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Textbook and Materials
SENSORS & SIGNAL Ramon Pallas-Areny and John G. Webster, Sensors

CONDITIONING and Signal Conditioning. Wiley India Pvt. Ltd, 2001

C. S. Rangan, G. R. Sarma and V. S. V Mani,
Instrumentation Devices and Systems. Tata McGraw-
Hill Education, 1997
D. Patranabis, Sensors and Transducers. PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd., 2010
D. V. V Murthy, Transducers and Instrumentation.
PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2012.
Dr. K. Adalarasu Power Point Presentation
Email id : adalarasu@eie.sastra.edu
Office: VV123
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Reference
Webster. R. Measurement, Instrumentation
and Sensors Hand Book. CRC Press,
Springer, IEEE Press, 2014
Sawhney. A. K, A Course in Electrical and Sensors
Electronics Measurements and
Instrumentation. Dhanapat Rai & Co. (P) Ltd.
New Delhi 2007
Doblin. E. D, Measurements Systems
Application and Design. Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Company, 2003.
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Eddy Current Sensors
 Relationship between coil impedance and distance to
the target approximates an exponential function
 Eddy current sensors do not need any magnetic

Eddy Current Sensors material

 They can be applied at high temperatures
 Unaffected by nonconductive intervening materials
 Oil
 Grease
 Dirt
 Water and steam
 Because these do not modify magnetic fields

KA – Sensor – Unit II – Aug, 2019, Sastra University KA – Sensor – Unit II – Aug, 2019, Sastra University

Eddy Current Sensors

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Eddy Current Sensors

proximity sensor displacement sensor Liquid metal level measurement based on eddy currents

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Eddy Current Sensors

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Eddy Current Sensors Eddy Current Sensors
 Liquid metal level measurement
 Tube walls are from nonmagnetic steel
 Inductance of each coil depends on eddy currents
induced in the liquid
 Therefore changes when the level does
 Drag cup tachometer
 Measure the velocity of a shaft that spins a magnet
 Magnet induces eddy currents in the non-ferromagnetic
conductive cup
 Which produces its own magnetic field that interacts with
that of the magnet
Drag-cup-type eddy current tachometer

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Eddy Current Sensors Eddy Current Sensors
 Drag cup tachometer Sliding ring sensor
 Cup is held by a torsion spring Copper ring that slides along an axis
 That twists to an angle at which its torque balances the dragging
So that its position is at the edge of the magnetic field
torque
produced by another coil having a magnetic core (E-
 Converting a speed into a torque shape)
 Sensor has a second order dynamic response
Eddy currents induced in the ring create an
 Sliding ring sensor opposite field
Ring acts as a magnetic insulator and its position
determines coil inductance
Application
Measurement of linear positions and angles in
cars in laboratories
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Proximity Sensor
Used
Machine tools
Transfer lines
Magnetoelastic
Elevator car positioning Sensors
Railroad yard position sensing
Closed barrier indicators
Count metal parts in conveyor belts
To detect control valve position

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Magnetoelastic Sensors Magnetoelastic Sensors

 Inductive sensors
 They are not based upon a change of geometry or
 Position of conductive or magnetic materials
 But on the effect of the measurand on the magnetic
permeability
 Magnetoelastic
 Interaction between the magnetization and the strain of a
magnetic material
 Rely on the Villari effect - Inverse magnetostrictive
effect, magnetoelastic effect
 Change of the magnetic susceptibility of a material when
subjected to a mechanical stress

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Magnetoelastic Sensors Magnetoelastic Sensors
 Magnetoelastic sensors are non-contact  Change in coil inductance is proportional to the load
 So they don’t suffer from mechanical wear  Magnetic flux distribution that changes in two
 An extremely long operating life directions in the same plane when exerting stress
 Because the magnetoelastic properties of a material are
highly reliable and don’t degrade

constant magnetic flux

distribution, mechanical
load changes the
permeability

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Magnetoelastic Sensors Magnetoelastic Sensors
 Third configuration  Materials
 Used for torque sensing in shafts  Need good mechanical and magnetic properties
 Relies on the change in permeability of the shaft surface or  Crystalline material with soft magnetic properties
of a surface layer
 Most magnetoelastic sensors use amorphous metals
 Torque is applied to the shaft (metallic glasses)
 Each shaft element undergoes tensile stress as well as an  Consist of alloys of iron, nickel, chromium, cobalt, silicon,
equal and perpendicular compressive stress boron, and others
 Whose magnitude depends on the distance of the element
to the shaft axis
 Applications - Measurement of
 Force
 Resulting difference in permeability in different directions
can be sensed  Torque
 Pressure in cars and mechanical industries

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Magnetostriction Sensors
 Ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, and
cobalt
Magnetostriction  When placed in a magnetic field
 These materials change size and/or shape
Sensors

 Ferromagnetic rod immersed in a longitudinal

magnetic field twists when the rod carries a current

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Magnetostriction Sensors
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Magnetostriction Sensors
 Twist
 Wiedemann effect
 Combined longitudinal and circular magnetic fields
 When an axial magnetic field
 Latter being produced by the current is applied to a
 Because of the skin effect magnetostrictive wire
 Current in a cylindrical conductor is minimal at center  Current is passed through the
 Maximal at the surface wire
 Magnetic field is also nonuniform  A twisting occurs at the
location of the axial magnetic
 Interaction with the external field produces a local field
distortion  Twisting is caused by
interaction of the axial
magnetic field
 Usually from a permanent
magnet
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Magnetostriction Sensors 27
Magnetostriction Sensors
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 Magnetostrictive tube acting as an acoustical waveguide  Senses the position of a permanent magnet placed
around it and mounted to the moving member being
sensed
 Interrogation pulse applied to a conductor inside the
tube
 Creates a circular magnetic field
 Field combines with that of the permanent magnet
 Wiedemann effect twists the tube
 Producing a torsional strain pulse that travels along the
tube in both directions at the speed of sound
 It is a mechanical wave

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Magnetostriction Sensors Magnetostriction Sensors
 Twist is transformed into a lateral stress in thin Permanent magnet does not contact the tube
magnetoelastic strips There is no mechanical wear and the sensor is
 That generate a voltage in a sensing coil rugged
 Twist is sensed by a coil or piezoelectric strip around Magnetostrictive position sensors – Application
the tube Injection molding machines and hydraulic cylinders
 Measures the time interval between the interrogation Material handling
pulse and the received signal
Grinding machines
 Permits us to calculate the distance to the magnet and
also velocity Lumber mills and machine tools
 Rubber dampers Level for immiscible liquids such as water and oil
 Prevent reflections from the ends of the tube in a storage tank

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Hall Effect Sensor
Hall Effect
Beam of charge particles passes through a
magnetic field
Hall Effect Sensor Forces act on the particles
Current beam is deflected from its straight line path
One side of the disc will become negatively
charged
Other side will be of positive charge
Charge separation generates a potential difference
Which is the measure of distance of magnetic field
from the disc carrying current.
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Hall Effect Sensor

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Hall Effect Sensor 34

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Hall Effect Sensor

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Hall Effect Sensor
 Lorentz force acts on these carriers  Hall voltage (VH) depends on
 Thickness t
 Primary current I
 Applied magnetic field B
 Electrical properties of the material (charge density and
carrier mobility)
 µ being the carrier mobility  Hall coefficient (AH)
 EL - longitudinal electric field
 Force on the charge carriers leads to a charge
accumulation on the surface
 Hall voltage will have opposite signs for p and n
materials
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Hall Effect Sensor Hall Effect Sensor
 Thinner the element  Temperature affects the mobility of majority carriers
 Larger the voltage for a given material  Thus also the sensitivity
 But also the higher the element resistance  To limit the supply current to reduce self-heating

 In practice on other factors (Hall voltage depends)  Offset voltage

 Mechanical pressure p and the temperature T  Output voltage even in the absence of any magnetic field

 Temperature has a double influence  Solve offset

 It affects the electric resistance for the element - First  Additional control electrode
 So that if we supply a constant voltage  Two Hall elements in parallel with opposite bias currents
 The ``bias'' I changes with temperature  Chopper techniques
 This will change the output voltage (VH)  Advantage
 Supply a constant current than a constant voltage  Producing an output voltage that is independent of the rate
of variation of the detected field

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Hall Effect Sensor Hall Effect Sensor
 Hall effect sensors – advantages Carrier mobility can be controlled by adding
 Insensitive to some ambient conditions impurities
 Dust Making it possible to obtain a repeatable Hall
 Humidity
coefficient
 Vibration
 Having characteristics constant with time They are easily reproducible and highly reliable
 More robust Materials used for Hall elements
 Hall effect sensors - based on semiconductors InSb - Indium antimonide
rather than metals because InAs - Indium arsenide
 Their conductivity is smaller
Ge
 Drift velocity of the charge carriers in semiconductors is
larger than in metals GaAs - Gallium arsenide
 Hence yielding a larger Hall voltage Si
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Hall Effect Sensor
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 Digital models
 Schmitt trigger
 Open collector output
 Different shapes
 Rectangular
 Butterfly
 Which concentrates the flux in
the central zone structure of a Hall sensor with digital output
 Symmetrical cross
 Interchange of electrodes
 Single-plate
 Sense the absolute magnetic
field
Different arrangements for movement sensing using Hall effect
sensors
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Hall Effect Sensor Hall Effect Sensor
 Hall effect sensors  (c) suits rotating speed measurement - If a switching
 Measurement of magnetic flux density (gaussmeters) sensor is used
 Movement measurements and proximity detectors  Automotive ignition systems
 (a) - head-on mode  Ferromagnetic vane changes the magnetic
 Movement results in a variation in the distance between a reluctance of a circuit
permanent magnet and the detector  Where both the permanent magnet and the Hall element
 (b) slide-by mode - proximity detectors are stationary
 Seatbelt
 Airbag ejection
 Power-window
 Door-ajar
 Refrigerator-door sensors
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