GSV 313: ELECTRONICS

FOR GEOINFORMATICS
AND SURVEYING.

LECTURE NOTE
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Have you ever thought about the importance of electronics in our daily life? The electronic
devices and their usages have influenced our daily life in such a way that it is impossible to
spend even a few hours without them. Right from the beginning of the day till the time we go
to bed, we use a large number of electronic gadgets to simplify our work and to solve our
problems. From small alarm watches to the complex computers, from mobile to the
camcorders, from kitchen to toilet, from bedroom to office, everywhere electronic items can be
seen. It seems that they are omnipresent.

Why have we become so dependent on electronics?

The answer is very simple. They simplify our daily activities and lifestyle. Let us take mobile
phone as an example. It has changed the definition of communication. In the beginning of the
history of telephone system, no one would have imagined a combination of 'talking and
walking.' The invention of mobile phones has made talking while walking possible.
CD drives, DVD players, record players, stereos and tape recorders are the result of the
advancement in electronic technology in the last few decades. With the use of headphones,
music can be heard without disturbing the people nearby.

The introduction of electronic technology in cameras has completely changed the history of
photography. A digital camera is now available at an affordable price. The cell phones now
include a fairly sophisticated digital camera that can capture still pictures and even video
pictures. The videos and pictures can be easily transferred to a computer, where they can be
saved, shared on internet or printed out in hard form. Such pictures taken from a camera can
be edited, cropped, enhanced or enlarged easily with the help of electronics.

Even our kitchens are equipped with electronic equipment, from water coolers to microwave
ovens. Doctors and scientists have found new uses of electronic systems in the diagnosis and
treatment of various diseases. Equipment such as MRI, CT and the X-rays rely on electronics in
order to do their work quickly and accurately.

Surveyors have also found advancement in their profession as a result of advancement in

technology. Years ago, Surveyors depended on tapes, chains, e.t.c. in carrying out survey
operations which made their work slow and tedious with limited accuracy. But because of
advancement in electronic technology, they carry out their operations with portable, accurate
and user friendly higher accuracy equipments.
1.1 Definition of Electronics & its application:

The electronic equipment has several electronic components like resistors, inductors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors, integrated circuits (ICs), etc. The components like diodes,
transistors and ICs are made up of semiconductor materials. The working of these components
is based on the amount and direction of current flowing through them.

The word electronics means - 'pertaining to electrons'. Electronics can be defined as the branch
of science and engineering which deals with the controlled flow of electrons through vacuum,
gas or semiconductors. The control of electrons flow is accomplished by devices that resist,
carry, select, steer, switch, store, manipulate, and exploit the electron.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONICS:

Electronics play an important role in almost every sphere of our life. Electronics has penetrated
in every field from an ordinary wrist watch to super computers; from telephone repeaters
buried deep under sea to the satellites far out in space; from the control of modern household
appliances to the control of super tankers carrying cargo across the sea.
1. Communication and Entertainment
The progress of a nation depends upon the availability of cheaper and faster means of
communication. The main application of electronics in the beginning was in the field of
telephony and telegraphy. This utilizes pair of wires as communication channel. Later it was
possible to transmit any message from one place to another without wires (wireless
communication). Satellite communication has reduced the distance between people and
places.
Radio and TV broadcasting provide a means of both communication as well as entertainment.
Electronic gadgets like tape recorders, music and video players, stereo systems, public address
systems, etc. are widely used for entertainment.

2. Applications in Defense sector

In a war, success or defeat of a nation depends on the reliability of its communication system.
In modern warfare, communication is almost entirely electronic. Guided missiles are completely
controlled by electronic circuits.
One of the most important developments during World War II was the RADAR (Radio
Amplification Detection and Ranging). By using RADAR it is possible not only to detect, but also
to find the exact location of the enemy aircraft. The anti-aircraft guns can then be accurately
directed to shoot down the aircraft. In fact the RADAR and anti-aircraft guns can be linked by an
automatic control system to make a complete unit.

3. Instrumentation
Instrumentation plays a very important role in any industry and research organization, for
precise measurement of various quantities. Very accurate and user-friendly instruments like
total station, DGPS, digital voltmeter (DVM), cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO), frequency counter,
signal generator, strain gauge, pH-meter, spectrum analyzers, etc. are some of the electronic
equipment without which no research laboratory is complete.

4. Medical Electronics
Electronic equipments are being used extensively in medical field. They not only assist in
diagnosis but also help in the researches that provide treatment and cure for illnesses and even
genetic anomalies. Examples are Electron microscope, ECG, EEG, X -rays, defibrillator,
oscilloscopes, MRI, CT scanner, etc.

5. Applications in Industries
Use of automatic control systems in different industries is increasing day by day. The thickness,
quality and weight of a material can be easily controlled by electronic circuits. Electronic circuits
are used to control the operations of automatic door openers, lighting systems, power systems,
safety devices, etc.
Use of computer has made the ticket reservations in railways and airways simple and
convenient.
Even the power stations, which generate thousands of megawatts of electricity, are controlled
by electronic circuits.

6. Applications in Automobiles
Several electronic equipments are used in cars for charging battery, enabling power assisting
functions, measuring gauges and monitoring and controlling the engine performance. The most
important application is electronic ignition, which provides better timing of the ignition spark,
especially at high speeds.
Automobile industry is one of the fastest growing sectors in the world. The end users are
demanding greater fuel efficiency, security and safety. This is possible because of the rapid
development in the technology. Other areas of application in automobile are parking sensors,
auto wipers, auto lights, safety e.g. Air bags, security, anti-theft systems, etc.

7. Consumer Electronics
We use fans in our home, class rooms, library, etc. You are familiar with the electronic
regulators used with them. Have you ever thought of the mechanism behind that? Here we use
an electronic component known as TRIAC to control the speed of the fan. The speed of the fan
is directly proportional to the electric power reaching the motor. The regulator controls the
speed by controlling the electric power. The regulator controls electric power according to the
position of the knob. Special electronic components like Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) are
used in the speed-control of motors, power rectifiers and inverters.
Home appliances are used 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. It includes personal computers,
telephones, audio equipment, televisions, calculators, washing machines, DVD players, etc.

1.2 HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS

2.0 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT AND THEIR SYMBOLIZATION

An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components, such as resistors,

transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by conductive wires or traces through
which electric current can flow.

Circuits can be constructed of discrete components connected by individual pieces of wire, but
today it is much more common to create interconnections by photolithographic techniques on
a laminated substrate (a printed circuit board or PCB) and solder the components to these
interconnections to create a finished circuit. In an integrated circuit or IC, the components and
interconnections are formed on the same substrate, typically a semiconductor such as silicon or
(less commonly) gallium arsenide. . However, a circuit is complete only if it starts and ends at
the same point, forming a loop.

The Elements of an Electronic Circuit

The complexity and the number of components in an electronic circuit may change depending
on its application. However, the simplest circuit consists of three elements, including a
conducting path, a voltage source, and a load.

1: Conducting Path - The electric current flows through the conducting path. Though copper
wires are used in simple circuits, they are rapidly being replaced by conductive traces.
Conductive traces are nothing but copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
They are often used in small and complex circuits such as Printed Circuit Boards (PCB).

2: Voltage Source - The primary function of a circuit is to allow electric current to pass through
it safely. So, the first key element is the voltage source. It is a two-terminal device such as a
battery, generators or power systems that provide a potential difference (voltage) between two
points in the circuit so that current can flow through it.

3: Load - A load is an element in the circuit that consumes power to perform a particular
function. A light bulb is the simplest load. Complex circuits, however, have different loads such
as resistors, capacitors, and transistors.

Electronic symbol

An electronic symbol is a pictogram used to represent various electrical and electronic devices
or functions, such as wires, batteries, resistors, and transistors, in a schematic diagram of an
electrical or electronic circuit. These symbols are largely standardized internationally today, but
may vary from country to country, or engineering discipline, based on traditional conventions.
Wires

A wire is a two terminal, single and flexible material that allows the flow of power through it.
These are mainly used to connect the power supplies to the PCB (Printed Circuit Board) and in
between the components. The different types of wires will be as:

Wires: A single wire with two terminals will pass the current from one component to another.
Wires Jointed: When two or more wires are connected with each other that is called as wires
jointed. The joining or shorted of wires at one point is indicates the “blob”.
Wires not Jointed: In complex circuit diagrams, some wires may not connect with others, in this
case, bridging is commonly utilized.

Power Supplies
A Power supply/ power supply unit is an electronic device, that supplies electric energy to an
electrical load. The flow of an electric current will be measured in terms of Watts. The function
of the power supply is in conversion of energy from one form to another according to
requirement. The various types of power supplies are:

Power Supplies
Cell circuit: Supplies electrical energy from larger terminal (+) positive sign.
Battery circuit: A Battery is two or more cells. The function of a battery circuit is the same as
cell circuit.

DC circuit symbol: Direct current (DC) always flows in one direction.

AC circuit symbol: AC (Alternating Current) flows periodically reverses direction.

Fuse circuit: The fuse will flow sufficient current and it is used to provide over current
protection.

Current source: It will supply current to the circuit elements.

Voltage source: This supplies voltage to the circuit elements.

Solar cell: Converts light energy into electrical energy.

Transformer: Used to produce AC power supply.

AC voltage source: It will supply the AC voltage to the circuit elements.

Controlled voltage source: It generates controlled voltage to the circuit elements.
Controlled current source: It generates controlled current to the circuit elements.

Resistors

Resistor: This is a two terminal component that restricts the flow of current.

Rheostat: Two terminal components that is used to adjust the flow of current.

Potentiometer: Potentiometer is a three-terminal component that will adjust the voltage flow
in circuit.

Preset: Preset is a low-cost adjustable resistor that operates by using small tools like
Screwdrivers.
Capacitors

Capacitor: A capacitor is used to store the energy in electrical form.

Polarized capacitor: Stores electrical energy these must be a one way round.
Variable capacitor: These capacitors are used to control the capacitance by adjusting the Knob.
Trimmer capacitor: These capacitors are used to control the capacitance by using Screwdriver
or similar tools.

3.0 BASIC ELECTRICAL TERMS, DEFINITIONS AND FUNCTIONS:

I) Current and frequency:

Current

Current is the flow of electrical charge carriers like electrons. Current flows from negative to
positive points. The SI unit for measuring electric current is the ampere (A). One ampere of
current is defined as one coulomb of electrical charge moving past a unique point in a second.
Electric current is widely used in household and industrial appliances.

There are two types of electric current:

 Alternating current
 Direct current

In alternating current, the flow of current reverses its direction periodically. Alternating current
in a circuit is represented by the sine wave. Direct current, unlike alternating current, flows in
the same direction continuously. An example of direct current would be the current provided
by a battery. In order to calculate the current flow through a conductor, Ohm’s law is used.
According to Ohm’s law, the current through a conductor between two given points is also
directly proportional to the potential difference between the points. The constant used in the
proportionality is called resistance and the mathematical equation is I =V/R.

Electric current produces heating and magnetic effects. When current passes through a
conductor, there is some heat generation due to ohmic loss in the conductor. This property is
put to use for creating light in incandescent light bulbs. The stronger the current, the higher
would be intensity of the magnetic field. Electric current is measured with the help of an
ammeter.

Frequency

For an oscillating or varying current, frequency is the number of complete cycles per second in
alternating current direction. The standard unit of frequency is the hertz, abbreviated Hz. If a
current completes one cycle per second, then the frequency is 1 Hz; 60 cycles per second
equals 60 Hz. Larger units of frequency include:

 The kilohertz (kHz) representing thousands (1,000's) of cycles per second;

 The megahertz (MHz) representing millions (1,000,000's) of cycles per second;
 The gigahertz (GHz) representing billions (1,000,000,000's) of cycles per second.
 The terahertz (THz) is used; 1 THz = 1,000,000,000,000 cycles per second.

Computer clock speed is generally specified in megahertz and, more recently, in gigahertz.

II) Oscillators:
An oscillator is a circuit which produces a continuous, repeated, alternating waveform without
any input. Oscillators basically convert unidirectional current flow from a direct current source
into an alternating waveform which is of the desired frequency, as decided by its circuit
components. The oscillator converts the direct current from the power supply to an alternating
current and they are used in many of the electronic devices. The signals used in the oscillators
are a sine wave and the square wave. Some of the examples are the signals broadcasted by the
radio and television transmitter, clocks which are used in the computers and in the video
games.
Oscillators are important in many different types of electronic equipment. For example, a
quartz watch uses a quartz oscillator to keep track of what time it is. An AM radio transmitter
uses an oscillator to create the carrier wave for the station, and an AM radio receiver uses a
special form of oscillator called a resonator to tune in a station. There are also oscillators in
computers.

III) Mixers and Multipliers:

Frequency translation is essential to communications and other electronic systems, and can be
achieved in a number of ways with or without an additional signal source.
Many applications translate frequencies higher or lower in various ways, such as via frequency
mixers, frequency multipliers, and frequency dividers. These components take different
approaches to transform the frequencies of signals and their modulation content from their
inputs to their outputs.

The main functional difference between the components involve how frequency conversion is
achieved: A frequency mixer requires a second input signal, adding and subtracting the two
signals to achieve a desired result. On the other hand, a frequency multiplier or divider works
with the first input signal alone, extracting the final result from harmonic or sub-harmonic
signal components. Frequency mixers and multipliers/dividers both rely on the nonlinear
behavior of semiconductors, such as diodes and transistors, to translate frequencies from input
to output ports.

Translation to higher frequencies can also be achieved by means of frequency multipliers.

IV) Rectifiers & Filters

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (which periodically reverses
direction) to direct current (which flows in only one direction). The process is known as
rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of current. Physically, rectifiers take a number
of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, stacks of copper and selenium
oxide plates, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based
semiconductor switches.
The need for a rectifier is to provide continuous voltage (DC Voltage) required to run almost all
electronic devices and circuits.

An electrical filter is a circuit which can be designed to modify, reshape or reject all the
undesired frequencies of an electrical signal and pass only the desired signals.

In other words we can say that an electrical filter is usually a frequency selective network that
passes a specified band of frequencies and blocks signals of frequencies outside this band.
Electronic filters are used to prevent certain electronic frequencies from passing from one
region of an electronic circuit to another region of that circuit. Electronic filters generally
perform one of three functions: allowing certain electrical frequencies to pass through the
filter, blocking certain frequencies from passing through the filter and completely blocking
direct current electrical energy.

Classification of Filters
Depending on the type of element used in their construction, filters are classified into two
types, such as:

1. Passive Filters: A passive filter is built with passive components such as resistors,
capacitors and inductors.
2. Active Filters: An active filter makes use of active elements such as transistors, op-amps
in addition to resistor and capacitors.
According to the operating frequency range, the filters may be classified as audio frequency
(AF) or radio frequency (RF) filters. Filters may also be classified as:

1. Low Pass Filter: The low pass filter only allows low frequency signals from 0 Hz to its
cut-off frequency to pass while blocking any higher frequency signals.
2. High Pass Filter: The high pass filter only allows high frequency signals from its cut-off
frequency and higher to infinity to pass through while blocking those any lower.
3. Band Pass Filter: The band pass filter allows signals falling within a certain frequency
band set up between two points to pass through while blocking both the lower and
higher frequencies either side of this frequency band.
4. Band Stop Filter: The band stop filter blocks signals falling within a certain frequency
band set up between two points while allowing both the lower and higher frequencies
either side of this frequency band.

The above can be summarized as:

 Low pass - lets low frequencies pass but blocks high frequencies.
 High pass - lets high frequencies pass but blocks low frequencies.
 Band pass - blocks high and low frequencies but passes middle frequencies.
 Band stop- passes high and low frequencies but blocks middle frequencies.

In the field of electronics, there are many practical applications of filters. Examples include:

 Radio communications: Filters enable radio receivers to only "see" the desired signal
while rejecting all other signals (assuming that the other signals have different
frequency content).
 DC power supplies: Filters are used to eliminate undesired high frequencies (i.e., noise)
that are present on AC input lines. Additionally, filters are used on a power supply's
output to reduce ripple.
 Audio electronics: A crossover network is a network of filters used to channel low-
frequency audio to woofers, mid-range frequencies to midrange speakers, and high-
frequency sounds to tweeters.
 Analog-to-digital conversion: Filters are placed in front of an ADC input to minimize
aliasing.

V) Electronic amplifier

An electronic amplifier is a device for increasing the power of a signal. It does this by taking
power from a power supply and controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with
larger amplitude. An idealized amplifier can be said to be "a piece of wire with gain", as the
output is an exact replica of the input, but larger.
Most of the electronic systems require at least one stage of amplification. Hence amplifiers can
be seen in almost all the electronic devices. Amplifiers are the devices that increase the
amplitude of the input signal.

The output of the power supply is modulated by the Amplifier. Amplifiers increase only the
amplitude and the other parameters such as frequency and shape remain constant.

There are many types of amplifiers available. But they can be distinguished by the type of signal
they amplify and the type of function they perform.

There are three categories of amplifiers depending on the property of their output.

1. Voltage Amplifiers: These are most common amplifiers used in the electronic devices. These
amplifiers increase the amplitude of the output voltage of the signal.
2. Current Amplifiers: These amplifiers increases the amplitude of the input current compared
to the input current waveform.

3. Power Amplifiers: The purpose of the power amplifiers is to increase the power i.e. the
product of output voltage and current is greater than the product of input voltage and current.

Either the voltage or current at the output may be less than the input, the overall voltage or
current product will be greater than the input. When an AC signal is applied to the amplifier,
only a part of it is amplified.

VI) Electronic Vibrator

In electronics before the development of switch-mode power supplies and the introduction of
semiconductor devices operating off low voltage, there was a requirement to generate voltages
of about 50 to 250V DC from vehicle batteries. Electromechanical components known as
vibrators were used in a circuit similar to modern solid state inverter circuits to provide a
pulsating DC which could be converted to a higher voltage with a transformer, rectified, and
filtered to create higher-voltage DC. This "vibrator" is essentially a relay using normally closed
contacts to supply power to the relay coil, thus immediately breaking the connection, only to be
reconnected very quickly through the normally closed contacts. It happens so rapidly it vibrates,
and sounds like a buzzer. This same rapidly pulsing contact applies the rising and falling DC
voltage to the transformer which can step it up to a higher voltage.

The primary use for this type of circuit was to operate vacuum tube radios in vehicles, but it
also saw use with other mobile electronic devices with a 6 or 12V accumulator, especially in
places with no mains electricity supply such as farms. These vibrator power supplies became
popular in the 1940s, replacing more bulky motor-generator systems for the generation of AC
voltages for such applications. Vacuum tubes require plate voltages ranging from about 45 volts
to 250 volts in electronic devices such as radios. For portable radios, hearing aids and similar
equipment, batteries were manufactured with various voltage ratings. In order to provide the
necessary voltage for a radio from the typical 6 or 12 volt DC supply available in a car or from a
farm lighting battery, it was necessary to convert the steady DC supply to a pulsating DC and
use a transformer to increase the voltage.

Vibrators generate a certain amount of audible noise (a constant buzzing sound) while in
operation, which could potentially be heard by passengers in the car while the radio was on. To
help contain this sound within the vibrator's enclosure, the inside surface of the can was often
lined with a thick sound-deadening material, such as foam rubber. Since vibrators were typically
plugged into sockets mounted directly on the radio chassis, the vibration could potentially be
mechanically coupled to the chassis, causing it to act as a sounding-board for the noise. To
prevent this, the sound-deadening lining inside the can was sometimes made thick enough to
support the vibrator's components by friction alone. The components were then connected to
the plug pins by flexible wires, to further isolate the vibration from the plug.

4.0 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Electronic components can be broadly classified into active and passive components. Active
components are electronic components which are capable of amplifying or processing an
electrical signal, e.g.: Diodes, Transistors, batteries, etc. They inject power to the circuit, and
can control the current (or energy) flow within the circuit. Any electronic circuit should contain
at least one active component to operate. Passive Components are electronic components
which are not capable of amplifying or processing an electrical signal, e.g.: resistors, capacitors
and inductors. These components cannot provide any power gain to the circuit and are
incapable of controlling the current or energy flow in the circuit. They need help from the active
components to operate. Although passive devices cannot amplify a signal with a gain more than
one, they can multiply a signal by a value less than one. They can oscillate, phase shift and filter
signals. They also have the capability to store energy drawn from active devices and release
later, for example capacitors and inductors. The number and arrangement of components in a
circuit may vary depending on its complexity. However, it is built using a small number of
standard components.

S/N ACTIVE COMPONENTS PASSIVE COMPONENTS

1 Semi-conductor devices Resistors
2 Transistors Capacitors
 3 Diodes Inductors

4.1 PASSIVE ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS:

Passive devices are the main building blocks of electronic circuits and without them the circuits
would either not work at all or become unstable.

Passive devices or components do not generate energy, but can store it or dissipate it. Passive
devices are the main components used in electronics such as resistors, inductors, capacitors
and transformers which together are required to build any electrical or electronic circuit. As
their name suggests, Passive components are electrical components that do not require any
form of electrical power to operate, unlike “active devices” such as transistors, operational
amplifiers and integrated circuits that require to be powered in some way to make them work.

Passive devices do not provide gain, amplification or directionality to a circuit but instead
provide attenuation as they always have a gain less than one, unity. Therefore passive devices
can not generate, oscillate or amplify an electrical signal.

Passive devices can be used individually or connected together within a circuit, either in a series
or in a parallel combination to control complex circuits or signals, produce a phase shift to the
signal or to provide some form of feedback but they cannot multiply a signal by more than one
because they have no power gain.

In fact passive devices consume power within an electrical or electronic circuit as they act like
attenuators unlike active elements that generate or provide power to a circuit.

The component values of passive devices such as resistance in Ohms or capacitance in Farads
are always positive in value (that is, >0) and never negative although some components may
have a negative coefficient.

Passive devices are bi-directional components that are they can be connected either way
around within a circuit unless they have a specific polarity marking such as electrolytic
capacitors. The polarity of the voltage across them is determined by conventional current flow
from the positive to the negative terminal.

RESISTOR: A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical device that resists the flow of current.
It is probably the simplest element in an electronic circuit. It is also one of the most common
components as resistance is an inherent element of nearly all electronic circuits. They are
usually color-coded. The amount of opposition to the flow of current is called the resistance of
the resistor and is denoted by the symbol “R“. Resistance is a measure of how easily or how
difficult electrons can flow through a particular path in an electrical circuit and is expressed as a
value in units called Ohms.

The power absorbed by a resistor is represented by:

Where: R is the resistance, V is the voltage across the resistor, and I is the current flowing
through the resistor. This relationship between the voltage and current called the V-I
relationship in a resistor is linear in both DC and AC circuits.

A. Composition

A resistor is not a fancy device at all because resistance is a natural property possessed by
almost all conductors. So, a capacitor consists of a copper wire wrapped around an insulating
material such as a ceramic rod. The number of turns and the thinness of copper wire are
directly proportional to the resistance. The higher the number of turns and thinner the wire,
the higher the resistance.

You can also find resistors made of a spiral pattern of a carbon film. Hence, the name carbon
film resistors. They are designed for lower-power circuits because carbon film resistors are not
as precise as their wire-wound counterparts. However, they are cheaper than wired resistors.
Wire terminals are attached to the both ends. As resistors are blind to the polarity in a circuit,
the current can flow through in either direction. So, there is no need to worry about attaching
them in a forward or a backward direction.

All modern fixed value resistors can be classified into four broad groups:

 Carbon Composition Resistor – Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage
values
  Film or Cermet Resistor – Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage
values
 Wire-wound Resistor – Metallic bodies for heat sink mounting, very high wattage ratings
 Semiconductor Resistor – High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology.

B. How Does It Work?

A resistor may not look like much. One may think it doesn’t do anything except consume
power. However, it performs a vital function: controlling the voltage and the current in your
circuit. In other words, resistors give you control over the design of your circuit.

When electric current starts flowing through a wire, all the electrons start moving in the same
direction. It’s just like water flowing through a pipe. Less amount of water will flow through a
thin pipe because there is less room for its movement.

Similarly, when the current passes through a thin wire in a resistor, it becomes progressively
harder for the electrons to wiggle through it. In short, the number of electrons flowing through
a resistor goes down as the length and thinness of the wire increases.

C. Function and Significance

Resistors have plenty of applications, but the three most common ones are managing current
flow, dividing voltage, and resistor-capacitor networks.

 Limiting the Flow of Current: If you don’t add resistors to a circuit, the current will flow
at dangerously high levels. It can overheat other components and possibly damage
them. For example, if you connect an LED directly to a battery, it would still work.
However, after some time the LED will heat up like a fireball. It will eventually burn as
LEDs are less tolerant to heat. But, if you introduce a resistor in the circuit, it will reduce
the flow of current to an optimal level. Thus, you can keep the LED on longer without
overheating it.
 Dividing Voltage: Resistors are also used to reduce the voltage to the desired level.
Sometimes, a particular part of a circuit such as a microcontroller may need a lower
voltage than the circuit itself. This is where a resistor comes in. Let’s say your circuit runs
off of a 12V battery. However, the microcontroller needs only a 6V supply. So, to divide
the voltage in half, all you have to do is place two resistors of equal resistance value in
series. The wire in between the two resistors will have halved the voltage of your circuit
where the microcontroller can be attached. Using appropriate resistors, you can lower
the voltage within the circuit to any level.
 Resistor-Capacitor Networks: Resistors are also used in combination with capacitors to
build ICs that contain resistor-capacitor arrays in a single chip. They are also known as
RC filters or RC networks. They are often used to suppress electromagnetic Interference
(EMI) or Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) in various instruments, including
input/output ports of computers and laptops, Local Area Networks (LANs), and Wide
 Area Networks (WANs), among others. They are also used in machine tools, switchgears,
motor controllers, automated equipment, industrial appliances, elevators, and
escalators.

CAPACITORS: Capacitors are widely used to build different types of electronic circuits. A
capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that can store energy in an electric
field electrostatically. In simple terms, it works as a small rechargeable battery that stores
electricity. However, unlike a battery, it can charge and discharge in the split of a second. The
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is the ratio of the amount of charge, Q stored on its
plates to the voltage, V across its plates and is measured in Farads, symbol (C), i.e., C=Q/V.

Capacitor symbols

A. Composition

Capacitors come in all shapes and sizes, but they usually have the same primary components.
There are two electrical conductors or plates separated by a dielectric or insulator stacked
between them. Plates are composed of conducting material such as thin films of metal or
aluminum foil. A dielectric, on the other hand, is a non-conducting material such as glass,
ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, or mica. You can insert the two electrical connections
protruding from the plates to fix the capacitor in a circuit.

B. How Does It Work?

When you apply a voltage over the two plates or connect them to a source, an electric field
develops across the insulator, causing one plate to accumulate positive charge while negative
charge gets collected on the other. The capacitor continues to hold its charge even if you
disconnect it from the source. The moment you connect it to a load, the stored energy will flow
from the capacitor to the load.

Capacitance is the amount of energy stored in a capacitor. The higher the capacitance, the
more energy it can store. You can increase the capacitance by moving the plates closer to each
other or increasing their size. Alternatively, you can also enhance the insulation qualities to
increase the capacitance.

C. Function and Significance

Though capacitors look like batteries, they can perform different types of functions in a circuit
such as blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass or smooth the output
from a power supply. They are also used in electric power transmission systems to stabilize
voltage and power flow. One of the most significant functions of a capacitor in the AC systems
is power factor correction, without which you can’t provide sufficient amount of starting torque
to single phase motors.

 Filters Capacitor Applications: if you are using a microcontroller in a circuit to run a

specific program, you don’t want its voltage to drop as that will reset the controller.
That’s why designers use a capacitor. It can supply the microcontroller with the
necessary power for a split second to avoid a restart. In other words, it filters out the
noise on the power line and stabilizes the power supply.

 Hold-Up Capacitor Applications: unlike a battery, a capacitor releases its charge rapidly.
That’s why it is used to provide power to a circuit for a short while. Your camera
batteries charge the capacitor attached to the flash gun. When you take a flash
photograph, the capacitor releases its charge in a split second to generate a flash of
light.

 Timer Capacitor Applications: In a resonant or time-dependent circuit, capacitors are

used along with a resistor or inductor as a timing element. The time required to charge
and discharge a capacitor determines the operation of the circuit.

INDUCTORS: An inductor, also known as a reactor, is a passive component of a circuit having

two terminals. This device stores energy in its magnetic field, returning it to the circuit
whenever required. It was discovered that when two inductors are placed side by side without
touching, the magnetic field created by the first inductor affects the second inductor. It was a
crucial breakthrough that led to the invention of the first transformers.

Where,
V = Instantaneous voltage across the inductor
L = Inductance in Henrys

𝑑𝑖
= Instantaneous rate of current change (amps per second)
𝑑𝑡

Inductance which has the symbol “L” and is measured in Henries (H), is the element used for
the storage of energy in the form of an electromagnetic field. In its simplest form, an inductor
consists of a wire loop or coil. The inductance of an inductor is directly proportional to the
number of turns in the coil. Inductance also depends on the radius of the coil and on the type of
material (core) around which the coil is wound.

Where XL is the inductive reactance, ω is the angular frequency, f is the frequency in Hertz, and
L is the inductance. The unit of inductive reactance is Ohm. The reactance of an inductor
increases with increase in frequency.
At zero frequency, the inductive reactance becomes zero and the inductor acts almost as a
short circuit. So low frequency signal will pass through it. At high frequency, the inductor has
high resistance and hence behaves as an open circuit. It means that a high frequency signal will
not pass through an inductor. From this it is clear that an inductor blocks AC where as it passes
DC signal. This is exactly opposite to the function of a capacitor.
All inductors can be classified into two categories: fixed and variable. According to the
constructional features, inductors can be further classified in to three: air core inductor, iron
core inductor and ferrite core inductor. Air core inductor is made of thin copper wire wound
without any core. It has low value inductance of the range milli and micro Henry.
Iron core inductor is made of copper wire wound over a laminated iron core. Iron core
inductors are very suitable for audio frequency applications.
Ferrite core inductor is made of copper wire wound on a solid core made of ferromagnetic
material called ferrite. In variable type ferrite core inductors, the ferrite core is made movable
in and out of the coil. When the core is completely inside the inductor, the inductance value is
at its maximum. It is used for high frequency applications.

A. Composition

It is probably the simplest component, comprising just a coil of copper wire. The inductance is
directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil. Sometimes, however, the coil is wound
around a ferromagnetic material such as iron, laminated iron, and powdered iron to increase
the inductance. The shape of this core can also increase the inductance. Toroidal (donut-
shaped) cores provide better inductance compared to solenoidal (rod-shaped) cores for the
same number of turns. Unfortunately, it is difficult to join inductors in an integrated circuit, so
they are usually replaced by resistors.
B. How Does It Work?

Whenever the current passes through a wire, it creates a magnetic field. However, the unique
shape of the inductor leads to the creation of a much stronger magnetic field. This powerful
magnetic field, in turn, resists alternating current, but it lets direct current flow through it. This
magnetic field also stores energy.

Take a simple circuit comprising a battery, a switch, and a bulb. The bulb will glow brightly the
moment you turn the switch on. Add an inductor to this circuit. As soon you turn the switch on,
the bulb changes from bright to dim. On the other hand, when the switch is turned off, it
becomes very bright, just for a fraction of a second before turning off completely.

As you turn the switch on, the inductor starts using the electricity to create a magnetic field,
temporarily blocking the current flow. But, only DC current passes through the inductor as soon
as the magnetic field is complete. That’s why the bulb changes from bright to dim. All this time,
the inductor stores some electrical energy in the form of magnetic field. So, when you turn the
switch off, the magnetic field keeps the current in the coil steady. Thus, the bulb burns brightly
for a while before turning off.

C. Function and Significance

Though inductors are useful, it is difficult to incorporate them into electronic circuits due to
their size. As they are bulkier compared to other components, they add a lot of weight and
occupy plenty of space. Hence they are usually replaced by resistors in integrated circuits (ICs).
Still, inductors have a wide range of industrial applications.

 Filters in Tuned Circuits: One of the most common applications of inductors is to select
the desired frequency in tuned circuits. They are used extensively with capacitors and
resistors, either in parallel or series, to create filters. The impedance of an inductor
increases as the frequency of signal increases. Thus, a stand-alone inductor can only act
as a low-pass filter. However, when you combine it with a capacitor, you can create a
notched filter because the impedance of a capacitor decreases as the frequency of
signal increase. So, you can use different combinations of capacitors, inductors, and
resistors to create various types of filters. They are found in most electronics including
televisions, desktop computers, and radios.
 Inductors as Chokes: If an alternate current flows through an inductor, it creates an
opposite current flow. Thus, it can convert an AC supply into a DC. In other words, it
chokes the AC supply but allows the DC to pass through it, hence the name ‘choke.’
Usually, they are found in power supply circuits that need to convert AC supply to DC
supply.
 Ferrite Beads: A ferrite bead or ferrite choke is used to suppress high-frequency noise in
electronic circuits. Some of the common uses of ferrite beads include computer cables,
television cables, and mobile charge cables. These cables can, sometimes, act as
 antennas, interloping with audio and video output of your television and computer. So,
inductors are used in ferrite beads to reduce such radio frequency interference.
 Inductors in Proximity Sensors: Most proximity sensors work on the principle of
inductance. An inductive proximity sensor comprises four parts including an inductor or
coil, an oscillator, a detection circuit and an output circuit. The oscillator generates a
fluctuating magnetic field. Whenever an object comes into the proximity of this
magnetic field, eddy currents start to build up, reducing the sensor’s magnetic field. The
detection circuit determines the strength of the sensor, while output circuit triggers the
appropriate response. Inductive proximity sensors, also called contactless sensors, are
cherished for their reliability. They are used at traffic lights to detect the traffic density
and also as parking sensors in cars and trucks.
 Induction Motors: An induction motor is probably the most common example of the
application of inductors. Usually, in an induction motor, inductors are placed in a fixed
position. In other words, they are not allowed to align with the nearby magnetic field.
An AC power supply is used to create a rotating magnetic field which then rotates the
shaft. The power input controls the speed of rotation. Hence, inductions motors are
often used in fixed speed applications. The induction motors are very reliable and robust
because there is no direct contact between the motor and the rotor.
 Transformers: As mentioned earlier, the discovery of inductors led to the invention of
transformers, one of the fundamental components of power transmission systems. You
can create a transformer by combining the inductors of a shared magnetic field. They
are usually used to increase or decrease voltages of the power lines to the desired level.
 Energy Storage: Just like a capacitor, an inductor can also store energy. However, unlike
a capacitor, it can store energy for a limited time. As the energy is stored in a magnetic
field, it collapses as soon as the power supply is removed. Still, inductors function as
reliable energy storage device in switch mode power supply such as desktop computers.

ACTIVE COMPONENT

Transistors
Transistors are active non-linear devices that facilitate signal amplification. One of the most
crucial components of an electronic circuit, transistors have revolutionized the field of electronics. These
tiny semiconductor devices with three terminals have been around for more than five decades now.
They are often used as amplifiers and switching devices. You can think of them as relays without any
moving parts because they can turn something ‘on’ or ‘off’.
How a transistor works
 A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor’s terminals changes the current
through another pair of terminals.
 A transistor is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit.
Construction: A transistor consists of two pn junctions formed by sandwiching either p-type or
n-type semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.

Accordingly there are two types of transistors namely;

i) p-n-p transistor
ii) n-p-n transistor

NPN (N-channel FET) versus PNP (P-channel FET)

NPN versus PNP is how the semiconductors are layered.
  NPN: Not pointing in
 PNP: Pointing in permanently

NPN transistor
It has three sections of doped semiconductors.
 Emitter: The section on one side that supplies carriers (Electrons/Holes) is called
Emitter. The emitter is always forward biased w.r.t. base so that it can supply large
number of majority carriers (Electrons)
 Base: The middle section which forms two pn junctions between emitter & collector is
called the Base.
 Collector: The section on one side that collects carriers (Electrons/Holes) is called
Collector. The collector is always forward reverse biased w.r.t. base. Its function is to
removes charges from its junction with the base.
B. How Does It Work?

When you sandwich a p-type silicon slab between two n-type bars, you get an NPN transistor.
The emitter is attached to one n-type, while the collector is attached to the other. The base is
attached to the p-type. The surplus holes in the p-type silicon act as barriers, blocking the flow
of the current. However, if you apply a positive voltage to the base and the collector and
negatively charge the emitter, electrons start flowing from the emitter to the collector.

The arrangement and number of p-type and n-type blocks remain inverted in a PNP transistor.
In this type of transistor, one n-type is sandwiched between two p-type blocks. As voltage
allocation is different, a PNP transistor works differently. An NPN transistor requires a positive
voltage to the base, while a PNP requires a negative voltage. In short, the current must flow
away from the base to turn a PNP transistor on.

C. Function and Significance

Transistors function as both, switches and amplifiers in most electronic circuits. Designers often
use a transistor as a switch because unlike a simple switch, it can turn a small current into a
much larger one. Though you can use a simple switch in an ordinary circuit, an advanced circuit
may need varying amounts of currents at different stages.

 Transistors in Hearing Aids: One of the most well-known applications of transistors is

the hearing aid. Usually, a small microphone in the hearing aid picks up the sound
waves, converting them into fluctuating electrical pulses or currents. When these
currents pass through a transistor, they are amplified. The amplified pulses then pass
through a speaker, converting them into sound waves once again. Thus, you can hear a
substantially louder version of the surrounding noise.
 Transistors in Computers and Calculators: We all know that computers store and
process information using the binary language of “zero” and “one.” However, most
people don’t know that transistors play a critical role in making something called logic
 gates, which are the backbones of computer programs. Transistors are often hooked up
with logic gates to build a unique piece of an arrangement called a flip-flop. In this
system, the transistor remains ‘on’ even if you remove the base current. It now flips on
or off whenever new current passes through it. Thus, a transistor can store a zero when
it’s off or a one when it’s on, which is the working principle of computers.
 Darlington Transistors: A Darlington transistor is made of two PNP or NPN polar
junction transistors placed together. It is named after its inventor Sidney Darlington. The
sole purpose of a Darlington transistor is to deliver a high current gain from a low base
current. You can find these transistors in instruments that require a high current gain at
a low frequency such as power regulators, display drivers, motor controllers, light and
touch sensors, alarm systems, and audio amplifiers.

 IGBT and MOSFET Transistors: The Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) transistors
are often used as amplifiers and switches in various instruments including electric cars,
trains, refrigerators, air-conditioners, and even stereo systems. On the other hand,
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) is commonly used in
integrated circuits to control a device’s power levels or for storing data.

5.0 SENSING DEVICES AND TRANSDUCERS

Simple stand alone electronic circuits can be made to repeatedly flash a light or play a musical
note. But in order for an electronic circuit or system to perform any useful task or function it
needs to be able to communicate with the “real world” whether this is by reading an input
signal from an “ON/OFF” switch or by activating some form of output device to illuminate a
single light.

In other words, an Electronic System or circuit must be able or capable to “do” something.
Sensors and Transducers are the perfect components for doing this. A transducer is a device
which converts one form of energy into another. Transducers are used in all aspects of life to
measure changes in the environment, to enhance everyday applications, and to learn more
about the world around us.
When the output of the transducer is converted to a readable format, the transducer is called a
sensor.
A sensor is a device that receives and responds to a signal. This signal must be produced by
some type of energy, such as heat, light, motion, or chemical. Once a sensor detects one or
more of these signal, it converts it into an analog or digital representation of the input signal.
Transducers, sensors and actuators can be found in the macro scale (those visible to the naked
eye) and the micro scale (microscopic). Nanotechnology is enabling such devices in the nano
scale.
Microsystems use micro transducers, such as temperature sensitive resistors and strain gauges,
as elements in micro sensing devices, such as flow meters and pressure sensors. Micro sensors
can be found in chemical sensor arrays, optical sensors and acoustical sensors.
Regardless of the scale, the operation of these devices remains the same. With all such devices,
as the sensing elements shrink, so do the components for the output circuitry. The diaphragm
Micro pressure sensor in the picture below is only a few micrometers square. The electronics
that communicate with this device are also in the micro scale. This allows for a micro sized
package that can be mounted in the smallest of places. With nanotechnology, there are many
transducers in the nano scale. These nano transducers require nano to micro scale components
to complete the sensor.

Human beings are equipped with 5 different types of sensors.

5.1 Basic Concept of Sensors

Sensors detect the presence of energy, changes in or the transfer of energy. Sensors detect by
receiving a signal from a device such as a transducer, then responding to that signal by
converting it into an output that can easily be read and understood. Typically sensors convert a
recognized signal into an electrical – analog or digital – output that is readable. In other words, a
transducer converts one form of energy into another while the sensors that the transducer is part
of converts the output of the transducer to a readable format.
Consider the previous examples of transducers. They convert one form of energy to another, but
they do not quantify the conversions. The light bulb converts electrical energy into light and
heat; however, it does not quantify how much light or heat. A battery converts chemical energy
into electrical energy but it does not quantify exactly how much electrical energy is being
converted. If the purpose of a device is to quantify an energy level, it is a sensor.
So let’s take a look at a sensor that should be familiar to everyone – a temperature sensor.
Digital Readout and Mercury Thermometers

An environmental energy condition that is commonly sensed is temperature. A thermometer

senses and converts temperature into a readable output, thus it is a sensor. This output can be
direct or indirect. A mercury thermometer which uses a level of mercury against a fixed scale is a
direct output. A digital readout thermometer is an indirect output. (see images above) For a
digital readout thermometer, a converter is used to convert the output of the temperature
transducer to an input for the digital display. The measured temperature is displayed on a
monitor. The thermometer is both a transducer (usually a thermocouple that transfers heat energy
to voltage) and a sensor (quantifies the transducer output with a readable format).
The mercury thermometer utilizes mercury’s property of expanding or contracting when heated
or cooled, respectively. In a mercury thermometer a temperature increase is sensed by the
mercury contained in a small glass tube. The thermal energy from the temperature increase is
transferred into the mercury (the transducer) causing the mercury to expand. The expansion of
mercury is scaled to numbers on the tube indicating the temperature.

Following are different types of sensors which are classified by the type of energy they
detect.

Thermal Sensors
Thermometer – measures absolute temperature
Thermocouple gauge– measures temperature by its affect on two dissimilar metals
Calorimeter – measures the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes and heat capacity
A thermocouple is a device that directly converts thermal energy into electrical energy. When
two dissimilar metal wires are connected at one end forming a junction, and that junction is
heated, a voltage is generated across the junction (see the figure below). If the opposite ends of
the wires are connected to a meter, the amount of generated voltage can be measured. This effect
was discovered by Thomas Seebeck, and thus named the Seebeck Effect or Seebeck coefficient.
The voltage created in this situation is proportional to the temperature of the junction.

Mechanical Sensors
Pressure sensor – measures pressure
Barometer – measures atmospheric pressure
Altimeter – measures the altitude of an object above a fixed level
Liquid flow sensor – measures liquid flow rate
Gas flow sensor – measures velocity, direction, and/or flow rate of a gas
Accelerometer – measures acceleration
Barometers determine the level of atmospheric pressure. The figure to the right illustrates a
simple mercury barometer. A tube is initially filled with mercury and then inverted into a dish.
Some of the mercury from the tube flows into the dish (reservoir) creating a vacuum in the upper
portion of the tube. The flow stops when equilibrium is reached between the pressures on the
surfaces of the mercury inside the tube and in the reservoir. When the atmospheric pressure
increases, the level of the mercury in the tube rises. This is due to an increase in pressure on the
mercury’s surface in the reservoir. A decrease in the level of mercury in the tube is seen when
the atmospheric pressure drops.
Markings on the tube (in orange) indicate the barometric pressure by measuring the level of
mercury. Therefore, a barometer converts the energy from the pressurized gases of the
atmosphere into a change in the mercury’s height (potential energy) in the column, as read by the
markings.

Schematic of a mercury barometer

Another type of barometer is the aneroid barometer which senses changes in atmospheric
pressure by the expansion or compression of an aneroid capsule (a thin, disk-shaped capsule,
usually metallic, and partially evacuated of gas). An external spring is connected to the capsule
and a needle is mechanically linked to the spring. As the pressure on the outside of the capsule
increases, the spring moves the needle indicating an increase in barometric pressure. As the
pressure drops, the spring moves in the opposite direction as the capsule expands, moving the
needle to show a decrease in barometric pressure.
 Diagram of Aneroid Barometer

Electrical Sensors
Ohmmeter – measures resistance
Voltmeter – measures voltage
Galvanometer – measures current
Watt-hour meter – measures the amount of electrical energy supplied to and used by a
residence or business.

Schematic and photograph of a Galvanometer used for sensing electrical currents

A Galvanometer is a specific type of ammeter used for sensing an electrical current (see figure).
Current flows through a coil (the red wire wound around a metal cylinder) creating a magnetic
field.
Permanent magnets surround the coil. The interaction of these two magnetic fields causes the
coil/cylinder combination to pivot around its central axis. The amount and direction of the pivot
moves the needle on a read out (right image) left or right, indicating the level of current and its
polarity (negative or positive, respectively). This device uses two energy conversions to sense
and quantify an electric current: electrical to magnetic and magnetic to mechanical rotation.
Chemical Sensors
Chemical sensors detect the presence of certain chemicals or classes of chemicals and quantify
the amount and/or type of chemical detected.
Oxygen sensor – measures the percentage of oxygen in a gas or liquid being analyzed
Carbon dioxide detector – detects the presence of CO2 (see diagram below)

Schematic and Photo of a Carbon Dioxide Sensor

Chemical sensing is an application that really benefits from the use of micro technology. Just like
the macro-sized components, MEMS chemical sensors can detect a wide variety of different
gases. The advantage of the MEMS sensors is that they can be incorporated into objects for
continuous sensing of a gas or selection of gases. These devices have numerous medical,
industrial, and commercial applications such as environmental, quality control, food processing,
and medical diagnosis. Such devices are sometimes referred to an ENose or electronic nose.

Other Types of Sensors

Optical
Light sensors (photo detectors) – detects light and electromagnetic energy
Photocells (photo resistor) – a variable resistor affected by intensity changes in ambient light.
Infra-red sensor – detects infra-red radiation
Acoustic
Seismometers – measures seismic waves
Acoustic wave sensors – measures the wave velocity in the air or an environment to detect the
chemical species present

Others
Motion – detects motion
Speedometer – measures speed
Geiger counter – detects atomic radiation
Biological – monitors human cells

Input type transducers or sensors, produce a voltage or signal output response which is
proportional to the change in the quantity that they are measuring (the stimulus). The type or
amount of the output signal depends upon the type of sensor being used. But generally, all
types of sensors can be classed as two kinds, either Passive Sensors or Active Sensors.
Generally, active sensors require an external power supply to operate, called an excitation
signal which is used by the sensor to produce the output signal. Active sensors are self-
generating devices because their own properties change in response to an external effect
producing. Active sensors can also produce signal amplification.

A good example of an active sensor is a strain gauge. Strain gauges are pressure-sensitive
resistive bridge networks that are external biased (excitation signal) in such a way as to produce
an output voltage in proportion to the amount of force and/or strain being applied to the
sensor.

Unlike an active sensor, a passive sensor does not need any additional power source or
excitation voltage. Instead a passive sensor generates an output signal in response to some
external stimulus. For example, a thermocouple which generates its own voltage output when
exposed to heat. Then passive sensors are direct sensors which change their physical
properties, such as resistance, capacitance or inductance etc.

5.2 Basic Concepts of Transducers

A transducer is any device which converts one form of energy into another. Examples of
common transducers include the following:
 A microphone converts sound into electrical impulses and a loudspeaker converts
electrical impulses into sound (i.e., sound energy to electrical energy and vice versa).
 A solar cell converts light into electricity and a thermocouple converts thermal energy
into electrical energy.
 An incandescent light bulb produces light by passing a current through a filament. Thus,
a light bulb is a transducer for converting electrical energy into optical energy.
 An electric motor is a transducer for conversion of electricity into mechanical energy or
motion.

The Incandescent Light Bulb (a transducer)

Schematic of an incandescent light bulb.
A power source’s positive and negative terminals are connected to the bulb’s terminals. An
electrical current flows through the filament. The resistance of the tungsten filament converts the
electrical energy into heat and light.

Light bulbs convert electrical energy into light and heat. Specifically, an incandescent light bulb
consists of a vacuum chamber (the glass bulb), a filament (typically made of tungsten), and a
positive and a negative terminal (or contain points) (see the figure above). The negative
terminal is the part that screws into the socket to prevent electrical shock. A voltage source is
placed across the positive and negative terminals causing current to flow through the filament.
Due the electrical resistance of the tungsten filament, the filament heat up and gives off light
(i.e., electrical energy, to heat energy, to light energy).

Electro acoustic Transducers

Common electro acoustic transducers:
 Loudspeaker – Converts an electrical signal into sound
 Microphone – Converts sound waves in air into an electrical signal
 Hydrophone - Converts sound waves in water into an electrical signal.
Electromechanical Transducers
 Electromechanical Transducers – (Some are also called actuators)
 Strain gauge – Converts the deformation (strain) of an object into electrical resistance
 Galvanometer – Converts the electric current of a coil in a magnetic field into movement
 Generators – Converts mechanical energy (motion) into electrical energy.
  Motor – Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

Photoelectric Transducers
 Cathode ray tube (CRT) –Converts electrical signals into light energy for a visual output
 Light bulb –Converts electrical energy into visible light and heat
 Laser diode – Converts electrical energy into light energy
 Photodiode - Converts light energy into electrical energy

Difference between Sensor and Transducer

The physical devices, sensor and transducers are used by some people interchangeably. These
devices are used in numerous electrical and electronic gadgets and appliances. Some people fail
to make a difference between sensor and transducer because, transducers are sometimes
found in sensors. The main difference between sensor and transducer is that sensor is a
physical device that senses a physical quantity and then converts it into signals which can be
read by an instrument or the user. The transducer is also a physical device that converts one
form of energy into another form. The best example of a transducer is an antenna; because, it
converts electricity to electromagnetic waves. A sensor also converts one form of energy to
another, which means that it senses a physical quantity and converts it into an electrical signal.

5.3 Optical Sensor Basics and Applications

An optical sensor converts light rays into an electronic signal. The purpose of an optical sensor
is to measure a physical quantity of light and, depending on the type of sensor, and then
translates it into a form that is readable by an integrated measuring device. Optical Sensors are
used for contact-less detection, counting or positioning of parts. Optical sensors can be either
internal or external. External sensors gather and transmit a required quantity of light, while
internal sensors are most often used to measure the bends and other small changes in
direction.

The measurements possible by different optical sensors are Temperature, Velocity Liquid level,
Pressure, Displacement (position), Vibrations, Chemical species, Force radiation, pH- value,
Strain, Acoustic field and Electric field

Types of Optical Sensors

There are different kinds of optical sensors, the most common types which we have been using
in our real world applications as given below.

 Photoconductive devices used to measure the resistance by converting a change of

incident light into a change of resistance.
  The photovoltaic cell (solar cell) converts an amount of incident light into an output
voltage.
 The Photodiodes convert an amount of incident light into an output current.

Phototransistors are a type of bipolar transistor where the base-collector junction is exposed to
light. This results in the same behavior of a photodiode, but with an internal gain.

The operating principle is the transmitting and receiving of light in an optical sensor, the object
to be detected reflects or interrupts a light beam sent out by an emitting diode. Depending on
the type of device, the interruption or reflection of the light beam is evaluated. This makes it
possible to detect objects independently of the material they are constructed from (wood,
metal, plastic or other). Special devices even allow for a detection of transparent objects or
those with different colors or variations in contrast. Different types of optical sensors as
explained below.

Different Types of Optical Sensors

1. Through-Beam Sensors

The system consists of two separate components; the transmitter and the receiver are placed
opposite to each other. The transmitter projects a light beam onto the receiver. An interruption
of the light beam is interpreted as a switch signal by the receiver. It is irrelevant where the
interruption occurs.

Advantage: Large operating distances can be achieved and the recognition is independent of
the object’s surface structure, color or reflectivity.
To guarantee a high operational dependability it must be assured that the object is sufficiently
large to interrupt the light beam completely.

2. Retro-Reflective Sensors

Transmitter and receiver are both in the same house, through a reflector the emitted light
beam is directed back to the receiver. An interruption of the light beam initiates a switching
operation. Where the interruption occurs is of no importance.

Advantage: Retro-reflective sensors enable large operating distances with switching points,
which are exactly reproducible requiring little mounting effort. All objects interrupting the light
beam are accurately detected independently of their surface structure or color.

3. Diffuse Reflection Sensors

Both transmitter and receiver are in one housing. The transmitted light is reflected by the
object to be detected.
Advantage: The diffused light intensity at the receiver serves as the switching condition.
Regardless of the sensitivity setting the rear part always reflects better than the front part. This
leads to the consequence to erroneous switching operations.

Different Light Sources for Optical Sensors

The sun and light from burning torch flames were the first light sources used to study optics. As
a matter of fact, light coming from certain (exited) matter (e.g., iodine, chlorine, and mercury
ions) still provides the reference points in the optical spectrum. One of the key components in
optical communication is the monochromatic light source. In optical communications, light
sources must be monochromatic, compact, and long lasting. Here are two different types of
light source.

1. LED (Light Emitting Diode)

During the recombination process of electrons with holes at the junctions of n-doped and p-
doped semiconductors, energy is released in the form of light. The excitation takes place by
applying an external voltage and the recombination may be taking place, or it may be
stimulated as another photon. This facilitates coupling the LED light with an optical device.

A LED is a p-n semiconductor device that emits light when a voltage is applied across its two terminals

2. LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission Radiation)

A laser is created, when the electrons in the atoms in special glasses, crystals, or gasses absorb
energy from an electrical current they become excited. The excited electrons move from a
lower-energy orbit to a higher-energy orbit around the atom’s nucleus. When they return to
their normal or ground state this leads to the electrons emit photons (particles of light). These
photons are all at the same wavelength and coherent. The ordinary visible light comprises
multiple wavelengths and is not coherent.
 LASAR Light Emission Process

Applications of Optical Sensors

Application of these optical sensors ranges from computers to motion detectors. For optical
sensors to work effectively, they must be the correct type for the application, so that they
maintain their sensitivity to the property they measure. Optical sensors are integral parts of
many common devices, including computers; copy machines (Xerox) and light fixtures that turn
on automatically in the dark. And some of the common applications include alarm systems,
synchros for photographic flashes and systems that can detect the presence of objects.

5.4 Strain gauges

The strain gauge is one of the most important sensors of the electrical measurement technique
applied to the measurement of mechanical quantities. As their name indicates, they are used
for the measurement of strain. "Strain" consists of tensile and compressive strain, distinguished
by a positive or negative sign. Thus, strain gauges can be used to measure expansion as well as
contraction. Strain gauges are devices whose resistance changes under the application of force
or strain. They can be used for measurement of force, strain, stress, pressure, displacement,
acceleration etc.
It is often easy to measure the parameters like length, displacement, weight etc that can be felt
easily by some senses. However, it is very difficult to measure the dimensions like force, stress
and strain that cannot be really sensed directly by any instrument. For such cases special
devices called strain gauges are very useful
There are some materials whose resistance changes when strain is applied to them or when
they are stretched and this change in resistance can be measured easily. For applying the strain
you need force, thus the change in resistance of the material can be calibrated to measure the
applied force. Thus the devices whose resistance changes due to applied strain or applied force
are called as the strain gauges.

The strain of a body is always caused by an external influence or an internal effect. Strain might
be caused by forces, pressures, moments, heat, structural changes of the material and the like.
If certain conditions are fulfilled, the amount or the value of the influencing quantity can be
derived from the measured strain value. In experimental stress analysis this feature is widely
used. Experimental stress analysis uses the strain values measured on the surface of a
specimen, or structural part, to state the stress in the material and also to predict its safety and
endurance. Special transducers can be designed for the measurement of forces or other
derived quantities, e.g., moments, pressures, accelerations, displacements, vibrations and
others. The transducer generally contains a pressure sensitive diaphragm with strain gauges
bonded to it.