shoot tips 1.5 to 3 cm long are removed.
Pinching is most essential for small flowered chrysanthemum.
First pinching is done when the plants reach a height of 15-20 cm with 3-4 pairs of
leaves.
A second pinching may be necessary if the plants make straggly and lean growth.
Pinching increases the number of flowering stems in each plant; it can indirectly
control flowering date and bloom quality; and the number of stems to a plant can
easily be controlled.
Two types of pinching are performed:
(a) Soft pinching: By this pinching the top soft tips of the shoot along with
2-3 open leaves are removed;
(b) Hard pinching: It means removing a longer portion upto hard shoot.
Single pinching is done, if two flowers are desired, whereas double pinching is done
for four flowers.
In spray chrysanthemum numerous small to medium sized flowers are produced,
therefore, two pinchings are required to encourage lateral growth.
As a general rule rooted cuttings are pinched two weeks after planting or
approximately 100 days before full bloom.
10.3.4. DISBUDDING AND DE-SHOOTING
These operations are mostly performed for large flowering of decorative type
chrysanthemums.
Many of the standard type varieties are disbudded in which the largest terminal bud
is reserved and all auxiliary buds are removed.
Disbudding of spray varieties is very easy because in this case only the large apical
bud is removed and the auxiliary buds are allowed to develop
For taking three blooms per plant, three lateral strong shoots are allowed to grow and
others are removed.
Lateral buds and side shoots are removed at their early stage of growth from time to
time.
For taking one bloom per plant no pinching is done.
Only the main stem is allowed to grow.
Removal of undesirable lateral buds and shoots are done.
Dis-shooting is practiced to reduce the number of branches for improving the size
and form of the flower.
10.3.5. DE-SUCKERING
During the vegetative growth phase, plants grow upward.

New suckers continue to develop from base of plants.
For proper and vigorous growth of plants, suckers are removed from time to time.
It is practiced to allow single stem to develop up to a certain height.
Without de-suckering the main plant will loose vigour and becomes weak.
10.3.6. STAKING OF PLANTS

Staking is necessary to keep plants erect and to maintain proper shape of plants and
bloom.
Stakes are prepared mostly from bamboo sticks.
Staking of plants is required for vertical support of the plants.
10.3.7. THE ART OF TRAINING

11.3.7.1. Standard : For better shape of the plants and attractive extra large flower,
large flowered chrysanthemums are trained as standard to produce 1-3
blooms per plant.
11.3.7.2. Sen Rin Tsukuri : In this style, the plant is designed to a geometrical shape
(6-10 concentric circles in steeped manner) and it is trained in such a way
that about 200-300 blooms are formed per plant having an approximate
height of 153-183 cm and a diameter of 183-244 cm.
11.3.7.3. Bush Form : Small flowered chrysanthemum blooms are arranged compactly
to give an effect of a floral carpet. The most important is the use of soft
pinching to outer or lower branches and hard pinching to central or higher
branches.
11.3.7.4. Cascade Form : the plants trained in Cascade form give the effect of a water fall
in blooming stage. The stem is made to bend down above the rim of the
container.
11.3.7.5. Coniform : The shape of the plant is made conical by special training. For
giving a perfect coniform shape staking and pinching are most important.
11.3.7.6. Fan Form : A type of training form of small flowered chrysanthemum. In final
form it looks like a hand fan.
WEED CONTROL:
• Weeding and hoeing are generally done manually as and when required, normally 8-10
times yearly.
• Crop suffers heavily if timely weeding is not given.
• Besides, control of weeds the soil is made loose porous to provide aeration.
10.4. GREEN HOUSE CULTIVATION
10.4.1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
1. Light: Chrysanthemum flowering is very much influenced by the quantum and quality of
light. Most of the cultivars require shorter days for flower bud initiation and development.
Under long days they tend to remain vegetative.
2. Temperature: Based on temperature requirements chrysanthemum cultivars are classified
into three.
i) Thermo-zero cultivars which flower at any temperature between 10-27oC but most
constantly at 16oC night temperature.
ii) Thermo-positive cultivars in which continuous low temperature between 10-13oC inhibit
or delay flower bud initiation and at 27oC there will be rapid initiation but delayed
flowering.
iii) Thermo-negative cultivars in which bud initiation occurs at low temperature delay bud
development.
The effect of night temperature is more pronounced than day temperature and night
temperature of 16-20o C was found optimum for most of the cultivars.
High temperature may cause floral distortion and low temperature may some time
cause discoloration of the flower.
3. Relative humidity: The chrysanthemum requires a moderate humid condition of 70 to 90 per
cent and hence it should be preferably grown in places there will not be any rains during
flowering time.
10.5. GROWTH REGULATORS:

• Crop growth regulation and flowering can be modified or controlled by use of growth
regulators.
• Flower quality and yield can be improved by the use of regulators.
• The plant starts flowering from 3rd months onwards. GA3 50 ppm can be sprayed at 30,
45 and 60 days after planting to increase the yield.
10.6. PESTS AND DISEASES

 Aphids, thrips, leaf miners and mites are the common insects attacking
chrysanthemum.
DISEASES
 Cercospora leaf spot, Alternaria leaf spot, Fusarium stem rot and Powdery mildew
are the common diseases attacking chrysanthemums.
10.7. HARVEST AND YIELD:

Decorative types are harvested when the petals in the centre of the topmost flower is
almost fully developed.
In standards, harvesting is generally done when outer ray florets ceases to further
develop.
Pot-mums are sent to the market with half to fully opened flowers.
Spray mums are generally harvested at the two thirds to three-fourths open stage;
standard mums at the three-fourths to full open stage of development.
Yield start from 3-4 months after planting.
Main crop duration 6 months.
Ratoon crop 4 months. Total duration (6+4) 10 months.
YIELD
1. Main crop : 9-10t/ha.
2. Ratoon crop : 4-5 t/ha.
3. Sprays- 1, 00,000 stems can be obtained from one ha.
10.8. POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY

GRADING
 Chrysanthemums are graded based on the stem length, flower appearance,
number of flowers, stem straightness, colour and freshness of flowers.
 Standard chrysanthemum is graded into Blue, Red, Green and Yellow,
whereas spray types are graded into Gold, Silver and Bronze based on the
quality parameters.
 In Dutch market, spray chrysanthemums are graded into extra grade and shorter
grade.
 The lower leaves are stripped off up to 15-20 cm and bundled in units of 5
stems and secured with a rubber band.
PACKING
 Most often standard chrysanthemum are placed in sleeves and packed in
display boxes measuring 91 x 43 x 15cm.
 They are placed in the boxes according to the grades.
 For bulk packing of the spray chrysanthemums, 10, 15 or 20 stems are
placed in sleeves according to the grades.
 Six sleeves, three at each end, are generally packed in each box,
measuring 80 x 50 x 23cm.
STORAGE
 Chrysanthemum cut flowers can be wrapped in plastics and stored dry for 6 to 8
weeks at a temperature of 0.5oC.
 Temperature for truck shipments across the country ranged between 2o and 4oC.
 The stems in the buckets (after grading) are given a cut using sharp blade and pre
cooled at 1°C minimum of 2 hours before packing.
 Chrysanthemum can be stored for 3-6 weeks period at 0-3°C.
10.9. VASE LIFE
 The use of proper preservative solution throughout the period of post-harvest

handing is very important to prolong the life of cut flowers.
 Dipping of the stem for a very short period (5 seconds) in 1200-4800 ppm silver
nitrate or soaking the stems in 1000 ppm silver nitrate for 10 minutes.
 Addition of 2 % sucrose to silver nitrate was found beneficial.
 It increased the vase-life from 12 days to 20 days.
10.10. EXPORT STANDARDS FOR CHRYSANTHEMUM:
Parameter Standard Spray Dwarf

Stem Length 88-100 cm 75-88 cm 25-38 cm
Weight 30g/stem of 90 cm 30g/stem of 85 cm 15g/stem of 30 cm
Number of flowers Only 1 flower 10 flowers 10-12 flowers
With 5 buds with 5-8 buds
Quiz
Match the following

A B
1) Pinching ___ Proper shape
2) Soft pinching ___ 200-300 blooms
3) Disbudding ___ Water fall
4) De-suckering ___ Hand fan
5) Staking ___ Stopping
6) Standard ___ Soft tips
7) Sen Rin Tsukuri
8) Cascade Form ___ Terminal bud
9) Fan Form ___ Vigour
(Key answers: 1) stopping 2) soft tips 4) terminal bud 5) vigour 6) proper shape7) 1-3 blooms per
plant 8) 200-300 blooms 9) water fall) 10) hand fan)
☻☻☻☻
LECTURE- 11
CARNATION
(Caryophyllaceae; Dianthus caryophyllus L.)
TOPICS
15.1 Introduction:
15.2. Importance and uses
Species
Types of carnation
Varieties
15.3. Soil
15.4. Climate
15.5. Propagation
15.1. INTRODUCTION:
Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) belonging to the family Caryophyllaceae.

It is one of the important cut flower crops in the International flower market.
It is more preferred to other cut flowers due to its
 Large array of colours,
 Excellent keeping quality,
 Wide range of forms
 Ability to with stand long distance of transportation,
 As well as remarkable ability to rehydrate after continuous shipping.
Carnations in general are grown only under protected cultivation of carnation.
It is commonly called as Carnation, Divine flower, Clove pink, Gilly Flower.
IMPORTANCE AND USES
 One of the top ten cut flower crops in the International flower market.
 Apart from cut flower it is being used for bedding, pots, rock gardens, window
boxes and edging.
 It gives a unique softness in the rock gardens.
 Popular in flower arrangements for decorating homes.
 Cultivated in Italy, Spain, Colombia, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Canary Islands, France,
Holland, Germany and USA.
 They are in large demand in Valentine’s Day, Easter and Mother’s day and
during Christmas.
 In India the major carnation producing centers are located in and around
Bengaluru, Pune, Delhi, Trivandrum, Andhra Pradesh and HP.
 Flowers also have medicinal properties. Used as cardio tonic, diaphoretic and
alexiteric.
 It is also used for perfume extraction in France.
ORIGIN AND HISTORY:

ETYMOLOGY:
♣ Some scholars believe that the name "Carnation" comes from
"Coronation" or "Corone" (flower garlands), as it was one of the flowers
used in Greek ceremonial crowns.
♣ Others say in Latin ‘Carnation’, from ‘Caro’ (genetive "Carnis") (flesh),
which refers to the original colour of the flower, or incarnation, which
refers to the ‘incarnation of God made flesh’.
♣
ORIGIN:
♣ Native of the Eurasia
♣ It is native to the Mediterranean region but its exact range is unknown due
to extensive cultivation for the last 2000 years.
♣ Dianthus in Greek ‘dios,’ divine; ‘anthos’, flower which means 'Flower
of Zeus' or Divine flower.
♣ The cultivar ‘William Sim’ produced in 1938 by William Sim of USA.
♣ From the red flowering ‘William Sim’ there have been mutations to all the
possible colours and several variegated forms.
BOTANY:
 It is an herbaceous perennial plant growing to 80 cm tall.

 The leaves are glaucous grayish green to blue-green, slender, up to 15 cm long.
 The Flowers are produced singly or up to five together in a cyme;
 3–5 cm diameter and sweetly scented;
 colour is bright pinkish-purple, red, white, yellow and green.
 Carnations will grow from 2" to 3 feet high, most garden varieties grow 10 to 20
inches tall.
 They bloom mainly during cool times of the year, especially early winter.
SPECIES:
There are about 250 species of Dianthus of which only a few are under
commercial cultivation. They are as follows,
Major species
 D. caryophyllus
 D. barbatus
 D. chinensis
Other species
 D. alpinus
 D. grandiflorus
 D. giganteus
 D. hybridus
 D. nobilis
TYPES OF CARNATION
1. Chabaud or marguerite:
 Developed by crossing D. chinensis x D caryaophyllus,
 They are annuals produces single or double flowers.
 Reproducing by seeds
 Flowers are large with fringed petals. Moderate vase life.
2. Border and picotee:

 Easy to grow and has symmetrical flowers
 Flower colour varies from single to blend with irregular markings.
 They produce single stem in first year and form bushy in subsequent
years
3. Malmaison:
 Malmaison has stiff and massive habit with broad leaves
 Flowers are large and fully double mainly pink with well frilled
centers.
 Flowers have rich fragrance.
 Suitable for pot purpose due to its dwarf in habit.
4. Perpetuals:
 They are hybrids involving many Dianthus species.
 Plants are not hardy and flower all round the year.
 Flower stalks are long and hence suitable for cut flowers.
 They produce better quality flowers and withstand long
transportation.
 They are grouped into standards or Sim and sprays.
4.1. Standard types:
 Produces single large blooms with longer flower stalks.
4.2 Spray types:
 The miniature or spray type produces many flowers of smaller

size.
 Better adapted to warm climate than standard types.
15.3. SOIL/GROWING MEDIA AND PREPARATION OF BEDS
Soil should be ploughed upto 80-100 cm deep.

Addition of calcium carbonate or dolomite limestone to corrects severe
acid condition and also supplies calcium and magnesium for plant
nutrition.
 Addition of sulphur or use of acid forming fertilizers will inturn reduces
the soil pH if it is on the higher side.
 A rich sandy loam or loamy soil is considered to be the most ideal for
successful production of carnation.
 The ideal soil pH is between 6.0 to 7.0
 EC of 1.2 at the start of the crop and 1.5 at the generative period is ideal.
 Plants can be grown in a perlite / rock wool mixture at 3:1 or 1:1.
 Soil mixture : 50 % sand, 30% loam and 20% clay
 Media have to be sterilized with methyl bromide@ 25-30g /
formaldehyde @ 3-7% (7.5 to 10.0 l/100/sq.mt or Basamid (Dazomet)
@30-40g/m2
 Bed size : 30 cm height ; 1.05 m wide ; length varies as per the length of
the protected structure.
 Spacing between beds : 30 cm
15.4. CLIMATE:
 Light is the most important factor, which influences growth of the plant. About
21.51 lux is considered to be the minimum natural light intensity required for
adequate photosynthesis of carnations.
 Mild climate with a temperature ranging from 5-180C is considered to be the ideal
for the crop.
 Day temperature :28oC (20 -25 0C)
 Night temperature : 16-18oC (10 -15 0C)
 Quantitative Long Day plant (long days promote flowering)
 Critical photoperiod : 13 hours and light intensity is10 – 15 foot candle.
 Co2 enrichment in greenhouse upto 500-1000 ppm improves the flower quality.
 RH : 50 -60 %
 Beginning : 80-85%
 At full growth : 60-65 %
 High day & night temperature during flowering leads to
 abnormal flower opening
 calyx splitting
15.2. VARIETIES:
1. Standard Carnation
Red : Scania, Tanga, Killer
Pink : Nora, Pink Sim, Candy, Calypso
Yellow: Pallas, Murcia, Tahiti
White : Sim, Roma, Candy white
Others: Charmeur, Santiago, Vanessa, Monaco, Regina, Trendy, Papaya, Gold
Rush, Internet, Monopole, Cobra, Shocking pink and White Sim,
CULTIVARS OF CARNATION
Dona Farida Firato Hildelgo
Lavender Lace Lady Green Master Sunrise
Baltico Cherry Solar Farida Frivole
Malga Dover Pink Dover Liberty
Parasio Red Corso White Wedding Pax

2. SPRAY CARNATION
Red : Rony, Karma, Etna
Pink : Annelies, Barbara, Silvery Pink
Yellow: Odeon, Alicetta, Lior
White: Royalette, Tibet, Excel
Others: Exquisite, Scarlet Elegance, Kissi : Kristal, Celins, Furore, Star dust,
White Barbara and Red Barbara
3. Micro Carnation : Eolo, Pink Eolo, Wiko

4. Mini Spray Carnation : Lima, Onia, Roland
Cultivars resistant to diseases
 Fusarium - Resistant : Angela, Regina
-Tolerant : Salome, Vanya
- Highly susceptible : Pajee.
 Bight - Highly susceptible : Yellow Dusty
- Tolerant : Scania
 Rust - Resistant : Nibbo, Desio
- Moderately : Calypso, Astor
- Susceptible : White Sim, Irene
15.5. PROPAGATION:
Carnation may be propagated by both sexual and asexual methods.
SEED :
♣ July or August to October
♣ In the hills, sowing should be done during August to October and March
to April depending upon temperature.
♣ At four-leaf stage, the seedlings are pricked or transplanted.
♣ Sowing at 20oC gives the maximum germination.
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
CUTTING
Using soft terminal cuttings is the common method of multiplication used
by commercial growers throughout the world.
Cuttings of 10-15 cm with 3-4 nodes weighing around 10g are ideal for
multiplication.
Rooting hormone such as IBA at 500ppm is used prior to planting of
cuttings for rooting.
Terminal cuttings give rise to good plants. Cuttings can be stored at 0oC
before planting for several weeks.
Cuttings are spaced at 5 cm apart and intermittent misting should be used
for good rooting.
Cuttings normally develop good root system within 21 days.
The rooting medium should be sterilized before planting.
Drenching with fungicide is ideal to control fungal problem during
rooting.
LAYERING
♥ Layering is done in pots or directly in the ground.
♥ The layering generally roots earlier than the cuttings.
♥ Ground layering was found to be most suitable method.
GRAFTING
♥ 65 to 70 % success
♥ Union was completed in 15 days.
MICRO-PROPAGATION
♥ Almost all parts of the plant may be used as explants in carnation except
the root.
Vitrification in carnation
 A problem will encounter during the In-vitro culture of carnation due to
the formation of abnormal leaves and stem with thickened and translucent
structures.
 Shoots with such abnormal leaves usually turn brown and failed to root in
the rooting medium.
 Vitrification in carnation tissues, by transfer from solid to liquid medium
was accompanied by decreased lignin content.
Quiz
1. Dianthus caryophyllus belongs to the family

a) Caryophyllaceae b)Asteraceae c) Araceae d) Oleaceae
2) Variety of standard Carnation
a) Excel b) Rony c) Candy white d) Silvery Pink
3) Example of Mini Spray Carnation
a) Lima b) Onia c) Roland d) all of these
4) Optimum EC level required by carnation
a) 1.2 – 1.5 b) 1.0 -1.2 c) 1.0 -1.5 d) none of these
5) Addition of sulphur ______ the soil pH
a) Neutralizes b) Increases c) Decreases d) none of these
6) Light requirement for growth and development of carnation is
a) 30 lux b) 50.50 lux c) 21.51 lux d) 10.10 lux
7) Ideal temperature requirement for growth and development of carnation is
a) 5-180C b) 15-200C c) 20-250C d) 10-150C
8) Concentration of IBA used for rooting in cutting of carnation is
a)100 ppm b) 500ppm c) 700 ppm d) 1000 ppm
9) Carnation cuttings are spaced at
a) 5 cm b) 10 cm c) 15 cm d) 7.5 cm
10) Cuttings normally develop good root system within
a)15 days b)10 days c) 30 days d) 21 days.
(Key answers: 1) a, 2) c, 3) d, 4) a, 5)c, 6)c, 7)a , 8)b, 9)a, 10) d)
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
Contd…
LECTURE 12
CARNATION (Dianthus caryophyllus)
TOPICS
16.1. Planting and Aftercare

16.2. Support Material
16.3. Pinching
16.4. Disbudding
16.5. Manuring
16.7. Calyx Splitting
16.8. Harvest and Post harvest
16.9. Plant Protection
16.1. PLANTING AND AFTERCARE:
Carnation plants are planted in different spacing normally, 30-45 plants per sqm is
considered to be ideal.
Different spacings 15x8cm, 15x15cm, 15x20cm and 15x10cm, are followed.
Alternate normal method of transplanting wherein the plants are planted firmly to
soil, carnation,
Shallow planting is followed. Deep planting should be avoided.
Shading should be given in the beginning of the crop for few days.
Care should be taken to maintain the humidity to prevent plants from drying.
SPECIAL CULTURAL PRACTICES:
16.2. SUPPORT MATERIAL:
 Carnation crop has the tendency to bend unless supported properly. Hence the
crop needs support while growing.
 Good support material is metallic wire woven with nylon mesh.
 At every two meters the wire should be supported with poles.
 The poles at both the ends of bed should be strong.
 Metallic wire is tied around the bed along the length with the support from
supporting poles.
 Across the bed, nylon wires are woven like net.
 For an optimum support, an increasing width of the meshes can be used bottom
net can be of 7.5x7.5cm /10x10cm, then two nets of 12.5x12.5cm and the upper
most can be 15x15cm.
 4 – 5 layers of nets are to be laid before planting.
 For every 2.5 to 3.0 m wires to be supported with poles.
 First net should be fixed at 12 cm above soil.
 Place remaining nets over first net 15 cm apart.
16.3. PINCHING:
 Pinching refers to breaking out tip of budding and encouraging growth of side shoots.
 Essential for Standards.
 4-6 well grown laterals are allowed.
 At six pairs of leaf first pinching has to be done.
 First pinching done 3 -4 weeks after planting.
 Depending upon the need of crop spread it is classified into,
 Single,
 One and half and
 Double pinches.
 SINGLE PINCH
 Ideal time for pinching is morning.
 When the plant attains 6 nodes, the first pinch is given.
 5 -7 cm of apical portion has to be pinched off.
 This would give rise to 4-6 lateral shoots.
 ONE AND HALF PINCH
 After single pinched shoots flower, half of side shoots are pinched off.
 2-3 of these lateral shoots are pinched again.
 DOUBLE PINCH
 All the lateral shoots are pinched off. i.e., 3 - 4 weeks after first pinch
 Pinching is done at 4 well developed pairs of leaves
16.4. DISBUDDING:
 Disbudding refers to removal of side buds so that the central/terminal bud receives
maximum food for the full development.
1. FOR STANDARDS
 Removal of lateral buds.
 Main flower bud alone left.
2. FOR SPRAYS
 Terminal or main buds are removed to encourage more number of side
shoots.
 Best time for disbudding – when apical bud is 15 mm in diameter.
16.5. MANURING:
 No inorganic fertilizers in first 3 weeks after planting

 Fertilizer application of 40g N, 20g P and 10g K, in addition to 5kg of well
decomposed FYM /m2 will increase the yield of flowers. OR
 250 : 80 : 200 : 125 : 400 g / m2 / yr N, P2O5, K2O, Ca, Mg application in
24 splits once in 15 days.
16.6. IRRIGATION:
♣ Over watering and poor drainage causes root death and stunted growth.
♣ Water logging would cause deprival of oxygen to plants.
♣ The growing medium should be evenly moist.
♣ For proper establishing of the cuttings misting is require
♣ Drip irrigation can be followed after 3-4 weeks of planting
♣ Water requirement : 4 -5 l / m2/ day
♣ Optimum moisture : 300 -500 tension
PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDER
16.7. CALYX SPLITTING:
Cultivars with too many petals are susceptible to calyx splitting.
Due to fluctuation in temperature and environmental conditions also influences
calyx splitting.
MEASURES
Selection of cultivars that are less prone to splitting,
Regulation of temperature and maintenance of optimal fertilizer level can
minimize this disorder.
This can also be reduced by placing a rubber band or 6mm wide clear plastic tape
is used around the calyx of the flowers which have just start opening. This
operation is referred as ‘Calyx banding’.
16.9. PLANT PROTECTION:
PEST AND DISEASES

Aphids: Aphids suck the sap from leaves of growing plants and can be most series insect
pest of carnation. They are also transmit carnation rings spot and carnation
mosaic virus diseases. They are controlled by spraying of metasystox (2
ml/l), malathion (2ml/l), endosulfan (2ml/l) or rogor (2ml/l).
Thrips: They suck sap from leaves causing distortion. Spraying of rogor (1ml/l) or
sumithion (3.5ml/l) or malathion (2ml/l) controls thrips.
Red Spider Mite Spraying with Kelthane (2.5ml/l) or Wettable sulphur 3g/lit controls
mite effectively.
Nematodes - can be eliminated by growing plants in fumigated soil. Application of
furadan, aldicarb or nemaphox controls nematode infestation.
16.8. HARVEST AND POST HARVEST:
After planting normally it takes 110-120 days to come to peak flowering.
STANDARDS:
 Carnation flowers mature in 4-5 months period.
 Standard cultivars are harvested at ''Paint Brush'' stage with half-open
flowers, or almost fully open flowers.
 At large bud / tight bud / cross bud stage
 Petals are visible at this stage
SPRAYS:
 When at least 2-3 top flowers have opened & other buds show colour
TIME OF HARVEST:
 15 – 20 weeks after single pinching
YIELD:
 On an average 10-20 flowers / plant/year or 150-300 flowers / m2/ year
 Yearly production of 300-400 flower/m2 is ideal and economical.
 After planting normally it takes 110-120 days to come to peak flowering.
POST HARVEST OPERATIONS:

 Harvested flowers are bunched together based on their physical measurements
like length of stem, diameter of flower etc.
 For a good post harvest life, flower stems have to be trimmed at the base and
should be immediately placed in a bucket of preservative solution (Acidic pH 4.5)
with 2-5 % sucrose and biocides for 2 to 4 hours.
 Carnation flowers can be stored for 2-4 weeks before marketing.
 Flowers have to be packed in cartons lined with polyethylene be pre-cooled
without lid.
 The plastic is then loosely folded on top of the stems and the lid is closed.
 These cartons are stored in cool chambers designed to maintain 00C with good air
circulation and a constant RH of 90-95 %.
 Floral preservatives like, 8-HQS or 8-HQC @ 200-600 ppm; STS (Silver Thio-
sulphate) @ 0.2- 4mM; Cytokinin @ 10-100 ppm; Sugar @ 0.5-2% and Citric
acid @50-100 ppm.
Grading
Packing comprises Packing
three stages :
• Bunching,
• Wrapping and
• Packing.
37
Quiz
I. Match the following

A B
1) Aphids ___ Aldicarb
2) Thrips ___ Kelthane
3) Red Spider Mite ___ Distortion
4) Nematodes ___ Temperature
5) Calyx splitting ___ Rings spot
(Key answers: 1) Rings spot, 2) Distortion , 3) Kelthane , 4) Aldicarb , 5) Temperature
II. Chose the correct answer from the following
1) Spacing of nylon wires for bottom net

a) 7.5x7.5cm b) 10x10cm c) 15x15cm d) both a & b
2) Single pinch is given when the plant attains
a) 6 nodes b) 10 nodes c) 5 nodes d) none of these
3) After planting normally carnation takes ______ days to peak flowering
a) 100 -105 b) 110-120 c) 120-130 d) both a & b
4) Relative humidity required for growth and development of carnation is
a) 90-95 per cent b) 80-85 per cent c) 85-90 per cent d) 75-80 per cent
5) Most serious insect pest of carnation
a) Red Spider mite b) Thrips c) Aphids d) Nematodes
(Key answers: 1) d, 2) a, 3) b, 4) a, 5)c )
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
ORCHIDS
LECTURE-13
Topics
12.1. Introduction:
12.2. Habit and habitats
12.3. Climatic zones
12.4. Tropical zone
12.5. Subtropical zone
12.6. Temperate zone
12.7. Alpine zone
12.8. Selection of orchids
12.9. Where to grow
12.10. Factors affecting orchid growth
12.10.1. Light
12.10.2. Photoperiodic control of flowering
12.10.3. Temperature
12.10.4. Humidity
12.10.5. Air relations
12.10.6. Water quality and watering
12.1. INTRODUCTION:
 Orchidaceae is a large family of monocotyledons comprising about 800 genera
and 25,000 species around the world.
 Orchids are accepted to be the world‟s most exotic and fascinating flowers, with
their extraordinary variety of form, sizes, shapes, colours, texture and markings.
 These features make them highly priced among the ornamentals.
 Majority of the cultivated orchids are natives of tropical counties.
 In India, they are mainly found in North eastern hills, Kerala and Western Ghats
and few in Kashmir.
 They grow in the humid tropical forests.
 Orchid growing has become a great hobby all over the world in addition to its
commercial value for cut flower industry.
 Cultivation of orchids has become a very profitable occupation.
 The secret of successful cultivation of orchids is to provide them with conditions
as identical as possible with the environment under which they were growing in
the wild.
 Due to their peculiar nutritional habits, Orchids require special techniques of
cultivation, it they are to grow healthy and put out a good crop of flowers.
BOTANY
Orchidaceae is the largest family of angiosperms.
The family contains more than 80,000 hybrids.
Sub Kingdom : Phanerogams
Division : Angiosperms
Class : Monocotyledons
Order : Orchidales
Family : Orchidaceae (Bentham & Hooker)
ORIGIN : Tropical Forests of Amazon & Indo - Malayan region.
DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA: India is blessed with a wealth of orchids flora and about
1300 species are estimated to occur in the country.
 North western Himalayas – 200 spp
 North eastern India - 800 spp
 Western Ghats - 200 spp
 Others - 100 spp
IMPORTANT GENERA OF COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE:

Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis (Moth Orchids), Aerides, Cattleya,
Paphiopedilum, and Vanda etc,.
12.2. HABIT AND HABITATS

o There are many orchids which are very beautiful belonging to different climatic
zones and these cannot grow under the same climatic conditions.
o India with a vast geographic expanse and climatic zones ranging from tropical to
temperature supports a rich diversity of flora.
o A vast majority of Indian orchids are confined to mountains where they are
distributed from the base of hill to an elevation of 4,300m in climates ranging
from tropical to temperate.
ORCHID FLOWER AND PARTS;
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 Flowers of orchids are perfect, terminal, solitary or in a spike or raceme or panicle
 All orchids are made up of seven parts;
o Three sepals, two petals, a lip or labellum, which is actually another petal,
but showier than the rest; and a column enclosed in the trumpet like part of
the lip.
 The sepals and petals are typically coloured.
 The sepals may be free from one another or sometimes united on occasion
forming a definite tube, which is called sepaline tube.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORCHIDS
I. BASED ON GROWTH HABIT
1. Monopodials:
The orchids which do not make separate new growths in each season.
The growth of the axis is stops at the end of each flowering season and
continues in the next season by a newly grown axis.
Do not have rhizome and where single stem increases its height
throughout the life period,
Ex. Aerides, Rhynchostylis, Vanda, Phalaenopsis, etc.
2. Sympodial growth:
◦ The plant grows continuously in one direction only and their stems
lengthen from one season to another and produce aerial roots along their
whole length.
◦ Each new growth produces its own set of roots.
◦ They have more than one stem.
◦ Sympodial orchid stems are generally thickened and bulbous are named as
pseudobulbs
eg: Cattleya, Coelogyne, Epidenarum, Laelia and Sophronitis.
 The roots of epiphytic orchids are very curious, they are covered by a
whitish spongy and pulpy coat called vellamen.
 Rhizomes are fond only in sympodial types of orchids and are actually a
primary stem, from which arises the secondary stem.
© merklesorchids.com
II. Based on their habitats, orchids fall under 5 classes

(i) Terrestrial (or) Ground Orchids
 Grow in soil, Sympodial and perennial
 Example : Spathoglottis plicata, Arundina graminifolia, Phaius
tankervilleae, Cymbidiums,Paphiopedilum
(ii) Epiphytic Orchids
 Grow well on other plants

 Abundant in humid tropical rain forests of India. - Elevation upto 3000m.
 Example : Vanda, Vanilla, Dendrobium, Cymbidium, Cattleya, Oncidium
etc.
(iii) Saprophytic Orchids
 Live on dead and decaying organic matter, - Found on the moist forest
floors.
 Example : Neottia, Galeola, Listera etc.
(iv) Lithophytic Orchids
 Rarely found and they grow in moist, shaded rocks and crevices of walls.
 Example : Cymbidium munronianum, Diplomeris birsuta
(v) Subterranean Orchids
 Underground orchids, - Found in Australia
 Example : Rhizanthetta and Cryptanthemis
III. Classification based on Temperature requirement
For growing purposes, orchids are usually divided into three temperature
groups.
1. Warm orchids : 15.5oC
Eg. Phalaenopsis, Vanda, Rhynchostylis and some Dendrobium
species.
2. Intermediate Orchids : 13oC to 18oC
Eg. Cattleya, Laelia, Brassavola, Oncidium, Miltonia, etc.)
3. Cool Orchids : 10oC to 13oC
Eg. Cymbidium, plain leaf Paphiopedilum, some species of
Miltonia, Odontoglossum and Dendrobium.
12.3. CLIMATIC ZONES

Orchids are broadly classified depending on the climatic zones which they choose
to grow; accordingly, three different types of orchids with different climatic zones have
been recognized.
12.4. TROPICAL ZONE (300-900M):

This zone is characterized by dense, humid tropical forests with high
amount of rainfall and humidity (90-100%).
The temperature ranges from 22 to 27oC.
This warm and humid belt is the home of epiphytic orchids, like Aerides,
Arundina, Ascocentrum, Dendrobium, Vanda teres etc. (Kerala, Chennai
and other Coastal places).
12.5. SUB TROPICAL ZONE (1800-3500M)

This zone has mixed forests and receives less rain. Moss covered tree
branches and rocks form a congenial habitat for orchids.
The temperature ranges from 25-30oC and humidity almost 100% during
monsoon. The most beautiful orchids occur in this zone.
The epiphytic species of Bulbophyllum, Coelogyne, Cymbidium,
Dendrobium, Eria and Liparis are found growing here.
The terrestrial spps. Like Calanthe, Hebenaria, Phaius spp.
Some of the rare orchids like C. gigantium, P. fairieanum have also been
reported from this zone (Western Ghats, South Karnataka).
12.6. TEMPERATE ZONE (1800-3500M)

The temperate zone remains covered with snow for 3-5 months a year.
The temperature during summer varies from 10-14oC with Relative
humidity between 80-100%.
The trees of Rhododendron magnolia and Pinus are moss covered
providing habitats for many epiphytic orchids like Aerides maculosum,
Arachnis clarkei, Bulbophyllum spp. Paphiopedilum spp., Vanda Coreulea
and over and above the excellent Cymbidium spp and hybrids.
12.7. ALPINE ZONE (3500-5000M)

 This zone is situated in the Himalayan range, is snow covered for about 4-
6 months and mostly some terrestrial orchids are found to grow at lower
ridges.
 Some of the orchids recorded from this zone are Bulbophyllum
retusiusculu, Habenaria cumminsiana, Herminium longilobautm, Nervilla
macroglossa, Pleione maculate, etc.
12.8. SELECTION OF ORCHIDS

Orchids should be selected carefully keeping in view their growing conditions.
Certain essential requirements must be met.
Suitable temperature
An adequate supply of water
Plenty of fresh moving air
Suitable light
A suitable and adequate supply of essential mineral salts.
When we buy orchid hybrids, we should ask for the ones which will suit our climatic
conditions. Another point to be taken into account is to buy orchids according to the type
of space you have.
It is all about choosing the right type of plant for the particular conditions and
facilities available.
The only available space you have at house are window still, then you can go for
shade loving orchids like Vanda
For drawing rooms, orchids with foliage should be selected. Paphiopedilum,
Phaius, Calanthe.
For Varandhas, partial shade loving orchids such as Cymbidium, Dendrobium,
Rhyncostylis, Aerides which can be humg in wooden baskets can be selected.
If there is a large space outside, sun loving orchids like Arudiana graminifolia and
some Dendrobium, Vanda, Aranda, Arachins, Oncidium plants can be grown.
The choice of orchids should be made in such a way that you get flowers round the year.
IMPORTANT DENDROBIUM VARIETIES

Purple and white : Sonia 17 , Sonia 28 , Sonia Bom Jo , Earsakul
Purple : Renappa , New Wanee , Sabine Red , Jurie Red
White : Emma White , Fairy White , Kasem White, Snow White
Pink : Sakura Pink ,New pink
Yellow : Sherifa Fatimah , Kasem Gold , Tongchai Gold
Important Dendrobium varieties
Aranda Nora Orange Aranda Nora Red Aranda Nora Purple
Dark Sonia Emma White Sonia Bom Jo
12.9. WHERE TO GROW
Orchidorium
31
 Orchids should be grown in suitable containers according to their habitat.

 If it is grown indoor needs some additional heat, this can be most conveniently
supplied by heat boards or propagating beds.
 Provided the root area is kept warm, heating the whole growing area is not
required; quite often there is enough radiant heat for the remainder of the plant.
 Inside most houses, the humidity is lower than most orchids appreciate.
 This can be increased by growing the plants on a tray of gravel with water kept
to a level just below the surface of the gravel.
 Plants in pots standing on the gravel will benefit from the rising humidity.
 In warmer regions, if the plants grow outside, an area below the outer branches
of a tree will often be satisfactory. Place the pots on a small bench or bricks to
allow free circulation of air, yet prevent insects entering the pots.
 Most of the terrestrial orchids can be grown in soil or pots but most of the erect
and epiphytic ones can be hung in baskets down the roof.
 They can also be arranged on the wooden logs or green fern and tied to the tree
trunks if you have them in your compound.
 Trees in the garden form a natural Orchidarum.
12.10. FACTORS AFFECTING ORCHID GROWTH

12.10.1. LIGHT
Light, like many other cultural factors, will vary from orchid genus to genus
under cultivation.
The optimum which orchids generally require is between 3000-6000 foot candles.
Cypripedium and Phalenopsis need only between 200-300 foot candles and hence
are to be kept in comparatively more shaded regions of the orchid house.
Cymbidium will grow under full sun.
Therefore, it becomes necessary to shade some orchid green houses to ensure that
the proper amount of light will be available for good plant growth.
An intimate knowledge of the light requirements of orchids has led to the
development of the fascinating procedure called „light gardening’ which now
quite popular among orchid growers.
There are particular regions in the spectrum of sunlight which aids particular
processes in the physiology of plants.
Thus the blue and orange-red regions of the spectrum aid in photosynthesis, while
absorption in the far-red regions of the spectrum stimulates flowering.
Based on this knowledge, extra amount of illumination is now being supplied to
orchids either to supplement sunlight or to replace it entirely, with the result that
more vigorous growth and greater output of flowers are achieved.
Light gardening has made it possible to grow orchids even in cellars where no
sunlight penetrates.
12.10.2. PHOTOPERIODIC CONTROL OF FLOWERING
Even though the majority of orchids are day-neutral, there are a few
species which are controllable.
In these plants, the hormone phytochrome is produced only then the day
and night are able to control the time of flowering in such species.
The correct ratio between the light an dark periods and in some cases, the
correct temperature also initiate the production of phytochrome, which is a
protein acting as an enzyme.
In general, orchids grow best in diffused light but there are certain orchids
which grow well in high light.
We should give our plants as much light as possible provided the roots
stay moist and cool.
12.10.3. TEMPERATURE
The temperature regimes used will be governed by the genera grown.
Even though various species of orchids vary in their individual
requirements of optimum temperature.
Generally orchids thrive in a day temperature varying between 16 to 21o C
and a night temperature of 13 to 16oC.
If plants are grown outside the tolerance limits, poor growth or even death
will result.
A widely held misconception is that, all tropical orchids need really high
temperatures, this is not altogether true and to subject them to such
treatment can be disastrous.
Three basic temperature regimes enable the enthusiast to grow nearly all
cultivable orchids. They are
1. The cold or cool
2. The intermediate (temperate)
3. The warm or hot.
COOL SEASON Summer: Day 16-21o C Cymbidiums, Odontoglossums,

SPECIES Night 13o C Paphiopedilums,
Winter: Day 13-16o C Zygopetalums.
Night 10o C
INTERMEDIATE Summer: Day 18-24o C Cattleyas, Laelias,
SPECIES Night 16-18o C Oncidiums,
Winter: Day 16-21o C Stanhopeas and
Night 13-16o C
Summer: Day 21-29o C Phalaenopsis,
WARM/HOT Night 18-21o C Phaphiopedilums and evergreen
SPECIES Winter: Day 21-29o C Dendrobiums.
Night 18-21o C
Temperature influences not only proper vegetative growth, but also

production of flowers in quite a good number of species.
It should be noted that for optimum growth and flowering, the night
temperature should be lower than day temperature.
Cattleya labiata does not flower when the night temperature is higher than
21oC.
Most Cymbidium species need a temperature of 13-16oC, during nights
and plenty of sunlight during day time for proper flowering.
The Dendrobium crumentaum, flower only in response to a sudden drop in
temperature of 10oC. However, in all cases, temperature changes must not
be too sudden and too often. Very low temperatures common at the foot
hills kills plant tissues just as burning does.
12.10.4. HUMIDITY:
 Humidity is very important for the good growth of all plants especially tropical
ones and particularly epiphytes, which is much more difficult to control than
either heat or light.
 It has been proved that about 50% humidity is suitable for most orchids.
 As a rule, they do not thrive in places where the relative humidity is less than
50%.
 Since they are not regular soil plants, with a proper root system to absorb and
supply them with enough moisture from the soil,
 Eepiphytic orchids do best in an atmosphere as saturated with water vapour as
possible.
 Excessive humidity is dangerous, as it brings about susceptibility to certain
diseases. Plant parts may be attached by various bacteria and fungi.
 Excessive high relative humidity (above 70%) contributes to succulent growth
which is more susceptible to infection than hard growth.
 The danger of infection during the high relative humidity maintained for the
purpose of cooling the plants in the day time is lessened by good air movement.
 A humidity level varies greatly from area to area and from country to country and
it would be unwise to generalize.
 The most popularly used device for creating humidity is the evaporative water
coolers.
 Spraying the benches, walls and floor of the orchid house or misting with very
fine nozzles are also effective in this respect.
 In stagnant air of a greenhouse, it is wise to reduce humidity at night.
 As a general rule, any form of watering, clamping down or spraying should not be
performed in the late afternoon or evening.
 In orchid houses we should run oscillating fans continuously. During the warmer
months, an evaporate cooler keeps the orchids house day time temperature around
10 oC and increases further air movement.
12.10.5. AIR RELATIONS

Industrial regions offer hazards to orchid growing, both by the production of
smoke and haze which reduce the light available to the plants, and by the
production of noxious fumes.
When soot and grime collect on the plants, wash them off with a forceful spray of
water at frequent intervals.
Dirt collecting on the leaves may plug up the stomata and cut down the working
power of the leaves.
12.10.6. WATER QUALITY AND WATERING:

Good quality water is very important requirement to grow orchids successfully.
Acceptable water sources include de-ionized distilled water and rain water.
Watering needs depend on the potting media and the growing conditions.
Correct watering has a direct relationship between atmospheric humidity and
compost mixture.
Fundamentally the lower the atmospheric humidity, the damper should be the
compost, and the higher the humidity the lower the moisture content of the potting
mixture.
A potting media should never be wet but just evenly moist.
Occasionally short term drying out is beneficial as this closely imitates natural
conditions whereby epiphytes are subject to very dry spells.
Although it is not advisable to water pots daily, they should all be examined
frequently and if too dry, well watering or even submerging by total dipping in
suggested.
Terrestrial orchids require more water than epiphytes.
Some orchids have heavy thick leaves with large pseudo-bulbs, these are storage
devices for water, adapted by the plant to suit quite dry environments.
These plants must be allowed to partially dry out in between watering to have a
wet/dry cycle of five to seven days.
Other varieties have thin, soft leaves, requiring more frequent watering.
Some like Paphiopedilums do not have any pseudo bulbs at all, these therefore
must be kept moist but not at all times wet.
Generally speaking, watering twice or thrice a week would be best. When
drawing up such a schedule the following factors should be kept in mind.
Actively growing plants need more water than resting plants.
Large plants need more water than smaller ones or seedlings.
Plants grown in larger pots retain moisture for longer periods than those in
smaller pots and hence need less frequent watering.
Plants require more water on a sunny day than on a cloudy day.
Plants growing in full sun utilize water more than those in shade.
Osmunda and coconut fiber retain moisture longer than either tree fern or bark,
hence watered less frequently.
Plants which are freshly potted should be watered very sparingly till new roots
appear.
As the number of roots appears there should be a gradual increase in the amount
of watering.
After plant maturation, watering should be completely stopped or withheld for a
while to induce flowering.
For orchids, which are collected from the wild, where they survive on a minimal
supply of water obtained through rains and absorbed through the velamen roots,
over watering is a hazard always to be reckoned with under cultural conditions.
Wrinkling of the pseudo bulbs and yellowing of the leaves are due to excessive
watering. Then stop watering immediately and confine to spraying only aerial
parts till new root appear.
The quality of water used, whether it is for spraying, damping down or watering
direct, is of great importance. Since tap water has usually been chemically treated
it should be used with caution.
For best results, orchids need a slightly acidic water of about pH-5.
The best water is undoubtedly rainwater except in areas with a high degree of
atmospheric pollution which is common in industrial areas and in older style high
density housing.
As it is not possible to store sufficiently large quantity of freshly aerated rain
water, it can be revitalized by pumping air into it win an aquarium aerator.
The temperature of the water is important.
If the water temperature and surrounding air temperature are equal no harm will
result and slight differences either way can tolerated by healthy plants.
Fatal, or long term damage not easily discernible at first, can result from watering
with too cold water.
Under watering will cause shriveling of the leaves and pseudobulbs and new
growth will be small.
The roots may be thin and starved. If the medium is in good condition, simply
step up the frequency of watering.
Ideally, plants should remain moist and should never be dry.
More plants may lost to over watering that is watering too often-than by under
watering.
For most orchids, especially those with pseudobulbs, a good rule is that “If in
doubt, do not water.”
Quiz
1) Orchidaceae family comprising
a) 800 genera b) 600 genera c) 100 genera d) 500 genera
2) In India, orchids are mainly found in
a) North eastern hills b) Kerala c) Western Ghats d) all of these
3) Epiphytic orchids
a) Dendrobium b)Vanda c) Calanthe d) both a & b
4) Terrestrial orchids
a) Bulbophyllum b) Coelogyne c) Cymbidium d) none of these
5) Orchids found in temperate zone
a) Bulbophyllum retusiusculu b) Habenaria cumminsiana c) Nervilla macroglossa d)
Pleione maculate
6) Orchids selected for drawing rooms
a) Paphiopedilum b)Phaius c) Calanthe d) all of these
7) Orchids selected for varandhas
a) Paphiopedilum b) Rhyncostylis c) Calanthe d) Phaius
8) Sun loving orchids
a) Arudiana graminifolia b) Calanthe c) Paphiopedilum d) Phaius
9) Cool species of orchid
a) Phalaenopsis b) Phaphiopedilums c) Cymbidiums d) both b & c
10) Intermediate Species of orchid
a) Cattleyas b) Phalaenopsis c) Cymbidium d) Phaphiopedilums
(Key answers: 1) a, 2d, 3)d, 4)d, 5)a, 6)d, 7)b , 8)a, 9)d, 10) a)
II. State true or False
1. Orchids are accepted to be the world‟s most exotic and fascinating flowers.
2. Majority of the cultivated orchids are native of temperate countries.
3. In sub tropical zone temperature ranges from 25-40oC.
4. The temperate zone remains covered with snow for 3-5 months a year.
5. Sunlight has several „Photo morphogenetic influences upon plants.
6. The optimum light which orchids generally require is between 3000-10,000 foot
candles.
7. Generally orchids thrive day temperature varying between 20 to 35o C.
8. Zygopetalums thrive well 16-21o C day temperature in winter.
9. Cattleya labiata does not flower when night temperature is higher than 21oC.
10. Dendrobium crumentaum, flower only when temperature is 10 o C.
(Key answers: 1 )True, 2) False, 3) False, 4) True, 5) True, 6) False, 7) False , 8) False, 9)
True, 10) True)
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
ORCHIDS
LECTURE-14
Topics:
13.1. Floral biology
13.2. Propagation of orchids
13.3. Feeding/nutrition
13.4. Organic feeding
13.5. Inorganic feeding
13.6. Containers and composts
13.7. Potting materials
13.8. Potting
13.9. Annual repotting
13.1. FLORAL BIOLOGY
The three inner floral segments are very irregular called the petals.
One of them termed the lip or labellum is typically very much modified and
enlarged.
It is often the most prominent and distinctive part of the flower.
In the bud, the lip is the uppermost petal
It becomes the lower most one through a remarkable twisting of pedicellate ovary,
a process known as resupination.
The column is the reproductive part of the orchid blossom.
Stamens are untied to the styles and stigma forming a column.
The orchid flowers are irregular extremely variable in size and shape with
sparkling texture, they may be solitary or in spike emitting the fragrance of lemon
cloves or fresh lavender oil. A few are, however highly malodorous.
The flower as its parts in threes sepals and three petals (collectively called as
tepals due to their resemblances in texture and color)
Similar to each other and sub-similar to sepals. It is, however, the third petals,
which is different and distinctive and is called lebellum or the lip.
The lip that highly polymorphous is responsible orchid, ladies sleeper orchid.
The reproductive organs of the orchids, the stamens and the pistil are condensed
and form a consolidated complex body, the coloumn (Gynostemium),
The male and female part being separated by a flap or projection of a tissue,
called restellum.
Orchids are cross-pollinated by insects, birds, etc. and to achieve this they have
adopted many contrivances like mimicry and twisting of the flower on its stalk to
almost 180o to face its pollinating agent (Resupination).
A Mediterranean orchid ‘Ophyrus’ shows a fine example of mimicry. It
resembles a female wasp to the death of all parts.
Long stemmed monopodials such as species of Vanda, Angraecum, Renanthera
and Aerides are perhaps among the most difficult to divide. Only older healthy
plants that have developed aerial roots 20cm or more from their bases should be
dealt with by cutting them into pieces below each root.
The severed piece, along with its roots, forms a new plant and the original plant,
rid of most of its aerial roots, soon develops more roots and will flower probably
within three years.
PROPAGATION OF ORCHIDS:
SYMBIOSIS:
 There is a peculiar interdependency between orchids and fungi.
 A brief knowledge of this ‘mycorrhizal relationship’ is very necessary to
understand the procedures of orchid seed germination.
 There have been developed two distinct and basic methods of germination based
on this knowledge.
 In the first it is assumed that the presence of the fungus is necessary for successful
germination. The fungus is isolated, grown in sterilized culture sand then, when
fully developed in the medium, orchids are sown. This is a time consuming
method which is hardly ever used today.
 Generally the second, the asymbiotic method is applied. Here the growing
medium is enriched by mineral nutrients which provide the plant with basically
the same substances as the fungus.
 A high degree of sterility, both of the sowing media and the seed is necessary.
There are many new recipes for suitable germinating media. To mention a few
are Burgeff, knudson C. Vacin and Went, Nitsch, Murashige and skoog, etc.
 Recently another vegetative reproduction method, meristem culture, has gained
importance.
 The process is technically very complicated and demanding and since it requires a
laboratory to be carried out successfully.
 However, mristem propagation has only been achieved, to a commercially
acceptable standard for Cattleya, Cymbidium, Calanthe, Dendrobium, Miltonia,
Odontoglossum, Oncidium, Zygopetalum and Huybrids.
 Plants produced by this method, when young are known as mericlones. Here the
meristems are transferred to a culture medium where they can be subdivided and
an unlimited number of new plants raised.
METHODS OF PROPAGATION
CONVENTIONAL METHODS
I. Monopodial orchids
A . Stem cuttings
B . Flower stalk cuttings
C . Layering
II .Sympodial orchids
A . Divisions
B. Offshoots
C . Back bulbs
22 23
Propagation through divisions
24 25
PROPAGATION THROUGH BACK BULBS

13.2. MICROPROPAGATION OF ORCHIDS
The modern methods of propagation have brought orchid cultivation on par with
other commercial crops.
In-vitro seed culture:
 Orchid seeds are extremely small (80-130 Mm wide and 410-560 Mm long) and
usually undifferentiated.
 They produced in large numbers ranging from 1300 to 5 lakh/capsule.
 Each seed contains an undifferentiated embryo composed of 80-100 cells without
any functional endosperm.
 Under natural conditions the orchid seeds germinate in association with fungus
(Mycorrhiza).
FERTILIZER APPLICATION
According to some workers Ammonium nitrate is the best nitrogen source for
early germination and protocorm formation. After the roots and leaves are formed the
protocorms prefer nitrate for their continued growth.
 In their natural habitats, orchids grow on no special nutrients, depending only on
what they could absorb from decaying tree bark and the atmosphere.
 A synthetic inorganic fertilizer, equally balanced in,
 NPK 17:17:17 or 20:20:20, dissolved in water @1-5g per litre applied
once or twice a week gives satisfactory results.
 To promote flowering, a higher proportion of phosphorus and potassium
such as 10:20:20 is helpful.
13.3. FEEDING/NUTRITION
Three basic principles have to be applied to orchid feeding:

1. Only well rooted plants should be fed;
2. The feed is preferable in small but frequent doses;
3. It should only be applied during the period of maximum active growth.
The actual feed can be organic or inorganic.
13.4. ORGANIC FEEDING

 Organic fertilizers like
 Cow dung,
 Chicken manure,
 Groundnut cake,
 Neem cake etc. can be moderately used.
 These must be soaked in water at 1:10 or 1:20 for 2 to 3 days to allow
decomposition of the fertilizer.
 The supernatant solution is used for spraying once of twice a month.
The use of organic fertilizers seems obvious since they are the natural food or
orchids. Unfortunately, however, the precise chemical formulae of organic feeds
are not usually known and it is therefore impossible to control accurately a plant’s
intake.
The application of organic feeds has a great disadvantage in that it decomposes
the potting compost very quickly.
There are several commercial organic feeds on the market and many of these are
good for orchids, especially those prepared from fish or seaweed bases.
13.5. INORGANIC FEEDING

With inorganic feeding the exact proportions of the different chemicals can be
accurately ascertained and the plants feed according to their requirements.
The essential elements are Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), and Potassium (K).
The NPK mixture fertilizer 2 % N, 0.2 % to 0.5% of P and K is mainly
responsible for the control of flower and fruit development.
Growth regulators like GA3 enhance flowering and also the yield of flowers when
sprayed @ 1.5ppm/l once in 15 days before flowering. IBA @ 1ppm/l promotes
the growth of new shoots.
Orchids growing in nature do not need much of manuring but those grown in the
orchidariums need spraying in the liquid forms.
Fertilizer doses should be dilute. The plants will burn by over fertilizer which can
be seen as burnt leaf tips. One of the liquid spray’s which gives healthy growth is
the Ohio spray.
Composition of Ohio solution made up for 1 gallon / 4.5 lt. of water.
* Potassium nitrate 2.63g

* Ammonium sulphate 0.44g
* Magnesium sulphate 2.04g
* Monocalcium phosphate 1.00g
* Calcium sulphate 4.86g
* Iron sulphate 0.50g
* Manganese sulphate 0.25ml.
13.6. CONTAINERS AND COMPOSTS

POTTING MATERIAL
PLASTIC VANDA BASKETS CIDAR ORCHID BASKET

Community pots
Nut pots
27 28
Clear dome of community pot
DECORATIVE CLAY ORCHID POTS CLEAR PLASTIC ROUND POTS
For the naturally growing orchids the tree trunks, ground, damp broken walls and
rocks are the containers.
But when we grow orchids domestically and commercially we need special types
of containers well suited for their habitat.
Some of the most suitable containers used are (1) Pots, (2) Baskets, (3) Wooden
logs, (4) Tree ferns, (5) Coconut husks, etc.
Clay pots are generally used for orchids. They may have few to many holes for
good drainage and aeration.
The pot size may vary from thumb size to 20 inch pots.
Plastic pots can also be used.
Wooden baskets are made up of high quality wood which can withstand frequent
watering.
These may also differ in size and shape generally square baskets are used.
Similarly tree fern blocks can also be cut into different sizes and shapes and the
plants can be tied to these with thin copper wires.
POTTING MEDIA:
In the above containers (Pots and baskets) compost mixture is added in different
proportions.
Care should be taken while preparing the above compost mixtures so that it
provides, (1) Aeration, (2) Drainage (3) Rich mineral nutrition etc.
The potting mixture which is generally used consists of the following material:
Brick pieces, charcoal pieces, peat moss, stone pieces or jelly, tree fern fiber, farm
yard manure, rock wool plugs, peat moss and vermiculite.
Pots which have side drainage holes the compost used is brick pieces, stones
pieces, coke which are mixed in equal proportions 1:1:1.
At the bottom of the pots slightly bigger pieces of charcoal are put.
Pots with bottom drainage holes are filled up with very small pieces of charcoal
and tree fern fiber powdered in equal proportions of 1:1. This compost mixture is
used for epiphytic orchids.
In choosing suitable types of container, may be pot, basket or raft the needs of the
plant must be considered alone with one’s own preferences.
The bark of cork oak is extremely amenable to plant growth as well as being very
durable.
Ordinary oak or pine bark is not so durable but even so will last for several years.
Because of their porosity and durability the stems of tree ferns are also extremely
good.
In larger collections, the traditional clay pots are still used, mainly because of
their cheapness.
They are also useful for the beginner as indiscretions of over watering are offset
by the porous nature of the pot which, incidentally, also helps to maintain
atmospheric humidity.
Expanded polystyrene is very good, especially since its fantastic insulating
properties protect the roots and favor their growth but it’s one great disadvantage
is that it is so light that plants are likely to be knocked over more readily.
The advantage of baskets is that air can enter from all directions, but this can lead
to a more rapid drying out of the compost, especially in hot summer spells, and
therefore watering is more of a chore with them.
The best way of watering baskets is by dipping. Wire baskets, either of
galvanized iron or aluminum or plastic-covered copper-wire, can be used and
shaped to fashion.
Terrestrials present no problems, being grown exclusively in clay or plastic pots
or pans.
For terrestrial or ground orchids, we can use sand, mud and farm yard manure in
equal proportions and earthen pots.
In Florida a new coconut basket has been introduced called the COCONEST.
This is unique spun coconut fiber NEST treated with organic substances, creating
a strong flexible shell, allowing air to circulate and retain humidity in the natural
way, allowing constant moist compost for growing.
The NEST provides an even distribution of water to the fine growing roots.
13.7. POTTING MATERIALS

OSMUNDA:
This is the root fibers of the Royal fern, Osmunda regalis.
It is hard, durable, sufficiently springy but rigid enough for good anchorage and
contains very little mineral matter.
Its great disadvantage is its high price and today good quality osmunda is almost
unobtainable.
POLYPODIUM FIBER
This is the root fibres of the common polypody fern, Polypodium vulgare.
It is softer and finer than Osmunda fiber and neither so durable nor so good for
anchorage and aeration.
A little soil should be added to it and this obviously also increases its mineral
nutrition.
SPHAGNUM
This bog moss is cheap,
Has excellent water retention property and is inert chemically.
It is usually mixed with some other media but can be used by itself for the
establishing of seedlings and newly imported plants that need special attention.
TREE FERN
This is usually obtainable as the ground-down trunks of tree ferns.
It is hard, fairly durable, without mineral content and not very expensive but the
fibers are not always long and spongy enough to provide good anchorage.
Broken brick, pumice granules, gravel and broken coke, fir bark, peat, synthetic
materials can either be used by themselves in a form of hydroponic orchid culture
or mixed with sphagnum.
Generally medium should be porous and well aerated for the roots to freely grow
and respire easily.
Easily available and cheap medium should be used either individually or in
combinations.
A mixture of brick and charcoal or peat moss which is degradable and holds
moisture for a long time can be used.
13.8. POTTING
After the selection of plants proper potting with proper compost mixture has to be
done.
While potting the epiphytic orchids like Vanda and Dendrobium care should be
taken that aerial offshoots or Keikis should not break.
Vanda plants are staked.
Proper labeling should be done after the potting is over.
The pots should be filled to about 1/3 of their height with the compost material
chosen.
The bottoms of baskets should be covered with large flat crocks.
The bases of the pots are generally being prepared.
The oldest pseudobulb should be against the edge of the pot and the youngest
ones towards the center so that there will be ample space for new shoots and
pseudobuls to grow.
More potting material is gradually added, being temped down firmly with a
potting stick working from the outside towards the center.
With a coarse potting medium the top level should be 1-2 cm below pot level.
Monopodial orchids, such as Vanda, Renanthera and Phalaenopsis, should be
potted similarly but, since they do not have pseudobulbs, they should all be
planted in the center of the pots.
In Paphiopedilum the potting material is topped up with sphagnum, which, with
correct watering, will continue to grow and be beneficial to the plants as well as
act as an indicator of the condition of the compost.
Without compelling reasons orchids should not be repotted.
If, however, aeration of the potting material is poor because of decomposition it
must be replaced.
If in doubt, put it off for another year. Basically care must be taken that new
growth and shoots are not overlapping the rim of the pot,
For large neglected plants which have been potted for a long time are notoriously
difficult to handle and it is very easy to break off new shoots and roots.
The frequency and time of repotting has certain rules:
13.9. Annual repotting
Calanthe, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis and its hybrids, Paphipedilum and
Phalaenopsis.
Every alternate year- Cattleya, Dendrobium, Oncidium and Odontoglossum
Every third year- Vanda and its allies, Cymbidium
Less frequently -all ‘tussock’ orchids
It must be stressed again that repotting can seriously disturb a plant and therefore
should not be undertaken more than necessary.
Repotting times do not vary very much but should usually be at the beginning of
the active growing season or at least when the new roots appear.
The techniques of repotting may be difficult both for amateurs and professionals
Certain points must be considered, especially regarding the treatment of the roots.
To remove the root-ball from the pot it is advisable to use a knife.
All old potting material, dead roots and shriveled pseudobulbs have to be
removed.
With sympodial orchids such as Cattleya, Dendrobium, Odotoglossum, etc., not
more than 5 or less than 3 pseudobulbs should remain.
When the older pseudobulbs, the backbulbs are removed from many orchids it
will be noted that they often have ‘eyes’.
These backbulbs can be planted in small pots and within 2-3 years will be like
ordinary plants.
The containers, pots, pans, baskets or rafts, should be large enough to carry two
shoots or developing growths.
Too large pots are to be avoided because they can actually retard growth and
inhibit flowering.
While repotting, the plant is held at the base and loosened along the pot inside.
The old roots and leaves are removed. Then the plant is potted again.
Orchidorium
31
Quiz
I. Chose the correct answer from the following
1. Long stemmed monopodials sps.
a) Vanda Angraecum b) Renanthera c) Aerides d) all of these
2. Sympodial orchids such as
a)Cattleya b) Dendrobium c) both a & b d) Vanda
3. The stamens and the pistil are condensed and form a consolidated complex body
a) gynostemium b) rostellum c) resupination d) tepals
4. Example of mimicry
a) Vanda Angraecum b) Renanthera c) Aerides d) Ophyrus
5. Recent vegetative reproduction method followed in orchid
a) meristem culture b)cuttings c) anther culture d)protoplast culture
(Key answers: 1) a, 2) c, 3) a, 4) d, 5) a)
II. True and false
1. Orchid is also called as ladies sweeper orchid.
2. The male and female part of orchid being separated by a flap or projection of a tissue
called rostellum.
3. A American orchid ‘Ophyrus’ shows a fine example of mimicry.
4. There is a peculiar interdependency between orchids and virus.
5. Orchids seeds are extremely small and usually undifferentiated.
6. At IARI a new technique was developed for viability testing of orchid.
7. Most of the orchids seeds utilize monossacharides such as sucrose, which is most
commonly used carbon source.
8. Ammonium nitrate is the best nitrogen source for early germination and protocorm
formation.
9. Orchids growing in nature need much of manure compared to those grown in the
orchidariums.
10. Clay pots of thumb size to 20 inch are generally used to grow orchids.
(Key answers: 1 )False, 2) True, 3) False, 4) False, 5) True, 6) False, 7) False , 8) True, 9) False,
10) True)
Match the following

A B
1) coloumn Phalaenopsis
2) projection of a tissue Resupination
3) pollinating agent Polypodium vulgare
4) polypody fern Rostellum
5) Monopodial orchids Gynostemium
(Key answers: 1)gynostemium, 2)rostellum., 3) resupination, 4) Polypodium vulgare, 5)

Phalaenopsis)
☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE-15
ORCHIDS
Topics:
14.1. Harvesting
14.2. Post-harvest handling
14.2.1. Grading:
14.2.2. Storage:
14.2.3. Packaging
14.3. Vase-life.
14.4. Pests and diseases
14.5. Orchids in trade and economy
14.1. HARVESTING:
HARVESTING STAGE ,STORAGE AND VASE LIFE

OF DIFFERENT ORCHIDS
Genus Harvesting stage Storage
Vase life
temperature
(days)
Cattleya 3-4 days after full 8 –100c for 10 to 14
opening of 14 days
flowers
Cymbidiums 1 to 40 c for two 15-21
weeks
Dendrobiums When all florets 5 to 70 c in 14 –21
open water for 10 to
14 days
Paphiopedilum -0.5 to 30 c for 25-30
days
Phalaenopsis 7 to 100 c for 14 14 - 21
days
This is a very important operation and the growers should have thorough
knowledge about the flowering behavior of the orchids used for cut-flower
production.
Proper time, stage and method of harvest determine the quality of the produce. In
general, orchid flowers do not mature until 3 to 4 days after they open.
Flowers cut prior to their maturity may wilt before reaching the wholesaler.
Harvesting should preferably be done in the evening.
All the tools should be sterilized.
Flowers harvested in the heat of the day can be stressed because of high
temperature.
Dark coloured flowers may be as much as 5.5o C warmer than white flowers
during mid afternoon.
When individual Cattleya and Cymbidium flowers are cut, the peduncle should
immediately be inserted in a tube of water.
In Hawaii and Singapore, some Dendrobium and Aranda growers immerse the
entire sprays of flowers in water for 15 minutes before packing and shipping.
14.2. POST-HARVEST HANDLING

Typical view of the post harvest room where flowers are neatly stacked after cleaning
14.2.1. GRADING:
There are no standard grades for orchid flowers and their prices are fixed
according to the size.
In case of Cattleya flowers both colour and size are considered while pricing.
Grading is done mainly on length of the flower spike, flower number and size and
arrangement of flowers on the spike.
Sometimes the number of lateral branches on the inflorescence is also taken into
consideration.
14.2.2. STORAGE:
 Since most orchid flowers are long-lived on the plants, they should not be
harvested until needed.
 If these are to be cut they should be stored at 5-7o C. At this temperature most
orchid flowers can be stored for 10 to 14 days.
 Plastic film storage is attractive and can be utilized.
14.2.3. PACKAGING
Typical view of packing systems:
 Packaging is another important aspect in the flower trade.

 If it is not done properly, the flowers may wither or suffer mechanical injury
during transit.
 An ideal package should be air tight, water proof, strong enough to withstand
handling and small in volume.
 Many ways are followed to pack orchid flowers.
 Cymbidium spikes are often packed 100 flowers to a box.
 Standard florist boxes are used for the packing of Cattleya flowers.
 Hawaiian Dendrobium is packed in 4 dozen sprays per box.
 Keeping of a wet cotton at the cut end of the flower stem which is wrapped with a
polythene wrapper helps to maintain humidity.
14.3. VASE-LIFE
 Orchid flowers, though long-lasting, should properly be handled to ensure
minimum shelf life.
 Immediately after arrival, the lower 0.75 cm of the peduncle is cut off, and the
flower is inserted into a fresh tube of water containing preservative.
 In case of spray-type of orchids, the basal 2.5cm of the stem is cut upon arrival,
placed in warm water at 38o C with a preservative and hardened off at 5o C.
 In cut-flower industry the major chemical environmental pollutant affecting
senescence is ethylene.
 Orchid flowers are very sensitive ethylene and proper management and control of
ethylene and ethylene like pollutants are important for the success of the industry.
 Foliar application of aluminum chloride at 500ppm, ammonium molybdate at
100ppm or boric acid at 1000ppm extends the vase-life of Oncidium foldiana.
 Hydroxyquinoline resulted in additional bloom opening of the flowers and also
increased the vase-life.
14.4. PESTS AND DISEASES

Orchids are prone to a number of pests and diseases caused by various agents like
viruses, fungi, bacteria, insect pests, etc.
The chart below identifies and illustrates types of damage to orchids and the
various causes.
PEST CAUSE/SYMPTOM REMEDY
APHIDS  Leaves and stems appear  Wash off black fungus with
stunted; water and mild kitchen
 Flowers may be malformed or detergent.
fail to open.  Use an insecticide containing
 Aphids are visible, Malathion, Desis, Nicotine or
particularly on new growth. pyrethrum.
 Most vulnerable pest:
Cattleya, Oncidium,
Phalaenopsis
MEALY  Cottony masses especially  Remove small
BUGS infest points of juncture such infestations with a cotton
as the crook between two swab dipped in
leaves. methylated spirits.
 Plants may appear stunted or  On heavy infestations,
shriveled. use an insecticide
Most vulnerable: Cattleya, containing malathion or
Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis nicotine.
SCALES  Causes sooty mould  Pick off small
 The plant may be stunted, infestations with tweezers
with leaves yellowing and or a knife, or swab with
falling off. methylated spirits.
Most vulnerable: Cymbidium,  Spray adult scales with
Pahiopedilum, Miltonia, an insecticide containing
Zygopetalum, Cattleya, malathion or nicotine.
SLUGS AND  The plant is punctured  A tuft of cotton wool
SNAILS with ragged holes and a around the stem will
slimy trail is visible protect flowers.
where pests have  Trap snails and slugs
passed. with pesticide bait
Vulnerable: All orchids, containing metaldehyde
especially seedlings. or methiocarb.
SPIDER  Leaves appear pitted or  Scrub and rinse foliage
MITES stipped with white. with warm water to break
 White webbing may up webs.
show on the underside  Spray heavy infestations
of the leaves. with pesticide containing
Most vulnerable; Cymbidium, malathion or derris.
Dendrobiu, Phalaenopsis.
DISEASES
PEST/SYMPTOM CAUSE REMEDY
BLACK ROT: Black rot is caused by Drench infected plants
Purplish blotches edged with yellow several types of fungi with a fungicide such as
appear on leaves and new shoots. that favour high captan or zineb.
Rotting may work downwards from
humidity, cool Remove infected parts
leaves or upwards from roots and
rhizomes. temperatures and cut 2.5cm into healthy
Most vulnerable: Cattleya standing water. tissue and seal cuts with
Orchids, Phalaenopsis. Damping off, which fungicide. Destroy
affects seedlings, is badly the diseased
also caused by these plants.
fungi and occurs most
readily in community
pots.
LEAF SPOT: Leaf spot is usally Reduce humidity and
Raised or sunken spots in yellow, caused by those increase air circulation.
brown or purplish shades spread species of fungi that Cut off diseased leaves;
quickly over leaves. In advanced thrive in high spray cuts with
stages, leaves turn yellow or brown humidity. IT is fungicide. Apply captan
and die. especially destructive or a systemic fungicide
Most vulnerable: Oncidium, to seedlings but rarely containing binomial or
Dendrobium fatal to mature plants. thiphanate-methyl
weekly.
PEATAL BLIGHT: Petal blight, also Cut off and destroy
Small brown circles, often with pink known by the name of infected blossoms.
edges, appear on sepals and petals. the fungus that causes Spray plants with a
botrytis, generally fungicide containing
Most Vulnerable:
appears in cool, damp benomyl, captan,
Cattleya, Orchids, Dendrobium, weather when there is thiophanate-methyl,
Oncidium. Phalaenopsis, Vanda inadequate air thiram or zineb.
circulation.
Microscopic spores
are carried by insects,
water or human hands.
Fungus tends to attach
old and fading
flowers.
VIRUS: Two main types of There is no cure.
Leaves may show yellow, black or viral diseases, Destroy infected plants.
brown pitting, mottling, mottling and cymbidium mosaic When dividing, flame
streaking. Flowers too may be and Cattleya mosaic, sterilizes the knife
streaked or mottled. spread through the between cuts, dip
vascular systems of potting sticks in a10
Vulnerable: All Orchids
plants. Highly percent household
infectious, viruses may bleach solution.
be transmitted by
infected plants.
Highly infectious,
viruses may be
transmitted by infected
plants, hands, fools,
aphids.
As a general rule:
1) Apply fungicides and insecticides early in the morning or late in the evening.
2) Use a fine nozzle for spraying.
3) Heavily infected plants should be discarded and burnt, and should not be used
as propagating material.
14.5. ORCHIDS TRADE AND ECONOMY

 At present Orchid cut flower trade is a multi-million dollar business.
 The cut flowers of species like Cymbidium, Paphipedilum, Phalaenopsis,
Cattleyas and Dendrobiums have a tremendous market in USA and Europe.
 It is estimated that two hundred million Cattleya flowers are sold annually in
American market.
 Some of the developing countries like Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand and Sri
Lanka are fast catching up the international market and run the cut flower industry
on co-operative basis they pool the collections and export them to Europe, Japan
and USA a few orchids figure prominently as State or National flowers. E.g.
Cypripedium reginae by Minnesota and Cattleya skinneri by Cost Rica.
 Through commercial orchid cut flower nurseries provide under 3% of the world
cut flowers they earn considerable foreign exchange profit for many countries.
 The Netherlands is the only European country with a sizeable orchid export
industry.
 In 1993, the Netherlands exported 51.8 million stems of orchids valued at 77.4
million.
 Phalaenopsis orchids were the 14th most popular cut flowers sold in Dutch
auctions in 1993 with sales exceeding 12.8 millions.
 More than 3,600 tons of Dendrobiums were sent to Europe in 1993 from Thailand
and more from Singapore.
 Dendrobium orchids accounted for 3.2 million dollars of sales in Dutch auction
market; but most were imported directly whole sale distributions in France,
Germany, England and Italy.
 The largest importer of tropical cut orchids in Europe in Italy, importing about
21,43,425 kg in 1993 and 30,00,725 kg in 1996.
 Germany is the second largest importer of tropical orchids in Europe with
4,78,446 kg.
 The growth and popularity of orchids is gaining lot of importance in our country
due to the high rate of return.
Quiz
State True or False
1. Orchid flowers do not mature until 3 to 4 days after they open.
2. There are standard grades for orchid flowers and their prices are fixed according to the
size.
3. At 5-7° C temperature most of the orchid flowers can be stored for 10 to 14 days.
4. Packaging is not an important aspect in the flower trade.
5. Hydroxy quinoline resulted in additional bloom opening of the flowers and also
increased the vase-life of orchid flower.
6. No major pest and disease attack on orchid.
7. The international trade on floriculture is estimated at about ten billion dollars per
annum.
8. The largest importer of tropical cut orchids in Europe is Italy.
9. The growth and popularity of orchids is gaining lot of importance in our coutrny due to
the high rate of return.
10. Germany is the first largest importer of tropical orchids in Europe.
(Key answers: 1 ) True, 2) False, 3) True, 4) False, 5) True, 6) False, 7) False , 8)True, 9) True,
10 )False)
Match the Following
A B
1. Black rot Plants appear stunted
2. Aphids Zineb
3. Mealy bugs Metaldehyde
4. Slugs Leaves appear pitted
5. Spider mites Malathion
(Key answers: 1) Zineb 2) Malathion 3) Plants appear stunted 4) Metaldehyde 5) Leaves

appear pitted )
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE 16
GERBERA
TOPICS
26.1. Introduction
26.2. Soil structure
26.3. General disinfection of soil
26.4. Bed preparation
26.5. Greenhouse/shade house for commercial cultivation
26.6. Planting
26.7. Irrigation
26.8. Fertilization
26.1. INTRODUCTION:
Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii) is commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, Barberton Daisy

or African Daisy.
It is an important commercial flower crop grown throughout the world in a wide range of
climatic conditions.
It is ideal for beds, borders, pots ad rock gardens.
The flowers available in a wide range of colors and lend themselves beautifully to
different floral arrangements.
Used as cut flowers and the cut blooms have long vase life.
MORPHOLOGY:
A plant is stem less and tender perennial herbs, leaves radical, petiole, lanceolate, deeply
lobed, sometimes leathery, narrower at the base and wider at toe and are arranged in a
rosette at the base. The foliage in some species has a light under surface.
The daisy-like flowers grow in a wide range of colors including yellow, orange, cream-
white, pink, brick red, scarlet, maroon, terracotta and various other intermediate shades.
The double cultivars sometimes have bicolor flowers, which are very attractive.
The flower stalks are long, thin and leafless.
Flower heads solitary, many flowered.
ORIGIN AND HISTORY:

The genus Gerbera was named in honor of a German naturalist, Traugott Gerber.
This is native to South Africa and Asiatic regions.
In India they are distributed in the temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal at an
altitude of 1300 to 3200 meters.
Gerbera jamesonii is native to Natal and Transvaal and Gerbera viridifolia from Cape.
Gerbera species of Indian origin are Gerbera anandria, G. kunzeana, G.languinosa, G.
macrophylla, G. nivea, G. ovalifolia and G. piloselloides.
Gerbera belongs to the family “Compositae”.
45 species, native to tropical Asia and Africa.
SPECIES AND CULTIVARS:

The genus Gerbera consists of about 40 species.
Gerbera jamesonii is the only cultivated species.
Gerbera asplenifolia
Gerbera aurantiaca
Gerbera kunzeana
Gerbera viridifolia
IMPORTANT CULTIVARS:
Dusty, Flemingo, Fradaisy, Fredeking, Fredorella, Maron Clementine, Nadja,

Terraqueen, Uranus, Valentine, Vesta, Alexis, Amber, Anke, Apple blossom, Belitis,
Caprice, Hildegard, Ibiza, Joyee, Kabada, Marleen, Pascal, Romilda, Rozamunde,
Salmorosa, Sympathic, Easter Star, Eastelle, Nena, Terra Parade, Terra Son, Aruba,
Asheley, Flora, Goldspot, Nevada. Rosabella, White Sun. Vino, Venturi, Sunset,
Sundance, Sangriana, Siby, Sissy, North Star Ornella, Tropical, Cocktail, Panorama,
Mirage, Pink Sensation, Tara, Thallasa, Diablo, Lyonella, Twiggy, etc.,
CLASSIFICATION
 There are „single‟ and „double‟ types of gerbera.

 One or two rows of ray florets on the periphery of the disc and the rest are disc florets in
the „single‟ types.
 In the „double‟ type, more than two rows of florets are present
 They are further divided into
 Standard,
 Spider and
 Mini depending on the size and shape of the flowers.
PROPAGATION
SEEDS;
 Gerbera is propagated by seed, by cuttings of side shoots and suckers.
 Seed is set if cross-pollinated.
 Sowing of seed may be done in almost any season.
 Seeds germinate in 15 to 20oC within two weeks; otherwise it may take up to 30 days.
 Plants from seeds will bloom in the second year and produce good flowers from the third
year onwards.
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION:
 Side shoots, with some amount of heel, is utilized for.

 Divisions/ suckers, cuttings are also used.
MICRO-PROPAGATION:
– Following are the plant parts used as explants for micro propagation.
 Shoot tips,
 Leaf mid-rib,
 Capitulum,
 Flower heads,
 Inflorescence and
 Buds
 Murashige and Skoog (MS) media with modification is successfully used as
culture media.
SOIL AND CLIMATE
CLIMATE:
 The optimum day and night temperature is 27oC and 14oC respectively
 For flower initiation is 23oC and for leaf unfolding it is 25 - 27oC
 Sunny or semi-shady locations are good for gerbera cultivation.
16.2. SOIL:
To be successful in Gerbera cultivation, the soil selection is very important. The main
factors to be considered are as follows;
 Soil pH should be between 5.5 to 6.5 or it should be maintained at this level to get
maximum efficiency in absorption of nutrients.
 The salinity level of soil should not be more than 1 ms/cm. Therefore, as soon as you
select the sire, get the soil analyzed to decide its further reclamation.
 Gerbera are deep rooted plants and the roots go as deep as 50 to 70cm.
 The soil should be highly porous and well drained to have better root growth and better
penetration of roots.
26.3. DISINFECTION OF SOIL:
Before plantation of Gerbera, soil disinfection is absolutely necessary. In particular, the

fungus Phytophthora is a menace to Gerbera. The various methods of sterilization are;
1. Steam: Not economically feasible for Indian conditions.
2. Sun: Cover the soil with plastic for 6-8 weeks. Sunrays will heat up the soil,
which will kill most fungi.
3. Chemical sterilization:
Use of formalin @ 7.5-10 lit/100sqm.
This pure chemical should be diluted 10 times in water and then
sprayed/drenched on beds.
Cover the beds with plastic sheets for 7 days.
Then flush the soil approximately with 100 liters of water per sqm to drain
the traces.
After sterilizing, subsequent washing out of the soil.
It is advised to wait for 2 weeks before plantation.
Other chemicals that can be used are,
Methyl Bromide : @ 25 – 30g/sqm
Basamid (Dazomet) : @ 30 – 40g/sqm
26.4. BED PREPARATION:
In general, Gerberas are grown on raised beds to assist in easier movement and better
drainage. The dimensions of the bed should be as follows:
Bed height : 1.5 ft (45cm)
Bed Width : 2 ft (60 cm)
Pathways between beds : 1 ft (30 cm)
The beds for planting should be highly porous, well drained and airy.
Gravel/sand can be added at the bottom for better drainage.
Organic manure is recommended to improve soil texture and to provide nutrition
gradually.
The soil should be loose all the time. Organic manure and soil should be mixed
thoroughly for optimum results.
The soil should not be very compact after watering.
The upper layer of soil and FYM should be properly mixed.
While bed preparation, add Single Super Phosphate (0:16:0) @ 2.5 kg per 100
sqft for better root establishment and
Magnesium Sulphate @ 0.5 kg per 100 sqft to take care of deficiency of Mg.
26.5. GREENHOUSE/SHADE HOUSE FOR COMMERCIAL CULTIVATION:
1. The height of the greenhouse/shade house should be minimum 5-6.5 m; so there is proper
air circulation.
2. Sufficient ventilation space is required on top and sides.
3. To protect the plants in the monsoons provision for covering the top with polythene or
plastic sheet is advised.
4. To control light intensity and solar radiation, while shade net (50-70%) is used.
Approximately 400w/m2 light intensity is required on the plant level.
5. The ideal temperature for Gerbera flower bud initiation is 23oC and for leaf unfolding is
25-27oC. The flowering of Gerbera is harmed at below 12oC and above 35oC.
12oC 35oC
Bud initiation will stop Frequency of flowers will be

very low & absorption of
buds will take place
6. The optimum humidity inside the greenhouse/shade house should be 70-75%, which will
maintain the health of the plants.
26.6. PLANTING:
While planting Gerbera plants, the crown of plants should be 1-2 cm above soil level.
As the root system establishes the plants are pulled down.
Therefore, the crown must be above the ground level at planting and also throughout the
life cycle.
Plant the seedlings without disturbing the root-ball.
Generally, two- three rows may be planted on one bed at 37.5 to 40cm distance between
the rows and 30cm distance between the plants in one row.
Row – Row = 37.5- 40 cm
Plant – Plant = 30.0cm
6 to 7 plants can be accommodated per sq m.
Rake the soil surrounding the plant every fortnight for aeration.
After plantation, maintain the humidity at 80 – 90% for 4 -6 weeks to avoid desiccation
of plants.
Gerbera can also be cultivated in pots as bench system of planting.
26.7. IRRIGATION:
Water quality should be as follows

o pH – 6.5 – 7.0
o EC – 0.5 – 1 ms/cm
Avoid excessive watering to gerbera”
To lower the pH of water, add acids in the water tank and then irrigate the plants.
Immediately after plantation, irrigate the plant with overhead irrigation for four weeks to
enable uniform root development. Thereafter gradually change to drip irrigation. Drip
irrigation is mainly for correct doses and fertilizer application.
Generally, one dripper per plant is required. The aim is to provide sufficient irrigation in
the 2nd year for extra foliage.
The water requirement of Gerbera plant may be approximately 700 ml per plant per day.
In hot summer foggers can be utilized to maintain the humidity of the air.
Before irrigation observe the soil column and visually check the soil moisture content.
Then decide on the quantity of irrigation required. It varies with seasons; however the
frequency is the same.
Always water the plants before 12 noon.
Until the first flowers are produced, watering can be done as overhead irrigation.
Thereafter irrigation is through drippers.
The R.H. of air should not exceed 90 – 92%, as it will lead to deformity of flowers.
As a thumb rule, the soil should be moderately moist-however never having excessive
water.
26.8. FERTILIZATION:
Irrigate and fertilize frequently in small quantities for optimum results. However, always
take care to fulfill the crop requirement.
Micronutrients should be given weekly or fortnightly as per the deficiency symptoms
(preferably chelated source).
Always analyze the soil once in 2-3 months to decide specific nutrient schedule.
As a layman, whenever you enter the greenhouse the plants should look very healthy and
glossy.
25-75 t/ha of well decomposed organic manure is required.
150:137:190 g NPK/m2 (40:40:40 g, three months at monthly interval)
For the first three months after planting, application of 20:20:20:N:P:K @ 1.5 g/l of water
every two days during the vegetative stage encourages better foliage.
Once flowering commences.
o N:P:K 15:8:35 at the rate of 1.5 g/l water/day.
o Boron deficiency causes base of young leaves to turn black coloured.
Zinc deficiency symptoms can be identified with the C-shaped leaf structure caused by
chlorosis on one half of the leaf blade which ceases to expand, while the other half of the
leaf is normal.
QUIZ
1. Choose the correct answers:
1. The roots of Gerbera go as deep as

a. 20-30 cm b. 30-40 cm c. 40-50 cm d. 50 – 70 cm
2. While planting Gerbera plants, the crown of plants should be
a. 1-2 cm above the soil level b. 1-2 cm below the soil level c. Ground level d. None
3. Gerbera is a --------- months crop
a. 24-30 b. 12-18 c. 10-12 d. 6
4. Gerbera flowers after
a. 3-4 weeks b. 7-8 weeks c. 9-10 weeks d. 5-6 weeks
5. Average yield of Gerbera flowers per sq.mt.
a. 120 b. 200 c. 220 d. 240
6. Gerbera belongs to the family
a. Compositae b. Iridaceace c. Oleaceae d. Clusaceae
7. Soil pH should be between
a. 6-7 b. 3.5-4 c. 5.5 – 6 d. 8.5-9
8. Recommended spacing adopted for Gerbera
a. 37.5x30 cm b. 30x30 cm c. 45x45 cm d. 60x45 cm
9. The ideal temperature for Gerbera flower initiation is
a. 20oC b. 23oC c. 14oC d. 30oC
10. The ideal temperature for leaf unfolding of Gerbera is
a. 17-20oC b. 25-27oC c. 20-22oC d. 30-32oC
I. Key Answer
1(d) , 2(a), 3(a), 4(b), 5(d), 6(a), 7(c), 8(a), 9(b), 10(b)
II. State true or false

1. Iron deficiency causes Interveinal chlorosis on older leaves.
2. The water requirement of Gerbera plant can be approximately 200 ml per plant per day
3. Gerbera plant is stem less herb.
4. Gerbera flower should be plucked from the plant rather than cutting them.
5. Double-faced Gerbera flower – A physiological disorder caused by imbalance of
nutrients.
II. Key for State true or false

1(F), 2(F), 3(T), 4(T), 5(T)
III. Match the following:

1. Whitefly a) <12oC and > 35oC
2. Botrytis b) Hot and dry climate
3. Flower initiation c) 25-27oC
4. Leaf unfolding d) 23oC
5. Flowering affects e) High relative humidity
III. Key
1(b), 2(e), 3(d), 4(c), 5(a) ☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE 17
GERBERA
TOPICS
17.1 Cropping pattern and harvesting of flowers

17.2. Diseases/ pests
17.3. Disease control in gerbera
17.4. Never apply following chemicals on gerbera
17.5. Deficiency symptoms
17.1. CROPPING PATTERN AND HARVESTING OF FLOWERS:
Gerbera is a 24-30 months crop.

The first flowers are produced 7-8 weeks after plantation.
Harvesting is done when the two outer rows of the disc florets are fully expanded and
perpendicular to the stalk.
The average yield is 240 flowers per sqm (6-7 plants/sqm).
The flowers are harvested when 2 – 3 whorls of stamens have entirely been developed;
this will decide the vase life of flowers.
Pluck the flowers in the morning or late in the evening or during the day when
temperature is low.
Pluck the flower from the plant rather than cutting them.
POST HARVEST HANDLING OF FLOWERS

Cut the heel of the stem by giving an angular cut.
Pack the flowers in a box with following dimensions.
Immediately after harvesting, flowers put in water and kept for four hours at 7 to 8oC
The cut flowers can be stored dry at 2oC in moisture – proof retentive boxes for two days
If stored wet at 4 to 5oC, the flowers can be kept for 5 to 7 days.
Always add 7 – 10 ml commercial bleach/Sodium Hypochlorite solutions in one litre
water i.e. 1% solution.
It has a maximum vase life of 7 to 8 days.
Frequent re-cutting of stem ends is suggested.
The flowers are relatively insensitive to ethylene.
A good flower has stalk length of 45 – 55cm, and diameter of flower is 10 – 12cm.
Gerbera Cups - The packaging solution to protect the gerbera flower
17.2. DISEASES/ PESTS:
 Aphids: Causes deformed leaves, excrete some substance on which fungus develops.
 Greenhouse Whitefly: Occurs when climate is hot and dry, cause damage to leaves.
 Leaf Miner: White specks on leaves caused by files. White tunnels in leaves caused
by larvae, which stays in soil.
 Mites: Older leaves are curled up. Younger ones being deformed and leathery,
deformed flowers or if petals are missing.
 Thrips: Cause white specks or stripes on ray florets; flower heads may be deformed.
Silvery, grayish spots on the leaves; Brown spots on leaf petioles/midvein.
 Crown Rot: Caused by Phytophthora cryptogea results in wilting disease of Gerbera,
Crown of the plant becomes black.
 Root knot Nematode: Yellowing of leaves; nodules on roots.
 Botrytis: Occurs especially when the relative humidity of the air is more than 92% for
two hours in the morning – gray spots on the flower petals – rot in the heart of flower.
Concentration
Pests Suggested control
per litre
Whitefly Astra, Lanate (Methomyl) 0.4 g
Rogor (Dimethoate) 2 ml
Endosulphon 2 ml
Neemazol 2 ml
Malathion 2 ml
Confidor (Imidacloprid) 0.5 ml
Pride (Acetamiprid) 0.4 g
Leaf Miner Chlorpyriphos 1 ml
Nuvan (Dichlorovos) 1 ml
Vertimec (Abamectin) 0.4 ml
Acephate (Acephate) 1.5 g
Metacid (Methyl Parathion) 1 ml
Thrips Regent (Fipronil) 1.5 ml
Confidor (Imidacloprid) 0.5 ml
Nuvan (Dichlorvos) 1.5 ml
Nuvacvon (Monocrotophos) 2 ml
Rogor (Dimethoate) 2 ml
Pride (Acetamiprid) 0.4 g
Vertimec Abamectin) 0.4 ml
Red mites Pure Water Spray
Wettable Sulphur 1.5 g
Karathane (Dinocap) 0.4 ml
Kelthane (Dicofol) 1.5 ml
Magister (Fenazaquin) 1 ml
Cyclamen Mites Wettable Sulphur 1.5 g
Catterpiller Lanate (Methomyl) 1.5 g
Thimet (Phorate) (S) 2g/plant
Decis (Deltamethrin) 0.5 ml
17.3. DISEASE CONTROL IN GERBERA:
Concentration
Pests Suggested control
per litre
Root rot Aliette (Fosetyl Alluminium) (D) 2g
Topsin-M (Thiophanate-Methyl) (D) 2g
Benlate (Benomyl) (D) 3g
Bavistin (Carbendazim) (D) 2g
Captaf (Captan) 2g
Crown rot Aliette (Fosetyl Alluminium) (D) 1.5 g
Topsin-M (Thiophanate-Methyl) (D) 2g
Trichoderma (D) 3–5g
Fusarium Topsin-M (Thiophanate-Methyl) (D) 2g
Trichoderma herzenium (D) 3–5g
Alternaria Leaf Spot Dithane M-45 (Mancozeb) 1.5 g
Powdary Mildew Wettable Sulphur .5 g
Topsin-M (Thiphanate-Methyl) (D) 2g
Quintol (Iprodion+Carbendazim) (D) 0.5 g
Nematodes Neemcake 30 – 50g/plant
Suzon (Diazinon) (D) 1.5 ml
Carbofuran (Furadan) 10g/sqm
NOTE: (D) : Drench @ 30 – 40ml/plant

(S) : Soil application around plant
17.4. NEVER APPLY FOLLOWING CHEMICALS ON GERBERA:
Sl.No. Trade Name Consistent

1 Hostathion Triazophos
2 Tilt Propiconazole
3 Topaz Penconazable
4 Contaf Hexconazole
Cypermethrin +
5 Spark
Triazophos
6 Polytrin Profenophos
Metalaxyl 8% +
7 Ridomil
Mancozeb 64%
Flower bent – Loss of cell turgidity and under nutrition (lack of Calcium)
Pre-harvest stem break – High root pressure and high humidity in the air.
Premature wilting of Gerbera flower – Cloudy weather followed by bright sun or
carbohydrate depletion.
Double-faced Gerbera flower – A physiological disorder caused by imbalance of
nutrients.
Too much growth too little flower buds.
Non-uniform flower blooming – Physical injury to flower stem/pest
damage/phytotoxicity.
Short stem length – High salinity level, moisture stress, low soil temp.
17.5. DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS:
1. Nitrogen: General yellowing starts on older leaves and them moves gradually upward
because nitrogen is translocated out of older leaves to the new growth under deficiency.
2. Phosphorus: Brownish discoloration along the vein on underside of old leaves.
3. Potassium: Marginal necrosis of old leaves.
4. Calcium: Extreme yellowing of young leaves
5. Magnesium: Interveinal chlorosis on older leaves, leaves get thick and crispy.
6. Iron: Interveinal chlorosis on young leaves. Serious deficiency results in a yellowish-
white coloring.
7. Zinc: Chlorosis, one half of leaf blade ceases to expand and develop while other halt is
normal i.e., C shaped leaf structure.
8. Manganese: Leaves turn yellowish, starting with younger ones; veins remain green,
heavy chlorosis
9. Copper: Chlorosis in younger leaves; flower develops bad.
10. Molybdenum: Chlorosis on the edges of leaves.
11. Boron: Bases of younger leaves are black colored.
Control measure
Chelated sources (like Microsole, Tracel, Micnelf) of these microelements as a foliar spray.
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE 18
JASMINE (Jasminum spp.)
TOPICS
18.1. Introduction
18.2. Uses and Importance
18.3. Cultural requirements
18.3.1. Soil and Climate
18.4. Varieties
18.5. Propagation and Planting Material
18.6. Plant Spacing, density and season
18.7. Planting
18.8. Nutrition
18.9. Nutrional requirement
18.10. Foliar Nutrition
18.11. Irrigation
18.12. Pruning
18.12.1. Need for Pruning
18.12.2 .Pruning period
18.13. Weeding
18.14. Harvesting
18.15. Grading
18.16. Packing
18.17. Yield
18.1. INTRODUCTION:
Jasmine (Jasminum spp.) is one of the oldest fragrant flowers.

Jasmine being one of the important commercial flower crops is cultivated in India.
It belongs to the family Oleaceae.
As many as forty species of their genus are known to be in India.
Important Species are
1. Jasminum auriculatum : Vasantha Mallige
2. Jasminum grandiflorum : Jajimallige/Jathimalli (or) Pitchi (or) Spanish
Jasmine
3. Jasminum sambac : Gundu mallige /Malligai / Arabian jasmine /
Tuscan jasmine
4. Jasminum pubescens (multiflorum) - Kakada
18.2. USES AND IMPORTANCE:
They are mainly grown as climbers, shrubs and rarely as pot plants.
Jasmine flowers, known for their fragrance are used for making garland.
Garlands are being used for personal adorning by women and in religious offerings.
Flowers and buds used, bouquets, vent/veni preparation.
Production of perfumed oils and attars.
The world famous jasmine oil is extracted from Spanish jasmine (J.
grandiflorum).
The essential oil extracted from the flowers is of high value as starting material
for the perfume industry.
There is tremendous scope for the development of jasmine essential oil industry
for export.
Some portions of the flowers are also used for the production of perfumed hair oil
and ‘attar’.
The world famous jasmine oil is extracted from the flowers of the Spanish
jasmine (J. grandiflorum). Nearly 50% of world’s famous jasmine oil is produced
from France and the rest is contributed by Belgium, Netherlands, Italy, Turkey,
Morocco and Tunisia.
The jasmine oil is considered unique as it blends well with other floral extracts to
make high grade perfumes and cosmetics.
ORIGIN N HISTORY
Among the large number of species existing only three species have attained
importance in commercial cultivation.
The Arabian or Tuscan jasmine (J. sambac) -native of the East Indies.
The Royal jasmine or common white jasmine or Poet's jasmine (J. officinale) -
Persian origin.
The Spanish jasmine or Catalonion jasmine (J. grandiflorum)
Cooke (1905) stated that J officinale is a native of Kashmir.
Adorn in central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Nepal etc.
In India it is being grown in 8000 hectare area.
India exports – to Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia and Gulf countries
Historic evidences show that even 200-500 years ago, the jasmines were
extensively used for hair ornamentation by the women in China.
DISTRIBUTION
• Though jasmines are distributed in tropical and subtropical countries of the world,
• No. of species are centered around India, China and Malaysia
• Among these, about 40 species are reported to occur in India. Some of the
important are as follows,
• J. auriculatum India
• J. calophyllum India
• J.. flexile India
• J. grandiflorm Subtropical Himalayan region
• J. humile Tropical Asia
• J. officinale Iran, India, China
• J. parkeri India
• J. sambac India
• J. mulfiflorum
Commercially important species are;
1. Jasminum auriculatum (Vasantha mallige)

• Shrubby
• Leaves are shiny, with auricles
• Flowers white, sweet scented
• Corolla lobes elliptic, carpels solitary and globose
• Fruits black. Flowers -perfumes.
• Cultivars- Parimullai, CO 1 and CO 2
2. Jasminum grandiflorum (Spanish jasmine)
• Woody bush
• Leaves : Pinnate with 3-5 leaflets of equal size
• Flower : White, pinkish at the base, very much fragrant and commercially
• Used for essential oil extraction.
• Cultivars- CO 1, CO 2 and Arka surabhi.
3. Jasminum sambac (Gundu mallige)
• Evergreen twine. Leaves cordite to oblong, acute or obtuse, waved,

almost sessile, rather thin;
• Flowers white, fragrant usually in small, 3-forked cymes.
• Almost continuous.
• Variety florepleno: shows a double-flowered form.
• Cvs : Ramanathapuram, Gundumalli, Khoya and Arka Aradhana,
Ramabanam madanban, Single mogra, Double mogra, Soojimalli,
Kasthurimalli
4. J. multiflorum
• Straggly, downy shrub, leaves-corodate, mucronate, hairy beneath;

• Flowers white, large, fragrant, petal 6-9, lanceolate.
• Round the year flowering
18.3. CULTURAL REQUIREMENTS:
18.3.1. SOIL AND CLIMATE:
Jasmine prefers mild tropical climate.

Loamy (or) Red loamy and well drained garden soil is the best suited.
Since jasmine is commercially grown in India under open field conditions, the
ideal requirements for successful cultivation of these plants are mild winter, warm
summer, moderate rainfall and sunny days.
18.4. VARIETIES:
J.auriculatum
Parimullai - Selection from a local type.
Medium round bud. Resistant to gall mite. Yield 8 t/ha with
flowering duration about 9 months/year.
CO 1 - Selection from a Long Round type.
Flowers have long corolla tube; easy for harvesting and marketing.
Yield 8.8 t/ha.
CO2 - Induced mutant from a Long point type.
- Longer corolla tube; flower buds bolder; field tolerant to
phyllody; Yield 11.1 t/ha.
Others - Long Point, Long Round, Medium Point, Short Point and Short
Round
J.grandiflorum
CO 1 - Clonal selection from germplasm
- Suitable for both loose flower production and oil extraction.
Pink streaks are found on external surface of petal. Average
yield 10 t/ha
- The concrete recovery is 0.29 per cent.
CO2 - Induced mutant from CO1 Pitchi.
- Bolder pink buds with long corolla tube yield 11.68 t/ha.
J. sambac
 Ramanathapuram
 Gundumalli - Round flowers with good fragrance; yields 7 to 8 t/ha.
 Khoya - Flowers familiar to J.sambac, but bolder buds with less
fragrance.
 Others - Ramabanam, Madanbanam, Single Mogra, Double
Mogra, Iruvatchi, Kasthurimalli, Oosimalli, Soojimalli.
'Madurai Malli'
18.5. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING MATERIAL:
Jasmines are commercially propagated by cuttings and layering.

 J. auriculatum - Semi-hard wood
 J. grandiflorum - Terminal cutting
 J. sambac - Terminal and Semi-hardwood cuttings.
Growth regulators. IAA (or) IBA treated at 1000 ppm for terminal cuttings and
2500 ppm for semi-hard wood cuttings.
The treatment is quick dip method of the basal cut end before planting in the
medium.
Best rooting medium is sand: Vermiculate: moss at 1:1:1 ratio.
18.6. PLANT SPACING, DENSITY AND SEASON:
Species Spacing Density(Plants/ha) Season

J.auriculatum 1.5 x 1.5 m 4400 June to November
J.grandiflorum 2.0 x 1.5 m 3350 - do -
J.sambac 1.25 x 1.25 m 6400 - do -
18.7. PLANTING:
Land with proper drainage, irrigation facilities and sunny location are essential.
Pits of 45 cm3 are dug at least one month before planting and exposed to sunlight.
A few days before planting, pits are filled with 2 parts of FYM and one part each
of fresh earth and coarse sand.
Pits are to be watered to settle the mixture.
Well rooted, healthy and strong plants are planted one in each pit.
18.8. NUTRITION:
Jasmine responds to intensive manuring.

Too much of manuring encourages vegetative growth and hampers quality and
quantity of blooms.
18.9. NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT:
Species Quantity(g/plant) Method

N P2O5 K2O
J. auriculatum 60 120 120 Six split doses at bimonthly interval
J. grandiflorum 10 150 100 In two split doses first June-July and second
0 dose at December after pruning
J. sambac 60 120 120 Two split doses first at June-
July and second at November after pruning
18.10. FOLIAR NUTRITION:
Spraying of zinc 0.25% and magnesium 0.5% before flowering increases the yield
of flowers.
Spray Feso4 at 5g/lit. at monthly intervals until the chlorotic symptoms disappear.
18.11. IRRIGATION:
Plants are irrigated by flooding once in a week.

Sufficient amount of moisture in the soil is necessary for proper growth and
flowering.
Jasmines can be irrigated once in ten days depending on the soil and climatic
conditions.
18.12. PRUNING:
18.12.1. NEED FOR PRUNING:
In jasmine, flowering habit is terminal and axillary.

So increasing the number of shoots is the main criterion to increase the yield, for
this pruning is an essential operation.
It also influences growth, flower bud initiation, differentiation and ultimately the
flower production.
18.12.2 .PRUNING PERIOD:
J. sambac - Last week of November

J. grandiflorum - Last week of December
J. auriculatum - Last week of January
Pruning is done at a height of 45-50 cm from the ground level.
18.13. WEEDING:
 Commonly done manually but is expensive.

 Chemical weed control is effective and economical.
 Spraying with Oryzalin 1 or 2 application is effective.
 Mulching also reduce weed population.
18.14. HARVESTING:
Jasmine gives economic yield only from the third year and upto 12-15 years and
then starts declining in their yield.
The stage of harvest depends on the purpose of flowers to be harvested.
For fresh flowers, fully developed unopened flower buds are picked in the early
morning, while for extraction of concrete only fully opened fresh picked flowers
are required.
Picking of flowers after 11am will considerably reduce the yield and quality of
the concrete.
Pluckers collect the flowers in a bag.
Care should be taken to see that the flowers are not badly handled.
Wrinkled and damaged during harvest and transit will affect fresh flowers and
concrete recovery will be affected and the entire product may be unmarketable.
18.15. GRADING:
There are no standard grades available for jasmine.

The flowers may be graded according to the corolla tube length, bud size, shape
and freshness.
18.16. PACKING:
Packing should be functional, economical and attractive besides being acceptable

in markets.
Harvested flower should be given cold treatment before packing.
Corrugated cardboard boxes are the proper packing materials for distant market.
The growers also use small bags made out of fertilizer bag material to bring
flowers of jasmine to the market.
Wholesalers pack flowers in bamboo baskets.
They are packed so as to maintain some moisture and air circulation in the
baskets.
Water is sprinkled on the newspapers covering the inside of the basket.
The top is covered with paper again and closed with a bamboo basket cover or
gunny stack which is stitched at the edges.
18.17. YIELD:
Flower and concrete yield in jasmines vary considerably according to the species
and cultivars and management practices.
The flower yield and concrete recovery in three important species of jasmine are:
Species Flower yield Concrete recovery (%) Shelf life

(kg/ha) of flowers
J.auriculatum 4636 – 9022 0.28 – 0.36 (13.44 – 28.24 kg/ha) 28-30 hrs
J.grandiflorum 4329 – 10144 0.25 – 0.32 (13.85 – 29.42 kg/ha) 24 hrs
J. sambac 739 – 8129 0.14 – 0.19 (1.18 – 15.44 kg/ha) 28-30 hrs
Quiz

1. Jasmine belongs to the family
a. Oleaceae b. Asteraceae c.Iridaceae d. Caryophyllaceae
2. Jasmine being one of the important commercial flower crops is cultivated in
a. Malysia b. Singapore c. India d. Bangladesh
3. The world famous jasmine oil is extracted from the flowers of
a. J. grandiflorum b. J. auriculatum c. J. sambac d. J. pubescens
4. Parimullai is resistant to
a. Gall mite b. Nematodes c. Thrips d. White flies
5. CO 1 of J.auriculatum is selection from
a. Long Round type b. Long Point type c. CO2 d. None
6. CO 2 J.grandiflorum of is induced mutant from
a. Short Point b. Parimullai c. CO1 Pitchi d. Long Point
7. J.grandiflorum is propagated by
a. Semi-hard wood b. Terminal cutting c. Hard-wood cutting d. None
8. Spacing followed for J.auriculatum is
a. 1.25x1.25 b. 1.5x1.5 c. 1.75x1.75 d. 2.0x1.5
9. Pruning period for J.sambac
a. Last week of January b. Last week of December c. Last week of November d. None
10. Jasmine gives economic yield only from
a. Third year onwards b. Second year onwards c. First year onwards d. None
II, Match the following:
1. Jasminum auriculatum – a. IBA-1000ppm

2. Jasminum sambac - b. Parimullai
3. Jasminum grandiflorum - c. Gundu mallige
4. Jasminum pubescens - d. Kakada
5. Terminal cuttings - e. CO-1 Pitchi
III. State true or false:
1. Jasmine is mainly grown as pot plants rarely as climbers and shrubs.

2. The essential oil extracted from the flowers is of low value as starting material
for the perfume industry.
3. Jasmine prefers mild tropical climate.
4. CO2 is induced mutant from CO1 Pitchi.
5. In jasmine, flowering habit is terminal and axillary.
6. The natural perfume is available in very large quantity in jasmine flowers in
the form of volatile oil.
7. Processing of jasmine flowers involves three steps.
8. Jathimalli flowers open in the evening between 5-7 p.m.
9. Picking after 11.00 a.m. will increase the yield and quality of concrete.
10. The flowers may be graded according to the corolla tube length, bud size,
shape and freshness.
Answers:
1(a) , 2(c), 3(a), 4(a), 5(a), 6(c), 7(b), 8(b), 9(c), 10(a)
II. Match the following:

1(b), 2(c, 3(e), 4(d), 5(a)

1(F), 2(F), 3(T), 4(T), 5(T), 6(F), 7(F), 8(T), 9(F), 10(T)
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE 19
JASMINE (Jasminum spp.)
TOPICS
19.1. Extraction of jasmine concrete

19.1.1. Flowers
19.2. Processing
19.3. Treating the flowers with the solvent
19.4. Evaporation
19.5. Extractor
19.6. Evaporator
19.7. Condenser
19.8. Concrete
19.1. EXTRACTION OF JASMINE CONCRETE:
Jasmine concrete obtained from Jasminum grandiflorum (Jathi Malli/Pitchi) – is a wax

like substance containing the natural flower perfume together with some plant waxes,
albumin and colouring matter.
The natural perfume is available in very small quantity (0.25%) in jasmine flowers in the
form of volatile oil.
The usual and simple method of steam distillation for the extraction of the volatile oil
could not be adopted in this case as jasmines do not yield the perfume oil on steam
distillation.
Hence, the solvent extraction method is practiced in which the principle is that the
odoriferous substances of the flower are allowed to be absorbed by a highly volatile
solvent and then the solvent is evaporated leaving the odoriferous principles.
19.1.1. FLOWERS:
For extraction of concrete, only freshly picked fully opened flowers are required.
Jathimalli flowers open in the evening between 5-7 p.m.
The fully opened flowers have to be picked in the early morning preferably before 9.30
a.m.,
Delay in picking flowers after 9.30 a.m. results in gradual reduction of concrete yield.
Picking the flowers after 11.00 a.m. will considerably reduce the yield and quality of
concrete especially in the hot climate.
Therefore, it is essential to pick the fully opened flowers in the morning before it
becomes hot.
The flowers should be harvested and transported in clean baskets or cloth bags.
The flowers should be picked in such a way that at the time of picking, the sweat, dirt
etc., of the picking personal do not contaminate them. The contamination will reflect in
the quality of the concrete.
While picking and transporting care should be taken not to damage the flowers.
The damaged flowers yield concrete with more percentage of unwanted wax and other
plant materials.
The flowers harvested should be stored in a cool atmosphere and processed within a
maximum period of two hours.
19.2. PROCESSING:
Processing of jasmine flowers involves two steps.

1. Dissolving the perfume material by treating the flowers with the solvent.
2. Removal of the solvent from the perfume material by evaporation.
19.3. TREATING THE FLOWERS WITH THE SOLVENT:
The fully opened flowers are treated with the solvent so that all the odoriferous
material in the flowers gets dissolved in the solvent.
In this process, the solvent penetrates the flowers and dissolves the waxes,
albumin and colouring matter also, which have to be removed later to get pure
perfume oil.
In solvent extraction process, the most important factor is the quality of solvent
used.
Though there is no solvent possessing all the qualities, the commercial food
grade hexane has found to satisfy many of the requirements of good solvent and
hence used in large scale for the extraction of floral concrete throughout the
world.
Food grade hexane available in the market has to be purified before using it as
solvent.
Food grade hexane is treated with liquid paraffin at 5% and distilled at 700C.
The residue which is not evaporating at 700C is rejected as impurities.
The purified hexane is a colourless liquid with a boiling point ranging from 60 0C
to 800C.
The flowers are treated with purified hexane at 2 liters per kg of flower for about
30 minutes.
The complete extraction of the perfume from the flowers can also be ensured by
slowly rotating the container having the flowers and solvent for about 20 minutes
in the rotary type of extractor.
19.4. EVAPORATION:
After the complete extraction of the perfume from the flowers, the solvent is
filtered and concentrated by evaporation at a constant temperature of 750C.
At this temperature, the solvent evaporates leaving the perfume and other plant
waxes.
The vapour of the solvent is condensed into liquid again for recycling.
The concentrated liquid containing perfume, wax, pigments and the solvent is
distilled in a vacuum distillation unit where the complete removal of the solvent
takes place, leaving the floral concrete in the form of molten wax.
Based on the above principle, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
has designed a pilot plant for extraction of floral concrete.
It has essentially four steps viz.,
(1) Extractor
(2) Evaporator
(3) Condenser And
(4) Vacuum Distillation Unit.
19.5. EXTRACTOR:
The extractor used is a rotary type.
It has a capacity to treat 3 kg of flowers at a time.
For every kg of flowers, 2 liters of solvent is added and the extractor is closed
tightly and rotated slowly for 25 minutes at the rate of 3 rotations per minute.
After five minutes, the flowers are allowed to stand in the solvent for another 20
minutes.
During the process, the solvent absorbs the perfume of the flower.
After mixing, the solvent is drawn through the drain cock at the bottom of the
extractor, and filtered through a fine filter to remove the dust, dirt etc.
By opening the drain cock all the free solvent may come out but still a small
quantity of perfume laden solvent may be sticking to the spent flowers in the
extractor.
To draw this small quantity of solvent the spent flowers are gently pressed. It
must be noted that the flowers should never be squeezed to remove the solvent
completely.
19.6. EVAPORATOR:
The perfume laden solvent is led into the evaporator.

The evaporator is a wide mouthed circular bowel made in stainless steel with a
capacity to hold 25 litres of solvent.
It has an air tight lid with a hole at the centre for the outlet of the solvent vapour.
The evaporator is heated over a water bath at a constant temperature of 750C.
The water bath is heated electrically by 2000 watt heating elements and the
temperature is kept 750C by thermostatic control.
Temperature control is essential as high temperature and prolonged heating at
atmospheric pressure will spoil the quality and appearance of the concrete.
The evaporator should never be directly heated. It should be heated either over a
water bath or by steam circulation.
As the temperature rises in the evaporator, the hexane evaporates and the vapour
escapes through the hole in the lid which is led into the condenser through a
stainless steel pipe.
19.7. CONDENSER:
The condenser also is made of stainless steel and it contains several (12) small
pipes fitted parallely through which solvent vapour is passed.
By circulating cold water in the condenser continuously the solvent vapour is
condensed and it is collected for recycling.
The heating of the evaporator is continued till about 90% of the solvent is
recovered by condensation which may take about 30 hours.
The remaining 10% of the solvent containing all the aromatic oil and waxy
material is transferred to vacuum distillation unit where the complete removal of
the solvent is effected, and the concrete is left in the still in the form of molten
wax.
Here also the still should not be heated directly.
The heating should be done on a water bath.
Since vacuum has been created into the still, the solvent evaporates quickly at
lower temperature which is condensed in the condenser and collected for
recycling.
The heating should be continued till the last traces of hexane are removed.
The operation can be stopped when there is no condensation of hexane vapour in
the condenser.
After the complete removal of the solvent, a semi-solid was like brown substance
is left in the still which is the jasmine concrete of commerce.
The material when it is hot is transferred to the container in which it has to be
stored, when cooled it solidifies and transfer to other containers may be difficult.
The concrete can be stored in glass or aluminium containers.
19.8. CONCRETE:
It is a wax like substance containing the natural flower perfume together with
some plant waxes, albumin and colouring matter.
The natural perfume is available in very small quantity (0.25%) in jasmine
flowers in the form of volatile oil.
20.2. PROCESSING PROTOCOL:
Two steps
Dissolving the perfume material by treating the flowers with solvent.
Removal of the solvent from the perfume material by evaporation.
20.3. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
1. Extractor (Rotary type of 3 kg capacity)
2. Evaporator (wide mouthed circular stainless steel bowel of 25 litre capacity with
air tight lid + hole at the center for the outlet of solvent vapour)
3. Condenser (Stainless steel with 12 small pipes fitted parallelly for solvent vapour
passing and circulating cold water to condense the solvent).
4. Vacuum distillation unit.
20.4. STEP I – SOLVENT TREATMENT:
Flowers are soaked in Food Grade Hexane (Having Boiling point of 70oC).
Mixing Hexane 2 litres / kg of flowers for 30 minutes
Rotate the container slowly for 20 minutes in the rotary type of extractor.
Perfume substance along with wax and pigments dissolved in Hexane.
29.5. STEP II – EVAPORATION:
Perfume laden solvent is led into the evaporator
Evaporation at a constant temperature of 75oC
Vapour of the solvent condemned into liquid for recycling
Liquid (Perfume, wax & pigments) is distilled in a vacuum distillation unit for
complete removal of solvent in the still
Floral concrete settled in the still in the form of molten wax
Cooled and Stored in glass (or) aluminum containers
@@@@@@

1. Jasmine belongs to the family
a. Oleaceae b. Asteraceae c.Iridaceae d. Caryophyllaceae
2. Jasmine being one of the important commercial flower crops is cultivated in

a. Malysia b. Singapore c. India d. Bangladesh
3. The world famous jasmine oil is extracted from the flowers of

a. J. grandiflorum b. J. auriculatum c. J. sambac d. J. pubescens
4. Parimullai is resistant to
a. Gall mite b. Nematodes c. Thrips d. White flies
5. CO 1 of J.auriculatum is selection from

a. Long Round type b. Long Point type c. CO2 d. None
6. CO 2 J.grandiflorum of is induced mutant from

a. Short Point b. Parimullai c. CO1 Pitchi d. Long Point
7. J.grandiflorum is propagated by
a. Semi-hard wood b. Terminal cutting c. Hard-wood cutting d. None
8. Spacing followed for J.auriculatum is

a. 1.25x1.25 b. 1.5x1.5 c. 1.75x1.75 d. 2.0x1.5
9. Pruning period for J.sambac is last week of

a. January b. December c. November d. None
10. Jasmine gives economic yield only from

a. Third year onwards b. Second year onwards c. First year onwards d. None
1. Jasminum auriculatum - a. IBA-1000ppm

2. Jasminum sambac - b. Parimullai
3. Jasminum grandiflorum - c. Gundu mallige
4. Jasminum pubescens - d. Kakada
5. Terminal cuttings - e. CO-1 Pitchi
1. Jasmine is mainly grown as pot plants rarely as climbers and shrubs.

2. The essential oil extracted from the flowers is of low value as starting material for the
perfume industry.
3. Jasmine prefers mild tropical climate.
4. CO2 is induced mutant from CO1 Pitchi.
5. In jasmine, flowering habit is terminal and axillary.
6. The natural perfume is available in very large quantity in jasmine flowers in the
form of volatile oil.
7. Processing of jasmine flowers involves three steps.
8. Jathimalli flowers open in the evening between 5-7 p.m.
9. Picking after 11.00 a.m. will increase the yield and quality of concrete.
10. The flowers may be graded according to the corolla tube length, bud size, shape
and freshness.
Key Answers:
Choose the correct answers:

1(a) , 2(c), 3(a), 4(a), 5(a), 6(c), 7(b), 8(b), 9(c), 10(a)
Match the following:

1(b), 2(c, 3(e), 4(d), 5(a)
State true or false:

1(F), 2(F), 3(T), 4(T), 5(T), 6(F), 7(F), 8(T), 9(F), 10(T)
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE - 20
GLADIOLI (Gladiolus spp. Iridaceae)
TOPICS
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Classes of gladiolus
20.3. Varieties
20.4. CULTURE
20.4.1. Climate
20.4.2. Soil
20.4.3. Land preparation
20.5. After care
20.6. Propagation
20.7. CULTIVATION
20.7.1. Time of planting of corms
20.7.2. Method of Planting of Corms
20.8. Irrigation
20.9. Staking
20.10. Weed control
20.11. Flower Production
20.12. Nutrition
20.13. Harvesting of spikes and post harvest operations.
20.14. HARVESTING AND STORAGE OF CORMS
20.14.1. Harvesting of Corms:
20.14.5. Storage of corms
INTRODUCTION:
It is said to be the ‘Queen of bulbous flower crops’ and commonly known as

‘Sword Lily’ or ‘Corn flag.’
The name gladiolus was originally coined by Pliny the Elder.
Gladiolus (Tournefort.) L. takes its name from the Latin word ‘Gladius’
meaning a sword,’ because of sword- like shape of its foliage.
IMPORTANCE AND USES:
Gladiolus is an important florist crop, most popular as cut flower in the

domestic and International market.
In Netherlands, it ranks next only to tulip in commercial importance
It is relatively easy to grow and also suitable for bedding and exhibition.
The fascinating spikes bear a large number of florets which exhibit varying
sizes and forms; with smooth, ruffled, deeply crinkled or laciniated tepals.
The flower spikes are used in flower arrangements, in bouquets and for
indoor decoration.
Grandiflorus and Primulinus types look very attractive in mixed flower
borders.
Spikes of gladiolus have good keeping quality and can be transported to long
distances.
Its flowers open in acropetal succession, one by one and spike lasts for 1 to 3
weeks in ordinary vase water, depending upon the season and variety.
Gladiolus natalensis, G. cardinalis, G. communis, G. callianthus, G. arneus,
recurvus, G. tristis
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION:
There are around 200 species scattered throughout Tropical and South Africa and
Mediterranean region.
It is said to be in cultivation since 1578. It was first introduced into France & soon
after, it spread to England, Germany, Holland & North America.
No species is known to be native of India.
In India it was introduced during British period.
TAXONOMY:
 Gladiolus L. belongs to the family Iridaceae. Basic chromosome number is n=15.
 Ploidy in the genus ranges from diploid (2n=30) to dodecaploid (2n=180)
 The modern garden gladiolus is a complex of at least 12 species and most of the
cvr’s are tetraploids (2n=60) & highly heterozygous, they will not breed true to
the type if grown from seeds.
FLORAL BIOLOGY:
 Inflorescence is simple spike consisting of 10-25 florets all facing one side
arranged in rows.
 The florets are protandrous in nature, the anther dehiscing before the stigma of
same flower becomes receptive.
 2-3 flower open in the morning hours & later the anthers dehisce along the
longitudinal sutures. After about 24 hours of flower opening, the stigma becomes
receptive.
 Ray Choudary reported that the gladiolus flower bud takes 16 days to reach the
full bloom stage. The unfurling of the petals starts early in the morning &
complete opening of florets takes 22-24 hours.
 The dehiscence of anthers occurs between 8.00 and 9.30 a.m. following anthesis.
And stigma receptivity stays for 24 hours.
 Gladiolus is cross pollinated crop.
SPECIES:
There are about 226 recorded species scattered in Republic of South Africa.
The genus Gladiolus has further been divided into four sections.
Section I: Euglandiolus which includes 100 species.
Section II: Habea includes 12 spp.
Section III: Schweiggeria, includes only two species.
Section IV: Homoglossum, includes 5-6 species.
CLASSES OF GLADOIOLUS:
On the basis of floret size, gladiolus has been put into 5 classes, the description of
which is as follows:
Class Designation Floret size (cm)
100 Miniature < 6.4

200 Small or miniature ≥ 6.4 to < 8.9
300 Decorative ≥ 8.9 to < 11.4
400 Standard or Large ≥ 11.4 to 14.0
500 Giant > 14.0
CLASSIFICATION:
 Grandiflorus or large flowered hybrids: exhibition types, 90-150 cm long
spikes
 Primulinus hybrids: less vigorous, 40-45 cm long spike.
 Butterfly hybrids: spikes shorter than 45 cm.
 Miniature hybrids: recent origin. 40 cm long spike, ruffled tepals
 Face ups: dwarf stem, florets are 5-6 cm wide & face upward.
 Colvillei hybrids: (G.tristis X G cardinalis.) early flowering, more suitable for
green house condition.
 Ochideola: new group developed in Israel, produce smaller florets on shorter
stems
VARIETIES:
Colour Variety
Pink America, Applause, Dawn pink, Deciso, Friendship, My love
Orange Autumn Gold, Coral Seas, Fiesta, Setting sun
Red Black Prince, Hunting Song, Oscar, Victoria
Yellow Anglia, Aurora, Folk Song, Golden Harvest, Golden Peach
White Amsterdam, Classic, Cotton Blossom, White Friendship
Purple, Blue Moon, Her Majesty, High Style, Mayur, Pusa Sarang, Pusa
Violets Shingarika
IIHR Varieties
Amar Arka Naveen Arka Kesar Shobha

Darshan, Phule Neelrekha, Kum Kum, Punjab Dawn, Sagar
Dhanvanthari, Gulaal, Urvashi, Jyotsna, Urmi, Urmil, Arka Kesar
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT:
Gladioli require full exposure to sunlight for better crop, otherwise blasting
may occur or plants may remain blind.
The long day conditions of 12 to 14 h photoperiod increase number of
florets, spike length and percentage of flowering.
Low light intensity causes failure in flowering.
High light intensity without proper temperature also affects growth
adversely.
Corm storage at 3 to 7oC is good for better growth and flower production.
SOIL REQUIREMENT:
Gladioli can be grown in a wide range of soils.

The soil should have proper drainage facilities.
It should also contain sufficient organic matter.
The soil should be sandy-loam and slightly acidic with pH 5 to 8.
LAND PREPARATION:
Preferably, the bed size should be 6 x 2 meters.

The first ploughing is done to a depth of 30cm two month before planting and
left as such for another 2-3 weeks.
Second ploughing is done followed by rolling for a fine tilt hand remove
weeds and stubbles thoroughly before planting.
PROPAGATION:
Seeds:
Gladiolus can be propagated through

(i) Corms
(ii) Cormels
(iii) Seeds and
(iv) Tissue culture
(i) Through Corms
Propagation of gladiolus through corms is a commercially used method.

A single corm produces on an average of 1 to 3 flowers along with daughter
corms in a season depending upon its size and the variety.
10-50 cormels can be obtained from a single corm.
(ii) Through Cormels
Cormels from corms are used as planting material.

The multiplication of gladiolus through cormels is an inexpensive and
rapid method which enables build up of large stocks with minimum
cost.
The cormels also tend to escape diseases of viruses even if the parent
corm is infected.
TIME OF PLANTING OF CORMS:
 North Western Plains – October (first fortnight)

 Staggered planting can, however, be done at 10-15 day intervals from mid-August
to mid-December to get continued supply of spikes over a longer period and to
match the market demand.
 In temperate climates, the corms are planted after the winter, i.e. in March and
April when frosts are over and climate becomes warm.
PLANTING OF CORMS:
Only the non-dormant corms should be planted.

The emergence of root buds at the base of the corms shows that the corms are
ready for planting.
The corms should be suitably treated with fungicides before planting.
When planting, the lower portion of the corm should be placed on the soil
such that the bud at the top lies straight above.
It is done to make sure that the stem grows erect and does not show crooked
growth.
At planting time, the soil should contain sufficient moisture to facilitate
uniform sprouting of corms.
The depth of planting depends more on the size of the planting materials. The
medium and smaller sized corms are generally planted upto 7 cm deep while
large or jumbo corms to a depth up to 15 cm.
Planting is carried out during October in plains and March-April in hills.
The row to row distance is normally 40 cm while plant-to-plant is 15 cm.
The requirement of the corms per hectare is roughly 1, 50,000-2, 00,000.
IRRIGATION:
Gladiolus requires water in plenty but does not grow well under water-logged
conditions.
Frequency of irrigation depends upon the soil type, weather conditions and
rainfall.
Normally in sandy soils, the crop should be irrigated at 7-10 day intervals,
whereas in heavy soils, at less frequent intervals.
Irrigation should be withheld at least 4-6 weeks before lifting of corms.
STAKING:
Especially large-flowered varieties of gladioli grown outdoors are susceptible
to lodging, hence need staking.
The stems should be tied with strings to thin but strong supports
WEED CONTROL:
Pro-emergence herbicides reported for gladiolus are diuron (0.9 kg/ha) (or)
linuron (3.0 kg/ha)
Post-emergence herbicides, 2, 4-D @ 1.5-3.0 kg/ha has been found to reduce
weed population.
NUTRITION:
Commonly a 12:12:18 N:P:K compound fertilizer is applied prior to

planting at 1 ton per hectare.
Gladiolus can be damaged by fluorine and phosphatic fertilizers containing
fluorine should not be used.
The crop can be top dressed as required with calcium nitrate at an
application rate of 200-300 kg per hectare.
HARVESTING OF SPIKES AND POST HARVEST OPERATIONS:
Harvesting of Spikes:
Gladiolus takes 60-120 days to produce spikes.

The spikes of gladiolus generally exhibit vase life of about 7-15 days.
The spikes should be harvested in the morning or evening hours when
temperatures are mild.
Spikes should preferably be cut with sharp knives or secateurs.
While harvesting, at least four basal leaves should be retained on the plant to
ensure proper development of corms and cormels.
The stage at which the spike is to be cut should depend upon the
transportation distance, consumer requirement and prevailing temperature
conditions.
HARVESTING AND STORAGE OF CORMS:
It generally takes 6-8 weeks after harvesting of spikes fro the corms to
become mature and ready for lifting.
Plant growth stops at this stage.
Irrigations should normally be withheld at least 2-3 weeks before harvesting
of corms.
In India, lifting of corms is carried out manually with small garden forks or
‘khurpas’.
After lifting the corms from the soil, the upper leafy portions should be
removed by twisting and breaking the stalk.
The old withering mother corms attached to the bottom of the newly-formed
corms should also be removed similarly with the thumb.
The cormels should also be separated simultaneously and handled separately.
The corms usually get damaged or bruised during harvesting and cleaning
operations.
The corms should be cleaned, dipped for 30 min in 0.3% Captan 50 WP and
shade-dried at an aerated place for about 15 days.
Corms are then packed in crates or in net bags and cold-stored at 3-7oC.
From cold storage, these corms should be taken out one month prior to
planting and kept at ambient conditions at an aerated place.
The corms or cormels of different cultivars must be handled separately and
labeling properly so that they do not get mixed up.
Before planting, these are once again dipped for one hour in 0.3% Captan
solution
STORAGE OF CORMS:
Storage of corms at low temperature (4-5oC) is an established commercial
practice.
It serves three main purposes:
o It helps to break dormancy of corms raised under warmer climates,
o It helps to overcome warm and dry conditions of summer months
that intervene between lifting or corms and their planting in the
subsequent season, and
o It prevents premature sprouting of corms.
I. CHOOSE THE CORRECT ANSWERS:
1. The word Gladiolus is derived from

a. Latin b.French c.Greek d. English.
2. Floret size of giant Gladiolus is

a. >14 b. ≥ 11.4 to 14.0 c. ≥ 6.4 to < 8.9 d. ≥ 8.9 to < 11.4
3. Red colour variety of gladiolus

a. America b. Pusa Sarang c. Black Prince d. My Love
4. Gladiolus flower opens in -------- succession

a. Acropetal b. Basipetal c. Middle d. None
5. Gladiolus is a
a. Short day plant b. Long day plant c. Day neutral d.
None
6. Number of cormels can be obtained from a single corm

a. 10-20 b. 10-100 c. 10-50 d. 50-100
7. Corms should be harvested ---------- weeks after harvesting of spikes

a. 4-8 b. 6-8 c. 2-4 d. 4-6
8. Corms are cold stored at a temperature of

a. 4-5o C b. 3-7o C c. 4-8o C d. 6-8o C
9. Gladiolus are classified into five classes based on

a. Flower colour b. Spike length c. Leaf length d. Floret size
10. Gladiolus prefers a pH range of

a. 5-8 b. 4-8 c. 6-7 d. 8.5-9
KEY WORDS:
1(a) , 2(a), 3(c), 4(a), 5(b), 6(c), 7(b), 8(a), 9(d), 10(a)
II. STATE TRUE OR FALSE:
1. Gladiolus belongs to Iridaceae family.

2. Gladiolus (Tourn.) L. takes its name from the Greek word Gladius.
3. Gladiolus is a short day plant.
4. Commercial method of Gladiolus propagation is through cormels.
5. Large flowered variety of Gladiolus is not susceptible to lodging.
6. Gladiolus takes 60-120 days to produce spikes.
7. Stage of harvesting of Gladioli depends on transport distance &
consumer requirement.
8. Low temperature storage will prevent pre mature sprouting of
corms.
9. Only dormant corms should be planted.
10. Cormels are free from viruses.

1(T), 2(F), 3(F), 4(F), 5(F), 6(T), 7(T), 8(T), 9(F), 10(T)
☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE - 20
GLADIOLI (Gladiolus spp. Iridaceae)
TOPICS
20.1. Introduction
20.2. Classes of gladiolus
20.3. Varieties
20.4. CULTURE
20.4.1. Climate
20.4.2. Soil
20.4.3. Land preparation
20.5. After care
20.6. Propagation
20.7. CULTIVATION
20.7.1. Time of planting of corms
20.7.2. Method of Planting of Corms
20.8. Irrigation
20.9. Staking
20.10. Weed control
20.11. Flower Production
20.12. Nutrition
20.13. Harvesting of spikes and post harvest operations.
20.14. HARVESTING AND STORAGE OF CORMS
20.14.1. Harvesting of Corms:
20.14.5. Storage of corms
INTRODUCTION:
It is said to be the ‘Queen of bulbous flower crops’ and commonly known as

‘Sword Lily’ or ‘Corn flag.’
The name gladiolus was originally coined by Pliny the Elder.
Gladiolus (Tournefort.) L. takes its name from the Latin word ‘Gladius’
meaning a sword,’ because of sword- like shape of its foliage.
IMPORTANCE AND USES:
Gladiolus is an important florist crop, most popular as cut flower in the

domestic and International market.
In Netherlands, it ranks next only to tulip in commercial importance
It is relatively easy to grow and also suitable for bedding and exhibition.
The fascinating spikes bear a large number of florets which exhibit varying
sizes and forms; with smooth, ruffled, deeply crinkled or laciniated tepals.
The flower spikes are used in flower arrangements, in bouquets and for
indoor decoration.
Grandiflorus and Primulinus types look very attractive in mixed flower
borders.
Spikes of gladiolus have good keeping quality and can be transported to long
distances.
Its flowers open in acropetal succession, one by one and spike lasts for 1 to 3
weeks in ordinary vase water, depending upon the season and variety.
Gladiolus natalensis, G. cardinalis, G. communis, G. callianthus, G. arneus,
recurvus, G. tristis
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION:
There are around 200 species scattered throughout Tropical and South Africa and
Mediterranean region.
It is said to be in cultivation since 1578. It was first introduced into France & soon
after, it spread to England, Germany, Holland & North America.
No species is known to be native of India.
In India it was introduced during British period.
TAXONOMY:
 Gladiolus L. belongs to the family Iridaceae. Basic chromosome number is n=15.
 Ploidy in the genus ranges from diploid (2n=30) to dodecaploid (2n=180)
 The modern garden gladiolus is a complex of at least 12 species and most of the
cvr’s are tetraploids (2n=60) & highly heterozygous, they will not breed true to
the type if grown from seeds.
FLORAL BIOLOGY:
 Inflorescence is simple spike consisting of 10-25 florets all facing one side
arranged in rows.
 The florets are protandrous in nature, the anther dehiscing before the stigma of
same flower becomes receptive.
 2-3 flower open in the morning hours & later the anthers dehisce along the
longitudinal sutures. After about 24 hours of flower opening, the stigma becomes
receptive.
 Ray Choudary reported that the gladiolus flower bud takes 16 days to reach the
full bloom stage. The unfurling of the petals starts early in the morning &
complete opening of florets takes 22-24 hours.
 The dehiscence of anthers occurs between 8.00 and 9.30 a.m. following anthesis.
And stigma receptivity stays for 24 hours.
 Gladiolus is cross pollinated crop.
SPECIES:
There are about 226 recorded species scattered in Republic of South Africa.
The genus Gladiolus has further been divided into four sections.
Section I: Euglandiolus which includes 100 species.
Section II: Habea includes 12 spp.
Section III: Schweiggeria, includes only two species.
Section IV: Homoglossum, includes 5-6 species.
CLASSES OF GLADOIOLUS:
On the basis of floret size, gladiolus has been put into 5 classes, the description of
which is as follows:
Class Designation Floret size (cm)
100 Miniature < 6.4

200 Small or miniature ≥ 6.4 to < 8.9
300 Decorative ≥ 8.9 to < 11.4
400 Standard or Large ≥ 11.4 to 14.0
500 Giant > 14.0
CLASSIFICATION:
 Grandiflorus or large flowered hybrids: exhibition types, 90-150 cm long
spikes
 Primulinus hybrids: less vigorous, 40-45 cm long spike.
 Butterfly hybrids: spikes shorter than 45 cm.
 Miniature hybrids: recent origin. 40 cm long spike, ruffled tepals
 Face ups: dwarf stem, florets are 5-6 cm wide & face upward.
 Colvillei hybrids: (G.tristis X G cardinalis.) early flowering, more suitable for
green house condition.
 Ochideola: new group developed in Israel, produce smaller florets on shorter
stems
VARIETIES:
Colour Variety
Pink America, Applause, Dawn pink, Deciso, Friendship, My love
Orange Autumn Gold, Coral Seas, Fiesta, Setting sun
Red Black Prince, Hunting Song, Oscar, Victoria
Yellow Anglia, Aurora, Folk Song, Golden Harvest, Golden Peach
White Amsterdam, Classic, Cotton Blossom, White Friendship
Purple, Blue Moon, Her Majesty, High Style, Mayur, Pusa Sarang, Pusa
Violets Shingarika
IIHR Varieties
Amar Arka Naveen Arka Kesar Shobha

Darshan, Phule Neelrekha, Kum Kum, Punjab Dawn, Sagar
Dhanvanthari, Gulaal, Urvashi, Jyotsna, Urmi, Urmil, Arka Kesar
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT:
Gladioli require full exposure to sunlight for better crop, otherwise blasting
may occur or plants may remain blind.
The long day conditions of 12 to 14 h photoperiod increase number of
florets, spike length and percentage of flowering.
Low light intensity causes failure in flowering.
High light intensity without proper temperature also affects growth
adversely.
Corm storage at 3 to 7oC is good for better growth and flower production.
SOIL REQUIREMENT:
Gladioli can be grown in a wide range of soils.

The soil should have proper drainage facilities.
It should also contain sufficient organic matter.
The soil should be sandy-loam and slightly acidic with pH 5 to 8.
LAND PREPARATION:
Preferably, the bed size should be 6 x 2 meters.

The first ploughing is done to a depth of 30cm two month before planting and
left as such for another 2-3 weeks.
Second ploughing is done followed by rolling for a fine tilt hand remove
weeds and stubbles thoroughly before planting.
PROPAGATION:
Seeds:
Gladiolus can be propagated through

(i) Corms
(ii) Cormels
(iii) Seeds and
(iv) Tissue culture
(i) Through Corms
Propagation of gladiolus through corms is a commercially used method.

A single corm produces on an average of 1 to 3 flowers along with daughter
corms in a season depending upon its size and the variety.
10-50 cormels can be obtained from a single corm.
(ii) Through Cormels
Cormels from corms are used as planting material.

The multiplication of gladiolus through cormels is an inexpensive and
rapid method which enables build up of large stocks with minimum
cost.
The cormels also tend to escape diseases of viruses even if the parent
corm is infected.
TIME OF PLANTING OF CORMS:
 North Western Plains – October (first fortnight)

 Staggered planting can, however, be done at 10-15 day intervals from mid-August
to mid-December to get continued supply of spikes over a longer period and to
match the market demand.
 In temperate climates, the corms are planted after the winter, i.e. in March and
April when frosts are over and climate becomes warm.
PLANTING OF CORMS:
Only the non-dormant corms should be planted.

The emergence of root buds at the base of the corms shows that the corms are
ready for planting.
The corms should be suitably treated with fungicides before planting.
When planting, the lower portion of the corm should be placed on the soil
such that the bud at the top lies straight above.
It is done to make sure that the stem grows erect and does not show crooked
growth.
At planting time, the soil should contain sufficient moisture to facilitate
uniform sprouting of corms.
The depth of planting depends more on the size of the planting materials. The
medium and smaller sized corms are generally planted upto 7 cm deep while
large or jumbo corms to a depth up to 15 cm.
Planting is carried out during October in plains and March-April in hills.
The row to row distance is normally 40 cm while plant-to-plant is 15 cm.
The requirement of the corms per hectare is roughly 1, 50,000-2, 00,000.
IRRIGATION:
Gladiolus requires water in plenty but does not grow well under water-logged
conditions.
Frequency of irrigation depends upon the soil type, weather conditions and
rainfall.
Normally in sandy soils, the crop should be irrigated at 7-10 day intervals,
whereas in heavy soils, at less frequent intervals.
Irrigation should be withheld at least 4-6 weeks before lifting of corms.
STAKING:
Especially large-flowered varieties of gladioli grown outdoors are susceptible
to lodging, hence need staking.
The stems should be tied with strings to thin but strong supports
WEED CONTROL:
Pro-emergence herbicides reported for gladiolus are diuron (0.9 kg/ha) (or)
linuron (3.0 kg/ha)
Post-emergence herbicides, 2, 4-D @ 1.5-3.0 kg/ha has been found to reduce
weed population.
NUTRITION:
Commonly a 12:12:18 N:P:K compound fertilizer is applied prior to

planting at 1 ton per hectare.
Gladiolus can be damaged by fluorine and phosphatic fertilizers containing
fluorine should not be used.
The crop can be top dressed as required with calcium nitrate at an
application rate of 200-300 kg per hectare.
HARVESTING OF SPIKES AND POST HARVEST OPERATIONS:
Harvesting of Spikes:
Gladiolus takes 60-120 days to produce spikes.

The spikes of gladiolus generally exhibit vase life of about 7-15 days.
The spikes should be harvested in the morning or evening hours when
temperatures are mild.
Spikes should preferably be cut with sharp knives or secateurs.
While harvesting, at least four basal leaves should be retained on the plant to
ensure proper development of corms and cormels.
The stage at which the spike is to be cut should depend upon the
transportation distance, consumer requirement and prevailing temperature
conditions.
HARVESTING AND STORAGE OF CORMS:
It generally takes 6-8 weeks after harvesting of spikes fro the corms to
become mature and ready for lifting.
Plant growth stops at this stage.
Irrigations should normally be withheld at least 2-3 weeks before harvesting
of corms.
In India, lifting of corms is carried out manually with small garden forks or
‘khurpas’.
After lifting the corms from the soil, the upper leafy portions should be
removed by twisting and breaking the stalk.
The old withering mother corms attached to the bottom of the newly-formed
corms should also be removed similarly with the thumb.
The cormels should also be separated simultaneously and handled separately.
The corms usually get damaged or bruised during harvesting and cleaning
operations.
The corms should be cleaned, dipped for 30 min in 0.3% Captan 50 WP and
shade-dried at an aerated place for about 15 days.
Corms are then packed in crates or in net bags and cold-stored at 3-7oC.
From cold storage, these corms should be taken out one month prior to
planting and kept at ambient conditions at an aerated place.
The corms or cormels of different cultivars must be handled separately and
labeling properly so that they do not get mixed up.
Before planting, these are once again dipped for one hour in 0.3% Captan
solution
STORAGE OF CORMS:
Storage of corms at low temperature (4-5oC) is an established commercial
practice.
It serves three main purposes:
o It helps to break dormancy of corms raised under warmer climates,
o It helps to overcome warm and dry conditions of summer months
that intervene between lifting or corms and their planting in the
subsequent season, and
o It prevents premature sprouting of corms.
1. The word Gladiolus is derived from

a. Latin b.French c.Greek d. English.
2. Floret size of giant Gladiolus is

a. >14 b. ≥ 11.4 to 14.0 c. ≥ 6.4 to < 8.9 d. ≥ 8.9 to < 11.4
3. Red colour variety of gladiolus

a. America b. Pusa Sarang c. Black Prince d. My Love
4. Gladiolus flower opens in -------- succession

a. Acropetal b. Basipetal c. Middle d. None
5. Gladiolus is a
a. Short day plant b. Long day plant c. Day neutral d.
None
6. Number of cormels can be obtained from a single corm

a. 10-20 b. 10-100 c. 10-50 d. 50-100
7. Corms should be harvested ---------- weeks after harvesting of spikes

a. 4-8 b. 6-8 c. 2-4 d. 4-6
8. Corms are cold stored at a temperature of

a. 4-5o C b. 3-7o C c. 4-8o C d. 6-8o C
9. Gladiolus are classified into five classes based on

a. Flower colour b. Spike length c. Leaf length d. Floret size
10. Gladiolus prefers a pH range of

a. 5-8 b. 4-8 c. 6-7 d. 8.5-9
KEY WORDS:
1(a) , 2(a), 3(c), 4(a), 5(b), 6(c), 7(b), 8(a), 9(d), 10(a)
1. Gladiolus belongs to Iridaceae family.

2. Gladiolus (Tourn.) L. takes its name from the Greek word Gladius.
3. Gladiolus is a short day plant.
4. Commercial method of Gladiolus propagation is through cormels.
5. Large flowered variety of Gladiolus is not susceptible to lodging.
6. Gladiolus takes 60-120 days to produce spikes.
7. Stage of harvesting of Gladioli depends on transport distance &
consumer requirement.
8. Low temperature storage will prevent pre mature sprouting of
corms.
9. Only dormant corms should be planted.
10. Cormels are free from viruses.

1(T), 2(F), 3(F), 4(F), 5(F), 6(T), 7(T), 8(T), 9(F), 10(T)
☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE - 21
MARIGOLD (Tagetes spp., Asteraceae)
TOPICS
21.1. Importance
21.2. Uses
21.3. Origin and History
21.4. Species
21.5. Types
21.6. Varieties
21.7. CULTURE
21.6.1. Climate
21.6.2. Soil
21.6.3. Preparation of soil
21.8. PROPAGATION
21.7.1. Seeds
21.7.2. Cuttings
21.7.3. Transplanting of seedlings
21.7.4. Spacing
21.9. Manures and Fertilizers
21.10. Weeding
21.11. Irrigation
21.12. Pinching of Marigold plants
21.13. Harvesting and Yield
21.1. IMPORTANCE:
 Marigold has gained popularity amongst gardeners and flower dealers on account of its
easy culture and wide adaptability.
 Free flowering and short duration.
 Wide spectrum of colour, shape, size and good keeping quality.
 Marigold is also known as ‘Friendship Flower’ in the United States.
 In language of flowers, marigold, in general, means anxiety but despair or grief, in
particular.
 African marigold represents vulgar minds whereas,
 French marigold is a symbol of jealousy.
21.2. USES:
1
 Used for garland, veni and other decorations.
 The long stemmed flowers used for vase arrangements.
 It is highly suitable as bedding plant, in an herbaceous border, also as shrubbery in
landscaping.
 French marigold is ideal for rockery, edging, hanging baskets and window boxes.
 Have medicinal properties to cure boils and carbuncles.
 Floral extract is used as a blood purifier and cure for bleeding piles.
 Good remedy for eye diseases and ulcers.
 Some species of Tagetes are used for essential oil extraction.
 The Pigments (Xanthophylls) are used as a natural colour to intensify yellow colour
of egg yolk and broiler skin, flesh and also for fish.
 Xanthophylls are the major carotenoid fraction in the flower petals.
 Lutein accounts for 80 – 90% of total xanthophylls content.
 Used for colouring the food stuffs, textile industries and pharmaceuticals.
 Tagetes patula contain essential oil which can readily be extracted by steam
distillation.
 The oil has a pronounced odour and acts as a repellent to flies.
 Trap crop -It is highly effective in reducing the population of nematodes under
control and also attracts the fruit borers in many vegetables, fruits and ornamental
plants.
21.3. ORIGIN AND HISTORY

 The name ‘Tagetes’ was given after ‘Tages’, a demigod, known for his beauty.
 African marigold was first introduced into ‘Spain’ early in the 16th century and
became popular in Southern Europe under the name, ‘Rose of the Indies’. This plant
was reintroduced into Europe in 1535 under the name, ‘Flos Africonus’ by Emperor
Charles V.
 It continued to be so called until well upto the 18th century, although it was correctly
figured as Plantas tagetes indica in Fuch’s Herbal of 1547 (Genders, 1971).
 It is native of central and Southern America, especially Mexico.
2
21.4. SPECIES
There are about 33 species of the genus Tagetes. Some of the important are as follows
1. Tagetes erecta (African marigold):
 Plant is hardy, annual, upto 90 cm tall, erect and branched.

 Flowers are single to fully double and large sized with globular heads.
 Flower varies from lemon yellow to yellow, golden yellow or orange.
2. Tagetes patula (French marigold):
 A hardy annual, about 30 cm tall, bushy type.

 Foliage is dark green with reddish stem.
 Flowers are small, either single or double
 The flower colour varies from yellow to mahogany red.
Other important species

3. T. tenuifolia (Syn. T. signata) – Bushy type (less than 30 cm)
4. T. lucida – Sweet scented marigold, perennial
5. T. lacera – Californian marigold, grow upto 120-150 cm in height
6. T. lemmonii – Shrubby marigold, grow upto 60-70 cm height bears small flowers.
In India the cultivation of T. erecta and T. patula are dominant.
21.5. TYPES
I. AFRICAN MARIGOLD (Tagetes erecta):–

1. Carnation flowered (Carnation flowered tall):
• The plants grow up to a height of 75cm, flowers up to 10cm across.
• Color orange, golden yellow, deep orange or lemon yellow
i. Carnation flowered dwarf: It grows up to 40cm and large flowering.
3
2. Chrysanthemum flowered:
i. Tall double chrysanthemum flowered: plants are tall (60-80cm), flowers are
large and are available in various shades of yellow and orange.
ii. Dwarf double chrysanthemum flowered – grow up to 20-30cm.it has several
strain viz.,
• Lexur Series – Improved cupid type
• Rexor Series - improved spun type
3. Tall F1 hybrids:
• Plants grow up to 3 m high, large, fully double flowers up to 12cm across. It
has two series
• F1 Gold Coin Series
• F1 Climax series
4. Semi tall F1 Hybrids: This is also popular as hedge type because of its uniform and
compact growth. Grows upto 50 cm height. Double flowers and 10cm across.
5. Dwarf F1 Hybrids: plants grow up to 15- 40 cm high with compact. Many flowers
appear at one time i.e., uniform flowering.
1. Inca Series: Flowers are large, fully double and compact.
2. Space Age Series: Early flowering, dwarf and uniform.
3. Galore Series: long flowering duration with uniform.
6. F1 Triploids: early type and vary free flowering. Large and golden yellow flowers
II. FRENCH MARIGOLD (Tagetes patula):
1. DWARF DOUBLE:
 Plant 20-30cm high, yellow, orange, reddish brown, mahogany red, golden
yellow, sometimes bi-colour.
2. DWARF DOUBLE – SCABIOUS FLOWERED:
 Flowers with crested centre,
 Wide range of colours are available – golden yellow, golden orange with
red marking, golden yellow with red, brownish red with orange centre,
golden yellow with spotted red, etc.
3. DWARF DOUBLE PETITE:
 A plant are very dwarf, 15-20cm high, and bears large number of attractive
flowers with golden yellow, orange, yellow and maroon colour.
4
4. FRENCH DWARF SINGLE:
 Plants grow up to 20-35cm high, compact flowers, single,
Golden yellow, yellow, golden yellow with maroon eye, mahogany red
with yellow centre, yellow with brown.
5. DWARF TRIPLOID F1 HYBRID:
 Plants grow up to 25-40 cm high, extremely early, profuse flowering;
colour – yellow, golden yellow, orange and brownish red.
6. DWARF DOUBLE:
 Dwarf All Saints: grows upto about 20cm high, good for bedding and
wide range of colours are available.
 Dwarf chrysanthemum type: Plants will grow upto 20cm high, compact
and bushy, chrysanthemum flowered with rose and crimson coloured.
7. TETRAPLOID HYBRIDS:
 Early flowering, brilliant orange, fully double, carnation type flowers up
to 6-7cm across.
8. SINGLE SIGNET (Tagetes tenuifolia):
 One of the dwarf types of marigold, grow up to30-35cm tall, bushy with
fine lacy foliage and covered with small single flowers of lemon yellow
and orange colours.
 These are suitable for pot culture, edging or rock garden in landscaping.
INTERSPECIFIC HYBRIDS:
 The interspecific hybrids between African marigold and French marigold have been
produced in the USA which is intermediate in characters.
 These hybrids are early flowering, medium in height, grow about 60 cm tall.
 Plants are bushy and produce double flowers with delightful colour combination of red
and gold and hence they are called ‘Red and Gold Hybrids’.
GENETICS AND BREEDING
Genetics:
Towner 1961 compiled the species of Tagetes based on their chromosome number is as
follows
Diploid species- 2n Tetraploid species- 4n
1. Tagetes erecta - 24 (Eyster, 1939) 1. T. patula - 48 (Eyster, 1939)
2. T. tenuifolia -24 (Eyster, 1939) 2. T. minuta - 48
3. T. elongate -24 3. T. remotiflora - 48
4. T. lemminii -24 4. T.biflora - 48
5. T. lucida -22 5. T. mendocina - 48
6. T. jaliscensis - 24 (Townwe, 1962)
5
MALE STERILITY:
There are two types of male sterility is observed by Goldsmith during 1968 in marigold viz.,
1. Apetalous
2. Double flowered.
 Apetalous male sterility is more preferred to full double flowers.
 Because the second one is prone to break down and it gives few disc florets at
later stages which, may be due to the age of the plant or environmental factors.
 Apetalous flowers are less attractive to pollinating insects.
 Male sterility is governed by recessive gene and is incorporated into seed parent.
 It is maintained by crossing the heterozygous plants with the sterile ones.
BREEDING:
 Self incompatible and cross pollinated crop.
 The ratio of CP to SP is 35:65
FLORAL BIOLOGY
OBJECTIVES
• High yielding, better quality of genotypes.
• Pest and disease tolerance
• Flower color-bicolors
METHODS
 Introduction and Selection
 Hybridization
 Pedigree breeding
 Heterosis breeding
 Male sterility
 Polyploidy
6
21.5. VARIETIES
1. Tagetes erecta (African marigold)

 Produces either 50 flowers or 800g of flowers by weight/plant for commercial
growing.
Eg:
Alaska, Fire Glow, Golden Jubilee, Golden age, Yellow Fluffy, Giant Double
African Orange, Climax (F1), Golden Climax and Tant Bangalore selection,
Pusa Narangi Gainda, Pusa Basanti Gainda, Orange Lady, Orange Double,
Sun Giant,Texas, Yellow stones or GoldSumith, Golden Mammoth mum,
Guinea Gold, Happiness, Hawaii, Honey comb, Man of the moon, Mr. Moon
light, Giant sunset, Orange Fluffy, Orange mums, Prime rose, River side,
MDU-1, Giant Double African Orange, Giant Double African Yellow,
Cracker Jack, Climax, Dusloom, Golden Age, Chrysanthemum Charm,
Crown and Gold, Spun Gold
2. Tagetes patula (French marigold)

 Cultivars which produces either 100 flowers or 200g flowers per plant.
Eg:
Brownie Scout , Burpees Nugget, Cupid Yellow, Orange flame, Petite (W),
(Y), Petite spray, Petite Gold, Yellow pygmy, Valencia, Sussana, Bolero,
Bonita, Burpee’s Gold Nugget, Burpee’s red and gold, Caronea, Cupid Yellow,
Fiesta, Goldie, Harmony, Lemon drop, Melody. Red Brocade, Rusty Red,
Butter Scotch, etc.
3. Tagetes tenuifolia
Golden Gem, Lulu, Pumila, Ursula, etc.
21.6. MARIGOLD CULTURE
21.6.1. CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT:
 Marigold requires mild climate for luxuriant growth and profuse flowering.
 It ceases to grow at high temperature thereby flower quantity and quality is adversely
affected.
 During severe winter including frost plants and flowers are killed and blackened.
 Sowing and planting is carried out during rainy season, winter and summer season.
 Hence, flowers of marigold can be had almost throughout the year.
7
21.6.2. SOIL REQUIREMENT:
 Marigold can be successfully cultivated on a wide variety of soils.

 However, a soil that is deep fertile and sandy loam, friable having well water holding
capacity, well drained and near to neutral in reaction
 pH of 7.0-7.5 is most desirable.
21.6.3. PREPARATION OF SOIL:
 Land should be well prepared by ploughing 2-3 times and 50 tones of well
decomposed farmyard manure should be well mixed.
 Beds of convenient size are made to facilitate irrigation and other cultural operations.
21.7. PROPAGATION:
 Marigold is propagated by both methods i.e.,

1. Seeds
2. Cuttings.
21.7.1. BY SEEDS:
 Crop raised from seeds is taller than the vegetatively propagated one and vigorous
and heavy bloomer; thus, it is preferred over cuttings.
 For better seed germination, optimum temperature range between 18 to 30oC is
required.
 Seed rate of 1.5 kg is required for one hectare area.
 Seeds of marigold can be sown in pots, seed boxes or on flat or raised nursery beds.
 Nursery beds of 3 x 1 m size are thoroughly prepared and mixed with 10 kg of well
decomposed farmyard manure per sq m
21.7.2. BY CUTTINGS:
 This method is commonly followed for maintaining the purity of varieties.

 Normally, the presence of adventitious roots along the stem helps in the
establishment of cuttings.
 About 10 cm long cuttings are made and treated with seradix No.1.
 The cuttings are planted in the sand to strike roots easily and plants thus raised are
used for bedding and pot planting.
8
21.7.3. TRANSPLANTING OF SEEDLINGS:
 Marigold seedlings will be easily established after transplanting in the field without
much mortality.
 At the time of transplanting, seedlings of one month old with 3-4 true leaves have to
be selected for proper establishment and higher yield.
 Aged seedling should not be selected.
 Transplant should be done early in the morning or late in the evening. One side of
the ridges formed.
 After transplanting, a light irrigation has to be given.
21.7.4. SPACING:
♥ In general Tagetes erecta requires wider spacing than T. patula. However a wide
range is practiced all over the country for higher yield. They are as follows,
Tagetes erecta Tagetes patula
1) 40 x 40cm 1) 20 x 20cm
2) 40 x 30cm 2) 20 x 10cm
3) 45 x 30cm 3) 30 x 30cm
4) 60 x 45cm 4) 30 x 30cm
21.8. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS:
 To get highest flower yield, 100 kg N, 100 kg P2O5 and 100 kg K2O should be mixed
at the time of preparation of land.
 Remaining 100 kg N per ha should be applied in 2 splits @ 30 and 40 days after
transplanted.
21.9. WEEDING:
 3-4 manual weeding are required during the entire growth period.
21.10. IRRIGATION:
 It takes about 55-60 days to complete vegetative growth and to enter into
reproductive phase.
 Season of planting determines the frequency of irrigation.
 If rainfall is normal and well distributed, irrigation is not frequently required, but if
the rain is scanty irrigation is needed frequently.
 From April to June, frequent irrigation at the interval of 4-5 days is required.
9
21.11. PINCHING:
 In tall varieties of Tagetes erecta, emergence of side branches and their flowering is
influenced by the presence of apical dominance.
 Due to which the plants of marigold grow straight upwards to their final height and
develop into terminal flower bud.
 However the apical portion of the shoot is removed at the early stage to get more
number of axillaries which in turn produces more flowers.
 Pinching the plants at 40 days after transplanting enabled the plants to yield more
flowers.
FLOWERING
 In summer season crop, - commences by the middle of May with maximum

intensity in the month of June and continues till the onset of rains.
 Rainy season crop - by the middle of September and the flowering will continue
till December.
 Flowering in winter crop - by the middle of January and will continue till March.
PESTS AND DISEASES:
Diseases (Fungal): Causal organism Measures
1) Damping off Rhizoctonia solani Seed treatment with capton @ 0.5%
2) Collor rot Rhizoctonia solani Seed treatment with capton @ 0.5%

Phytophthora sp.
Pythium sp.
Sclerotium rolfsi
3) Leaf spot Alternaria tagetica Spray with Blitox @ 0.4% or
Cercospora spp. Bavistin @ 0.1%
Septoria tageticola
4) Blight Colletotrichum capsia DM 45 @ 0.2%

5) Inflorescence blight Alternaria zinnac DM 45 @ 0.2% or Bavistin @ 0.1%
6) Powdery mildew Oidium sp. Spray with calixin, sulfex @
0.2% (WS) @ 0.2%
Viral diseases: Marigold is infected by Cmv, Aster yellow virus
10
PESTS
1. Red spider mite : Spray Kelthane @ 2ml/l

2. Hairy caterpillar: Spray Endosulfan or Ekolux @ 2ml/l
3. Leaf hopper : Spray wits Melathian or Rogar @ 2ml/l
4. Japanese Beetle
5. Tarnished plant bug,
6. Slugs
21.12. HARVESTING AND YIELD:
 Marigold flower should be plucked when they attain the full size depending upon the
variety.
 Plucking of flowers should be done in cool hours of the day i.e, either in the morning
or evening.
 Field should be irrigated before harvesting so that, flowers keep well for longer
period after plucking.
 Plucked flowers should be covered with moist gunny bags if kept overnight before
taking to market.
 Productivity of plants increases considerably by regular plucking of flowers.
Yield No. of flowers/ha Fresh flower

(Million) (t/ha)
1) African marigold 1.5 – 2.5 11 – 18
2) French marigold 6.0 – 8.0 8 – 12
Marigold Flower Polysaccharide (MFP):
 MFP can be extracted from the meal with warm (50-55oC) water.
 Petals were separated from the rest of the flower and extracted in a soxhlet apparatus with
methanol.
11
Quiz
I. Chose the correct answer from the following
1. In USA marigold is also known as

a) Friendship flower b) National flower c) Blanket flower d) none of these
2) The Pigments present in marigold is
a) Xanthophylls b) Carotenoids c) pelargonidins d) both a& b
3) Marigold spread to different part of the world during the early part of
a) 17th century b)16th century c) 20th century d) none of these
4) Marigold is native of
a) Asia b) Africa c) Mexico d) India
5) Botanical name of French marigold are
a) T. tenuifolia b) T. lucida c) T. erecta d) none of these
6) Chrysanthemum flowered Marigold can be grown up to height of
a) 30-60cm b)20-30 cm c) 60-75 cm d)10-15 cm
7) chromosome number of T. patula (4n) is
a) 48 b) 24 c) 32 d) none of these
8) Varieties of African marigold
a) Alaska b) Fire Glow c) MDU-1 d) all of these
9) Varieties of French marigold
a) Yellow pygmy b) Cupid Yellow c) both a& b d) Happiness
10) Varieties of Tagetes tenuifolia
a) Red Brocade b) Rusty Red c) Butter Scotch d) none of these
(Key answers: 1) a, 2) a, 3) b, 4) c, 5) c, 6) a, 7)a , 8)d, 9)c, 10) d)
II. Match the Following

A B
1) African marigold ___ 40 x 30 cm
2) Soxhlet apparatus ___ Ursula
3) French marigold ___ Californian marigold
4) T. erecta ___ 20 x 20 cm
5) T. patula ___ Shrubby marigold
6) T. tenuifolia ___ Blood purifier
7) T. lacera ___ 12 t/ha
8) T. lemmonii ___ Methanol
9) Floral extract ___ Egg yolk
10) Xanthophyll ___ 18 t/ha
12
(Key answers: 1) 18 t/ha , 2) methanol, 3) 12 t/ha, 4) 40 x 30 cm , 5) 20 x 20 cm, 6) Ursula, 7)
Californian marigold , 8) Shrubby marigold , 9) blood purifier, 10) egg yolk )
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
13
LECTURE – 22
TUBEROSE
(Polianthes tuberosa L.; Amaryllidaceae)
TOPICS
22.1. Introduction
22.2. Origin and Distribution
22.3. Description of the Plant
22.4. Species and Varieties
22.5. Cultivars Description
22.6. Hybrids
22.7. Soil
22.8. Climate
22.9. Season
22.10. Land Preparation
22.11. CULTIVATION
22.11.1. Propagation
22.11.2. Planting
22.11.3. Fertilizer Application
22.11.4. Irrigation
22.11.5. Interculture
22.12. Pests of tuberose
22.13. Diseases of tuberose
22.14. Harvesting and Yield
22.15. Ratoon Cropping
22.16. Lifting, Curing, and Storage of Bulbs
22.1. INTRODUCTION:
Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.), belonging to the family, Amaryllidaceae,
It is essentially a florist's flower and one of the leading commercial crops
because of its multifarious uses.
The predominant characteristics of this crop are its lingering, delightful fragrance
and excellent keeping quality.
It has a great economic potential for cut flowers trade and essential oil industry.
Due to their great demand it is being cultivated in most part of the tropical and
subtropical countries.
IMPORTANT AND USES
The flowers remain fresh for pretty long time and stands long distance transport.
They are used for making artistic garlands, floral ornaments, bouquets and
buttonholes.
The long flower spikes are excellent cut flowers for table decoration.
The variegated ones with beautiful golden stripes on foliage margins are very
attractive and suitable for garden display.
The fleshy, white, tubular flowers emit a strong odour and hence are cultivated
on a large scale in some parts of the world for the extraction of highly valued
natural flower oil, the tuberose oil.
The tuberose oil contains methyl benzoate, methyl anthranilate, benzyl alcohol,
benzyl benzoate, butryic acid, phenyl acetic acid, methyl salicylate, eugenol,
geraniol, nerol both free and as acetates, farnesol, methyl vanillin and piperomel.
The leaves, flowers, bulbs and roots are reported to contain sterols, triterpenes,
carbohydrates, saponins and traces of alkaloids.
The tuberose flower oil of commerce is one of the most sought after and
expensive raw materials in perfumery.
The fresh flowers give a concrete yield of 0.08 to 0.11 %, of which nearly 18 to
23% constitutes the alcohol-soluble 'absolute'.
The essential oil is used in only the highest grade perfumes. Sometimes, the oil
is used in flavouring candy, beverages and baked food.
22.2. ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION:
The tuberose is a native of Mexico.

It is grown largely in the southern states of America, Italy, France, Morocco,
South Africa, Taiwan, Egypt and many other tropical and subtropical areas in the
world.
The word tuberose is derived from tuberose. This plant is being the tuberous
hyacinth and distinguishes from the bulbous hyacinth.
In India, tuberose is cultivated on a commercial scale in Ranaghat, Kolaghat and
Panskura in West Bengal,
Devanahalli, Tumkur and Mysore in Karnataka;
East Godavari, Guntur, Chittoor and Krishna districts of Andhra Pradesh;
Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu and
Pune and Thane in Maharashtra.
22.3. PLANT MORPHOLOGY:
Polianthes tuberose is a half hardy, bulbous perennial.

It has a tuberous root-stock has adventitious and shallow with a mass of basal
foliage.
The leaves are light-green, long, narrow and very dense /rosette, grass- like. The
leaves sometimes reddish near the base.
The flowering stems are long and can reach a height of up to 100 cm, although 60
to 75 cm is normal.
It is approximately the top third of the stem which bears the pure, white, waxy-
textured raceme of blooms.
The flowers have funnel shaped perianth, measures 3 to 6 cm in length, fragrant
and are borne in pairs on a long spike.
The segments are 1 to 2 cm long; the tube is long, narrow and funnel-shaped,
slightly bent near the base.
The filaments are attached to the upper part of the corolla.
The ovary is 3-celled; there are 3 stigmas which are ovate-falcate.
The fruit is crowned by a persistent perianth and the seeds are flat.
22.4. SPECIES AND VARIETIES:

There are about fifteen species under the genus Polianthes, of which twelve
species have been reported from Mexico and Central America.
Of these, nine species have white flowers, one is white and red and two are red.
Except Polianthes tuberosa L., all the others are found growing wild.
Polianthes tuberosa L.:
An erect herb, 60-120 cm high with stout and short bulbs

Leaves basal, 6-9 in number, 30-45 cm long, about 1.3 cm wide, linear, bright
green, reddish near the base,
Flowers funnel shaped, waxy white, the tube bent only near the base, filaments
attached on upper part of corolla,
Fragrant, in long terminal racemes.
There are three types of tuberoses named on the basis of the number of rows of
petals they bear. They are,
o Single,
o Semi-double,
o Double and variegated,
The single type has the most fragrance.
The flowers are pure white and are popular among the growers for the
production of essential oil.
Calcutta Single and Single Mexican the single varieties, are being grown in
Tamil Nadu.
Suvasini a single type variety has been released by the IIHR, Bangalore.
Rajat Rekha – single flowered mutant has been released by the National
Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow.
The 'Semi-double' type bears white flowers with two to three rows of corolla
segments.
The 'Double' type has more than three rows of corolla segments and is white in
colour. The flowers tinged with red in the 'Double' type are known as 'Pearl'.
o Pearl Double is high flower yielder with quality.
o Swarna Rekha is another double mutant, has been released by the NBRI,
Lucknow. The leaf-margin is streaked with golden-yellow.
o There are some streaked leaf-forms, known as 'variegated',
o In others the flowers have little tinge of red in the bud-stage, which turns
to white when fully open.
o Other varieties include 'Albinos' and 'Excelsior'
22.5. DESCRIPTION OF COMMERCIAL CULTIVARS:

Tuberose cultivars are classified into three types, based on the number of
rows of petals.
(i) Single flowered tuberose:
Ex., Rajat Rekha, Calcutta Single, Shringar, Single Mexican etc.,
Cultivars having flowers with one row of corolla segments.

Flowers are extensively used for essential oil extraction and also for loose
flowers.
Single types are more fragrant than double.
Also the per cent seed setting is high in single.
Its floral buds are greenish white.
Flowers are pure white with only one row of corolla segment.
Concrete content has been observed to be 0.08 to 0.11 per cent.
Loose flowers are used for making floral ornaments.
(ii) Semi double flowered tuberose:
Flowers with 2-3 rows of corolla segments on straight spikes used for cut
flowers also
E.g. Cv. Semi Double bears white flowers with two to three rows of
corolla.
(iii) Double flowered tuberose:
Varieties: Swarna Rekha, Suvasini
Flowers with more than three rows of corolla segments on long and sturdy
spikes used as cut flower as well as loose flower and for extraction of
essential oil.
Concrete recovery has been found to be 0.06%.
Flower colour white and also tinged with pinkish red.
The double type of tuberose is previously known as pearl.
It does not open well and is not commercially viable as the single cultivar.
22.6. HYBRIDS:
1. Rajat Rekha:
Single type with silvery white streak all along the middle of the leaf blade.
It is a mutant evolved by irradiating bulbs of single flowered cultivar.
Released by NBRI, Lucknow.
Concrete content has been found to be 0.089 per cent.
2. Swarna Rekha:
Double type with golden yellow steaks along the margins of leaf.
It is a gamma ray induced mutant, in which mutation occurred in
chlorophyll synthesis resulting in change in leaf colour.
Released by NBRI, Lucknow.
Concrete content has been found to be 0.062 per cent.
3. Shringar:
It is released by IIHR, Bangalore.
This variety has been developed form a cross between ‘Single x Double’.
It bears single type of flowers on sturdy spikes.
The flower bud is slightly pinkish tinged.
Florets are bigger and appealing than ‘Calcutta Single’.
Resistant to Meloidogyne incognita nematode.
Loose flowers are ideal for making garland, while spikes can be used as
cut flower.
Yield of loose flowers is about 15,00 kg/ha per year, which is 40% higher
than ‘Calcutta or Mexican Single’ and the concrete content of the Hybrid
is at par with Mexican Single.
Shringar is preferred by farmers and perfumery industries.
4. Suvasini:
A multi whorled variety developed form the cross between ‘Single’ x

‘Double’.
Pure white flowers are bold and big, borne on a long spike.
Spikes are best suited as cut flower.
Suvasini recorded 25% more yield than cv. Double.
IIHR, Bangalore has also evolved two more new varieties of tuberose
namely Prajwal and Vaibhav recently.
5. Prajwal:
This hybrid which bears single type flowers on tall stiff spikes is from
the cross ‘Shringar’ x ‘Mexican Single’.
The flower buds are slightly pinkish in colour while the flowers are white.
The individual flowers are large in size, compared to ‘Local Single’.
It yields twenty per cent more loose flowers than ‘Shringar’.
Recommended both for loose flower and cut flower purpose.
6. Vaibhav:
The hybrid which bears semi-double flowers on medium spikes is from

the cross ‘Mexican Single’ x IIHR – 2.
The flower buds are greenish in colour in contrast to pinkish buds in
‘Suvasini’ and ‘Local Double’.
Flowers are white.
Spike yield is 50 per cent higher compared to ‘Suvasini’.
Good for cut flower purpose.
SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT:

22.7. SOIL:
Tuberose can be grown on wide variety of soils from light, sandy loam to a clay
loam.
The soil should be at least 45 cm deep, well drained, friable, rich in organic mater
and nutrients with plenty of moisture in it.
The soil should have a pH range from 6.5 to 7.5 with good aeration.
The crop can be grown even in high saline-alkaline soils with better agronomical
practices.
It is observed that the vegetative growth and flowering are affected by increasing
the levels of NaCI and very a low concentration of CaCI2.
22.8. CLIMATE:
The crop is best suited for cultivation in tropical to subtropical and temperate
climates.
The crop is reported to flower profusely throughout the year, if the climate is mild
and free from extremes of high and low temperature.
A temperature range from 20-30°C is considered ideal for this crop.
If the temperature is above 40°C, the spike length and quality of the flowers are
affected.
Very low temperature and frost will damage the plants and flowers.
Tuberoses grow well in a sunny situation.
Although the plant is photosensitive, exposure to a day-length of about 16 hours
appreciably promotes vegetative growth and enhances the emergence of the first
flower-spike by 10 days.
The length of the flower-spike also increases under long days.
22.9. SEASON OF PLANTING:
Tuberoses are generally planted in February-March in the plains and April-May in

the hills.
The bulbs can also be planted during July-August.
Tuberoses can be planted all year round in Bangalore, but a higher flower-yield is
obtained from the April-May planting.
To obtain flowers almost throughout the year, sequential planting can be
practiced.
22.10. LAND PREPARATION:
The land is ploughed deep, twice, to a depth of 45 cm.

The first ploughing is done in January and the second about a month before
planting.
At the time of the second ploughing apply FYM @ 20-50 t/ha and incorporate
into the soil.
Then the soil is brought to a fine tilth by breaking the clods and removing the
weeds.
The field is laid out into plots of convenient sizes with irrigation channels, ridges
and furrows at the recommended spacing.
22.11. CULTIVATION:
22.11.1. PROPAGATION:
Tuberoses are propagated by bulbs, bulblets and seeds.

Multiplication by bulb-segments and in vitro micro propagation from scale
stem-sections is also possible.
Propagation by bulbs is the most common method practiced for the commercial
multiplication of tuberoses.
The bulbs remain dormant during the winter months in places where the
temperature is low and,
If early planting is desired, the dormancy can be successfully broken by dipping
the bulbs in 4% Thiourea solution for one hour.
Ethylene chlorohydrins can also be used for breaking the dormancy.
The bulbs are separated from the clumps by rubbing off the loose scales and the
long roots should also be removed.
Spindle-shaped bulbs with a diameter of 2.6 to 3 cm size are used for planting.
However, if the bulbs are very large they may be cut into 2-3 vertical sections,
each containing a bud and part of the basal plate.
Each of these sections is treated with copper fungicide and planted vertically
with their tips just showing above the surface.
About 8 to 9 tons of bulbs are required to plant an area of one hectare.
22.11.2. PLANTING:
The density of planting markedly influences the yield and quality of the flowers.
The planting distance varies with the soil and climatic conditions.
About 1, 00,000 to 2, 00,000 bulbs are required for planting one hectare of land.
A spacing of 15 x 20 cm (Maharashtra), 25 x 25 cm (West Bengal), 30 x 30 cm
(Lucknow), 30 x 22.5 cm (Bangalore) and 20 x 20 cm (for other part of South
India) have been recommended for this crop.
While planting, the bulbs are planted at the recommended plant-spacing, 3.5 cm
deep on the sides of the ridges.
The plots are irrigated immediately after planting.
22.11.3. FERTILIZER APPLICATION:
100 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O /ha is recommended for tuberose production.

For achieving increased essential oil content in flowers and for the maximum
recovery of concrete, a fertilizer dose of 80 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O/ha
has been recommended.
Of the full recommended dose of fertilizers, half the N, the full dose of P and K
has to be applied at the time of planting and the remaining half of N is given as a
top-dressing after 45 days of planting.
Apart from N, P and K, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, zinc, manganese,
aluminium, boron and copper have also been found to influence the growth and
flowering in tuberoses.
22.11.4. IRRIGATION:
Irrigation is given immediately after planting.

Subsequently, the crop is irrigated at 5-7 days intervals depending upon weather
conditions.
In the summer months, irrigation is recommended twice a week.
22.11.5. INTERCULTURE:
In order to keep the plots free of weeds and to avoid the exposure of bulbs, the
plots are weeded and earthed-up once a month.
Earthing-up enables the spikes to grow erect, despite strong winds and rains.
The application of Atrazine (@ 3 kg/ha) as a pre-emergent weedicide keeps the
plots weed-free.
A pre-emergent treatment of Gramaxone (@ 3 kg/ha) followed by three post-
emergent sprayings at intervals of 110 days in between the rows also keeps the
crop weed free.
Mulching the plots with strips of black polythene, dried grass and chopped straw
is effective in controlling weeds.
The flower-spikes should be supported by stakes after about 2 1/2 months of
planting.
22.12. PESTS OF TUBEROSE:
Tuberoses are hardy crops and are not much affected by attacks of insects,
pests and diseases.
Aphids and grasshoppers are found to feed on flower buds and leaves.
They can be controlled by a 0.1 % spray of Malathion or Rogor at an
interval of 15 days.
The leaves become yellow or bronze, due to the sucking of sap by red
spider mites.
A spray of Metasystox (0.2%), wettable sulphur (0.3%) or Kelthane
(0.5%) is recommended for effective control.
The flowers also get deformed by thrips attack.
The control measure suggested is to spray Nuvacron (0.1 %) or the
application of Thimet to the soil.
Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) and greasy streak nematode
(Aphelencoides besseyi) are reported to cause damage to the crop, which is
characterized by the stunted growth of the plants. The leaf size is reduced
and the flowers look sickly and, ultimately, the roots rot. The application
of Thimet or Furadan (20 kg/ha) to the soil has been recommended for
control.
22.13. DISEASES OF TUBEROSE:
The fungi, Scelerotium rolfsii, deposits prominent, coarse, mycelial masses on the
leaf surface or near the soil-level. Later, the infested spots exhibit a light-green
colour due to rotting which extend and cover the whole leaf. Drenching the soil
around the stem with Brassicol @ 1 % and the soil with 0.3% has been
recommended for control.
The fungi, Alternaria polyantha, causes leaf-spot disease, which is characterized

by the appearance of brown spots with faint concentric rings on the mid-rib.
Bordeaux mixture (0.4%), Zineb (0.5%) or Ziram spray will effectively control
the disease.
The other diseases reported are leaf-spot and blight caused by Botrytis elliptica,
rust and powdery mildew, which are not serious. Suitable fungicides may be
administered to control them when the damage is noticed.
22.14. HARVESTING AND YIELD:
Flowers are ready for harvest in about 3 to 3 1/2 months of planting.

August-September is the peak period of flowering.
Depending on the purpose, harvesting is done by cutting the fully-opened spikes
from the base or single flowers are harvested as they open by day; the picking of
individual flowers should be completed by 8.00 a.m.
The flowers have a shelf-life of 3 days.
Flowers yield up to 17-18 t/ha can be expected from a well-maintained crop.
HANDLING AND PACKING OF FLOWERS

Loose flowers are transported in poly bags to the nearby whole sale market.
The flower spikes are graded according to spike length, length of the flowering
zone and quality of individual flowers
Bunched in round bundles each having about 50-100 spikes
The stem portion of the bundle has to be wrapped with news paper.
To avoid damage of the flowers and buds, the whole bundle may be wrapped with
soft, white tissue paper or polythene.
Bundles have to be packed in cardboard boxes for long distance transportation.
STORAGE OF FLOWERS
The fresh flowers can be stored at 10oC.
EXTRACTION OF ESSENTIAL OIL
About 150 kg of flowers are required to produce 1 kg of the brown, semi-solid

absolute of Enfleurage.
The extracted flowers will contain some natural perfume and are treated with
petroleum ether to obtain the absolute of chassis as a valuable by-product (yield
1.2-1.5%).
In recent years, the process of Enfleurage has been partly replaced by solvent
extraction, which requires much less labour though the yield of the absolute
reduces considerably.
The extraction of the tuberose flowers with petroleum ether yields 0.08-0.11 % of
concrete, which gives 18-23% of absolute on treatment with alcohol and contains
3% steam distillate.
The concrete yield is about 17-18 kglha which gives 3.5 kg absolute and 0.8 kg
distillable oil.
22.15. RATOON CROPPING:
After harvesting the main crop, the flower stalks are headed back (cut to the base)
and the plots are manured and irrigated.
About 3-4 ratoon crops can be taken from a single planting.
22.16. LIFTING, CURING AND STORAGE OF BULBS:
Bulbs reach maturity at the cessation of flowering when the leaves become
yellow and dry during winter (February-March) in North India.
At this stage, irrigation is withheld and the soil is allowed to dry.
The leaves are cut off at the ground level and the bulbs are dug out.
After digging, the bulbs are lifted out and the adhering earth shaken off
neatly and thoroughly.
The offsets are then separated out by hand, which are used as seed-stock
for the next season.
The bulbs are the graded based on the size into mature (> 1.5 cm diameter)
and immature (< 1.5 cm diameter).
Cleaned and graded bulbs are placed on sheaves to dry or cure.
To hasten curing, artificial heat of 27o to 35o C may be applied.
The bulbs must be stirred or have their position changed every few days to
prevent fungal attack and rotting.
An ambient air temperature of at least 18oC for four to six weeks or
exactly six weeks at 30oC stimulates the yield of commercial sized bulbs.
Longer storage at 30oC advances flower spike yield but the quality of
spike deteriorates and the bulb number decreases.
1. Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.) belonging to the family

a. Amaryllidaceae b. Rosaceae c. Strelitziaceae d. Araceae
2. Tuberose oil contains
a. Methyl benzoate b. Methyl anthranilate c. Benzyl alcohol d. All
these
3. Fresh flowers of tuberose give a concrete yield of
a. 0.04-0.5% b. 0.25-0.5% c. 0.08 to 0.11 % d. 0.5-0.75%
4. Native of tuberose is
a. Mexico b. India c. South America d. Indonesia
5. Seeds of Tuberose are
a. Round b. Oblong c. Flat d. None
6. 'Suvasini' is a. Single b. Semi-double c. Double d. None
7. Single-flowered variety, 'Rajat Rekha', a mutant, has been released by
a. IIHR, Bangalore b. NBRI, Lucknow c. IARI, New Delhi d. None
8. Concrete recovery of double flowered varieties
a. 0.0621% b. 0.003% c. 0.041 d. 0.5%
9. Prajwal is a cross between
a. Mexican Single x IIHR – 2 b. Single x Double
c. Shringar x Mexican Single d. None
10. Tuberoses are commercially propagated by
a. Bulbs b.Bulblets c. seeds d. All
II. State true or false:

1. Tuberoses are hardy crops and are not much affected by attacks of insect’s
pests and diseases.
2. March-May is the peak period of flowering.
3. Shelf-life of tuberose flowers is 7 days.
4. In tuberose 3-4 ratoon crops can be taken from a single planting.
5. The bulbs are graded based on the size into mature (> 1.5 cm diameter)
and immature (< 1.5 cm diameter).
A B
1. Rajat Rekha a. Golden yellow steaks (b)
2. Swarna Rekha b. Silvery white streak(a)
3. Shringar c. Shringar’ x ‘Mexican Single()
4. Suvasini d. Single type
5. Prajwal e. Double type
6. Vaibhav f. Semi-double
Key

1(a), 2(d), 3(c), 4(a), 5(c), 6(c), 7(b), 8(a), 9(c), 10(a).

1(T), 2(F), 3(F), 4(T), 5(T)

1(b), 2(a), 3(d), 4(e), 5(c), 6(f)
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE 23
CHINA ASTER
TOPICS
23.1. Introduction
23.2. Uses
23.3. Importance of growing China aster
23.4. Climate and Growing Seasons
23.5. Location and Soil
23.6. Cultivation
23.7. Propagation
23.8. Seed bed Preparation
23.9. Method of Sowing
23.10. Field preparation and spacing
23.11. Fertilizer requirements
23.12. Irrigation
23.13. Pinching
23.14. Use of growth regulators
23.15. Harvesting, post harvest handling and yield
23.16. Yield of flowers
23.1. INTRODUCTION:
China aster [Callistephus chinensis (L.) Nees] belongs to the family Asteraceae
Native to China.
The genus Callistephus has only a single species known as chinensis.
23.2. USES:
China aster is one of the most popular of all the garden annuals grown throughout
the world.
Used for flower arrangement and religious offerings.
Used commercially as cut flowers for interior decorations.
It is best flower in bouquets and other flower arrangements.
Popular as pot plant. It is also used in garden decoration as an herbaceous border.
The dwarf Pompon and Lilliput types can be grown in window boxes and
herbaceous borders
23.3. IMPORTANCE
Popularity is increasing in and around cities due to its short duration and
bewitching colors.
In India it is widely grown in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and
Maharashtra.
It’s accounting for 6 % of the total area and 8.8 % of the total flower production
in Karnataka state.
It can be grown in various agro climate zones.
It is also suitable for growing as intercrop in coconut gardens and orchards also.
Cheaply available cut flower.
It can be mixed with other cut flowers for making bouquets.
It can be grown by small and marginal farmers.
Good seed setting and no dormancy.
MORPHOLOGY
It is a half hardy annual, plants are erect with branching habit.

Plants are erect bearing alternate, broadly ovate or triangular-ovate, irregularly
toothed leaves.
Flowers are solitary. Blooms contain two kinds of florets: ray florets and disc
florets. The discs are short and ray florets are long.
Semi-double or double.
It has a wide array of varieties and the height ranges from 6 inches to 3 feet.
They have daisy-like or star-like flower heads (4-6" in diameter) with a yellow
center often tall stems.
Their colors vary from white to creamy yellow, pink, blue, red and purple.
FLORAL BIOLOGY:
China aster is a self-pollinated crop, approximately 10% of natural crossing

Flower head consists of both pistillate ray florets and perfect disc florets.
Normally, the stamens and pistils do not mature simultaneously in the individual
flowers.
ORIGIN AND HISTORY:
The genus Callistephus derives its name from two Greek words ‘kalistos’ means
‘most beautiful’ and ‘stephos’ means ‘a crown’ referring to the flowers.
Cassini described the China aster as Callistephus hortensis. Linnaeus as Aster
chinensis and Nees subsequently changed this name to Callistephus chinensis.
It was introduced in Europe during 1731 and then spread to different part of the
world.
The first change in the flower type was the development of the central florets,
which led to quelled flowers.
The German developed the German aster or double cultivar.
Comet types introduced in 1886 replaced the quelled types.
Introduction of new branching types in 1893in the USA.
23.4. CLIMATE AND GROWING SEASONS:
China aster is normally a winter season flowering annual.

The day temperature of 10-12oC is favorable to develop large size flowers.
The colour is well developed in the temperature range of 20-30oC during day
and 15-17o C during night with relative humidity 50-60%.
It needs sufficient sun light for both better growth and flowering.
It needs limited rains, 500-700mm spread over from June to September,
followed by provision of frequent but light irrigations.
Heavy and torrential rains cause fungal disease like leaf spot and wilt.
23.5. LOCATION AND SOIL:
China aster prefers to grow in an open sunny location.

The crop is susceptible to more water logging; hence well drained red loamy
soils are required.
The pH should be around 6.8-7.5.
Heavy soils with high calcium content are not suitable.
GROWING SEASON:
Area Growing season
1. Bengaluru ( KNK) Through out the year
May – June
September- October (with irrigation facility)
2. Pune (MHR) June – July

October- November
3. West Bengal First week of October
4. Delhi ( like places) August, September
23.6. CLASSIFICATION OF ASTERS

There are several types of annual asters varying in their growth habits, flower
shape, size, appearance of florets, colour of flowers etc. The three main types classified
based on growth habit are
I. Tall: The plant height varies from 60-80cm. Based on flower type and colour. Tall
types are further grouped into
1. American branching – Flowers with long stalk, available in different
colours – dark blue, light blue, rose, salmon, scarlet, violet, white and
pink.
2. Bouquet powder puffs – Flowers medium sized, rigid stem, available in
different colours.
3. Princess and giant princess – Flowers large, extra double, long woody
stems, much branched, ideal for cut flower, available in different colours.
4. Giant of California – Flowers large, late bearing good colour range.
5. Chikuma strain – Fully double, ball shaped pompon type flowers with
varied colour shades, ideal for cut flower production.
II. Medium Tall: The plants are 40-60 cm in height, under this group the
important types are
1. Ostrich feather – Flowers medium, petals curved with wide range of
colours.
2. Giant comet – Flowers large, petals curved, much branched, plants are
hardy.
3. Giant crego: Flowers large, curled petals, plants bushy and vigorous
growing, available in different colours.
4. Early Burpeeana – Chrysanthemum like flowers, early flowering, large
flowers, semi incurred petals in blue, rose, white and scarlet.
5. Pompon – flowers ball shaped, petals quilled with varied colours.
6. Rubens – flowers ball shaped, large, early flowering, branches arise from
base, suitable for cut flower production.
7. Liliput – Flowers fully double but small, plants erect, attractive.
8. Unicum – Flowers large sized, petals quilled.
III. Dwarf: The plants are 20-40cm in height, under this group important types are
1. Pincchio – Flowers star shaped, produce large numbers of flowers, plants
are dwarf, compact, excellent for bedding, edging and window boxes.
2. Colour carpet – Flowers are chrysanthemum like, plants dwarf, uniform,
circular canopy.
3. Dwarf chrysanthemum – Flowers medium, varied colour range, plants
are bushy and compact.
23.7. VARIETIES
I. Varieties developed outside India
Pot’n Patio Blue, Pot’n Patio Pink, “Bouquet Powder Puff, Bouguet White, Asure
Blue, Giants Of California, Ostrich Plume, Crego, Crego Azure, Comet, Totem
Ple, Giant Massagno, Benihanabi, Cactus Flower, Blue Wonder, White Kurenai,
Ariake Pumpson, Invineible, Early Bird.
Dwarf Types: Dwarf queen, Pinocchio, Dwarf chrysanthemum, Dwarf triumph

Tall Types: American beauty, American branching, Giant of California standard,
Super princess, Bouquet powder puff.
II. Varieties developed in India
1. Poornima
2. Violet cushion
3. Kamini
4. Shashank
5. Phule Ganesh White
6. Phule Ganesh Pink
7. Phule Ganesh Purple
III. Salient features of Varieties developed at IIHR, Bangalore

1. Kamini:
Flowers are deep pink in colour, plants grow upto 60cm.

Takes 135-140 days to flower
Flower stalk length is 30cm
Vase life for 8 days, flower 6 cm in diameter, weigh 2g
Plant produces about 50 flowers.
2. Poornima:
Plants are 50cm height, flowers pure white compared to local white cultivar,
Takes 105 days to flower after sowing, flower diameter 6cm, ray florets 5-6 rows,
powdery puff like, disc florets tubular, stalk length 25cm,
Vase life 7 days, produces 25 flowers per plant, weight 3.5g, yield is double
compare to white local.
3. Violet cushion:
Flowers are violet in colour, are pompon type, ray florets 4-5 rows, disc florets
tubular,
Takes 130 days for flowering, flower 4.5cm in diameter, weight 2g, stalk length
of 20cm,
Vase life 8 days, floriferous type, produces 70 flowers per plant.
4. Shashank:
Plants are 55cm tall, flowers creamy white, powdery puff type, more attractive
than local white cultivar,
Takes 124 days for flowering, flower size 6cm in diameter, weight 2.5g, bears 45
flowers per plant, stalk length 25cm
Vase life is 9 days; yield double the yield of local white.
23.8. CULTIVATION:
23.9. PROPAGATION:
China aster is propagated through seeds.
A seed rate of 625 – 750 g/ha is sufficient.
The seeds will not have dormancy and germinate in a week at about 21oC.
The seeds loose viability at a faster rate if stored in ordinary containers for a
longer time, therefore it is advisable to use only fresh seeds.
Normally the seeds germinate at a temperature range of 10-350C. The
optimum being 21oC + 4oC
23.10. NURSERY:
Generally sowing should be staggered by 10 – 15 days, so that one can get

flowers for longer time and also can avoid glut in the market.
Seeds can be sown in seed pans for obtaining seedlings for garden use and in
small quantities.
For commercial cultivation, seed is sown in raised beds
measuring120x60x10cms (LxBxH).
The seeds are sown thinly to avoid lanky tall seedlings.
The seeds are sown at 10 -12cms apart and covered with a mixture of soil and
FYM.
After sowing, the beds should be watered gently with a rose can.
23.12. TRANSPLANTING:
Aster seedlings are usually transplanted when they have developed about three
to four leaves.
Seedlings at too early or late stages should be avoided and usually seedlings
are ready for transplanting within 30 - 45 days.
The seedlings are hardened sufficiently before planting.
The transplanting should be done preferably during early morning or evenings
to avoid bright sunlight.
After planting the soil around the seedlings is to be firmed and watered
thoroughly.
23.13. FIELD PREPARATION AND SPACING:
The field should be ploughed thoroughly and brought to a fine tilth.

About 10-15 tones of well-decomposed farmyard manure may be incorporated
in the soil at the time of soil preparation.
In areas receiving high rainfall the seedlings should be planted on ridges to
avoid chances of Fusarium wilt.
A general spacing of 30 x 30 cm may be optimum for recommendation.
23.14. FERTILIZER REQUIREMENTS:
Application of manure and fertilizers in required quantities is important for

proper growth, yield and quality of flowers.
The deficiency of nitrogen causes dwarfing of the plants resulting in small
sized plants and flowers.
Phosphorus deficiency causes delayed flowering.
The recommended fertilizer dose is180:120:60 kg NPK/ha.
Of which 90 kg nitrogen, full dose of P & K has to be applied at the time of
preparation of land.
Remaining 90 kg/ha nitrogen has to be applied as top dressing at 40 days after
transplanting.
23.15. IRRIGATION:
Irrigation requirement depends upon the weather, type of soil and season of
the crop grown.
Since China aster is a shallow rooted crop, it needs continuous soil moisture
throughout the entire period of crop growth.
It requires irrigation at intervals of 7 to 10 days.
23.16. PINCHING:
Pinching of main shoot at one month after transplanting promotes growth and
flowering.
Pinching delays first flowering by 8-12 days.
23.17. USE OF GROWTH REGULATORS:
In China aster, the number of flowers per plant and the duration of flowering
were increased by spraying GA3 at 200 or 300ppm.
Foliar spry with MH delays flowering.
23.18. HARVESTING, POST HARVEST HANDLING AND YIELD:
Flowers are ready for harvesting in 10-12 weeks after transplanting.

Harvesting plays an important role in determining the flower quality.
China aster is harvested in two different ways.
Individual flowers are harvested for decoration and worship purpose whereas
flowers along with stalk or the whole plant just above the ground are cut for
cut flower purpose.
23.19. YIELD:
Flower yield depends upon season of planting and cultural practices

adopted.
On an average a fresh flower yield of 20-22 tons per ha during rainy season,
15.0 to 17.5 t per ha in winter and 10.0-12.0 t/ha in summer can be
obtained.
1. China aster [Callistephus chinensis (L.) Nees] belongs to the family

a. Asteraceae b. Liliaceae c. Malvaceae d. Rosaceae
2. The genus Callistephus has only a --------species
a. 1 b. 2 c. 4 d. 6
3. The genus Callistephus derives its name from
a. Latin b. Greek c. Spanish d. None
4. China aster was introduced in Europe during
a. 1931 b. 1631 c. 1831 d. 1731
5. Introduction of new branching types of China aster in 1893 in
a. Japan b. Mexico c. UAS d. UK
6. China aster is normally --------- season flowering annual.
a. Summer b. Winter c. Rainy d. All these
7. China aster varieties developed at IIHR, Bangalore.
a. Kamini b. Violet cushion c. Poornima d. All
8. Seedlings of China aster usually transplanted when they have developed
a.4-5 leaves b. 5-6 leaves c. 3-4 leaves d. 1-2 leaves
9. General spacing followed is
a. 30 x 30 cm b. 60 x 60 cm c. 45 x 45 cm d. 45x30cm
10. Pinching delays first flowering by
a.5-6 days b.8-12 days c. 15 days c. 20 days

1. Comet types introduced in 1986 replaced the quelled types.
2. The day temperature of 10-12oC results in small sized flowers.
3. China aster needs sufficient sun light for both better growth and flowering.
4. Heavy and torrential rains causes fungal diseases.
5. The pH should be around 4.5 to 5.5.
6. American branching is a medium tall variety.
7. Cactus flower is developed in India.
8. Kamini flowers are deep pink in colour.
9. Pinching of main shoot at one month after transplanting hinders growth and
flowering.
10. MH delays flowering.

1(a) , 2(a), 3(c), 4(d), 5(c), 6(b), 7(d), 8(c), 9(a), 10(b)

1(F) , 2(F), 3(T), 4(T), 5(F), 6(F), 7(F), 8(T), 9(F), 10(T)
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE – 24
BIRD OF PARADISE
(Strelitzia reginae; Strelitziaceae)
TOPICS
24.1. Introduction
24.2. Morphology
24.3. Species
24.4. Usage
24.5. Feature
24.6. Planting and Care
24.6.1. Soil and Climatic requirements
24.6.2. Planting
24.6.3. Care after Planting
24.7. Propagation
24.7.1. Seeds
24.7.2. Division
24.8. Pest and Disease Problems
24.1. INTRODUCTION:
Bird of paradise or crane flower (Strelitzia reginae) is a spectacular blossom.

Long stemmed flowers emerge from green boat-shaped bracts which are bordered
in red or purple.
The uniquely shaped flower of this exotic tropical perennial resembles a bird's
head and due to its brilliant orange and blue colors and unique form, it resembles
not just any bird but a bird-of-paradise! Hence it is named as bird-of-paradise
flower.
It is popularly known as BOP and botanically called as Strelitzia reginae.
1
ORIGIN, HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION
Bird of paradise is native of South Africa. In Los Angeles Strelitzias are
so extensively planted that it is regarded as the emblem of the city.
Strelitzia reginae (reginea in Latin) was named after the King's George III
(also a patron of botany) wife Queen Charlotte Sophia, of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz (Strelitzia).
In South Africa it is commonly known as a "crane" flower.
It belongs to the family Musaceae.
Grown on large scale in Hawaii, Israel, South Africa and California.
24.2. MORPHOLOGY:
The plant is a trunk less, evergreen clump with leaves arising from a
crown.
The species S. nicolai is the largest in the genus, reaching 10 m tall; the
other species typically reach 2-6 m tall.
The leaves are large, 30-200 cm long and 10-80 cm broad, similar to a
banana leaf in appearance but with a longer petiole and arranged strictly in
two ranks to form a fan-like crown of evergreen foliage.
The flowers are produced in a horizontal inflorescence emerging from a
stout spathe.
The flower is about 6 inches long with orange sepals and a blue petals
looking like a "tongue".
A variety of S. reginae called 'Mandela's Gold' was released by
Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden in Cape Town South Africa, (it
was originally called 'Kirstenbosch Gold'. Mandela's Gold has yellow
petals and a blue tongue.
They are pollinated by sunbirds, which use the spathe as a perch when
visiting the flowers; the weight of the bird on the spathe opens it to release
the pollen on to the bird's feet, which is then deposited on the next flower
it visits.
Dogs like to eat these plants, but the seeds, if eaten, are toxic and can
cause abdominal pain and vomiting.
24.3. SPECIES: Strelitzia genus has five commercial species of perennial plants.
1. Strelitzia reginae (syn. S. parvifolia) - Strelitzia, Bird of paradise, or Crane lily

2. Strelitzia alba (syn. S. augusta) - White bird of paradise
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3. Strelitzia caudata - Swaziland Strelitzia, African desert banana
4. Strelitzia nicolai - White, or Giant bird of paradise; Wild banana
5. Strelitzia juncea (Ker Gawl.) - Greatly reduced or non-existent leaves.
24.4. USES:
Bird of paradise clumps provide bulk and mass and can be used in the landscape
like a small shrub.
They serve well anchoring island beds when surrounded by lower growing
annuals or ground cover.
Used in shrub borders and in planting islands and containers.
Makes a showy and non-messy plant at poolside.
This beautiful and adaptable beauty is perfect for home and commercial interiors.
24.5. FEATURES:
Bird-of-paradise is a real eye catcher, in bloom or not.
Whether in the landscape or as cut flowers making star appearances in
arrangements,
This plant is recognized by most and enjoyed by all.
It is an icon of the tropics, its image turning up on fabrics, wallpaper, tasteless
resort apparel, and assorted works of art both crappy and sublime.
As beautiful as some of these may be none can compare to the real thing.
Find a place in your home or garden so you can enjoy this flamboyant showoff.
VARIETIES:
Under the species, S. reginae three varieties are identified based on variability
in growth characters.
o Humills: The plants are compact, medium height with attractive flowers.
o Glauca: The leaves are very attractive, shining, leathery dark green in
colour, plants medium to tall with orange flowers.
o Rutilans: The plants are semi tall, very attractive due to presence of
purple mid rib in the leaves flowers attar.
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24.7. PROPAGATION:
24.7.1. SEEDS:
A bird-of-paradise grown from seed will take three to five years to bloom.
The black seeds have orange fuzz on one end and are the size of sweet pea seeds.
The hard seeds must be scarified (nicked or scratched) before they will germinate.
To scarify, soak the seeds in lukewarm water for several hours and then nick them
with a knife or small file.
Scarified seeds will germinate in two to three months.
Another way to decrease germination time is to put un-scarified seeds in a plastic
bag and place them in a refrigerator at 4.45-7.2°C for two weeks. Then scarify
them.
Sow seeds in vermiculite, a one-to-one mixture of peat and perlite, or a ready-
made mix, to a depth of one-half inch.
The soil mix must be kept consistently damp until the seeds germinate.
To ensure a moist, humid environment, cover the seed flat or container with a
sheet of glass or clear plastic and place it in indirect light.
Transplant seedlings individually into pots when they have two true leaves.
Fertilization can begin at this stage.
24.7.2. DIVISION:
The bird-of-paradise can also be propagated by division.
This method will produce mature, flowering plants in one to two years.
For best results, divide clumps during late spring or early summer.
Dig up and separate old clumps, dividing those with four to five shoots into
single-stem divisions.
Plant divisions at the same soil depth at which they were previously grown.
Keep the soil moist until roots are established (at least three months),
Then begin fertilizing.
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24.6. PLANTING AND CARE:
24.6.1. SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS:
Bird-of-paradise grows in most soils, but does best in fertile, organic soils with
good drainage.
It is considered to be a slow growing plant.
For good flower production, grow the plants in sunny or partially shaded
locations, it prefers full sun, 4000-8000 ft-candles.
It is a warm temperate plant preferring 18.3 to 21.2o C during the day and 10-
12.8oC at night.
They prefer moderate humidity, around 60%.
Plants grown in partial shade will be taller and have somewhat larger flowers.
In full sun, plants are smaller and flowers are on shorter stems.
The bird of paradise will tolerate light salt spray but should not be used in
exposed locations near the ocean.
Bird-of-paradise tends to produce more flowers along the outside of the plant.
Thus, spacing the plants at least 6 feet apart will allow adequate space for
flowering.
24.6.2. PLANTING:
The planting hole/pit should be dug 2 to 3 times the diameter of the root ball.
Make it as deep as the root ball is tall.
For planting in ground pits of 90x90cm size are prepared and filled with soil and
organic matter.
Planting density @ 2 plants/m2 is ideal.
Before planting, thoroughly water the plant and remove it from the container.
Gently place the plant in the hole, making sure the top of the root ball is no deeper
than the soil surface.
Planting too deeply may cause a delay in flowering.
Fill around the ball with soil and gently firm the soil.
Water thoroughly while planting to remove air pockets.
Construct a saucer-like basin around the plant from the extra backfill soil. This
will hold water until it drains down to the plant's roots.
Where the soil is hard, compacted or poorly drained, consider digging a planting
hole half as deep.
Mound the soil to cover the sides of the root ball.
5
A plant installed in this manner might require more frequent irrigation during dry
periods but is not likely to suffer from drainage problems.
The offset may usually takes3-5 years to come to flowering.
24.6.3. CARE AFTER PLANTING:

 It needs adequate moisture during the establishment period (i.e., the first six
months).
 Dry or soggy conditions will cause leaves to yellow and eventually die.
 Once established, it prefers frequent watering
 During the winter, watering may be done only when the soil is fairly dry.
 Mulch placed - conserve moisture, stabilizes root temperature, and reduces
weed infestations.
 Keep a 2- to 3-inch circular area around the stems of plants free of mulch.
 Organic mulch materials like leaves, pine needles, bark and wood chips.
 Inorganic materials like gravel and crushed stone are also suitable.
24.6.4. FERTILIZATION AND PRUNING:

 For best growth and flowering, it requires fertilization.
 Organic fertilizers can also be used.
 Spread the fertilizer around the plants at every three months interval during
the growing season.
 Dead leaves and old flower stalks should be removed to increase the
aesthetic quality of the plant and to reduce the chances of fungal organisms
building up on the dead tissue.
 Liquid nutrient feeding, however improves the growth and flowering of
BOP.
 Spray the plants with a solution containing 6g superphosphate and 3g
potassium nitrate per liter of water at an interval of 10 days.
IRRIGATION AND INTERCROPPING
The first watering should be done immediately after planting and afterwards it
depends on plants demand and surrounding conditions.
The beds should be thoroughly be soaked at least once in a week.
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After a day or two the soil should be loosen to conserve the moisture and to check
the weeds.
24.8. PEST AND DISEASE:
The bird-of-paradise is relatively pest free.

Occasional insects include aphids, caterpillars, grasshoppers, scales and snails.
A leaf borer will sometimes attack the flower bracts during August and
September.
Fungal leaf spot disease may also occur.
None of these typically threaten the overall survival of the plant.
ROOT ROT:
Caused by over watering,
A combination fungicide of ethazole + thiophanate-methyl gives very
broad coverage of the root rot causing organism.
This fungicide can be found under the trade name of Banrot.
Thoroughly soak the soil as well as the crown with the fungicide mix.
SCALE:
Scale insects can be treated with insecticidal soap or removed by hand
with a sponge and soapy water. It is recommended that you take a damp
sponge and clean the leaves once a month.
NEMATODES:
Nematodes cause a problem for the roots of Strelitzia.
Use clean potting mix or soil when repotting, top dressing or any other
type of soil changing.
Keep pots off of the ground to prevent nematodes from infecting the
potting media from your native soil.
HARVESTING:
Flowers are usually cut when the first floret opens.
DRYING THE BLOOMS:
If you desire to use the blooms in floral decorations which needs a preserved
flower the Bird of Paradise will fit into your plans.
7
Take a flowering stalk from the plant and some leaf stalks if you wish.
Crush the cut end of the stalk and place it in 4 or 5 inches of a water solution
containing 1 part glycerin and 2 parts water.
After the glycerin has penetrated the entire surface area of the stalk, the stem/leaf
color will change and begin to ooze at the edge.
This should take a week or so.
When the stalk is saturated remove and hang upside down until thoroughly dry.
Obviously this can get messy so you need a place to allow dripping of the solution
onto a floor or table.
1. Choose the correct answers:
1. In South Africa Strelitzia reginae commonly known as
a.BOP b. Bird's head c. Crane flower d. reginea
2. Bird of paradise is a of native

a. South Africa b. India c. Australia d. Bangladesh
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3. Bird of paradise is pollinated by
a. Bees b. Ants c. Sunbirds d. All these
4. White bird of paradise
a. Strelitzia nicolai b. Strelitzia regina c. Strelitzia caudata d. Strelitzia alba
5. A bird-of-paradise grown from seed will bloom in
a. 3-5 years b. 1-2 years c. 6 years d. 1 year
I. Match the following:

A B
a) Strelitzia alba 1.Giant bird of paradise

b) Strelitzia caudata 2.White bird of paradise
c) Strelitzia nicolai 3. Bird of paradise or Crane flower
d) Strelitzia reginae - 4. Swaziland Strelitzia, African desert banana
e) Strelitzia juncea 5. Greatly reduced or non-existent leaves

 Nematodes never cause a problem for the roots of Strelitzia.
 The bird-of-paradise is relatively pest free.
 The flower is about 6 inches long with orange sepals and a blue petals
looking like a "teeth".
 Strelitzia is a genus of four species of perennial plants.
 Strelitzia’s are showy and non-messy plant at poolside.

1(c), 2(a), 3(c), 4(d), 5 (a)

A (2), b (4), c (1), d (3), e (5)
III. State True or False:

1(F), 2(T), 3(F), 4(F), 5(T)
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
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LECTURE- 25
ANTHURIUM
TOPICS
1. Introduction
2. Anthurium production – world scenario
3. Plant morphology
4. Available germplasm
5. Varieties and classification
6. Growth and development
7. Growing environment
8. Growing structures
9. Physiological problems
10. Growing media
INTRODUCTION
Anthurium is an evergreen, tropical herbaceous plant cultivated for its colourful spathe
and unusual attractive foliage.
Originating in American tropics,
The genus Anthurium has 600 species, which are distributed worldwide.
Among the number of species available, the most popular and economically important
species are Anthurium andreanum and A. Scherzerianum, which posses’ attractive long-
lasting inflorescence.
Several other species like A. Magnificium, A. Digitatum, A. Crystallinum, A.
Watermaliense, A. Clarinervium and A. Hookeri are grown for their excellent foliage.
The Anthurium belongs to family Araceae.
Derives its name from Greek language ‘Anthos’ means ‘flower’ and ‘Oura’ means ‘tail’
indicating the flower with a tail.
ANTHURIUM PRODUCTION – WORLD SCENARIO

Anthurium ranked eleventh in the global flower trade is next only to orchids among the
tropical flowers.
Until 1970, Hawaii was the world’s leading producer and exporter of Anthurium flowers.
In the last ten years, the Hawaiian Anthurium industry has declined because of bacterial
blight.
This is one of the major problems the Anthurium growers face worldwide.
1
Presently, the Netherlands is the world’s leading producer and exporter.
The Dutch production is concentrated during May to October because of bright light
intensity during these months.
The preferred colours in Dutch markets are orange and red followed by white and pink.
Germany is the single largest importer of Dutch Anthuriums followed by Italy and
France.
Mauritius is the second largest producer and exporter of Anthuriums.
During the last ten years, the Anthurium flowers from Hawaii are exported to the main
land United States of America or to Japan.
Anthurium is also produced commercially in Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Sri
Lanka, Singapore and Taiwan.
In India, Anthurium cultivation, which was mainly a hobby, is transformed into a
commercial business by enterprising coffee and tea planters, who were initially
responsible for bringing many exotic varieties into India.
The coastal belts of south India, Eastern and Western Ghats and North-East hilly regions
are potential area where Anthurium cultivation can be taken up on a large scale.
Bestowed with natural wealth, the coffee belt along the Coorg district in Karnataka as
many as 100 Anthurium growers, who have formed an Anthurium club to promote and
safeguard the interest of Anthurium cultivation.
The Coorg Anthuriums are presently marketed in nearly cities like Bangalore,
Mangalore, Mysore, Goa, etc., from where they reach other flower markets in Delhi,
Mumbai and Kolkata.
Anthurium cultivation on commercial scale is also concentrated around Pune, Nashik,
Mumbai, Trivendrum, Cochin, etc. Sensing the potential of this crop, corporate houses
are also enthused to cultivate exotic varieties imported mostly from Hawaii or the
Netherlands.
De Orchids and Anthura (Mumbai), Noel Agri-tech (Mangalore), Eden Flora (Bengaluru)
are few such enterprises.
PLANT MORPHOLOGY
 Anthurium andreanum a perennial with creeping, climbing or arborescent stem s
with lots of aerial roots.
 The stem is highly condensed and is not visible during early growing period. As
plants grow the stems become noticeable with distinct node and internodal regions.
 The roots are fleshy, thick and the root biomass is more when compared to the
shoot biomass.
2
 The lamina portion of the leaf is attached to a long petiole from where, the mid rib
and lateral veins originate in a radiant fashion. The leaves are coppery green in
early stages, which turn to dark green as they mature.
 The attractive colourful plant that is traded is actually a modification of the leaf,
which is botanically called ‘spathe’.
 The heart shaped spathe appears on a long flower stalk and a number of veins that
originate from the junction of the spathe and the flower stalk. The veins are
interconnected with secondary and tertiary veins.
 A cylindrical fleshy ‘spadix’ originates from the same junction and produces a
number of bisexual flowers (150-250 flowers) which are arranged in concentric
whorls.
 The female part of the flower matures first (protogynous), which can be noticed by
nectar like secretions in the form of shining droplets on the flowers.
 The anthers dehisce at a later stage forcing the flowers to cross pollinate.
 When the stigmatic surfaces are wet and receptive, pollen from another
flower/variety/species can be applied to pollinate the flowers.
 After successful pollination, the spadix enlarges and turns dark green in colour; the
spathe also loses its original pigmentation and turns green by producing enough
chlorophyll pigments.
 The product of fertilization i.e. the fruit – is a berry which pops out of the spadix on
maturity. The seed is covered by juicy, mucilaginous pulp, which needs to be
removed, when the seeds are sown.
 Anthurium plants normally grow epiphytically (on trees),
 Some times epileptically (on rocks) or
 Terrestrially (on the ground).
 Epiphytical Anthurium grows on the trunks of the trees or on the rocks, but they are
not tree parasites. They use them as a foundation or supporting material.
 They had an aerial root system, which absorbs nutrients & also moisture from the
air. Since the Anthurium roots are naturally in contact with the outside air.
TAXONOMY:
 Family : Araceae
 Sub family :Othideae
 Order Alismatales within the Araceae family.
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 The common feature of the Araceae family is
 The typical cup shaped inflorescence,
 The arum consists of the ‘Spathe’ & the ‘Spadix’.
AVAILABLE GERMPLASM
The genus Anthurium can be categorized into two distinct groups –
o Flowering types and
o Foliage types.
Although some Anthurium species flowers are inconspicuous and unattractive, they have
unique velvety attractive foliage.
Such Anthurium is grown as foliage potted plants.
The flowering group products remarkably attractive spathe and colourful spadices, but
the foliage may not be so attractive.
The species that are classified as foliage types and flowering types are;
FLOWERING TYPE
Anthurium andreanum, A. seherzerianum, A. omaturm, etc.
FOLIAGE TYPE
A. Clarinervium, A. corrugatum, A.crystallinum, A. digitatum
A. holtanianum, A. leuconerum A. magnificum, A. pentaphyllum
A. pedetoradiatum, A. olfersianum, A. hookeri, A. veitchii
A. warocqueanum, A. watermaliense etc.
VARIETIES
The present day flowering Anthuriums are mostly hybrids of A. andreanum and A.
scherzerianum.
Some of the hybrids/varieties evolved during early stages of varietals improvement are
listed below.
Variety/Hybrids Spathe Colour Variety/ Hybrids Spathe Colour
Abe Bright pink Jamaica White
Aneunue Green and coral pink Marian Seefurth Rose pink
Avo-Anneke Pink Manova mist White
Avo-Jose White Ozaki Red
Avo-Claudia Red Sunburst Bright Orange
Avo-Chemelion White Sariana White and rose
Favoriet Orange Trinidad Off white
Hage-White White Horning orange Orange
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Besides these coloured varieties there are many varieties that are bicoloured.
Such bicoloured varieties are known as Obakes in trade.
Examples of obakes include;
Madona (Cream obake)
Farao (bright orange with green borders)
Lamboda (white-green obake) and Fla rose (Peach)
TYPES OF ANTHURIUM
There are three basic types of Anthurium flowers
1. STANDARD:
They have the most common heart shape, the spathe lobes often overlap.
Sizes range from 12x11cm to 20x18cm.
Colour range includes red, orange, pink, Coral, white and green.
2. OBAKE:
Popular for their two-tone coloration usually a bi-colour pattern of green and a major
spathe colour.
Some varieties will lose their green colour in summer resulting in solid coloured spathe.
Sizes vary from 8x7cm miniatures 28x23cm large varieties.
3. TULIP:
They have up right cupped spathes, with a straight and erect spadix.
The spathe size ranges from 10x6cm.
Tulip types are mostly hybrids with more than one species as their parents.
CLASSIFICATION OF ANTHURIUM CUT FLOWER VARIETIES

Based on the above categorization, the Anthurium cut flower varieties are classified as
follows. Anthurium varieties that are released by the breeders in the recent years are summarized
in Table.
Spathe type Popular varieties Spathe colour Spadix colour
Standard Ozaki Light Red Light red-Purple
Kozohara Dark Red White Yellow tip
Nitta Orange White, Yellow tip
Midori Bright Green Yellow, Green tip
Marian Seefurth Pink White, Yellow tip
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Obake Madam pele Dark red, green White Red
Anuenue Coral, Green White, Yellow tip
Kalapana Red, Green White, Yellow tip
Rainbow Green, White Red
Mickey Mouse Dark red, Green Red-Orange
Tulip Lavender lady Mauve Mauve
Calypso Magenta-Fuchsia Darkmagenta,
Lady Jane Light red Fuchsia
Light red
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Anthurium passes through two distinctive growth phases,
o A juvenile phase and
o A generative phase.
The juvenile phases where only vegetative growth is observed and characterized by the
presence of vegetative buds in the axils of the leaf.
The juvenile phase is relatively long and the plants remain vegetative for 12-18 months.
The plants enter the generative phase characterized by the transformation of vegetative
buds to floral buds in the leaf axils.
The sequence of a new leaf and emergence of flower is more or less maintained from
then onwards.
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GROWING ENVIRONMENT
Diurnal temperature, light and humidity play a major role in the growth and flowering of
Anthuriums.
DIURNAL TEMPERATURE
For a luxuriant growth the cultivated Anthurium (A. andreanum and A. scherzerianum)
required 18.3oC during night whereas
A higher night temperature of 21.2 to 23.9 oC is essential for initiation of flowering.
Anthurium cannot tolerate freezing temperature. At the same time Anthuriums do not
prefer temperatures above 35 oC.
If the temperature exceeds 35 degree centigrade coupled with low relative humidity leaf
scorching is common.
LIGHT
 Anthurium is basically a shade loving plant.
 During summer where the light intensity is more, Anthurium plants are provided with 75
to 80% shade allowing only 20-25% of light to reach the plants.
 The range of light intensity that suits Anthurium cultivation is 20,000 to 25,000 lux.
 Higher light intensity coupled with low relative humidity and poor shading often results
in scorching of young leaves and immature flower buds.
 In places with moderate climate where the light intensity is not so high, the plants can be
provided with 65 to 75% shade.
SHADING
Anthuriums are tropical plants, requiring high temperature and relative humidity.
Anthuriums have a moderate to low light requirement and require 75 to 80% shade.
To ensure the highest possible production during winter the shading should be removed
at the onset of winter.
In commercial practice it is advisable to have 50% shade net on the top and a 25% shade
net below it, so that the light levels at the plant growth can be modified depending upon
the ambient light conditions.
Anthurium can be shaded with saran or with UV stabilized agro shade nets for providing
uniform shading.
The shade nets can be operated manually by closely watching the external light intensity.
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RELATIVE HUMIDITY
 Anthurium thrives well in areas having high relative humidity levels, which are common
in coastal areas of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, high rainfall
areas of Western, Eastern Ghats and North Eastern hilly regions.
 The optimum relative humidity levels range from 50 to 85% and at humidity levels less
than 50%, the vegetative growth is slower and the flower development is poor.
FLORAL DEVELOPMENT
 The elongation of the stem bearing the spadix begins about one month after expansion
of the subtending leaf.
 This is subtending by a showy leaf-like structure called a spathe.
 The cycle of the leaf and flower emergence varies with the season.
 3 to 8 flowers per plant per year can be expected.
 The Anthurium flower is a spadix or inflorescence spike, cylindrical in shape, bearing
up to 250-300 inconspicuous bisexual flowers arranged in a series of spirals.
 The spadix and spathe are borne on a leafless stem or peduncle.
 Commercial flower harvesting takes place when approximately three quarters of the
stigmas along the spadix have become receptive.
GROWING STRUCTURES
Depending upon the area of cultivation, the growing structures can be modified to suit the
local climatic conditions.
Commercial scale Anthurium cultivation can be taken up in
o Low cost polyhouses,
o Shade houses or
o Climate controlled green houses.
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LOW COST POLY HOUSES
 In areas where the relative humidity levels are low and the temperature levels are
high, low cost poly houses are more suitable for commercial cultivation of
Anthuriums.
 By creating a protected climate by cladding UV stabilized polythene, the relative
humidity levels can be easily maintained and by providing top or side ventilation,
the hot air can be easily expelled.
 Inside the poly house, the top portion can be provided with layers of two shade
nets (50% and 25%).
 If the light intensity is very high a thin film of calcium chloride or lime can be
sprayed on the external surface of the poly house to reduce the incoming
radiation.
SHADE HOUSES
In many of the commercial Anthurium growing areas, shade houses are the most popular
structures because of the simplicity of construction and low cost.
The shade houses can be constructed by taking the support of existing tree trunks if the
Anthuriums are grown in multistoried plantation cropping.
In open areas wooden, granite or pillars can be erected at regular intervals connected by
GI wires as a mesh on top.
Shade net can be covered on the top to provide the required shade 75%, (ie., 50 +25%,
shade nets).
Provision can be made for installing overhead sprinkler/misters/fogging systems by
running GI wires from one end to another end.
CLIMATE CONTROLLED GREEN HOUSES

The capital investment and the level of sophistication is more in climate controlled green
houses than the previous two structures.
Climate controlled green houses can be adopted for growing Anthuriums in areas where
conditions of growing are not so congenial or
To produce top quality blooms exclusively for export markets.
Unless it is warranted it is not advisable to go for such capital intensive structures.
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
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1) Excess light
Symptoms – Leaves appear bleached in the centers and may have brown tips.
Control – Increase shade so as to reduce light level to 1800-2500 foot-candles.
2) Over fertilization
Symptoms – Lower leaves become yellow and develop brown tips, which gradually
enlarge.
Control – Reduce fertilization and leach soils thoroughly. Check roots for damage and
possibility of secondary infection by fungus or bacteria.
3) Lack of flowering
Symptoms –Mature plants produce many leaves but few flowers. No flowers on the
lateral shoots.
Control – Increase light level to 1800-2500 foot-candles. Maintain higher light intensity
as long as leaves do not develop symptoms mentioned in 1) above.
GROWING MEDIA
Anthurium requires a highly organic, well aerated medium with good water retention.
However, the secret of success for commercial cultivation is to have good drainage in the
medium used.
An ideal medium for pots or ground potting should have the following properties;
Good water holding capacity. Must provide good anchorage.
High porosity. Should have optimum pH (5.0) and EC (0.6m
mhos/cm2)
Good aeration. Good structure and texture.
Low salt concentration (especially Na2, Cl and Ca2+ ions).
Various natural derivatives, which satisfy the above conditions, were tried to grow
Anthuriums commercially. The range of media that were used so far includes;
Sugarcane bagasse Saw dust

Coffee leaf mould Tree bark
Spent ground coffee Chicken manure
Coffee husk Ground nut shells
Cured coffee pulp Peat
Coffee parchment Wood shavings
Rock wool Brick, gravel, rubble etc
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In many Anthurium growing countries, coconut husk and coco-peat have become the
most popular media for Anthurium cultivation.
India has a rich wealth of coconut plantations throughout southern India, the byproducts
of which can be exploited for Anthurium.
The coconut waste generated from the industry and in the trade can be collected and
washed repeatedly to wash of the excess salts especially sodium chloride.
The coconut waste is allowed to decompose by using microbial (Pleurotus sp.)
inoculation to the stock of coconut husk/coco-coir/coir dust.
Knowledge Assessment
Quiz:
1. Anthurium is a native of
a. Malayan region b. American tropics c. India d. Australia
2. Anthuriumhas ------------species
a. 600 b. 800 c. 1200 d. 900
3. Anthos’ means -------and ‘Oura’ means -------- respectively

a. Anther and tail b. Flower and Spathe c. Flower and tail d. Spathe and spadix
4. ‘Spathe’ is modification of
a. Leaf b. Candle c. Suckers d. Stalk
5. Flower of Anthuriumis a
a. Protogynous b. Hypogynous c. Androgynous d. Epigynous
6. Anthuriumfruit is a
a. Capsule b. Berry c. Drupe d. None
7. Bicoloured varieties of Anthuriumis known as -------- in trade.
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a. Standards b. Tulip c.Obakes d. Sprays
8. Spathe size Tulip type ranges from

a. 10x6cm b. 20x15cm c. 15x10 cm d. 25x20 cm
9. Anthuriums do not prefer temperatures above

a. 25oCb. 30oCc.20oCd. 35 oC
10. Anthuriums require -------- shade

a. 75 to 80% b. 50 to 70% c. 85 to 90% d. 40 to 50%

1. Standard :8x7cm to 28x23cm
2. Obake :10x6cm
3. Tulip :12x11cm to 20x18cm
4. Anthuriumspacing : 3-4 leaf stage
5. Transplanting : 45 x 45cm
1. Vegetative propagation by terminal cuttings and stem sections are very vigorous.
2. In Hawaii standard master cartons are 43x23x11 inches.
3. Anthurium can be easily stored at 13oC for 5-6 weeks.
4. The flowers, which are harvested when ¾th of the length of the spadix changescolour.
5. Anthurium cannot tolerate freezing temperature.
Key Answers:
1(b) , 2(b), 3(c), 4(a), 5(a), 6(b), 7(c), 8(a), 9(d), 10(a)

1(c), 2(a), 3(b), 4(e), 5(d)
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1(False), 2(True), 3(False), 4(True), 5(True)
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LECTURE- 26
ANTHURIUM
TOPICS
1. Cultivation
2. Planting
3. Planting density
4. Irrigation
5. Nutrition
6. Propagation
7. Harvesting
8. Post harvest handling
9. Yield and returns
10. Pest and diseases
CULTIVATION:
A). IN POTS
Anthurium especially the miniature type, A. scherzerianum and its hybrids have to be
grown in pots to use them as potted plants.
When young the plants can be planted in smaller pots (4”) and as they grow they can be
shifted to bigger pots (6” to 10” diameter).
Depending on the plant size, the pots have to be arranged in such a way that the foliage
does not overlap with the leaves of adjacent pots.
B). IN BEDS
When planting is done in soil, the plants have to be grown in 1.00 meter wide raised beds
with gentle slope, which facilitates good drainage.
The beds have to be raised approximately 30cm in height which gets compressed due to
frequent irrigation and other cultural practices.
The beds are prepared by digging about 2 feet deep and filling the pits with the chosen
growing medium.
The dug out soil is thoroughly mixed with chosen growing medium and is used as top
layer to create the raised beds.
The mixing of soil with the medium, which is otherwise loose and friable, prevents runoff
of the medium.
1
PLANTING
Avoid planting during seasons with high temperature and high rainfall.
Make sure the bed/medium is evenly moist but not wet.
Provide an initial fertilizer dose having increased potassium and lower calcium levels.
Dip the roots in a fungicide solution before planting (@ 0.1% Bavistin).
Plant them in rows in cross wise pattern.
Plant at an optimum depth (15cm deep so that new aerial roots appear above the planting
surface.
Do not prune the leaves immediately after planting, allow the plants to establish and cut
down to three to four leaves.
PLANTING DENSITY
Depending upon the varieties, Anthurium is also planted at a distance of ,
30 cm x 30 cm (accommodates 6 to 7 plants/m2) /30 cm x 60 cm/45 cm x 60 cm.
The optimum spacing for commercial cultivation of Anthurium is 45 x 45cm, which
accommodates 5 plants/m2.
A closer planting of 30cm apart is also recommended to accommodate 7 to 10 plants/m2
(61,750 plants/ha).
At higher plant densities though Anthuriums produce more, dense planting restricts air
circulation and interferes with spray penetration. Hence, disease and pest management
becomes difficult.
2
IRRIGATION
Anthurium requires generous watering and should be irrigated at least twice a day in
summer months.
In field grown plantations besides ground level irrigation, the plants can also be watered
using overhead sprinklers.
Irrigation can be accomplished by flooding beds or by installing micro-sprinklers at the
plant level.
NUTRITION
Anthuriums prefer smaller doses of fertilizers at frequent intervals rather than larger doses
in longer intervals.
For pot cultivation it is advisable to apply 5g of any complex fertilizer in 500ml of water
(1%) once in a month.
Anthuriums can also efficiently take up nutrients thorough foliage.
Foliar application of 0.1% urea at monthly intervals is found to be beneficial.
Adequate levels of calcium and magnesium are also necessary for optimum yield.
Deficiency of calcium often results in color break in the spathes. Application of 5g of
CaNo3 at monthly intervals stabilizes the spathe color.
On average Anthuriums require two liters of water/m. sq. per day when supplied through
online drippers.
One gram of fertilizer per every one liter of water is found to be suitable for good growth
of Anthurium.
After fertilizer application thorough watering is essential @ two liters of plain water/m2
to prevent accumulation of excess salts in the root zone, which otherwise lead to
scorching of roots and leaves.
In high rainfall areas the nutrients get washed away in the rain water, slow releasing
fertilizers like osmocote, neem coated urea etc. are preferred in such areas.
In commercial plantations, fertilizers are applied to the plants through ground level
sprinklers or through the Drip irrigation system.
Depending on the nutrient status of the medium, the following combinations of nutrients
are supplied through irrigation water by many commercial growers.
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Major Nutrients Nutrient Concentration (ppm)
Potash 14
Calcium 176
Magnesium 60
Nitrate 91
Sulphate 48
Phosphate 31
Minor Nutrients Iron 0.80

Manganese 0.16
Boron 0.22
Zinc 0.20
Copper 0.03
Molybdenum 0.05
PROPAGATION:
BY SEEDS
Conventionally Anthuriums are propagated by seeds.
Anthurium can be very easily grown by seeds, but it is an extremely slow process.
The berries (fruit of Anthurium) pop out extremely slow process.
The seed (sometimes two) is enveloped by juicy, mucilaginous pulp which depending
needs to be removed completely before sowing.
The time required from pollination to the maturity of the seeds is about 6-7 months.
Seeds cannot be stored and this should be sown immediately.
The flowering starts after two years.
Seed propagated cultivars are poor in uniformity.
In fact, there may be a great variation in flower production, colour and shape.
Depending upon the type of medium used the seeds will germinate in 10 to 40 days.
The seedlings can be transferred to individual pots when they attain 3-4 leaf stage.
1. THROUGH CUTTINGS
Anthurium can be vegetatively propagated through cuttings obtained from fully grown
plants.
Since, the vegetative growth is slow; the plants require at least 3-4 years to elongate and
to produce 5-6 nodes and internodes.
Cuttings can be made by cutting just below the node, so that each cutting has single eye
or bud in it.
4
The buds sprout in 20-30 days from the cuttings treated with growth hormones especially,
the auxins (IBA & NAA) hastens the sprouting and rooting.
Vegetative propagation by terminal cuttings and stem sections are very slow.
2. BY SUCKERS
The highly condensed underground stem often produces shoots at the plant base.
Such multiple shoots may be with or without roots and they can be separated from
mother plant and planted in individual pots.
The suckering capacity can be improved by exogenous application of growth regulators
like BAP (@75 ppm) at monthly interval.
Anthurium starts producing suckers once they attain an age of 12-16 months.
3. TISSUE CULTURE
Anthuriums are highly amenable for in-vitro propagation using different parts as explants.
HARVESTING
Anthurium flowers are harvested when the spathe is completely unfurls and the spadix is
well developed.
Development of true flowers on the spadix is also used as a criterion for harvesting the
blooms.
When one third of the flowers on the spadix mature, change of colour can be observed
that moves from base to tip of spadix at that stage the flowers are harvested.
Harvesting has to be done during cooler parts of the day i.e. early morning or late
evening.
The flowers are cut below leaving 2cm stem on the plant & kept in the bucket containing
water.
Flowers are graded according to the length of the stalk and diameter of the spathe
The flower stalk length varies from 25 to 50cm.
Depending upon the cultural practices, planting density and variety, 5 to 10 flowers can
be obtained per plant per year.
An average yield of 2,25, 000 blooms of exportable quality can be obtained per hectares
per year.
Average price of Anthurium in Europe is US $1.50 per flower.
In the India cities, prices vary from Rs.15 to Rs.30 per flower in florist shops, while
growers get Rs.6 to Rs.10 per flower.
We can expect 5-7 flowers per year per plant for first one and half year to two years and
5
10 to 12 flowers per plant per year after 2 years of planting.
Generally, some varieties are high productive & some are low productive.
6-8 months after planting we can harvest the flowers.
Besides flowers, Anthurium leaves can be sold in the international market.
POST HARVEST HANDLING

1. PACKING
Dutch packing puts few Anthuriums in a box to make sure that the Anthurium spathes
do not bruise.
Within each box flowers are of a uniform grade and generally of the same colour.
Individual flowers are packed with water vials filled with water with preservative
solution.
Flowers are packed so as not to touch each other or the ends of the box.
White foam rubber cushions are used to support the spadix.
If flowers are layered, 4cm thick plastic sheeting is inserted between the layers.
White cellulose shredding is used around the ends, particularly in the winter, when
foam peanuts or other white foam pieces may be included in the box for insulation.
PACKAGING
Anthurium packaging is into boxes of white surfaced corrugated cardboard,
The lids which have been printed with 3-colour logos and lettering.
European Carton Sizes-100x20x10cm, 100 x 40 x 12 cm and 100 x 40 x 14.5 cm
In Hawaii standard master cartons are 43 x 23 x 11 inches and contain smaller boxes
inside, called trays.
STORAGE AND VASE LIFE
Anthurium can be easily stored at 13oC for 2-3 weeks.

The flowers, which are harvested when ¾th of the length of the spadix colour
changes, last longer than the other flowers which are harvested either early or late.
The average vase life depends upon life of flowers ranges between 12-24 days
depending upon the cultivars.
POST HARVEST QUALITY REQUIREMENT

o The size, shape, colour and texture of the spathe gets prior consideration.
o A heart-shaped symmetrical spathe with overlapping or fused lobes is desirable.
6
o The spathe should be free from any kind of damages and infestation.
o Straight and sturdy flower stems with shorter internodes are preferred.
YIELD AND RETURNS (100 m2/year)
Y
# Selling
ield Flower Flower Returns
Flowers/ price/ flower
(After yield/m2 yield/100m2 per year (Rs)
plant/Year (Rs.)
years)
I 5 35 3500 10 35000
I
I 6 42 4200 10 42000
II
I 8 56 5600 10 56000
V
Flower Size & Price
Sr. No Size of Stem height Grade Rate/flower

spathe Rs.
1. < 5cm 20-25cm Mini 6-8
2. 5-7cm 25-30cm Small 8-10
3. 7-9cm 30-40cm Medium 12-15
4. 9-12cm 40-60cm Big 18-20
5. 12-15cm 50-60cm Large 22-24
6. > 15cm 60 & above Extra large 25-30
PEST AND DISEASES

PEST
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 The plants are occasionally infested by aphids, scale insects, mites, thrips, mole
cricket and beetles.
 Dimethoate (0.3 per cent) is effective to control aphids.
 Scale insects attack leaves and stems and weaken the plants by sucking the plant sap.
 Malathion (0.1 per cent) spray controls them
DISEASE
Bacterial Diseases
 Soft rot (Erwinia carotovora subsp. Carotovora),
 Xanthomonas blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. Dieffenbachiae),
 Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides),
 Phytophthora leaf spot,
 Flower blight, and
 Root rot (Phytophthora parasitica)
Nematode:
Burrowing nematode decline (Radopholus similis)
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LECTURE - 21
DAHLIA
(Dahlia pinnata; Compositae)
TOPICS
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Importance and Uses
27.2. Growth and Flowering
27.3. Light
27.4. Plant growth substances
21.4.1. Effect on flowering
21.4.2 Effect on tuberous root formation
27.5. Propagation
27.6. Division
27.7. Cuttings
27.8. Soil preparation
27.9. Planting
27.10. Staking
27.11 Manuring
27.12. Watering
27.13Mulching
27.14. Pruning and disbudding
27.15. Pot cultivation
27.16. Growing media
27.17. Pots
27.18. Manuring
27.19. Harvesting and Post harvest handling
27.20. Tubers storage
27.1. INTRODUCTION
Dahlia is one of the most important garden plants.
Its wide spectrum of colours, variation in size (< 2.5 cm to 40 cm diameter), attractive
shapes, many forms, profusion of flowering easy cultivation have made them immense
popularity.
It was Abbe Cavanilles gave the name Dahlia in 1791.
They grow in size from one to five feet. And flowers range from small pompons to
several inches diameter.
Flowers include single bloom and double bloom.
These attractive plants produce loads of brilliant blooms in rainbows of orange, salmon,
bronze, apricot, yellow, crimson, scarlet and lavender.
27.2. IMPORTANCE AND USES:
They are extensively used in exhibition, garden display and home decoration
Dwarf types are suitable for beds, borders and mixed borders shrubbery.
Large flowering dahlias grow in pots, terraced roof and verandah display.
Long stemmed one is used for flower arrangement.
Cut flowers of pompons, small and miniature type are most suitable for vases and
Also used for making garlands.
Tubers of dahlia contain some medicines like, insulin, fructose, phytin & benzoic
acid etc,.
27.3. ORIGIN AND HISTORY
The native land of dahlia is Mexico. National flower of Mexico.

The species introduced into the old world are Dahlia imperialis, D. coccinea, D.
merckii and D. juarezii.
The later is actually a hybrid of D. variabilis from which most of the garden types
have been developed and due to continues crosses several present day types are
evolved.
27.4. MORPHOLOGY
Dahlias are half hardy perennials with tuberous roots.

Stems are mostly erect, branched, glabrous or scabrous.
Leaves 1-3 pinnate, with slightly serrated margin, are produced opposite at each node on
the stem.
Bears flower on the long, stiff stem well above the foliage.
Ray florets are neutral or pistillate and disc florets perfect.
27.5. CLASSIFICATION
Dahlias are classified according to flower shape and arrangement of petals by
National Dahlia Society of England.
I. SINGLE-FLOWERED:
These have one row of petals, generally grow to 3 feet or less, and have flowers 4
inches (10 cm across) or less in diameter.
II. ANEMONE- FLOWERED:
Flowers have one or more rows of petals surrounded by a dense group of long tubular
disc florets.
Fully double flowers and good for flower arrangement.
III. COLLERETTE:
Flowers have one row of normal petals and one or more rows of small petals (the
collar).
Discs are apparent, very good for flower arrangement.
IV. PAEONY FLOWERED:
Flowers have two or more rows of generally flattened petals.
Discs are apparent.
V. DECORATIVE:
Have fully double flowers.
The petals are broad, more or less flat or slightly twisty and wavy.
The tips of the petals may either be rounded or pointed.
It is the largest group among dahlias.
Decorative group is further divided according to size into five groups.
1. Giant Decorative
2. Large Decorative
3. Medium Decorative
4. Small Decorative
5. Miniature Decorative
VI. BALL
Have fully double flowers.
They are ball shaped or slightly flattened. They are sub divided into
1. Small ball (4.0 to 5.9 inch)
2. Miniature ball (2.0 to 4.0 inch)
VII. POMPON:
Have fully double blooms.
Blooms are globular in appearance like table tennis balls.
The size limit is 50mm.
VIII. CACTUS:
Have fully double blooms. Outer petals are narrow preferably with revolute edges
overlapping from the tips for at least two third of their length.
This is a large group and is further divided into five sub groups.
1. Giant cactus
2. Large cactus
3. Medium cactus
4. Small cactus
5. Miniature cactus
IX. SEMI CACTUS
Have fully double flowers. Like decorative dahlias the half base of the petal are
broad and flat.
The other half of the outer petal is revolute from the pointed tip for more than one
quarter but less than half of the full length.
This group is also divided into five sub-groups.
i. Giant semi-cactus
ii. Large semi-cactus
iii. Medium semi-cactus
iv. Small semi-cactus
v. Miniature semi-cactus
X. MISCELLANEOUS:
Cultivars which do not fall under any of the main nine groups are grouped under
this category.
Good for flower arrangement.
XI. FIMBRIATED:
Fully double flowers.
Petals are fimbriated from the tips preferably for at least 10 mm.
XII. WATER LILY
Flowers are fully double.
Outer petals are broad and slightly cupped with rounded ends. From the side view
the bloom are look like a saucer.
Flowers resembles water lily (nymphaea).
XIII. STAR FLOWERED
Small cupid shaped flowers having two or three rows of pointed petals which
overlap very slightly.
27.6. GROWTH AND FLOWERING:

27.6.1. TEMPERATURE
Dahlia needs 10-21oC night temperature during winter.
During summer it requires 15.6-26.7oC night temperature.
Flower bud accelerated as temperature increases.
The best quality blooms can be obtained at 25oC day, 16oC night.
At 24oC day and 12oC night temperature delayed flowering.
The quality will affect at 28-29oC days, 17-20oC night.
27.6.2. LIGHT:
Day length regulate flowering.

10-14 hours optimal for forcing flowering.
16 hours photoperiod or 4 hours night break.
High light intensity is necessary for forcing.
27.6.3. PLANT GROWTH SUBSTANCES:
27.6.3.1. EFFECT ON FLOWERING:
Application of growth substances have proved very effective in the regulation of

growth and flowering of dahlia by 6-15 days delay flowering.
SADA @ 1000-5000 ppm, TIBA @ 500-2000 ppm and ethereal @2000 ppm
increased flower production
Ethrel 50-100 ppm, CCC, MH, SADH increased flower size.
27.6.3.2. EFFECT ON TUBEROUS ROOT FORMATION:
CCC @ 2000-5000 ppm, ethrel 1000-5000 ppm increased number and weight of
roots
SADH application coincide with long day condition – promote roots.
SADH + GA3 – inhibit roots.
Early tuber formation – pre-planting soaking in ethrel 10 ppm
27.7. PROPAGATION:
Dahlia are propagated from seeds, tuberous roots, and cuttings, grafting and tissue
culture also
27.7.1. SEED PROPAGATION:

Adopted for raising dwarf bedding singles and also for crop improvement.
Thinly sow the seeds in shallow box or seed pan.
Container contains porous soil, a layer of fine leaf mould.
Takes 10 days to germinate at18-28oC temperature.
Seedling are ready for transplanting in 3-4 weeks period
27.7.2. DIVISION:
Tuber division may be used by separating tuber each with a piece of stem.
Tuberous root required to place in a warm moist place for a short time before
dividing the tuberous root.
27.7.3. CUTTINGS:
Dahlias are commercially propagated by terminal cuttings.

Cuttings of 7-8 cm with 1-2 pairs of leaves are prepared.
The cut end is treated with IBA powder facilitate rooting
27.8. SOIL AND CLIMATE

Dahlias grow well in any type of rich and porous soil.
They generally preferred well drained, deep fertile and moist soil with pH 6.5.
An open and sunny place but sheltered from exposure of strong wind is ideal.
A cool atmosphere free from frost is also necessary.
27.8.1. SOIL PREPARATION:
Dahlias are generally cultivated both in pots and in ground.

Dig the soil to a depth of 40 cm.
Spread the FYM @ 5 kg/m2and pulverized.
Mix with fork and make10 cm fine tilth
Prepare before few weeks planting
27.9. PLANTING
Generally planted in September – October in the plains and in April in the hills.
A spacing of 60 x 75 cm is practiced for tall, 30-45 x 50-95 cm for dwarf.
27.10. STAKING:
 Need immediately after they started growth.

 The new growth is soft and liable to affect by strong wind.
 Stem tied with jute string.
 Stakes may be painted with green color and the base tarred.
 Helpful for growing the plants vertically.
 Bamboo, polyethylene ring can be fixed in pompon around sticks or other small
flowering types.
27.11 MANURING:
50-80 : 40-60 : 60-100 kg of N, P2O5, K2O/ha

Half N + full P & K, as basal
Half N at top dressing
Omission of any nutrients result as reduces the growth and flowering
27.12. WATERING:
Dry spell – judicious application – beneficial
Over watering – soft growth, feeble roots, vegetative buds proportion
Moistens the full depth of 40 cm and whole bud remains for a few days
Granular feed application – no shortage of water is needed
27.13. MULCHING:
Dry grass clipping, old hay and saw dust are used for the purpose.
Black polythene is very effective mulch.
27.14. PINCHING
Should be done as soon as 2-3 pairs of leaves appear.
Pinched off at 15 cm tall – flowering delay 15 days
Pinching at node 4 gave the best result.
Pinching at node 2 delayed blooming and produced lowest number of flowers.
27.15. PRUNING:
Thinning of shoots – keep bushes open

Large decorative cultivars 4-5 main branches may be retained and small flowering
type 8-10 branches.
27.16. DISBUDDING
To get the large blooms and for regulation of number of flowers it is must.
All dahlia – excessive buds removed in very early stage
27.17. POT CULTIVATION:
Requirement
Selection of cv., Pot and potting mixture
High quality green plant
Proper potting technique
Optimum environment
Judicious feeding, watering, disbudding
27.17.1. GROWING MEDIA:
Porous soil, well drainage and rich in organic matter

Potting compost consists of loamy soil: FYM: leaf mould @ 3:3:2
Add 30 g bone meal, 20 g horn meal, 15 g SSP, 5 g of SOP per 25 – 30 cm pots
10 cm garden soil layer, pH 6.5
27.17.2. POTS:
20-30 cm diameter, earthen

Size-no. of flowers
Larger pots – many flowers on pot
Pompons, Cactus, others small flowering
Green plants- thump pots 2.5-3 cm
Preferred to freshly rooted cuttings
Plants slightly lower than rooting medium
27.17.3. MANURING:
Top dressing at 15 days

30-40 g powdered mustard cake, 5 g SSP, 2 g SOP
Single bloom plant apply 30-40 g sterameal, 3 g MgSo4, 3 g FeSo4
Multi bloom plant apply Streameal 10 g more
Liquid manure after 7 days once in week
27.18. HARVESTING AND POST HARVEST HANDLING

Flowers are harvest during morning hours.
Cut the flowers along with long stem.
Place immediately in a container half filled with water.
Keep in cool & dark place for conditioning before packing.
Pretreatment with boiling water for 30 seconds 3-5 days
Vase life (3-4 days)
8.2 days – 10% glucose + 0.2 mM AgNo3 + 8 HQS 200 PPM
8.7 days – 10% glucose + 0.2 mM AgNo3
27.19. LIFTING AND TUBERS STORAGE:

When the plants are almost dried and colour of the stems turns to yellow.
The plants are cut leaving only 15 cm stem from the ground.
The tuberous roots are taken out with the help of forked hoe
Allow the tubers to dry for 3-4 days in a shady place.
Before storage the tubers have to be treated with 0.2% captan for 30 minutes
Slurry treatment may be done.
They can be stored on sand floor in a cool place for several months.
The ideal storage temperature should be between 4o C to 7 o C
40 cm deep screened soil + Dithane M-45+Bavistin (0.1%)
27.20. KNOWLEDGE ASSESSMENT:

1. Flowers of Dahlia is used for
a. Exhibition purpose b. Garden display c. Decorations d. All these
2. Best quality of flowers will be obtained at temperature of

a. 25oC day, 16oC night b. 28oC day, 19oC night
c. 20oC day, 10oC night d. 15oC day, 8oC night
3. Improved tuber growth by soaking in

a. Ethrel 50-100 ppm b. SADA 1000-5000 ppm
c. SADH 20 ppm d. TIBA 500-2000 ppm
4. Seeds of Dahlia germinate in

a. 10 days b.7 days c. 15 days d. 20 days
5. Dahlia is commercially propagated by

a. Seeds b. Divisions c. Cuttings d. None
6. Planting of Dahlia in plains during

a. September – October b. March- May c. December- January d. July-August
7. Growing media like loamy soil, FYM, leaf mould in the ratio
a. 4:4:3 b.3:3:2 c.1:2:1 d. 2:2:2
8. Pinched off at 15 cm tall delay flowering by

a. 20 days b. 10 days c. 5 days d. 25 days
9. Pinching at fourth node leads to

a. Maximum delay in blooming b. Reduces the flowers
c. Best results d. No effect
10. Spacing followed for tall varieties

a. 40x45 cm b. 30x30 cm c. 60x45 cm d. 60 x 75 cm

1. Long stemmed flowers are preferred especially for floral arrangement.
2. Best quality flowers obtained at 28-29oC day, 17-20oC night temperature.
3. High light intensity is necessary for forcing flowering.
4. SADA @ 1000-5000 ppm results in early flowering.
5. Ethrel 1000-5000 ppm increased no. and weight of roots.
6. 18-28oC temperature is favourable for seed germination
7. Staking is not necessary for Dahlia cultivation.
8. Over watering – soft growth, feeble roots, vegetative buds proportion
9. Mulching with black polythene is not effective.
10. Excessive buds removed in very later stage.
KEY ANSWERS
1(d), 2(a),3(c), 4(a), 5(c), 6(a), 7(b), 8(b), 9(c), 10(d)

1(T), 2(F), 3(T), 4(F), 5(T), 6(T), 7(F), 8(T), 9(F), 10(F),
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE 28 : PACKAGE FOR PRODUCTION OF CUT FLOWERS UNDER PROTECTED CULTIVATION
PARTICULARS ROSE CARNATION ANTHURIUM GERBERA ORCHIDS
Scientific Name Rosa spp. Dianthus A. andreanum G. jamesonii Dendrobium,
(Rosaceae) caryophyllus A. scheyerianum (Asteraceae: Vanda teres
(Caryophyllaceae) (Araceae) Compositae) Cymbidium,etc.,
(Orchidaceae)
Origin It is said that rose Mediterranean American Tropics South Africa Tropical countries
came first and man region
afterwards.
Varieties First red, Standards: Gold Standards : Osaki, Alberino,Red Star, Vanila, Dendrobium,
Lambada, rush, internet, Kozohara, Nitta, Niolori, Devil, Bulbophyllium,Cymbi
Ambassidor, master, Monaco, Marian seefurth Souvia,Flavia,Nobelese dilium,
Grand gala, cobra, papaya Obake: Madam pele, , Calanth,Cypripedium,
Nobelesse, Sprays: Optima, Anuenue, Kalpana, Rainbow, Nasteusium etc., Aranda,Arachins.
Lovely red, miolley, Red Mickey mouse;
Golden gate etc. Barbara, white Tulip: Lavender lady, Lady
barbera, stardust etc. Jane
Climate
Temperature Min 15oC/day & Day – 28oC Min – 15-17oC > 30oC Day – 15.5-21oC
Max 28oC Night – 16-18oC Max. -32-35oC 23o for flower initiation Night – 10-15.5oC.
Ideal-18-20 oC
Light Min. 12 hrs/day If temp high reduce 15,000-35,000 lux 50% light intensity 2400-3600 ft candles
light to 30-40%
Relative humidity 60-70% Beginning 80-85% 65-85% day Initially -80-90% and 40-75%
At full growth 60-65 90-95% night Later 70-75%
Media Soil or soil less Porous well drained Cocopeat, husk, highly Soil or soil less Broken bricks, gravel,
media light sandy loam soil organic good aerated & good tile bits, charcoal,
rich in organic water holding capacity coconut husk, tree
matter sawdust, tree bark ferns.
CO2 500-3000ppm 800-1000ppm 300-800ppm 1000ppm 2000-2300ppm
Concentration
Protected Naturally Naturally ventilated Shade house & low cost Green house & shade High tech green
structures ventilated G.H., G.H., for south India green houses. house houses /orchidarium
Medium to high & High tech green
cost green houses house for N. India.
Water For young plants 6-7 l/m2/day 5.0 l/m2/day 400-700 ml/day/ plant
-
requirement 500 ml/day/pl and 2.4-4.5 l/M2/day
for grown up
plants 1000ml/day
6-7l/M2
Spacing 0.5-0.75m Path: 15-20cm x15cm. 45x45cm or 30x30cm for Row- rows ; 30-40 cm -
30-40 x 14-18cm Bed height-45cm closer spacing Plant-plant: 30-40cm
Width-60cm 30cm betn rows
between the beds - 45-55cm betn beds
30cm
Plant density/m2 6-7 40-50 8-10 6 100-150
Propagation Hard wood Terminal stem tip Cuttings, suckers, seeds & Tissue culture plants or Seeds, Tissue culture,
cuttings & cuttings of 4-5 Micro-propagation suckers vegetative methods.
buddlings nodes.
Plants/ha 60, 000-70,000 40,000-50,000 80,000-100 000 50, 000-60,000 1,000,000-1,50,000
PH of water 5.3-5.4 5.5-6.5 5.7-6.2 5.5-6.5 soil; 5.5
6.5-7.0 irrigation water
Irrigation Nozzle & drip Over head sprinkler, Drip irrigation. Flooding, Drip irrigation Mist or fogging
Systems irrigation mist, surface & drip micro sprinklers, over head system.
irrigation sprinklers
EC of Water 1.3-1.8 1.2 at vegetative 1.2-1.3 0.5.1.0 ms/cm -
ms/cm stage and
1.5-1.7 during
flowering
Bed Sterilization Methyl Bromide Methyl Bromide @ Methyl Bromide @ 25- Methyl Bromide @ 25- Methyl Bromide @
@ 25-30g/sqmt or 25-30g/sqmt or 30g/sqmt or 30g/sqmt or 25-30g/sqmt or
Formalin @ 7.5- Formalin @ 3-7% Formalin @ 3-7% (7.5-10.00 Formalin @ 3-7% (7.5- Formalin @ 3-7%
10.0 l /100 sqmt (7.5-10.00 l/100 l/100 sqmt) 10.00 l/100 sqmt) (7.5-10.00 l/100 sqmt)
Basamid sqmt) Basamid (Dazomet) @30- Basamid (Dazomet) Basamid (Dazomet)
(Dazomet) @30- Basamid (Dazomet) 40g/sqmt @30-40g/sqmt @30-40g/sqmt
40g/sqmt @30-40g/sqmt
or Pasteurize with
steam at 70-100oC
for 30 min
Bed size 1-1.6m wide;3 30cm ht. 1.05 m Height-30cm Bottom width-70cm Gown in suitable
0-40m long; 15- width with Width – 1.0m Top width – 60cm containers wooden
20cm height; convenient length Deep- 2.0 feet Height-.45 cm legs etc.
Fertilizers Before planting 1:0.5:1.5 NPK 0.1% urea & 5g CaNO3 After planting apply 2%N, 0.2% P&K,
apply 2 kg SSP, 1 NPK in 1:1:1 ratio 75g, GA3 1.5ppm/l once in
kg CAN & ½ kg Ca, 0.3g NH4-O3 15 days enhance
MOP/m2 for better flowering.
establishment,
generally 1.7 kg of
lime/m3
1:0:2:1:2:0.3NPK
mg
Cultural Primary bending, First pinch-6 pairing Shading, Deleafing, Re-potting,
operations secondary of leaves Scraping the soil Photoperiodic content
bending, gradual (3 WAP), Removal of old leaves of per cent
Pruning, direct second pinch, Phytochrome in plant.
pruning, de- double pinch,
shooting, disbudding
disbudding Netting-
7.5x7.5cm;10x10;12
.5x12.5;12.5x15cm
Pests & Diseases Pest- Red spider Pest-Red spider Pest: Nematodes: Pest-white fly, thrips, Pest: Aphids, Mealy
mite, thrips, mite, aphids, thrips, Diseases: Soft rot, red spider mite, bugs, scales, slugs &
orchids, white moths, nematodes. Anthracnose, leaf spot, Aphids. snails, spider mites.
flies, caterpillars. Diseases- Fusarium flower blight, root rots. Diseases: Block rot,
Disease – Powdery wilt & stem rot, Diseases: PM, white leaf spot, Petal blight,
mildew, DM, Rhizoctonia stem rust, Botrytes, yellowing.
botrytis, black leaf rot, alternaria leaf Rhizoctonia, Fusarium,
spot, verticilliam spot, rust, bacterial Phythium Phytophthora
wilt. wilt & blight , gray
mould ,CMV
Disorder:
Calyx splitting.
Harvesting stage Tlight bud stage Flight bud stage When ¾th of flower is When ray florets Fully developed
for distant market developed. (Spathe completely elongated. flowers of good
or when one or 2 completely unfurls & spadix Flowers 8-12 weeks quality are harvested.
outer petals begin is well developed) after planting.
to unfurl from tip 50-60%color change
& calyx refluxed.
Yield/m2 100-350 stems, 150-300 Flowers 10-12 Flowers/pl/year yields 200-250 stems
4-5 months after 110-120 days after for 6-7 years depending on varieties,
planting. planting Flowers 8-12 weeks
Upto 8-10 years 3-4 years after planting. Up to 3-
4 years
PARTICULA ROSE CARNATION ANTHURIUM GERBERA ORCHIDS
RS
Post harvest HT Roses: Standards: Grades: Grade: These are no
aspects stem length – 60- Stem length -55cm Tiny – <8cm Flrs dia Stem lnth standard grades
90cm Flower diameter – 7.0cm Small – 8-10cm for orchids,
Bud size – 3-3.5cm Sprays: Medium – 10-13cm 1. > 60cm. > 12cm grading done
Small flowered Stem length-43cm Large – over 13cm. 2. 50-60cm 11-10cm based on stem
variety (sweet heart) Flower diameter 5.7cm 3. 40-50cm 10-9cm length of flowers,
stem length – 40- 4. 30-40cm 9-8cm flower numbers
50cm 5. < 30cm 8-7cm & size and
Bud size 2-2.5cm arrangement of
flowers on spike.
Packaging CFB of size CFB of size CFB of size CFB of size An ideal package
120x45x25cm 122x50x30cm 24x12x9cm 100x30x10cm should be air
(80 stems/CFB box) (600-800 flrs/CFB (120 flrs/CFB.) 50 flrs/CFB girth, water proof,
(sprays)) Individual flowers are strong enough to
packed with water vials withstand
with preservative at handling & small
13oC (2-3 weeks) cold in volume.
storage
Storage Cold storage 5-8oC 13oC 6-9o C 5-7oC
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE – 29.1
LIATRIS: (Liatris elegan; Asteraceae)
TOPICS
29.1.1 Introduction
29.1.2 Origin
29.1.3 Species
29.1.4 Climate
29.1.5 Propagation:
29.1.1 INTRODUCTION:
Liatris belongs to the family Asteraceae, with each flower head having only fluffy disk
flowers and no ray florets.
The carrot-flavored root of blazing star Liatris was once used by American Indians for
food. The plants of the Liatris genus were also consumed in New England as a treatment
for gonorrhea.
29.1.2 ORIGIN:
Native to North America, Mexico and the Bahamas.
Commonly it is referred as Gay feather or Blazing Star or Snake Button root,
29.1.3 SPECIES:
About 40 species of Liatris are being grown across North America, from southern Canada
to northern Mexico and east of the Rocky Mountains through Florida.
1. Purple or white feathery Liatris (L. spicata, L. spicata 'Alba')
Is an exceptional garden plant, unique for its unusual blooming pattern.
In late summer the 1-3 foot spikes of purple or white feathery Liatris flowers
actually begin to bloom from the top and slowly work downward, unlike most
other flowers which bloom the opposite.
This versatile, easy-to-grow perennial adapts to nearly any type of garden.
Because of their vertical disposition, Liatris species take up minimal space and
are suitable for even the smallest garden.
29.1.4 CLIMATE:
Liatris prefers full sun but will adapt well to areas of light shade.
Liatris is also heat and drought tolerant, making it an ideal choice for areas prone
to these hot, arid conditions.
Its tolerance of drought is due to its deep roots.
Liatris plants are great for butterfly.
29.1.5 PROPAGATION AND CULTURE:
1. SEEDS
Liatris can be grown through seeds.
By collecting the seeds once they have matured, in late summer to early fall and
sowing into flats.
The plots can be left outdoors throughout winter and
The seeds will germinate once the temperature and soil begins warming in the
spring.
This plant can also be allowed to self sow in open areas of the garden for a
pleasant surprise later in the growing season once they begin blooming.
2. TUBEROUS CORMS
The tuberous corms of older Liatris plants can also be dug up and divided in late
winter while the plant is dormant.
3. Rough blazing star (L. aspera)
This species is native to much of the eastern, mid-western, and southern states.
This Liatris species are rounded, fluffy, deep rose-purple flower heads that open
around the same time, making it a particularly good fresh cut flower for floral
arrangements.
Grows 3-5 feet high and bears lovely lavender flowers in late summer and early
autumn.
Because of its height, the plant may require staking.
Blooms later than most other Liatris species and is distinguished from other
species by its rough-looking appearance.
4. Dotted blazing star (L. punctata)
Derived its name from the tiny dots on the leaves of this species.
This is also known as button snakeroot and some Native Americans called it crow
root, because crows were observed eating the roots in the fall.
This Liatris species is native throughout Kansas and produces a tap root reaching
a depth of 15 feet, making it extremely drought-resistant.
The Kiowa Indians bake the roots over a fire and eat them; while the Blackfoot
Indians boils the roots and will apply it to swellings or ingest it to alleviate
stomach ailments.
The large purple flower heads of meadow blazing star (L. ligulistylis) produce as
many as 70 blossoms on its 3-4 foot stems in late summer.
This species is commonly seen in prairie habitats or along roadsides and emits a
specific odor that attracts monarch butterflies.
Liatris is seldom bothered by pests or disease; however, young liatris plants are
susceptible to rodents, which will eat the buds, seedlings, and tuberous roots.
29.2. ALSTROMERIA
(Alstromeria sp; Inca lily/Peruvian lily/Parrot lily)
29.2.1. Importance
29.2.2. Origin
29.2.3. Important Cultivars
29.2.4. Soil
29.2.5. Climate
29.2.6. Propagation
29.2.7. Planting
29.2.8. Fertilizer Application
29.2.9. Harvesting and Storage
29.2.10. Pest and Diseases
29.2.1. Importance
 Important cut flower in international market
 Multicolored flowers
 Large number of varieties
 Container plants
 Grown - gardens and pots
 Area of Nilgris & Bangalore
29.2.2. ORIGIN : South America, Chile

29.2.3. IMPORTANT CULTIVARS:
 Dr. Salter’s hybrids
 Freedom –flowers are shades of pink
 Light hybrids-flowers are in shades of yellow orange and red
 Moreheim orange -orange flowers are marked with dark red colour.
 Alladin
 Pluto
 Serena
29.2.4. SOIL:
Well drained, rich in humus,
29.2.5. CLIMATE:
Thrive well in cool subtropical climate preferably in 10-20 o C
Requires partial shade.
29.2.6. PROPAGATION
 By seed
 Division of rhizomes/roots
 Micro propagation is a successful method
29.2.7. PLANTING:
Rhizomes are planted at distance of;
• 50 x 40 cm
• 60 x 50 cm
29.2.8. FERTILIZER APPLICATION:
It should be frequently fertilized with calcium nitrate and potassium nitrate at
100-200 ppm.
29.2.9. HARVESTING AND STORAGE:

 It should be harvested when color appears on first flower.
 Cut flowers are stored at 2 - 4o C.
 STS solution prolongs the vase life
29.2.10. PEST AND DISEASES:

• Aphid ,whitefly & spider mite
• Botrytis, Pythium and Rhizoctonia
LECTURE – 29.3
LILIES
TOPICS
29.3. 1. Introduction
29.3. 2. Major Growing Countries
29.3. 3. True Lilies:
29.3. 4. Lilies popular as Gift
29.3. 5. Types of Lilies
29.3. 6. Varieties in Lily
29.3. 7. Floral Extracts of Lily
29.3. 8. Different species of Lilies
29.3. 9. Growing Lilies
29.3. 10. Bulking up of bulbs
29.3. 11. Storage of bulbs
29.3. 12. Forcing of bulbs
29.3. 13. Planting Density
34.3. 14. Ideal soil
29.3. 15. Planting Depth
29.3. 16. Feeding
29.3. 17. Irrigation
29.3. 18. Lilies Plant care
29.3. 19. Common problems
29.3. 20. Harvesting/Post-Harvest Handling
29.3. 21. Vase life
29.3. 1. INTRODUCTION:
Lilies are one of the most popular flowers in the UK, next only to the Rose. Globally,
Lilies rank fourth among the flowers in popularity. Different kinds of lilies are commonly grown
in the gardens. Lilies are best suited for growing in flower and shrubbery borders and in pots.
Kingdom Plantae
Division Magnoliophyta
Class Liliopsida
Order Liliales
Family Liliaceae
Genus Lilium
Lilium, the genus, is the Latin form of the Greek word 'Lerion' for the Madonna
Lily.
Red lily was first described by the famous Swedish botanist Carl von Linne
(Linnaeus) in 1753.
Lilies are one of the most beautiful and graceful of all summer-blooming flowers.
Lilies belong to the Lilium genus consisting of less than 100 known species,
occurring in all parts of the Northern Hemisphere.
Lilies are believed to have been under cultivation longer than any other
ornamental flower, having existed in gardens 3,000 years ago.
Floral designs, particularly of Lilies, made their appearance and became very
popular in the 18th dynasty of Egypt.
29.3. 2. MAJOR GROWING COUNTRIES:

Lilies are hardy plants (can tolerate up to – 4o C). They are mainly grown in cool moist
temperature areas of the world, namely
Netherlands (Leader), Israel, U.S.A. (Oregon), South Africa, Japan, Chile, Italy,
New Zealand, Mexico.
In India, Ooty/Nilgiris, Himachal Pradesh, Upper Himalayan regions of
Uttranchal and Uttrakhand extending upto North- Eastern States has a potential
for lily growing.
29.3. 3. TRUE LILIES:

There are many kinds of flowers, which have been called "Lilies", but many of
these so-called Lilies such as the day-lily, water-lily and arum-lily, actually
belong to other groups of flowering plants.
Plants in the Lilies grow from Bulbs or Corms, both of which will store food over
the winter or during the dry season.
Unlike other Lilies, these vines produce their flowers in spherical clusters called
Umbels, as in Bomarea.
True Lilies are composed of fleshy scales without a protective outer coating.
True Lilies are never dormant.
29.3. 4. LILIES POPULAR AS GIFT:
Lilies are very popular as gifts in many forms.
You can gift a lily flower bouquet for your beloved.
Among the flower bouquets of lilies, Star Gazer and Cassa Blanca lily bouquets
are the most sought after floral bouquets.
Besides bouquets, lily bulbs as well as potted lily plants are also popular gifts.
29.3. 5. TYPES OF LILIES:

In commercial cut flower growing there are three main types of lilies, with following
characterization:
Asiatic Oriental Longiflorum

Smaller plants with small Larger plants with large saucer-shaped Larger plants with trumpet
saucer-shaped flowers and flowers and large leaves. shaped flowers.
short narrow leaves.
Flowers in 10 – 13 weeks Flowers in 14 – 19 weeks Flowers in 14-17 weeks
Generally fetch lower Generally fetch good prices Generally fetch higher
prices prices
Easy to grow More difficult and expensive to grow Easy to grow but more
difficult and expensive to
handle
Popular varieties:
Dream land (white) Star Grazer (Pink) White Europe
Brunello (Orange) Mero star Snow Queen
Navona (white) Siberia
Connecticut King Casa Blanca (White)
29.3. 6. VARIETIES IN LILY:
Cultivars of Lilium
Cv. Detroit Cv. Brunello Cv. Pollyanna
Cv.Brindisii(LA) Cv. Lateya(LA) Cv. Elite
There are numerous Lily varieties. But, among the Lily varieties, only groups like the Asiatic
and Orientals are the most popular flowers and widely grown.
Asiatic Lilies - small flowers, less fragrant, wide colors.

Trumpet/Aurelian Lilies
Oriental Lilies - Have strong fragrances, few colors, larger, flowers
The Wild Lilies
Martagon hybrid Lilies - Edible and Esculent herbs
Candidum hybrid Lilies
American hybrids Lilies
Longiflorum hybrid Lilies - strong, sweet fragrance, large funnel shaped flowers,
usually white.
Lilies are really excellent plants for beds and borders. Lilies are suitable for use in a shrub
border, as accent plants, a formal or naturalized pool planting.
Even some of the small species would fit perfectly in an alpine rock garden.
29.3. 7. FLORAL EXTRACTS OF LILY:
The oil extracted from lilies has healing and softening properties. Especially, when the
lily fragrance oil is mixed with that of calendula works wonderful for very sensitive skin.
We can use this oil for massage, in a bath, after a bath, for babies, dry cuticles, and
elbows, as a facial moisturizer, under-eye oil and hot-oil treatment.
Madonna lily (Lilium candidum) is the archetypal flower symbolizing purity. The
association of Madonna lily with the Virgin Mary dates back to an early Christian legend, in
which her tomb was filled with Lilies after her assumption into heaven.
34.3. 8. DIFFERENT SPECIES OF LILIES
Scientific Common
Common Uses
Name Name
Lily from Japan, white bowl shaped flowers with a

Japanese
Lilium golden ray down the centre of petals and crimson spots.
golden rayed
auratum The flowers are fragrant and will make a great cut
lily
flower.
The bulbs edible. Sweet and mealy, these lilies make

Lilium
Orange lily very fair eating and can be used as a substitute to
bulbiferum
potato.
Lilium
Canada lily Scented use
canadense
Lilium The bulb is employed for medicinal purposes, having

Madonna lily
candidum highly demulcent and also astringent properties.
relieve congestion, and the nausea and vomiting of

Lilium henryi Henry's lily
pregnancy
Lilium Krameri nourishing and useful in diseases of the chest

japonicum
Lily from China with light glowing orage colored

Lilium flowers with purplish black spots and protruding
Tiger lily
tigrinum stamens. They are late flowering, black stem bulbils
with stem rooting
Lilium
Tiger lily produce edible bulbs
lancifolium
Lilium Rrumpet shaped, white and waxy flowers that are early
Easter lily
longiflorum flowering and stem rooting, mostly used in flower beds
The bulb has diuretic, emmenagogue, emollient and

Lilium Martagon lily,
expectorant properties. They are used to relieve heart
martagon Turkscap lily
diseases, pain in the cardiac region and angina pectoris.
The flowers are 1.5 meters tall, red in color with a

Lilium
Panther lily yellow centre and maroon spots on it, the bulbs of
pardalinum
which are edible.
Lilium regale Regal lily Plant in groups integrated in a perennial border.
Lilium
Japanese lily The flowers diffuse a powerful sweet honey perfume.
speciosum
29.3.9. GROWING LILIES:
Lilies are propagated mainly by means of Bulbs.

They are also grown from seeds, scales, bulbils and bulblets.
Although the lilies grown from seeds are more disease resistant, the only disadvantage
with growing lilies from seeds is that the lily plants take a longer time to bloom may be,
in some cases, even five to six years. Hence, bulbs are very much preferred to grow lilies.
The ideal location will for Lilies provides direct sun all morning during the summer, with
partial shade during hot afternoon hours.
29.3. 10. BULKING UP OF BULBS:
For the first time, the undersized certified bulbs are needed to be planted in the open field
as early as possible in spring.
The bulbs have to be irrigated, fertilized and grown as any other bulb crop in cool, clean,
moist, pest free land.
The flowers should be removed as they appear. When foliage has died back into the bulb,
they are lifted out.
Bulbs are cleaned, graded and kept in cold storage.
29.3. 11. STORAGE OF BULBS:

 To ensure satisfactory long term storage of lily bulbs they should be packed in plastic
film containing slightly moist potting compost.
 Then they are frozen and stored at the following store temperatures:
Asiatic - 2o C
Oriental - 1.5o C
Longiflorum - 1.5o C
Other hybrids - 2o C
 Bulbs of Asiatic hybrids can be stored up to a year without showing any deterioration in
quality (Bulbs stored for a longer period will develop more rapidly, but plants will be
smaller with fewer buds).
 Bulbs of Oriental and Longiflorum cannot be stored for more than 8 months. They start
deteriorating. Bulbs of lilies that have not been frozen cannot be stored for long periods
(storage duration depends on the storage temperature). On average unfrozen bulbs can be
stored at a temperature of approximately 1oC for a maximum of 2 weeks and at 5oC for a
maximum of 1 week only.
29.3. 12. FORCING OF BULBS:

 A six to eight week cold storage period of 2oC to 5oC for Asiatics and Longiflorums and
 Eight weeks for Orientals is needed to induce the flowers. This is an essential part of the
forcing process.
Ideal green house temperature
- Mean maximum during the day 22oC
- Mean minimum during the night 13 – 17oC
- Soil temperature below 20oC
- Large fluctuation causes leaf scorch
29.3. 13. PLANTING DENSITY:

Planting density depends on bulb size.
Bulb size Asiatics Orientals Longiflorum

10 – 12 cm 63 – 90 cm - -
12 – 15 54 – 80 - -
15 – 17 45 – 72 - 27 – 63
17 – 20 36 – 62 36 – 54 27 – 45
20 – 22 - 36 – 54 27 – 45
23 – 25 - 27 – 36 27 – 36
25+ - 27 – 36 -
Proper spacing usually is 12 to 18 inches apart, but it varies according to the variety
selected.
Under very high light the lily bulbs could be planted close together to stretch the stems.
Under low light, they are planted further apart to reduce competition.
29.3. 14. IDEAL SOIL:
Well – drained sterile medium with pH 5.5 to 7.0 is most ideal for Lilium cultivation and
the soil should also be fluoride free.
29.3. 15. PLANTING DEPTH:
Bulbs are planted at a depth of 20-25 cm. Stem develops lateral neck roots above the bulb
as it grows.
34.3. 16. FEEDING:
Ca (NO3)2 and KNO3 is mixed in the ratio of 2:1 and 3.6 kg mixture per 1000 litres of
water is applied once in a week. NPK 19:19:19 or NPK 14:14:14 is applied weekly or as deemed
necessary.
29.3. 17. IRRIGATION:
 Most important requirement of an irrigation system is even water distribution. An
overhead irrigation system is preferable.
 Trickle hoses may be used to prevent tall, top-heavy plants from toppling.
 Lily is susceptible to salty water. EC of irrigation water should be below 0.5/ms/cm.
29.3. 18. LILIES PLANT CARE:

Lilies do not require daily watering, but when watering, be sure to water deeply enough
to reach the bulb.
Feed the plants with a balanced fertilizer every few weeks during the growing season.
Avoid high-nitrogen fertilizers.
Remove seedpods when they appear.
Also, remove stems and foliage when leaves become yellow.
Mulch should be removed in late fall.
Keep lilies blooming by removing blossoms as they fade. This prevents the plant from
expending all of its energy producing seed.
29.3. 19. COMMON PROBLEMS

1. Botrytis
2. Bud drop
3. Leaf scorch
4. Iron deficiency
The bulbs should disinfect against root rot complex (Like Pythium, Pencillium,
Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Phytophthora)
29.3. 20. HARVESTING/POST-HARVEST HANDLING:

The stems should be cut when the first flower is fully colored, but not yet open.
They should be stripped of 5 cm of their lower leaves and put into clean water with a
preservative and STS.
The field heat should be taken out in a cooler at 2.5oC.
Grading is done based on the number of calyx per stem. Minimum requirement is 4
stem per bunch with 20 buds per bunch.
29.3. 21. VASE LIFE:
Asiatic : 7 – 14 days
Orientals : 10 – 15 days
☻☻☻☻☻☻
LECTURE – 30
POST HARVEST TECHNIQUES OF CUT FLOWERS
TOPICS
30.1. Importance of post harvest handling of flowers
30.2. Inherent factors influencing post-harvest life of flowers
30.3. Pre-harvest factors influencing post-harvest life of flowers
30.4. Right time, method and stage of harvest for different commercial flowers
30.5. Optimum stages of harvesting for important flowers
30.5. Optimum stages of harvesting for important flowers
30.7. Factors affecting storage life of flowers
30.8. Conditioning and pre-cooling of cut flowers
30.9. Pre-Cooling Temperature For Certain Flowers:
30.10. What are the different methods of storage of cutflowers?
30.11. Grading and its methods followed for important flowers.
30.12. Grading standards for cut flowers in the world market requirements:
30.13. Packing methods and Packaging of cut flowers
30.14. Box sizes, which are commonly used for packing different flowers
30.15. Labeling
30.16. Transport
30.17. Physiological changes during flower senescence
30.18. General points to be considered for improvement of vase life of flowers.
30.19. Vase life of cut flowers
30.1. IMPORTANCE OF POST HARVEST HANDLING OF FLOWERS:
The quality of flowers, which reaches the final consumer, depends on the pre-
harvest and post-harvest handling.
Quality is the pillar for creating value and customer satisfaction
The flowers are highly perishable need utmost care.
When flowers are detached from the plant, they deprived of food, water, minerals
and hormones.
It is estimated that about 30% of flowers perish during handling.
Therefore it is important to study post-harvest handling of flowers to keep flowers
in good quality.
Harvesting
Deleafing
Reception
Pre-cooling Cleaning
Other
treatments Grading Pulsing
Bunching
Cold Storage Transport

Packing and
packaging
30.2. INHERENT FACTORS INFLUENCING POST-HARVEST LIFE:

 Keeping quality of flowers vary from species and cultivars, this may be due to
genetic or inherent factors like differences in anatomical, physiological, physical,
biochemical and genetic make up.
 Keeping quality of flowers also depends on,
 Carbohydrate reserves,
 Osmotic concentration,
 Pressure potential of petal cells,
 Stomatal functioning,
 Difference in number of thick walled supporting cells in the xylem
element and phloem fibre,
 Presence or absence of a complete ring of secondary thickening in flower
peduncles,
 Differences in the diffusive resistance of leaves in the field.
 Lignifications,
 Level of plant hormones and
 Susceptibility to disease and insects.
30.3. PRE-HARVEST FACTORS INFLUENCING POST-HARVEST LIFE:
 Pre-harvest conditions under which the crop is grown influences on the post-
harvest life of flowers.
 Selection of the variety,
 Environmental factors like light, temperature, relative humidity
 Nutrition, irrigation, diseases and pests, pollution, etc
30.4. RIGHT TIME, METHOD AND STAGE OF HARVEST FOR DIFFERENT

COMMERCIAL FLOWERS
 Right time, method and stage of harvesting influence the vase life of flowers.
 Harvest early in morning or in the late evening when temperatures are mild to
avoid faster respiration rate to excessive water loss.
 Flowers are fully turgid due to low transpiration at night (rose, chrysanthemum,
gerbera).
 Evening harvest is advocated because of higher sugar level in the stem due to high
rates of photosynthesis during day time.
 Immediately after harvest the flowers should be put in water or preservative
solutions.
 Right method of harvest includes cutting flower stem with sharp knives or
secateurs;
 Avoid crushing of stem, giving slanting cut to hard wood stems so as to expose
maximum surface area to ensure rapid water absorption.
 Cutting stem length at specific lengths depending on crop market, purpose, etc,.
 Harvesting at an optimum maturity stage is important and stage of harvest varies
from crop to crop and varieties.
30.5. OPTIMUM STAGES OF HARVESTING FOR IMPORTANT FLOWERS:
Sl.
Flowers Purpose Stage of Harvest
No.
1 Rose Cut flower 1-2 petals beginning to unfold.
At tight bud stage.
Loose flower Matured, unopened bud stage
2 Jasmine
Oil extraction Fully opened flowers
3 Anthurium Cut flower Spadix almost fully developed 1/3rd of
flowers on spadix mature. Change of
colour from base to top.
4 Antirrhinum Cut flower 1/3rd florets open
5 Cattleya spp. Cut flower 4-5 days after opening.
Standard When outer florets fully expanded
Spray Flowers open but before shedding of
pollens
6 Chrysanthemum Pompons and Centre of the oldest flower fully open
decorative
Anemones Open but before central disc florets begin
to elongate.
7 Dahlia Cut flower Fully open flower
Standard Paint brush stage when flowers are half
8 Carnation open
Spray At least two flowers fully open
9 Gerbera Cut flower Flowers open but outer two rows show
shedding of pollens (fully mature)
10 Gladiolus Cut flower 1-5 florets show colour
11 Bird of Paradise Cut flower First flower open
Cut flower Fully opened flower with long stalk
12 China Aster Loose flower and oil Fully opened with short or no stem
extraction
Cut flower When few flowers open at the base
13 Tuberose Loose flower and oil When all the flowers are fully opened
extraction
14 Tulip Cut flower At half coloured buds
15 Lilium (lily) Cut flower Coloured buds
16 Cymbidium spp. Cut flower 3-4 days after opening of all flowers
17 Dendrobium spp. Cut flower Fully opened flowers.
30.6. WHY IMMEDIATELY AFTER HARVEST FLOWER STALK ENDS
SHOULD BE KEPT IN WATER?
 Cut stem is a living entity, deprived of natural source of water further,
 The flowering buds require water for opening.
 The turgidity of the floral parts and cut stem depends on water absorption by
the stem, to meet water loss through transpiration,
 To avoid plugging of xylem vessels caused due to micro organisms and
 To avoid air bubbles block in the xylem vessels.
 The physical blockage of xylem vessels leads to decrease in water uptake by
the stem tending towards senescence.
30.7. FACTORS AFFECTING STORAGE LIFE OF FLOWERS:

 Quality of flowers,
 Stage of harvest,
 Temperature, Relative humidity, Light,
 Ethylene
 Pathogens are import factors determine the storage life of flowers.
 Flowers should be of good quality free from injury, pest and diseases otherwise
prone to ethylene production and infection with pathogens.
 Harvested at optimum stage,
 Stored at cool temperature (1-4oc)
 High relative humidity (90-95%) and maintenance of storage room in hygienic
conditions are important.
30.8. CONDITIONING AND PRE-COOLING OF CUT FLOWERS:

 Conditioning referred to placing of stem cut ends in water immediately after
harvest to avoid water stress;
 Generally conditioning is done by placing stem ends immersed in warm water at
room temperature for short duration and overnight in the cold room.
 Pre-cooling referred to subjecting flowers under cold storage conditions
immediately after harvest to brings down the respiration rate and field heat and
ultimately to enhance the vase life and quality of cut flowers.
 The pre-cooling temperature varies with the species and cultivars.
30.9. PRE-COOLING TEMPERATURE FOR CERTAIN FLOWERS:
S. No Pre-cooling S. No Pre-cooling
Crop Crop
temp. (o C) temp. (o C)
1. Rose 1-3 7. Cymbidium 0.5-4
2. Anthurium 13 8. Gladiolus 4-5
3. Gerbera 4 9. Bird of Paradise 7-8
4. Dendrobium 5-7
5. Carnation 0.5-1
6. Chrysanthemum 05-4
30.10. METHODS OF STORAGE OF CUT FLOWERS?

There are 3-4 general methods of storage of flowers, they
1. Refrigerated storage: Most widely used method of storage of cut flowers. There
are two types (a) Wet storage and (b) dry storage.
 Wet storage :
 Flowers stored with their bases dipped in water or preservative
solution,
 Good for short duration, day to day handling,
 Stored at a temperature at 2-4oC.
 Dry storage :
 Flowers sealed in plastic bags are stored to prevent loss of
moisture.
 More laborious but hold the flowers for longer duration.
 Pre-cooling and pulsing before dry storage is important.
 Stored at 0.5 to 1.0 o C is ideal for most flowers,
 For tropical flowers like anthurium, cattleya and poinsettia is 10-
15o C and
 For sub-tropical flowers like gladiolus, Strelitzia and anemone is 2-
8o C.
2. Controlled atmosphere storage (CA):
 Low temperature storage in gas tight chambers under decreased levels of
oxygen (O2) and increased levels of carbon dioxide (CO2).
 CO2 levels higher than 4% and O2 level lower than 0.4 per cent causes
injury and anaerobic conditions respectively.
 Different types of flowers cannot be store in the same room at the same
time since the O2 and CO2 required for storage vary for different flowers
and it is the one major limitation in CA storage.
3. Modified Atmosphere storage (MA):
 Less precise form of CA storage, the dry storage of flowers in sealed bags
leads to reduction in O2 and increase in CO2 levels due to respiration of
the tissue.
 Build up of very high level of CO2 may cause damage to flowers.
 Flowers stored in partially permeable materials are beneficial.
4. Hypobaric or Low pressure storage (LPS):
 Storage at low atmosphere pressure under refrigerated conditions,
continuous ventilation and high relative humidity.
 Rapid loss of water from tissues is major disadvantage and cost of
installation is also high.
The optimum storage temperature and duration of storage varies with flower type.
The recommended commercial storage conditions for important flowers at 90-95% RH is
as follows.
Storage Maximum storage
Storage Crop
temperature (oC) period (days)
Dry Carnation 0-1 16-24
Chrysanthemum 0.5-1 21
Gerbera 2.00 2
Gladiolus 4-5 5-7
Rose 0.5-2 7
Wet Anthurium 13 14-28
Carnation 0.5-1 21-28
Dendrobium 5-7 10-14
Gerbera 4 4-7
Gladiolus 4-5 7
Tuberose 7-10 3-5
Rose 2-3 5-7
30.11. GRADING AND ITS METHODS FOLLOWED FOR IMPORTANT
FLOWERS:
Grading refers to categorization of flowers on the basis of their quality.
Each bunch should be of same size, weight and quality before marketing them.
Mostly grading is done on the basis of appearance, harvesting maturity, blemishes
or injuries due to disease, attack of insects or pests, colour and size of the bud,
straightness, strength and length of the stem.
The flowers should look fresh, harvested at right maturity, free from pests and
diseases;
Stem should be straight, free from side shoots and should be strong enough to
hold the flower erect.
The foliage should be free from physiological disorders such as bent neck (in
roses), tip bending (in gladiolus), stem break (in gerbera) and calyx splitting (in
carnation) etc.
There are no uniform common standards for flowers in the world; many countries
have developed their own grading systems based upon the market requirements.
30.12. GRADING STANDARDS FOR CUT FLOWERS IN THE WORLD

MARKET:
Sl. No. Crop Grading method/s
1. ROSE Based on stem length,
Long stemmed graded from 40-90 cm with
difference of 10 cm,
Short stemmed from 40-65 with 5 cm difference.
Leaves dark green, healthy, free from dust,
residue pest and disease.
Buds should not be bull head, too opened, too
tight, bent neck, and strong stem.
2. GLADIOLUS Generally based on stem length,
Number of florets per spike,
Long spikes with more florets fetch better price.
Stem straight,
Colour of florets,
Optimum stage of openness of florets, etc.
According to North American Gladiolus Council
(NAGC), USA
Minimum
Spike length
Grade No. of florets
(cm)
1. Fancy (Grade 107 16

A) 96-107 14
2. Special (Grade 81-96 12
B) <81 10
3. Standard (Grade
C)
4. Utility (Grade
D)
3. CARNATION  Based on the degree of bud opening
 Flower diameter
 Stem length, strongest of stem etc.
 According to Society of American Florists, USA
Minimum
Minimum flower
Grade stem length
Diameter (mm)
(cm)
Blue Tight 50 55
(Fancy) Fairly tight 20
Open 75
Tight 44
Red (Standard) Fairly tight 56 43
Open 69
Tight <50
Fairy tight < 50
Green (short) Fairy tight < 50 30
4. CHRYSANTHEMUM  Generally based on stem length and flower size,
 Long stem and large sized flowers fetch better
price.
 According to Society of American Florists, USA
Minimum
Minimum
flower
Grade stem length
diameter
(cm)
(cm)
1. Blue (fancy) 14.0 76
2. Red (special) 12.1 76
3. Green (short) 10.2 61
5. GERBERA  Based on straight, strong, length of stem (40cm
minimum),
 Flowers uniform in size, not less than 7 cm.
6. ANTHURIUM  Generally, based on spathe size,
 Straightness of stem, freshness, colour etc.
 According to USA and Holland based on
Grade Size of the spathe
Holland (inches) USA (cm)
1. Extra large >6 >15
2. Large 5-6 13-15
3. Medium 4-5 10-13
4. Small 3-4 8-10
5. Miniature/Tiny <3 <8
7.  Generally, based on spike size
ORCHIDS
 Straightness of stem, freshness, colour, etc.
 According to USA and Holland based on
Grade No. of flowers/spike
A 3-5
B 6-8
C 9-11
D >11
8. TUBEROSE Based on stalk length,
number of florets per spike,
weight of spike,
Straight and strongness, uniform length and
uniform stage of development.
GERBERA
BUNCHING / BUNDLING
Flowers immediately after harvest, are made into bunches of 5, 10, 12 or 20 stems
and loosely tied with rubber hand at the base and close to the bunched head.
Bunching should be done carefully to avoid bruising.
Remove lower leaves, uniform fresh basal cut is given manually or mechanical.
Bunching helps for easy packing and handling.
Flowers such as gerbera, orchids, anthurium, and standard chrysanthemum are
packed individually.
Dendrobium and anthurium are kept moist by putting them in specially designed
vials filled with water or in moist wool.
The bunches are held in polyethylene sleeves or the buds are wrapped in
corrugated paper to protect them from mechanical damage.
30.13. PACKING METHODS FOR CUT FLOWERS:

 The method of packing depends on crop, flower, method of transport and market.
 The principle of packing is to keep the flowers for long time and retain quality by
lowering the rate of transpiration and cell division during transportation and
storage.
 The ideal packing should be air tight, moisture proof and strong enough to
withstand handling, transport and staking.
 Corrugated fiber board boxes possessing isothermic properties, light in weight
and reusable are generally suitable.
 The dimension of packing boxes depends on stem length, type of flower, efficient
utilization of space in the cargo, refrigerated trucks, etc.
30.14. BOX SIZES, WHICH ARE COMMONLY USED FOR PACKING

FLOWERS ARE:
Flower Length (cm) Width (cm) Height (cm) Weight (kg)
Carnation 100 40 20 13
Chrysanthemum 80 50 23 15
Gladiolus 120 50 15 15
Rose 100 40 30 17
 Large size 50 kg returnable boxes holding 1000 to 2000 stems are being
increasingly used by large exporters.
 Wet packing for orchids, anthuriums, polyethylene foil cover for gerbera,
chrysanthemum and anthuriums, special packing for exotic flowers and
orchids are taken up.
 The packed boxes are cooled by forced air cooling method where vents on
boxes (4-5%) are provided to pass cool air inside the box on flowers
wrapped with polyethylene foil.
 Refrigerated storage and hypobaric storage are also used to store boxes.
PACKAGING:
1. Protection
 Mechanical Injuries (Cuts, bruises, mechanical, punctures, abrasions)
 Unfavourable environment.
 Exposure to harmful gases.
 Enables transport.
2. Preservation
 Quality and shelf life
(prevents moisture loss)
3. Presentation
 Display of Info about the product/ communication & advertizing, trade mark
 Market penetration & competitiveness
 Value Addition - silent salesman
TYPES OF PACKAGING
 Primary packaging - container that directly holds the product
Eg., Wrapping materials (paper, polythene),vases, bouquests, carton, crates, etc
 Secondary packaging - any outer wrapping that help to store, transport, inform,
display and protect the product
Eg. CFB’s, decorated carton, gift boxes, etc
 Tertiary packaging - grouping of products for storage and transportation.
Eg. Pallet Boxes, CFB’s, cartons, plastic/wooden boxes
Packaging Materials Display Stands Packaging Materials
PRIMARY PACKAGING PRIMARY PACKAGING
Glass Vases Ceramic Containers
Baskets
Cellophane Rolls & Sheets Coloured Wrap
Ribbons Fabric wrap and mesh rolls Bowls

Buckets Cardboard Boxes
Packaging Materials Packaging Materials

SECONDARY PACKAGING TERTIARY PACKAGING
Wooden Boxes
CFB Boxes
30.15. LABELING:
 The packed boxes should be labeled,
o Crop,
o Variety,
o Colour
o Grade or standard,
o Grower identification
o Date of harvest
o Quantity etc.
30.16. TRANSPORT:
 The flowers are usually transported by air and by refrigerated vans.
 For short distance and local markets, transport through rail or non-refrigerated
insulated trucks can be used.
 The flowers such as gladiolus, snapdragon, antirrhinum and freesia which show
bending of tips should be hold vertically during transport.
30.17. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING FLOWER SENESCENCE:
Loss of dry matter due to hydrolysis of macromolecules such as starch, sugars,

proteins and nucleic acid.
Break down of starch into sugars which are transported to the flowers.
Release of ammonia due to break down of proteins causes bluing of petals.
Change in membrane permeability results in leakage of pigments, mineral ions
and total electrolytes leading to death of tissues.
Peak respiration rate at bud opening and during senescence period.
Changes in vascular system break down of vessel cells and appearance of globular
bodies.
30.18. GENERAL POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR IMPROVEMENT OF

VASE LIFE OF CUT FLOWERS:
1. Ensure that the flowers are harvested at right stage.

2. Use always clean tools to cut the flowers.
3. Immediately after harvesting and after transport place stem end in water or
hydrating solution (citric acid 300ppm).
4. Discard damaged, bruised flowers and leaves from the stem to prevent ethylene
production and infection with pathogens.
5. Use always clean vases, change vase water daily.
6. Remove basal leaves submerged in vase solution and give basal re-cut to avoid
microbial growth and plugging of xylem.
7. Flowers like dahlia and narcissus release milky fluid and mucilaginous substances
which spoil vase solution. Therefore, keep them in water for 24 hours before
using along with other flowers.
8. Adding sucrose and biocide to vase solution increases vase life of cut flowers.
9. Keep vases away from source of heat, fan and near windows
MEANS TO EXTEND VASE LIFE OF CUT FLOWERS:
Harvest high quality flowers.
Cleaning.
Pulsing, spray, dipping or gazing treatments.
Preservatives, sucrose, surfactants, plant growth regulators, ethylene inhibitors.
Cooling chain from packing to consumer.
Vase solution (sucrose, preservatives).
30.19. VASE LIFE OF CUT FLOWERS:

1. China Aster : 5 to 10 days.
2. Birds of Paradise : 1 to 2 weeks.
3. Calla Lily : 4 to 8 days.
4. Carnation : 03 weeks.
5. Chrysanthemum : 1 to 2 weeks.
6. Dahlias : 2 to 14 days.
7. Gladiolus : 6-12 days
8. Heliconia : 7 to 21 days.
9. Lily : 4 to 14 days.
10. Orchid : 3 to 4 weeks
11. Rose (HT Rose) : 7 to 10 days.
12. Spray Rose : 7 to 10 days.
13. Statice : 10 to 12 days
14. Tuberose : 7 to 10 days.
Knowledge assessment
Quiz.,
1. Stage of harvest for rose cut flower
a. 1-2 petals beginning to unfold b. Fully open flower
c. Half open flower d. None
2. Stage of harvest for Carnation cut flower

a. Fully open flower b. Paint brush stage c. Half open flower d. 4-5 days after
opening
3. For oil extraction Jasmine flowers are harvested at

a. Unopened bud stage b. Fully opened stage c. Half opened stage d. None
4. Immediately after harvest flower stalk ends should be kept under water to
a. to avoid plugging of xylem vessels caused due to micro organisms
b. for opening and the turgidity of the floral parts
c. to avoid air bubbles block in the xylem vessels
d. All
5. Pre-cooling temperature for Anthurium flowers is

a. 1-4oC b. 5-7oC c. 7-8oC d. 13oC
6. Wet storage temperature for most of the flowers ranges between
a. 1-4oC b. 2-4oC c. 0.5-1oC d. 5-7oC
7. Dry storage temperature for most of for sub-tropical flowers like gladiolus,
Strelitzia and anemone is
a. 2-8o C b. 1-2o C c. 0.5-1o C d. 13o C
8. According to NAGC, USA spike length Fancy grade of Gladiolus
a. <81 b. 81-96 c. 107 d. 96-107
9. Vase life Anthurium flower

a. 3 to 4 weeks b. 1 to 2 weeks c. 1 week d. 5 to 6 weeks
10. Factors which affect storage life of flowers are

a. Stage of harvest b. Ethylene c. Pathogens d. All
1. Rose : a. 7-80C
2. Gerbera : b. 0.5-10C
3. Chrysanthemum : c. 0.5-40C
4. Carnation : d. 40C
5. Bird of Paradise : e. 1-30C
1. Gerbera flower is harvested when the ray florets partially elongated.

2. Standard size of box used for packing of rose flowers is 100 x 40 x 30cm.
3. Release of ammonia due to break down of proteins causes bluing of petals.
4. Adding sucrose and biocide to vase solution decreases vase life of cut flowers.
5. Immediately after harvesting and after transport do not place stem end in water or
hydrating solution (citric acid 300ppm).
I .Choose the correct answers:

1(a) , 2(b), 3(b), 4(d), 5(d), 6(b), 7(a), 8(c), 9(a), 10d)

1(e), 2(d), 3(c), 4(b), 5(a)

1(False) , 2(True), 3(True), 4(False), 5(False)
☻☻☻
LECTURE -31
DRY FLOWER TECHNOLOGY
TOPICS
31.1. Introduction
31.2. Advantages of Dried Flowers
31.3. Uses of Dried Flower
31.4. Techniques for Production of Dry Flowers
31.5. Harvesting
31.6. Factors affecting dehydration
31.6.1. Atmospheric humidity
31.6.2. Temperature
31.6.3. Airflow
31.6.4. Embedding Material
31.6.5. Method of drying
31.6.6. Air drying/Drying under shade
31.7. Flowers/Foliage suited for Air-drying as reported by different scientists
31.8. Polyset drying
31.9. Press drying
31.10. Plant materials for pressing
31.10.1. Flowers
31.10.2. Grasses and ferns,
31.10.3. Foliages
31.11. Embedded drying
31.12. Common Embedding Materials
31.13. Characteristics of good embedding materials
31.14. Taking out the flower
31.15. Hot air oven drying
31.16. Microwave oven drying
31.17. Vacuum drying
31.18. Freeze drying/Cryo drying-
31.19. Skeletonizing
31.1. INTRODUCTION:
There is an increasing demand all over the world for decorating living and
working places with eco-friendly things like flowers and foliages.
Fresh flowers and foliages though exquisite in their beauty are highly expensive.
Also they are perishable and delicate in nature and cannot retain their beauty and
fresh look for a long time even with the use of best technology for enhancing vase
life.
Moreover, there is a non-availability of fresh flowers and foliages all round the
year in all places.
In this context, flower can be dried, preserved and processed to retain its beauty as
well as everlasting value.
The beauty and value of the dried flower are that they can be kept and cherished
for years, which survive the cold of winter and heat of summer.
At present dry flower industry is growing very fast with more than 60 per cent
share to the floriculture industry in India.
In dried flower industry, a turn over of more than Rs. 150 crores is projected
every year.
India’s share in the export of these items is below 1.5 per cent in Europe and it is
below 1 per cent of the world requirement.
Netherlands ranks first in the export of dried flower followed by Columbia,
Mexico, India and Israel.
In view of expanding clientele, lucrative returns and limited competition, more
and more entrepreneurs are expected to enter this blooming business in near
future.
31.2. ADVANTAGES OF DRIED FLOWERS:
1. Eco-friendly: Dried flower market has grown exponentially as consumers

became more “eco-conscious” and choose dry flower as environmentally
friendly alternative to fresh flowers. These can be offered in hospitals and
pollen allergic people.
2. Economical and long lasting: It can be reused several times compared to
fresh flowers.
3. Dried flowers are available throughout the year.
4. It can survive the heat of summer and cold of winter.
5. Especially useful in autumn and winter when flowers are scarce and
expensive. During this period fresh flower availability is less in temperate
countries because of chilling temperature. Cost of production is high due
to heating requirement in green houses and non-availability of open field
grown flowers.
6. More flexibility than fresh flowers. We can increase the length of flower
stalk by using artificial stem. Thus creative possibilities are greater in
dried flowers.
7. Less transportation cost. Dry flowers can be transported through sea,
whereas fresh flowers need quick transportation through the air, a costly
affair. Fresh flowers need cold storage also.
8. Offers wide range of suitable and striking colours.
9. Minimizes loses occurring in fresh flower handling.
10. Requires less maintenance.
11. Biodegradable.
12. A variety of products can be prepared.
13. Tolerant to most temperature.
31.3. USES OF DRIED FLOWER:
Dried flowers can be utilized in the best manner for making.

a) Decorative floral craft items.
b) Greeting cards and covers.
c) Wall hangings/Wall plates.
d) Floral designs.
e) Calendars.
f) Floral balls/Flower balls.
g) Festive decorations.
h) Collages.
i) Pomanders.
j) Bouquets and wreaths.
k) Sweet smelling pot pourries.
l) Topiaries.
m) Swags (Vertical and horizontal).
n) Flower arrangements.
o) Landscapes.
p) Sheaths.
q) Floral album-for identification of plants for botanical studies.
r) Cottage or small scale industry based on floral crafts using dehydrated
flowers, leaves, fruits, pods, seeds and other parts is a distinct possibility.
s) Dry flowers can be sealed in glass containers for interior decorations.
t) Dry flower industry can be associated with many subsidiary industries like
cotton fabrics, terracotta, packaging, cane, basket and glass, jute, iron and
brass, ribbons and laces, candles etc. By incorporating one with the other, one
can have the benefit of value addition.
31.4. TECHNIQUES FOR PRODUCTION OF DRY FLOWERS:
a. Principles affecting dehydration

There are two important factors responsible for loss of fresh look of
flowers and foliage. They are
a) Microbial activity
b) Ageing process/senescence
Both the factors are biochemical in nature. Moisture is essential for operation
of both factors.
Preservation by dehydration is based on the principle of reducing moisture
content by which chemical changes are brought to a standstill and micro-organism
growths are checked.
After dehydration, dried produce should be stored in a dry atmosphere.
To achieve strong, natural colour in dried material drying period should be as
short as possible.
Direct sunlight should be avoided to prevent fading of colour. Excess damp
conditions also should be avoided as it encourages mould.
The key to drying flower is to withdraw 50 to 90 per cent water from the flowers
without distorting the shape or destroying the appearance of flowers and foliage.
Selected materials for drying should have less moisture content and fibrous tissue.
Too matured flowers (opened flowers) are not suited for drying as they generally
shed upon drying and will not hold up well in arrangements.
Dark red colour flowers turns to black while drying due to increase in pH in the
cells that leads to co-pigmentation of flavanoids and anthocyanins. The pH
increase is due to degradation of proteins and release of free ammonia.
Yellow and orange colours change less while drying while turns to brown or
cream colour due to oxidation processes.
31.5. HARVESTING:
Harvesting should be done early morning or late evening after the dew and
surface moisture have evaporated.
If temperature is high at the time of harvest, biochemical reactions are at faster
rate which leads to early senescence and further leads to petal drop while
dehydration.
Summer is the best season for dehydration.
However, colours are brighter in winter and mansoon produced flowers.
Use only materials free of insect and disease damage as damage becomes more
obvious after drying.
Place stems in a container of water to prevent wilting while gathering.
31.6. FACTORS AFFECTING DEHYDRATION:
The process of dehydration depends upon:

1. Atmospheric humidity.
2. Airflow.
3. Temperature.
4. Embedding material.
5. Method of drying.
6. Moisture content of the flowers.
7. Type and Shape of the flowers.
31.6.1. ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY:

Higher humidity delays the process of drying by reducing the capacity of air to
absorb liberated moisture from the product. Less humidity results in brittleness.
31.6.2. TEMPERATURE:
Higher temperature leads to rapid moisture loss so the quality of finished product
goes down with rise in temperature. Low temperature leads to delayed drying and results
in poor quality due to mould growth.
31.6.3. AIRFLOW:
It is essential for conducting heat from the source to the product through
embedding and also for the transfer of moisture liberated from the product to the
atmosphere outside.
31.6.4. EMBEDDING MATERIAL:

Rate of evaporation is different in different embedding material due to different
capacities to conduct heat and absorb moisture.
31.6.5. METHOD OF DRYING:

Rate of moisture loss and quality of produce also depends on method of drying.
b. Drying methods
1. Sun drying
2. Air drying/Drying under shade
3. Polyset drying
4. Press drying
5. Embedded drying a) in room
b) in sun
6. Hot air oven drying
7. Microwave oven drying
8. Vacuum drying
9. Freeze drying
10. Skeletonizing
11. Drying through treatment with glycerin
12. Dyeing
1. Sun drying- Most common method

Procedure: After bunching, flowers are hung upside down tied to the thread and
dried in sun.
Advantage: Cheapest method since no cost on energy is involved.
Disadvantage:
1. Season bound resulting in supply uncertainties.
2. Requires large open space.
3. Time consuming
4. Shrinkage of petals
5. Loss of natural colour induced by over exposure to sun
6. Lack of uniform quality.
31.6.6. AIR DRYING/DRYING UNDER SHADE:

Flowers are hung in an inverted position or kept in an erect manner in a well
ventilated, warm and shaded place. Protection from direct sunlight, dry atmosphere and
plenty of ventilation are necessary.
Advantage:
 Simple and Cheaper method
 No special equipment involved.
Disadvantage:
 Time consuming
 Weather dependant
 Shrinkage of petals
 Unnatural straight stems
Ex., Helipterum, Helichrysum, Limonium, Strawflower, Statice, Thistles, Yarrow, Golden
rod, Baby’s breath, Celosia, Globe amaranth, Salvia, Hydrangeas, Xeranthemum,
Queen Anne’s Lace, Millet, Astilbe, Baptisia, Blackberry-lily, Cat tail, Chinese
lantern, Clover, Dusty miller, False-dragonhead, Fennel, Grains Grasses, Lilac,
Marigold, Milk weed, Okra, Polygonum, Rose, Smoke tree, Pansy, Bachelor’s
button, Bells-of- Ireland, Scarlet sage, Blue sage, Sea lavender, Acacia, Acanthus
(Bear’s breeches) Acer (Sycamore), Love- lies-bleeding, Amaryllis, Anethum
(Dill), Artemisia, Arundinaria (Bamboo), Atriplex (Dock), Avena (Blue grass),
Birch, Calendula, Callistemon, Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), Corn flower,
Clematis, Artichoke (Cynara scolymus), Dahlia, Larkspur (Delphinium ajacis),
Digitalis (Foxglove), Fennel, Kochia (Silver Cypress), Lavender, Liatris, Love–
in-a-mist, Poppy, Chinese lantern (Physalis), Mignonette (Reseda lutea), Reed
mace, Zea mays, Rose buds, Lavender, Zinnia, Artemesia, Astilbeetc,.
31.8. POLYSET DRYING:
It is a polymer preservation method which is applied to the flower 45 minutes
before drying. It is a chemical pre-treatment application which is used before air drying
to improve the quality of the dried flower.
Advantages:
 Lessens drying time.
 Improves the intensity of flower colour.
 Minimizes shattering and wrinkling of petals which may occur during air drying.
31.9. PRESS DRYING:

The flowers and leaves while press drying is placed between the folds of
newspaper sheets or blotting papers giving some space among flowers.
These sheets are kept one above the other and corrugated boards of the same size
are placed in between the folded sheets so as to allow the water vapour to escape.
The whole bundle should be placed in a plant press for 24 hours.
Then it in kept is electric hot air oven for 24 hours at 40-450 C.
The press dried flower may be either stored in sheets at a dry place or in
desiccators for future use.
The original shape of the materials cannot be maintained by press drying but
original colour is retained.
The pressed flowers and foliages are used in making floral charts, greeting cards
and landscapes.
Ex., FLOWERS
Pansy, Candytuft, Lantana, Verbena, Aster, Ixora, Chrysanthemum, Larkspur,
Rose, Cosmos, Mussaenda, Euphorbia, Pentas, Violets, Dahlia, English Daisy,
Geranium, Marigold, Zinnia, Ageratum, Bleeding heart, Corn flower, Golden rod,
Alyssum, Buttercup, Bachelor’s button, Hydrangea Anemone, Butterfly weed, Daffodil,
Lily-of-the-valley, Azalea, Celosia, Delphinium, Phlox, Queen Ann’s lace, Salvia, Sweet
pea
GRASSES AND FERNS:
Adiantum, Nephrolepis, Golden fern, Silver fern
FOLIAGES:
Thuja, Cassia biflora, Haematoxylon, Marigold, Casuarina, Calliandra, Rose
foliage, Grevillea robusta, Taxodium distichum.
31.11. EMBEDDED DRYING:

To overcome the problem of petal shrinkage and other morphological changes in
dehydrated materials due to air drying, the flowers are dried in embedding technique. The
embedding materials cover flowers in such a way that the original shape of the flower is
maintained.
Advantage:
 Retains colour and form.
 Support the petals more rigidly and maintains shape on drying.
Disadvantage:
 Labour intensive.
 Expensive since it involves the cost of embedding materials.
31.12. COMMON EMBEDDING MATERIALS:
Sl. No. Material Properties

1. Silica gel Very clean material, does not cake, acts very quickly, light in weight,
keeps colour well, reusable (Bake in oven at 1200C for two hours until
turns dark blue), highly hygroscopic, expensive, rapidly absorbs
moisture from flowers, it can absorb about 40 per cent of its weight
with water, drying within 2-3 days.
2 Corn meal Light, tends to stick to the petals, hence difficult to handle, less
tendency to flatten flowers, makes boxes easier to handle and move
after filling.
3 Borax Hygroscopic, bleaches petals if stored for long time, tends to become
lumpy after absorbing moisture, drying will take 2 to 10 days. If flower
remain in borax too long, they become brittle and lose their petals.
4 Sand Cheapest, easy to handle, heavy and does not react with water vapour. It
neither forms lumps nor bleaches the plant materials embedded in it.
Since heavier, it takes longer time for drying (4 days to 2 weeks)
5 Alum Double sulphate of Aluminium and Potassium.
31.13. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD EMBEDDING MATERIALS
1. Fineness: - The material should be very fine (0.02-0.2mm) to fill the crevices and
cavities present in flower and completely envelope them leaving no gaps.
2. Inertness to water vapour: - It should not react with water vapour released during
drying, as well as with floral parts and form lumps.
Eg:- Borax and alum tend to form lumps when damp, sometime they harden and crack.
3. Optimum weight:- Very light weight powders are not suitable, since these are
difficult to handle and leave gaps during embedding.
4. Non bleaching: - Drying material should be free from any type of salt and chemical.
Strongly hygroscopic material should be avoided as it bleaches plant material.
5. Embedding and drying in room
 For flowers with weak stems, stems are cut about 2.5 cm from the base of the
flower.
 If stem is too soft, a thin but strong wire of 5 cm length is inserted from the back
in the center of the flower after removing the flower stalk. Such flower can be
easily dried in shallow earthenware or metallic trays.
 About 5 cm layer of the desiccant is made at the bottom of the container and
flower stems and wires are pushed into it so that the flower remains upright.
 Desiccant is then gently and gradually poured all around and over so as to fill all
the crevices in between the petals without disturbing the shape of flower. Flowers
are covered up to a cm on top.
 Flower such as bougainvillea, candytuft, perennial chrysanthemum, pompon
dahlia, gerbera, marigold, rose, limonium etc. can be dried with their own stems.
 Embedding in such cases is done in deep containers so as to accommodate the
plant material without disturbing its shape and form. These embedded materials
are kept at room temperature in a well ventilated room till the plant material gets
completely dried.
Advantages :
No shrinkage of petals
Disadvantages :
Takes longer time for dehydration
Weather dependant.
6. Embedding and drying in sun
After embedding, the containers are daily exposed to sun. Containers are shifted
under a roof during the evening and again brought to sun in the morning.
Advantage:
o Rapid dehydration as compared to earlier method.
Disadvantage:
o Weather dependant.
Flowers like gerbera, zinnia and chrysanthemum dried well with minimum
shrinkage when sun dried after placing them in a box containing sand. This takes 4-5
days for drying.
31.14. TAKING OUT THE FLOWER:

 After dehydration, the containers are tilted for removing the desiccants over and
around the flowers.
 The dried flowers are either picked up by hand or by tweezers; cleaned by
inverting them and tapping the stems with fingers slowly and gently.
 Remaining desiccants are finally removed with the help of fine hair painting
brush.
31.15. HOT AIR OVEN DRYING:

Procedure: The container with the embedded plant material is kept in the hot air oven at
a controlled temperature for appropriate time.
Advantages :
 Faster dehydration
 Temperature can be maintained
 Independent from weather conditions
 Superior quality product
Disadvantages :
 Costlier
 Brittle flowers due to lack of humidity.
Accordingly drying period varies from 48 to 72 hours and temperature varies
from 30 0C to 50 0C.
31.16. MICROWAVE OVEN DRYING:
 Principle behind microwave oven drying is liberating moisture by
agitating water molecules in the organic substances with the help of
electronically produced microwaves.
Procedure:-

Embedded flowers and foliages in silica gel contained in a non-metallic
earthenware or glass ware are kept in an oven for few minutes to induce
effective drying.
 After the treatment the containers are taken out and kept at ambient
temperature for a particular period, so that the moisture of the container
gets evaporated and the plant material gets fully dried called as “setting
time”.
 Generally, drying period varies from 1 to 4 minutes and setting time 2 to 5
hours.
 Microwave heating is a type of dielectric heating using high frequency
waves. When a substance like water is absorbed in its free state and then
micro-waved it responds by heating and vaporizing.
Advantage of Microwave oven drying :
 Unbelievably fast
 Quality product
Disadvantages: Costly method.
31.17. VACUUM DRYING:
Principle:
The embedded material may be dehydrated under vacuum.
It employs a thick walled chamber fitted with a heating device, a vacuum pump
for maintaining high vacuum and a condenser for condensing the liberated
moisture in drying compartment.
Advantages:
It permits the use of low temperature for drying, thus minimizing oxidative
changes resulting in excellent quality of the finished product.
Energy loss is also minimum as most of the heat is utilized for evaporating
moisture.
Disadvantages: High cost of equipment and its sophisticated nature.
31.18. FREEZE DRYING/CRYO DRYING:
It is a relatively new process.
Fully opened flowers are cut into a uniform 15cm length and placed in vials so
that the basal 5 cm are immersed in solutions of glycerine, clove oil, ethylene
glycol, dimethyl sulfoxide and wetting agent.
Various concentrations and combinations are used for stem uptake.
After this pretreatment, flower-stems are re-cut to 5 cm in length and placed in a
freezing temperature at – 800C for 12 hours.
Then the flowers are immediately placed in a freeze dryer at 200C and under a
vacuum of less than 100 microns for 7 days.
Two phases in freeze dying
1. Freezing phase.
2. Vacuum drying phase.
Principle :-
Freeze drying is a dehydration process that causes vaporization of water directly
from a solid ice crystal state to a vapour state without passing through normal
liquid state.
Flowers suited for freeze drying include carnation, Antirrhinum and roses.
Advantages : Texture, structure, shape, size, colour etc are similar to fresh ones.
Disadvantages :
 High cost of equipment
 Electrical energy consumption.
 Equipment maintenance cost is higher
 Requires precise processing techniques.
 Though expensive, freeze drying is becoming very popular in U.S. to preserve
special occasion flowers. Brides often choose freeze drying to preserve their
wedding bouquets.
 Vacuum drying temperature had more effect on rose and carnation flowers than
freezing temperature. Lower vacuum drying temperature (27 0C) resulted in
flower with colour closer to fresh and control flowers, while higher vacuum
drying temperature (470C) resulted in lower moisture content and stronger/stiffer
petals but more changes in colour.
31.19. SKELETONIZING :
 It is suited for foliages.
 Skeletonizing is a process of removing soft tissue by soaking in water or
alkali solution for 7-10 days.
 The decayed tissue is removed by using a paint brush and washed.
E.g.: Peepal leaves
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
Development of e-courseware for B Sc (Hort), NAIP, UHS, Bagalkot, Karnataka
Continued…..
LECTURE -32
TOPICS
32.2. Suitable flower for different techniques

32.3. Glycerin treatment
32.4. Dyeing or Colouring
32.5. Moisture tests to know material is dried/not
32.6. Care of dried flowers
32.7. Value Addition
32.8. Description of dried flowers
32.9. Export of Indian dried flower materials
32.10. Other flowers include
32.11. How to make potpourri
32.12. Arrangements
32.13. Economics
32.14. Location of dried flower industry
32.15. Major players in Indian Export
32.16. Source of raw materials
32.17. Employment Potential
32.2. SUITABLE FLOWER FOR DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES:
Methods Crops
Air drying with silica gel Anemone, Freezia, Zinnia, Narcissus
Borax/Alum drying Snapdragon, cosmea, Delphinium
Drying with sand Dahlia
Air drying with water or immersion in glycerin Foliage
Air drying preserves fragrance Lavender
Air drying with glycerin Mollucella
Air drying with glycerin Rose
Air drying Allium, Helipterum, Leucodendron,
Mimosa, Gomphrena, Verbena
Microwave oven drying Spray carnation
Microwave oven drying Chrysanthemum (small)
Microwave oven drying Iris, Orchids, Sweet William, Tulip
32.3. GLYCERIN TREATMENT:

It refers to replacing the moisture content in a flower with a mixture of glycerin
and water. Here the flower is actually preserved and not dried.
Two types of glycerin treatments
1. Systemic treatment: - It allows the plant to absorb the glycerin through the stems
naturally.
2. Immersion treatment: - Here glycerin is forced through the stems under pressure.
Flowers suited: - Caspia, Ming, Tree fern, Salal.
Advantages:
 Retains natural shape and flexibility
 Lasts indefinitely
Disadvantages: Preservation destroys natural colour/ colour changes; Therefore dyes are
used to produce a wide array of choices; Dried materials will have greasy feeling.
Leaves:
Maple, Bells- of-Ireland, Mexican, Orange blossom , Oak , Beech, Cherry,
Eucalyptus, Magnolia, Japanese Fatsia, Mistletoe, Ferns, Mahonia, Salal,
Camellia, Ivy, Rhododendron, Hydrangea
Procedure
Select a branch about 18 inches or less in length.
Remove lower leaves and branch or split the stem end of wood materials about 4
to 6 inches to increase absorption.
Make a mixture of 1 part glycerin and 2 parts warm water.
Stir well and pour into glass containers.
Mark the level of mixture on the containers.
As the branches absorb mixture, add a reserve mixture which contains 1 part
glycerin + 4 parts water to the original marked level.
Soft stem takes 3-6 days for absorption whereas woody stems takes 2 to 6 weeks.
Foliage colour will gradually change as glycerin is absorbed.
32.4. DYEING OR COLOURING:

 It is essential for good appearance.
 It is a determining factor in the pricing of the product.
 Dyeing also serves as a preservative. It enhances the natural look and texture of
the product.
Three methods of dyeing

1. Dyeing by dusting
Chalk powder mixed with dye is applied on flower surface.
2. Colouring of products using dyestuff with water
 1-4 kg dye and 5-20 liters of water is put in a small bucket to form a paste.
 This paste is added to steam boiling water tank (800 l). About 2 l acetic acid is
also added to the tank.
 The product to be coloured is then dipped into the boiling water until the required
shade is achieved.
 In case of fragile product, Magnesium chloride is also added.
 After colouring, product is placed in the open to dry.
3. Colouring of product using dyestuffs with methanol
 Methanol is diluted to 50 to 150 liters by adding water.
 Dye paste is added to diluted methanol.
 Products are dipped in methanol solution and immediately taken out and dried for
a few minutes.
1. Test the flower in more than one place, as petals dry before the flower centre.
2. Place sample in airtight jar, leave for a day or two. If condensation appears, need
to be dried a little more.
3. Check the sample by keeping upright in a container for 24-48 hours. Head will
droop if plants are not completely dried because; neck of flower dries out last.
32.6. CARE OF DRIED FLOWERS:

1. Prevention of moisture absorption- Dry flower absorbs atmospheric moisture and
loses their shape. Therefore, they should be stored immediately in moisture proof
containers like glass desiccators, tin boxes, cartons, wrapped with plastic sheet or
wax paper.
2. Prevention of dust –Storage containers should be dust free as dust particles spoil
the beauty of flowers.
3. Prevention of breakage- Pack carefully ensuring that there is not too much
pressure on flower heads.
4. Prevention of direct sunlight and light in order to avoid fading of colour.
5. Prevention of damage by insects-Moth balls should be kept in storage containers.
32.7.VALUE ADDITION :
Value added products
Dried flower are exported as assortments of value added items.
32.8. DESCRIPTION OF DRIED FLOWERS
The International Trade centre (ITC) of the United Nations Commission on Trade
and Development (UNCTAD) in conjunction with the GATT (General Agreement on
Trade and Tariffs) had developed the following product description for dried flowers.
These Categories are
1. Dried, dyed, bleached, impregnated or otherwise prepared cut flowers and flower
buds for bouquets or for ornamental purposes
ITC code : HS code-0603.90-00
It includes cut flowers, bouquets, wreaths, floral baskets etc.
2. Dried parts of plants for bouquets or for ornamental purposes
ITC code : HS code –0604.99-10.
3. Dried, dyed, bleached, impregnated or otherwise prepared foliage, branches and
other parts of plants (without flowers or buds) and grasses, mosses, lichens suitable
for bouquet or for ornamental purpose.
ITC code : HS code 0604.99-90.
It includes decorative fruit and Christmas trees
32.9. EXPORT OF INDIAN DRIED FLOWER MATERIALS:

India has evolved from being a raw material supplier into a manufacturer of
finished goods. The Indian dried flower export market is classified into four product
segments. These classifications are particular to Indian suppliers and not confirm exactly
to Harmonized code ITC (HS) descriptions or to competing product from other origin
suppliers.
Product Segmentation
The Indian dried flower export market is classified into three main product
segments and one specialized, lower volume segment, each with its own characteristics.
1. Dried flowers and plant parts in bulk
2. Potpourri
3. Arrangements (with dried plant materials and dried flowers) and
4. Floral handicrafts (Specialized/ low volume)
Dried flowers and plant parts in bulk

This is the high volume, well established end of the business. Varieties shipped under
this classification include globe amaranth, celosia, marigold, agro waste products as well
as „assembled‟ flowers, exotics and material for liners and fillers used in flower
arrangements. Assembled flowers consist of a number of parts of one or more sorts of
flowers.
2. Potpourri
 It is a mixture of dehydrated flowers, berries and leaves which is exported either
raw or scented.
 The common method of display is in glass bowls or ceramic jars which are placed
in bedrooms and bathrooms.
 This product can be packed in small muslin bags or sachets which are then placed
in wardrobes and drawers are „clothes- fresheners.‟
 Use of potpourri as a natural scent as well as decorative feature has gained wide
acceptance.
 Potpourri overcomes the harmful effects of ozone depleting aerosols.
 Over 300 products are used in potpourri mixes.
 In India, major products used in potpourri are bachelor‟s button (globe amaranth),
cock‟s comb (Celosia argentea), marigold flower (Tagetes sp), rose petals,
bougainvillea petals, green leaves (such as bay leaves), neem leaves (Azadirachta
indica), stones from plums, peaches, apricot, amaranth etc.
32.10. OTHER FLOWERS INCLUDE:

Larkspur, Delphinium, Cornflower, Peony, Sweet pea, Statice, Strawflower,
Honeysuckle
Leaves from herbs like Artemisia, thyme, sage, rosemary, basil, yarrow, lavenders
scented geraniums, mints, marjoram, Verbena, anise, fennel.
Fruits include rose hips, hawthorn berries, juniper berries, grapefruit rind, orange
rind and apples.
Potpourri material should have a strong natural colour or be a light enough shade
to absorb non-toxic dyes.
Material should be dry (maximum moisture content of 7 per cent), resistant to
mould, non toxic, free from noxious odours, of a low bulk density and sufficiently
robust to withstand mechanical blending.
U.K. is the biggest potpourri market for Indian raw balk materials.
32.11. HOW TO MAKE POTPOURRI:

 Basis of a potpourri is the aromatic oils found within the plant.
 These oils are not confined to flowers, but they are at their peak at flowering time.
 So harvest leaves and flowers just as the plant begins to flower.
 After harvesting, dry the plant part in a warm, airy, dry room either by hang
drying or flat drying.
 Drying at high temperature may result in loss of aromatic oils.
 For making potpourri, a “fixative” is needed which is responsible for absorbing
the aromatic oils and slowly releasing them.
 Common fixatives include finely ground non –iodized salt, Orris root (dried
rhizomes of iris plant), sweet flag (calamus root), gum benzoin, and ambergris.
 Other materials required are finely ground spices (cinnamon, clove and nutmeg).
To enhance the scent, add essential oil (Patchouli oil/rose oil/ lavender oil).
32.12. ARRANGEMENTS :
 Most lucrative segment in dried flower market, in terms of both total gross sales
and unit returns.
a. Arrangements with dried plant materials
 This market is small, specialized and of higher value.
 Examples are wreaths, topiaries and swags.
 Indian cottage industries are well developed in handicrafts.
Examples of common products used in India:

Cotton pods, Exotic grasses and leaf material, large pine cones (Pinus sp),
Unfurling fern fronds, dried capsicums (C. annum, C. frutescens), Barks and twigs,
Ornamental gourds (Cucurbita pepo), Seed pods and heads.
b. Dried flower arrangements:
 High income private hotels and retail uses. Dried items offer the arranger more
flexibility than do fresh flowers. As a result creative possibilities are greater.
 Dried floral designers require products with a natural stalk of 15-40 cm. If stalks
are not of an acceptable length, the products have wire stalks attached with hot-
glue gums.
 Products used in dried flower arrangements are classified as Main blooms, Fillers,
Liners and Exotics
Main blooms: Plays a key role because of their shape, size and colours in making
bouquets or arrangements. They also include assembled everlastings. Most common main
blooms used within the market are statice (sea lavender) Strawflower (Helichrysum),
Nigella, larkspur and roses.
Fillers: are a group of products used in making bouquets and arrangements whose
function is to add bulk to the flower arrangement. They help to fill any empty space in
design.
Liners: Are mostly ornamental grasses, so named because these grasses give a linear
accent to an arrangement. Most commonly used grasses are Avena (animated oats),
Halaris (Canary grass), Triticum (ornamental wheat) and Phleum (Timothy).
In addition, a wide variety of plants such as typha (Cattail or reed mace), maize,
sorghum, spiked millet (Pennisetum), dried branches and twigs of trees (eg: silver dollar
eucalyptus) and shrubs can also be used.
Exotics: Consists of a group of plants and plant materials which originate from various
tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Indian Exotics include Lotus heads (Seed
head from Nymphea species), palm spears (palm leaf cut into spear shapes) and okra
pods.
4. Floral handicraft
Handicraft products have served to generate new demand for dried flower
products. This segment includes items such as:
Collages
Flowers pictures
Cards and covers (press-dried flower and foliage)
Innovative items such as :-

 Candle stands
 Table lamps
 Picture frames
 Floral jewellary
 Mirror decorations
 Arrangements in glass containers
32.13. ECONOMICS:
It is possible to start a home-scale establishment with a meager amount of Rs.
15,000/- and one may supplement one‟s income by employing his family members. A
small scale industry can also be started if the market for dry flowers and floral craft items
is explored in our country and world. There is quite high margin of profit in this venture.
32.14. LOCATION OF DRIED FLOWER INDUSTRY:

 The principal export houses /processing units for dried flowers are concentrated in
port towns of Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu), Kolkata (West Bengal) and Mumbai.
 Tuticorin accounts for over 50 per cent of country‟s export and Kolkata for about
40 per cent. Tuticorin offers certain logistical, political and climatic advantages
over Calcutta for this industry.
 Climate in Tuticorin is dry for best part of the year.
32.15. MAJOR PLAYERS IN INDIAN EXPORT:

1. M/s Ramesh Flowers Limited –based in Tuticorin has emerged as the single
largest exporter of dried flowers with a turnover of over Rs 270 million. They
have technical and financial collaboration with Schleef of Germany (Schleef
holds 51 per cent of the company‟s equity). Schleef helps in product design and
development for European markets. M/s W. Hogenwoning India, a prominent
Dutch company has also started exporting from Tuticorin
2. Singhvi International, Kolkata -having 60 per cent of total dried flower exports
from India. The Singhvi family has a stronger export base in Tuticorin
3. M/s Minex Agencies, Kolkata.
Major players export their product to U.S., Holland Germany, Denmark,
Czechoslovakia, Italy, France, Spain, UK, Belgium, South Africa, Srilanka, Australia and
Mexico.
32.16. SOURCE OF RAW MATERIALS :

 Kolkata units procure their raw materials locally as well as from Madhya Pradesh,
North eastern states, Bihar and South India.
 Tuticorin units procure some of their raw materials from Pune and Nasik
(Maharashtra) and M.P. Bilaspur (M.P.) remains a major source of raw material
for both Kolkata and Tuticorin.
 Most raw materials are collected year round from mountains, hills, valleys and
deep sea by villagers and trained rural labour and supplied to the units either
directly or through collection agents.
 Whole process is quite informal and traditional 20 per cent of raw material is
cultivated and 80 per cent is collected from the wild.
 India‟s diversity in topography and climatic conditions makes it rich in plant
material and hence, India can emerge as the leader supplier of dried plant material
32.17. EMPLOYMENT POTENTIAL:

 The nature of industry requires an exceptionally large work force at the growing
/collecting stages.
 About 10,000 people are directly employed and about 40,000 people are
indirectly employed with this industry.
 A large number of employed are rural women, who collects the flowers and plant
materials, sun dry them and then ready them for dispatch.
 More than 3,500 women are involved in this industry in Tuticorin alone and many
in Kolkata.
 Thus dried flower industry is critical from the stand point of employment
potential.
☻☻☻☻☻☻☻
Continued…..
LECTURE -32
TOPICS
32.2. Suitable flower for different techniques

32.3. Glycerin treatment
32.4. Dyeing or Colouring
32.6. Care of dried flowers
32.7. Value Addition
32.8. Description of dried flowers
32.9. Export of Indian dried flower materials
32.10. Other flowers include
32.11. How to make potpourri
32.12. Arrangements
32.13. Economics
32.14. Location of dried flower industry
32.15. Major players in Indian Export
32.16. Source of raw materials
32.17. Employment Potential
32.2. SUITABLE FLOWER FOR DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES:
Methods Crops
Air drying with silica gel Anemone, Freezia, Zinnia, Narcissus
Borax/Alum drying Snapdragon, cosmea, Delphinium
Drying with sand Dahlia
Air drying with water or immersion in glycerin Foliage
Air drying preserves fragrance Lavender
Air drying with glycerin Mollucella
Air drying with glycerin Rose
Air drying Allium, Helipterum, Leucodendron,
Mimosa, Gomphrena, Verbena
Microwave oven drying Spray carnation
Microwave oven drying Chrysanthemum (small)
Microwave oven drying Iris, Orchids, Sweet William, Tulip
32.3. GLYCERIN TREATMENT:
It refers to replacing the moisture content in a flower with a mixture of glycerin
and water. Here the flower is actually preserved and not dried.
Two types of glycerin treatments
1. Systemic treatment: - It allows the plant to absorb the glycerin through the stems
naturally.
2. Immersion treatment: - Here glycerin is forced through the stems under pressure.
Flowers suited: - Caspia, Ming, Tree fern, Salal.
Advantages:
 Retains natural shape and flexibility
 Lasts indefinitely
Disadvantages: Preservation destroys natural colour/ colour changes; Therefore dyes are
used to produce a wide array of choices; Dried materials will have greasy feeling.
Leaves:
Maple, Bells- of-Ireland, Mexican, Orange blossom , Oak , Beech, Cherry,
Eucalyptus, Magnolia, Japanese Fatsia, Mistletoe, Ferns, Mahonia, Salal,
Camellia, Ivy, Rhododendron, Hydrangea
Procedure
Select a branch about 18 inches or less in length.
Remove lower leaves and branch or split the stem end of wood materials about 4
to 6 inches to increase absorption.
Make a mixture of 1 part glycerin and 2 parts warm water.
Stir well and pour into glass containers.
Mark the level of mixture on the containers.
As the branches absorb mixture, add a reserve mixture which contains 1 part
glycerin + 4 parts water to the original marked level.
Soft stem takes 3-6 days for absorption whereas woody stems takes 2 to 6 weeks.
Foliage colour will gradually change as glycerin is absorbed.
32.4. DYEING OR COLOURING:
 It is essential for good appearance.
 It is a determining factor in the pricing of the product.
 Dyeing also serves as a preservative. It enhances the natural look and texture of
the product.
Three methods of dyeing

1. Dyeing by dusting
Chalk powder mixed with dye is applied on flower surface.
2. Colouring of products using dyestuff with water
 1-4 kg dye and 5-20 liters of water is put in a small bucket to form a paste.
 This paste is added to steam boiling water tank (800 l). About 2 l acetic acid is
also added to the tank.
 The product to be coloured is then dipped into the boiling water until the required
shade is achieved.
 In case of fragile product, Magnesium chloride is also added.
 After colouring, product is placed in the open to dry.
3. Colouring of product using dyestuffs with methanol
 Methanol is diluted to 50 to 150 liters by adding water.
 Dye paste is added to diluted methanol.
 Products are dipped in methanol solution and immediately taken out and dried for
a few minutes.
1. Test the flower in more than one place, as petals dry before the flower centre.
2. Place sample in airtight jar, leave for a day or two. If condensation appears, need
to be dried a little more.
3. Check the sample by keeping upright in a container for 24-48 hours. Head will
droop if plants are not completely dried because; neck of flower dries out last.
32.6. CARE OF DRIED FLOWERS:
1. Prevention of moisture absorption- Dry flower absorbs atmospheric moisture and
loses their shape. Therefore, they should be stored immediately in moisture proof
containers like glass desiccators, tin boxes, cartons, wrapped with plastic sheet or
wax paper.
2. Prevention of dust –Storage containers should be dust free as dust particles spoil
the beauty of flowers.
3. Prevention of breakage- Pack carefully ensuring that there is not too much
pressure on flower heads.
4. Prevention of direct sunlight and light in order to avoid fading of colour.
5. Prevention of damage by insects-Moth balls should be kept in storage containers.
32.7.VALUE ADDITION :
Value added products
Dried flower are exported as assortments of value added items.
32.8. DESCRIPTION OF DRIED FLOWERS
The International Trade centre (ITC) of the United Nations Commission on Trade
and Development (UNCTAD) in conjunction with the GATT (General Agreement on
Trade and Tariffs) had developed the following product description for dried flowers.
These Categories are
1. Dried, dyed, bleached, impregnated or otherwise prepared cut flowers and flower
buds for bouquets or for ornamental purposes
ITC code : HS code-0603.90-00
It includes cut flowers, bouquets, wreaths, floral baskets etc.
2. Dried parts of plants for bouquets or for ornamental purposes
ITC code : HS code –0604.99-10.
3. Dried, dyed, bleached, impregnated or otherwise prepared foliage, branches and
other parts of plants (without flowers or buds) and grasses, mosses, lichens suitable
for bouquet or for ornamental purpose.
ITC code : HS code 0604.99-90.
It includes decorative fruit and Christmas trees
32.9. EXPORT OF INDIAN DRIED FLOWER MATERIALS:
India has evolved from being a raw material supplier into a manufacturer of
finished goods. The Indian dried flower export market is classified into four product
segments. These classifications are particular to Indian suppliers and not confirm exactly
to Harmonized code ITC (HS) descriptions or to competing product from other origin
suppliers.
Product Segmentation
The Indian dried flower export market is classified into three main product
segments and one specialized, lower volume segment, each with its own characteristics.
1. Dried flowers and plant parts in bulk
2. Potpourri
3. Arrangements (with dried plant materials and dried flowers) and
4. Floral handicrafts (Specialized/ low volume)
Dried flowers and plant parts in bulk

This is the high volume, well established end of the business. Varieties shipped under
this classification include globe amaranth, celosia, marigold, agro waste products as well
as „assembled‟ flowers, exotics and material for liners and fillers used in flower
arrangements. Assembled flowers consist of a number of parts of one or more sorts of
flowers.
2. Potpourri
 It is a mixture of dehydrated flowers, berries and leaves which is exported either
raw or scented.
 The common method of display is in glass bowls or ceramic jars which are placed
in bedrooms and bathrooms.
 This product can be packed in small muslin bags or sachets which are then placed
in wardrobes and drawers are „clothes- fresheners.‟
 Use of potpourri as a natural scent as well as decorative feature has gained wide
acceptance.
 Potpourri overcomes the harmful effects of ozone depleting aerosols.
 Over 300 products are used in potpourri mixes.
 In India, major products used in potpourri are bachelor‟s button (globe amaranth),
cock‟s comb (Celosia argentea), marigold flower (Tagetes sp), rose petals,
bougainvillea petals, green leaves (such as bay leaves), neem leaves (Azadirachta
indica), stones from plums, peaches, apricot, amaranth etc.
32.10. OTHER FLOWERS INCLUDE:

Larkspur, Delphinium, Cornflower, Peony, Sweet pea, Statice, Strawflower,
Honeysuckle
Leaves from herbs like Artemisia, thyme, sage, rosemary, basil, yarrow, lavenders
scented geraniums, mints, marjoram, Verbena, anise, fennel.
Fruits include rose hips, hawthorn berries, juniper berries, grapefruit rind, orange
rind and apples.
Potpourri material should have a strong natural colour or be a light enough shade
to absorb non-toxic dyes.
Material should be dry (maximum moisture content of 7 per cent), resistant to
mould, non toxic, free from noxious odours, of a low bulk density and sufficiently
robust to withstand mechanical blending.
U.K. is the biggest potpourri market for Indian raw balk materials.
32.11. HOW TO MAKE POTPOURRI:

 Basis of a potpourri is the aromatic oils found within the plant.
 These oils are not confined to flowers, but they are at their peak at flowering time.
 So harvest leaves and flowers just as the plant begins to flower.
 After harvesting, dry the plant part in a warm, airy, dry room either by hang
drying or flat drying.
 Drying at high temperature may result in loss of aromatic oils.
 For making potpourri, a “fixative” is needed which is responsible for absorbing
the aromatic oils and slowly releasing them.
 Common fixatives include finely ground non –iodized salt, Orris root (dried
rhizomes of iris plant), sweet flag (calamus root), gum benzoin, and ambergris.
 Other materials required are finely ground spices (cinnamon, clove and nutmeg).
To enhance the scent, add essential oil (Patchouli oil/rose oil/ lavender oil).
32.12. ARRANGEMENTS :
 Most lucrative segment in dried flower market, in terms of both total gross sales
and unit returns.
a. Arrangements with dried plant materials
 This market is small, specialized and of higher value.
 Examples are wreaths, topiaries and swags.
 Indian cottage industries are well developed in handicrafts.
Examples of common products used in India:

Cotton pods, Exotic grasses and leaf material, large pine cones (Pinus sp),
Unfurling fern fronds, dried capsicums (C. annum, C. frutescens), Barks and twigs,
Ornamental gourds (Cucurbita pepo), Seed pods and heads.
b. Dried flower arrangements:
 High income private hotels and retail uses. Dried items offer the arranger more
flexibility than do fresh flowers. As a result creative possibilities are greater.
 Dried floral designers require products with a natural stalk of 15-40 cm. If stalks
are not of an acceptable length, the products have wire stalks attached with hot-
glue gums.
 Products used in dried flower arrangements are classified as Main blooms, Fillers,
Liners and Exotics
Main blooms: Plays a key role because of their shape, size and colours in making
bouquets or arrangements. They also include assembled everlastings. Most common main
blooms used within the market are statice (sea lavender) Strawflower (Helichrysum),
Nigella, larkspur and roses.
Fillers: are a group of products used in making bouquets and arrangements whose
function is to add bulk to the flower arrangement. They help to fill any empty space in
design.
Liners: Are mostly ornamental grasses, so named because these grasses give a linear
accent to an arrangement. Most commonly used grasses are Avena (animated oats),
Halaris (Canary grass), Triticum (ornamental wheat) and Phleum (Timothy).
In addition, a wide variety of plants such as typha (Cattail or reed mace), maize,
sorghum, spiked millet (Pennisetum), dried branches and twigs of trees (eg: silver dollar
eucalyptus) and shrubs can also be used.
Exotics: Consists of a group of plants and plant materials which originate from various
tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Indian Exotics include Lotus heads (Seed
head from Nymphea species), palm spears (palm leaf cut into spear shapes) and okra
pods.
4. Floral handicraft
Handicraft products have served to generate new demand for dried flower
products. This segment includes items such as:
Collages
Flowers pictures
Cards and covers (press-dried flower and foliage)
Innovative items such as :-

 Candle stands
 Table lamps
 Picture frames
 Floral jewellary
 Mirror decorations
 Arrangements in glass containers
32.13. ECONOMICS:
It is possible to start a home-scale establishment with a meager amount of Rs.
15,000/- and one may supplement one‟s income by employing his family members. A
small scale industry can also be started if the market for dry flowers and floral craft items
is explored in our country and world. There is quite high margin of profit in this venture.
32.14. LOCATION OF DRIED FLOWER INDUSTRY:

 The principal export houses /processing units for dried flowers are concentrated in
port towns of Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu), Kolkata (West Bengal) and Mumbai.
 Tuticorin accounts for over 50 per cent of country‟s export and Kolkata for about
40 per cent. Tuticorin offers certain logistical, political and climatic advantages
over Calcutta for this industry.
 Climate in Tuticorin is dry for best part of the year.
32.15. MAJOR PLAYERS IN INDIAN EXPORT:
1. M/s Ramesh Flowers Limited –based in Tuticorin has emerged as the single
largest exporter of dried flowers with a turnover of over Rs 270 million. They
have technical and financial collaboration with Schleef of Germany (Schleef
holds 51 per cent of the company‟s equity). Schleef helps in product design and
development for European markets. M/s W. Hogenwoning India, a prominent
Dutch company has also started exporting from Tuticorin
2. Singhvi International, Kolkata -having 60 per cent of total dried flower exports
from India. The Singhvi family has a stronger export base in Tuticorin
3. M/s Minex Agencies, Kolkata.
Major players export their product to U.S., Holland Germany, Denmark,
Czechoslovakia, Italy, France, Spain, UK, Belgium, South Africa, Srilanka, Australia and
Mexico.
32.16. SOURCE OF RAW MATERIALS :

 Kolkata units procure their raw materials locally as well as from Madhya Pradesh,
North eastern states, Bihar and South India.
 Tuticorin units procure some of their raw materials from Pune and Nasik
(Maharashtra) and M.P. Bilaspur (M.P.) remains a major source of raw material
for both Kolkata and Tuticorin.
 Most raw materials are collected year round from mountains, hills, valleys and
deep sea by villagers and trained rural labour and supplied to the units either
directly or through collection agents.
 Whole process is quite informal and traditional 20 per cent of raw material is
cultivated and 80 per cent is collected from the wild.
 India‟s diversity in topography and climatic conditions makes it rich in plant
material and hence, India can emerge as the leader supplier of dried plant material
32.17. EMPLOYMENT POTENTIAL:

 The nature of industry requires an exceptionally large work force at the growing
/collecting stages.
 About 10,000 people are directly employed and about 40,000 people are
indirectly employed with this industry.
 A large number of employed are rural women, who collects the flowers and plant
materials, sun dry them and then ready them for dispatch.
 More than 3,500 women are involved in this industry in Tuticorin alone and many
in Kolkata.
 Thus dried flower industry is critical from the stand point of employment
potential.
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1.2 IMPORTANCE OF FLORICULTURE IN INDIA:

1.2.1.Economic point of view:

1.2.3. Social point of view:

1.3. SCOPE TO ENTER FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY IN INDIA

Table-1: Products specific intensive floriculture zones in India:

Sl.No. Zone Flower crops

1.4. PROBLEMS /CONSTRAINTS /BOTTLE NECKS FOR FLORICULTURE

1.5. AREA AND PRODUCTION OF FLOWERS IN THE STATE AND THE

FLORICULTURAL SCENARIO IN INDIA

Expected growth in cut flower production in the next ten years

Fill up the Blanks

(Key answers: 1) 6-10 , 2)Tamil Nadu, 3)Bengaluru, 4)Horticultural therapy , 5) Singapore )

Match the Following

1. Modern floriculture Flower arrangements

Flowers Flower meanings/ Symbolization /Feelings

46. Sweet pea Good-bye, Departure, Blissful Pleasure, Thank You

Traditional colour choice

2.1 Hi-Tech Floriculture

2.1. HI-TECH FLORICULTURE

2.2. EXPORT MARKET:

2.3. WORLD FLORICULTURE TRADE:

2.4. CUT FLOWERS EXPORT POTENTIAL:

2.5. TOP TEN MAJOR EXPORTER, IMPORTERS AND PRODUCERS:

S. No. Exporters Importers Producers

2.7. INDIA’S EXPORT EFFORTS:

2.9. PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF FLOWERS AND PLANTS:

2.12. INSTITUTIONAL ASSISTANCE TO FLORICULTURE HI-TECH PROJECTS:

2.12.1 NABARD Soft Loan Assistance:

2.12.2 NATIONAL HORTICULTURE BOARD (NHB):

2.12.3 APEDA SCHEMES TO ASSIST EXPORT ORIENTED FLORICULTURE

I. Choose the correct answers:

NHB - National Horticulture Board

3.1. Classification of Floricultural Products

3.1. CLASSIFICATION OF FLORICULTURAL PRODUCTS FOR TRADE

3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWERS:

3) Based on purpose of Growing

3.3. INDUSTRIAL IMPORTANCE OF COMMERCIAL FLOWERS IN INDIAN &

3.4. COMMERCIAL FLOWER INDUSTRIES IN INDIA HAVE

1) Summer season Annuals are

(Key answers:1) d, 2) d, 3) d, 4) d, 5) d, 6) d, 7) d , 8) c, 9) b, 10) c)

 Rose is ‘Eros’ (The Greek Love - God).

4.2. WORLD SCENARIO:

Columbia 980 ha. Zimbabwe 230 ha.

4.3. IMPORTANT ROSE IMPORTERS AND EXPORTERS:

 Germany is the highest importer followed by USA, The Netherlands, France,

4.4. MORPHOLOGY OF ROSE:

4.5. IMPORTANCE AND USES:

 Shrub or bush is prepared by budding the desired cultivars on a root stock at a

c. Weeping standards: 150 cm or even higher the budding may be done on

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAMBLER AND CLIMBER ROSES:

RAMBLER ROSES CLIMBER ROSES

10) PERFUME AND ALLIED PRODUCTS:

11) As a source of vitamins:

12) Other uses:

4.6. ORIGIN & HISTORY:

MYTH AND LEGEND STORIES ON THE EARLY HISTORY AND EVOLUTION:

3) R. moschata (Musk rose)

a) England b) Japan c) Italy d) UK