FINAL YEAR PROJECT SYNOPSIS

ON
(VACUUM BASED TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM)

By
Abhijeet Bhardwaj (120109001)
Ayush Surana (120109005)
Mohit Dubey (120109010)
Vivek Kumar (120106284)

Under the guidance of

Mr. K.K.Dubey
(Assistant professor)
Department of Mechanical & Automobile Engineering,
School of Engineering and Technology,
Sharda University.

Department of Mechanical & Automobile Engineering

School of Engineering and Technology
Sharda University

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 CERTIFICATE

It is certified that the project entitled “Vacuum Based Transportation System” which is
being submitted by Abhijeet Bhardwaj, Ayush Surana, Mohit Dubey and Vivek Kumar
to Sharda University, Greater Noida in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of B. Tech. in Mechanical and Automobile Engineering. They have submitted the
proposal of final year project satisfactorily, made a presentation, defended the work in a viva
voce. The matter submitted via this report has not been submitted for the award of any other
degree to the best of our knowledge.

Prof. _____________________ Prof. / Mr. / Ms. _____________

External Examiner Faculty Advisor to Project Group,
Dept. of Mech. Engg. Dept. of MA&E, SET,
___________College/University Sharda University

Countersigned by

Prof. Bharat B.Gupta

Head of Department
Dept. of Mechanical & Automobile Engineering
School of Engineering & technology
Sharda University

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Working on this project on “Vacuum based transportation” was a source of immense

knowledge to us. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to prof. K.K.Dubey for his
guidance and valuable support throughout the course of this project work. We acknowledge
with a deep sense of gratitude, the encouragement and inspiration received from our faculty
members and colleagues. We would also like to thank our parents and team mate for their
help and support.

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 Abstract

Vacuum tube transportation will be one of the ultra-large-scale vacuum application areas.
This paper lists some key vacuum technology issues in vacuum transportation: how to
construct ultra-large-scale vacuum chamber with lower cost and high reliability, how to
evacuate gas out of the tube in short time, how to release heat or reduce temperature in the
vacuum tube, how to avoid vacuum discharge, how to make vehicles with airproof shells and
life support system, and how to detect leaks and find leak positions efficiently. At the same
time, some solutions are proposed.

The aerodynamic drag on a train running in an evacuated tube varies with tube air pressure,
train speed and shape, as well as blockage ratio. This paper uses numerical simulations to
study the effects of different factors on the aerodynamic drag of a train running at subsonic
speed in an evacuated tube. Firstly, we present the assumption of a steady state, two
dimensional, incompressible viscous flows with lubricity wall conditions. Subsequently,
based on the Navier-Stokes equation, we calculate the aerodynamic drag imposed on the
column train running under different pressure and blockage ratio conditions in an evacuated
tube transportation system. The simulation is performed with Ansys Fluent software package.
.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Description Page No.

CERTIFICATE 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 3

ABSTARCT 4

TABLE OF CONTENT 5

LIST OF FIGURES 6

ABBREVIATION 7

CHAPTER 1 8

1.1 INTRODUCTION 8

1.2 HISTORY 9-10

CHAPTER 2 11

2.1 LITERATURE SURVEY 11-13

CHAPTER 3 14

3.1 DESIGN METHODOLOGY 14-20

3.2 BASIC FLUID FLOW 18

CHAPTER 4 22

4.1 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS 24

CHAPTER 5 29

5.1 RESULTS & DISCUSSION 30

REFRENCES 31

PUBLICATION 32

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 LIST OF FIGURES
1. Figure 1…………………………………………………………………….16
2. Figure 2……………………………………………………………………..16
3. Figure 3……………………………………………………………………..29
4. Figure 4……………………………………………………………………..29
5. Figure 5……………………………………………………………………..29
6. Figure 6……………………………………………………………………..30
7. Figure 7……………………………………………………………………..30

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 Abbreviations

ETT=Evacuated tube transportation

FD =Drag Force (N)

Re = Reynolds Number

D=Characteristic Length (m)

T=Temperature (K)

P=Pressure (N/m2) T=Temperature (K)

R=Gas Constant (KJ/Kg-K) D=Characteristic Length (m)

μ=Dynamic Viscosity (Pa-s) Re = Reynolds Number

V=Velocity (m/s) FD =Drag Force (N)

ρ=Density (kg/m3) ETT=Evacuated tube transportation

s=Surface Area

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Compared with the advanced Internet or IT technology, the nowadays situation of both traffic
and logistics is clearly laggard. All countries are looking for new transport mode that will be
faster, cleaner, safer and environmental friendly. Although the speed of high-speed railway is
350km/h, the speed of Shanghai Maglev in operation in China is 430km/h, and Japan
Yamanashi Maglev test line reached 581km/h, they aren’t the ideal speed, and those vehicles
run with extreme high aerodynamic noise and air drag. More and more clearly, it will be the
correct orientation for trains to combine it with evacuated tube transportation, namely putting
the maglev into the vacuum tube. Then the Maglev could run at a speed of 800~ 1000 km/h
and it’s possible to run at a hypersonic speed, for example, 6000 km/h or even over 10000
km/h.
But it is not a feasible solution to directly combine the maglev with the evacuated tube but
there is another way where we can design a whole system of transportation through vacuum.
The scientific principles of Evacuated tube transportation are highly proven. It is literally
“Space Travel on Earth” where car sized passenger capsules travel in tubes on frictionless
maglev (magnetic levitated vehicle). Air is permanently removed from the two-way tubes that
are built along a travel route. Airlocks at portals allow transfer of capsules without admitting
air. Linear electric motors accelerate the capsules, which then coast through the vacuum for
the remainder of the trip using no additional power. Most of the energy is regenerated as the
capsules slow down where kinetic energy is converted to electric power through
electromagnetic induction. ET3 can provide 50 times more transportation per kWh of
electricity than the most efficient electric cars or trains.

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HISTORY

Tube transportation has a history that extends back at least 200 years. During this period,
systems for both passengers and freight have been built and operated. Some are in operation
today. In addition, there have been many more proposals that were never built. All of the
historical tube transportation systems were pneumatically powered.

Pneumatic Capsule Transportation: was invented by William Murdoch. It was considered

little more than a novelty until the invention of the capsule in 1836. The Victorians were the
first to use capsule pipelines to transmit telegrams, to nearby buildings from telegraph
stations.
While they are commonly used for small parcels and documents – including as cash carriers
at banks or supermarkets they were originally proposed in the early 19th century for transport
of heavy freight. It was once envisaged that networks of these massive tubes might be used to
transport people.
The technology is still used on a smaller scale. While its use for communicating information
has been superseded, pneumatic tubes are widely used for transporting small objects, or
where convenience and speed in a local environment is useful. In the United States, drive-up
banks often use pneumatic tubes to transport cash and documents between cars and tellers.
Most hospitals have a computer-controlled pneumatic tube system to deliver drugs,
documents and specimens to and from laboratories and nurses' stations. Many factories use
them to deliver parts quickly across large campuses. Many larger stores use systems to
securely transport excess cash from checkout stands to back offices, and to send change back
to cashiers. NASA's original Mission Control Centre had pneumatic tubes connecting
controller consoles with staff support rooms.

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Vactrain concept: Russian professor Boris Weinberg offered a vactrain concept in 1914 in
the book Motion without friction (airless electric way). He also built world's first model of
his proposed transport in Tomsk Polytechnic University in 1909.
He purposed to build tube shuttle system using technologies available at that time. Maglev
being poorly developed at the time, he proposed steel wheels. The chamber's door to the tube
would be opened, and enough air admitted behind to accelerate the train into the tube.
Gravity would further accelerate the departing train down to cruise level. Rising from cruise
level, the arriving train would decelerate by compressing the rarefied air ahead of it, which
would be vented. Pumps at the stations would make up for losses due to friction or air
escaping around the edges of the train, the train itself requiring no motor. This combination of
modified (shallow) gravity train and atmospheric railway propulsion would consume little
energy but limit the system to subsonic speeds; hence initial routes of tens or hundreds of
miles or kilometers rather than transcontinental distances were proposed.

Hyperloop concept: Elon Musk first mentioned that he was thinking about a concept for a
"fifth mode of transport", calling it the Hyperloop, in July 2012 at a Pando Daily event in
Santa Monica, California. He described several characteristics of what he wanted in a
hypothetical high-speed transportation system: immunity to weather, cars that never
experience crashes, an average speed twice that of a typical jet, low power requirements, and
the ability to store energy for 24-hour operations.
Hyperloop consists of a low pressure tube with capsules that are transported at both low and
high speeds throughout the length of the tube. The capsules are supported on a cushion of air,
featuring pressurized air and aerodynamic lift. The capsules are accelerated via a magnetic
linear accelerator affixed at various stations on the low pressure tube with rotors contained in
each capsule. Passengers may enter and exit Hyperloop at stations located either at the ends
of the tube, or branches along the tube length.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY
Evacuated Tube Transport Technologies (ET3) offers the potential for more than an order of
magnitude improvement in transportation efficiency, speed, cost, and effectiveness. An ET3
network may be optimized to sustainably displace most global transportation by car, ship,
truck, train, and jet aircraft. To do this, ET3 standards should adhere to certain key principals:
maximum value through efficiency, reliability, and simplicity; equal consideration for
passenger and cargo loads; optimum size; high speed/high frequency operation; demand
oriented; random accessibility; scalability; high granularity; automated control; full speed
passive switching; open standards of implementation; and maximum use of existing
capacities, materials, and processes.
The scientific principles of ET3 are highly proven. ET3 is literally “Space Travel on Earth”
where car sized passenger capsules travel in 1.5 m (5') diameter tubes on frictionless maglev
(magnetic levitated vehicle). Air is permanently removed from the two-way tubes that are
built along a travel route. Airlocks at portals allow transfer of capsules without admitting air.
Linear electric motors accelerate the capsules, which then coast through the vacuum for the
remainder of the trip using no additional power. Most of the energy is regenerated as the
capsules slow down where kinetic energy is converted to electric power through
electromagnetic induction. ET3 can provide 50 times more transportation per kWh of
electricity than the most efficient electric cars or trains.ET3 is networked like freeways,
except the capsules are automatically routed from origin to destination. Speed in initial ET3
systems is 600 km/h (370 mph) for local trips. This will be developed to 6 500 km/h (4 000
mph) for international travel that will allow passenger or cargo travel from New York to
Beijing in 2 h. Velocity may even extend to that of a rocket in future. ET3 capsules weigh
only 183 kg (400 lbs), yet like an automobile, can carry up to six people or 367 kg (800 lbs)
of cargo. Compared to high-speed-rail (HSR) trains, ET3 needs less than 1/20 as much
material per passenger because the capsules are so light. Automated passive switching at the
full design speed allows a 600 km/h ET3 route to exceed the capacity of a 40 lane freeway
thus producing further economy. This exceptional capacity can be leveraged to carry water,
sewer, oil, gas, and garbage, etc., all in special capsules. For cargo, the capsule can
accommodate up to three Euro pallets (0.8 m wide, by 1.2 m long, by 1.0 m high). The ability
to consolidate different utility needs into the same right-of-ways creates great economy of

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scale. The aerodynamic drag on a train running in an evacuated tube varies with tube air
pressure, train speed and shape, as well as blockage ratio. This paper uses numerical
simulations to study the effects of different factors on the aerodynamic drag of a train running
at subsonic speed in an evacuated tube. Firstly, we present the assumption of a steady state,
two dimensional, incompressible viscous flows with lubricity wall conditions. Subsequently,
based on the Navier-Stokes equation and the k- turbulent models, we calculate the
aerodynamic drag imposed on the column train with a 3-meter diameter running under
different pressure and blockage ratio conditions in evacuated tube transportation (ETT)
system. The simulation is performed with FLUENT 6.3 software package. An analysis of the
simulation results suggest that the blockage ratio for ETT should be in the range of 0.25–0.7,
and the tube internal diameter in the range of 2–4 m, with the feasible vacuum pressure in the
range of 1–10 000 Pa for the future subsonic ETT trains.
High-speed Maglev evacuated tube transportation (ETT) is able to run at supersonic and even
hypersonic speeds [1-5]. The operation speed at the initial stage should be in the subsonic
range of 500–1000 km/h. The train running in the evacuated tube is subjected to aerodynamic
drag, the value of which is function of tube air pressures, train speed and shape, and blockage
ratios.
The study of the effects of various factors that affect aerodynamic drag on the ETT train is
necessary for a complete understanding of ETT aerodynamics.
ETT trains should run in a closed vacuum (rarefied gas) surrounding. This is in contrast to the
dense gas surroundings in the tunnel where high-speed trains typically run. Furthermore, ETT
trains run in a finite space which is different from the infinite boundary surroundings where a
space shuttle flies. ETT aerodynamics is a new subject different from tunnel and aviation
aerodynamics. Zhou et al. [6-7] simulated the aerodynamic drag on a ETT train and the
blockage ratio of the ETT tube through a train model with half-arch front and tail, and
obtained dynamic trends of the relationship among the air pressure in tube, the train speed,
and the tube blockage ratio. However, they only considered speed under 200 m/s and air
pressures above 1 000 Pa. This paper explores a wider calculation range, such as the ETT
train speeds ranging from 50 to 300 m/s and tube pressures from 10 to 10 000 Pa.
Consequently, detailed numerical values of aerodynamic drag on the subsonic ETT train are
obtained. Furthermore, this paper will search for an approach of selecting ETT tube section
size from the aerodynamic consideration. Using FLUENT 6.3 software package, together
with the assumptions of a steady two dimensional, incompressible viscous flow, and lubricity
wall conditions, the Navier - Stokes equations coupled with k-epsilon turbulent models are
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applied in simulating the aerodynamic drag imposed on ETT trains running at different
vacuum degrees and blockage rate conditions [8-9].
Based on hypothesis of incompressible viscous flow, 2D stable flow field and moving tube
wall conditions, as well as Navier-Stokes equation and k-ε two-equation turbulent models, the
aerodynamic drag imposed on the trains with different front/rear shapes which run at
subsonic speed in evacuated tubes were calculated respectively. By analyzing the calculating
results, it could be found that the streamlined train front/rear are effective for reducing
aerodynamic drag acted on ETT trains running at subsonic speed and in partial vacuum tube
from 101.25~10132.5Pa, and it is apparently more effective for reducing aerodynamic drag
acted on trains in the tube to attach both taper front and rear than only taper front. The
optimized taper length of the ETT train front/rear is 1.5~2 times of the train body section
diameter. In addition, pointed out that a vertically symmetric taper is right for the ETT train
front/rear.

Evacuated Tube Transportation (ETT) will be the fastest traffic mode on earth in the future,
possible over 6000km/h, and low energy consumption, no air pollution, no noise and
relatively safer [1-5]. However, ETT trains would run only at a subsonic speed
500~1000km/h on its primary stage, and the relating reasonable partial vacuum in the tube
would be 101.325~10132.5Pa [6].

In such a partial vacuum tube, a streamlined front/rear of the ETT train is also needed. A
question is that what a kind of streamlined front/rear would be better. With FLUENT 6.3
software package, based on the hypothesis of incompressible viscous flow, two dimensional
stable flow field, as well as Navier-Stokes equation and k-ε two-equation turbulent models,
this paper calculates aerodynamic drag imposed on ETT trains with different fronts and rears
running at different vacuum degree. By comparing the aerodynamic drag value of various
train figures, some suggestions on the reasonable ETT train front/rear design are put up.

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 CHAPTER 3

DESIGN METHODOLOGY

Conservation of Mass
The conservation of mass relation for a closed system undergoing a change is expressed as

msys= constant or =0, which is a statement of the obvious that the mass of the system

remains constant during a process. For a control volume (CV), mass balance is expressed in
the rate form as

Conservation of mass: min - mout = ……………………(1)

where min and mout are the total rates of mass flow into and out of the control volume,

respectively, and is the rate of change of mass within the control volume boundaries. In

fluid mechanics, the conservation of mass relation written for a differential control volume is
usually called the continuity equation.
Conservation of Momentum
The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is called the linear momentum or just the
momentum of the body, and the momentum of a rigid body of mass m moving with a velocity
V
is mV. Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of a body is proportional to the net
force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass, and that the rate of change of the
momentum of a body is equal to the net force acting on the body. Therefore, the momentum
of a system remains constant when the net force acting on it is zero, and thus the momentum
of such systems is conserved. This is known as the conservation of momentum principle. In
fluid mechanics, Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the linear momentum equation
together with the angular momentum equation.
Conservation of Energy
Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system by heat or work, and the conservation of
energy principle requires that the net energy transfer to or from a system during a process be
equal to the change in the energy content of the system. Control volumes involve energy
transfer via mass flow also, and the conservation of energy principle, also called the energy
balance,

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is expressed as Conservation of energy: Ein – Eout = ………………(2)

Where Ein and Eout are the total rates of energy transfer into and out of the control volume,

respectively, and is the rate of change of energy within the control volume boundaries.

Conservation of Mass Principle

The conservation of mass principle for a control volume can be expressed as: The net mass

transfer to or from a control volume during a time interval is equal to the net change

(increase or decrease) in the total mass within the control volume during t. The conservation

of mass principle is one of the most fundamental principles in nature. We are all familiar with
this principle, and it is not difficult to understand. As the saying goes, You cannot have your
cake and eat it too! A person does not have to be a scientist to figure out how much vinegar
and oil dressing will be obtained by mixing 100 g of oil with 25 g of vinegar. Even chemical
equations are balanced on the basis of the conservation of mass principle. When 16 kg of
oxygen reacts with 2 kg of hydrogen, 18 kg of water is formed (Fig. 5–2). In an electrolysis
process, the water will separate back to 2 kg of hydrogen and 16 kg of oxygen. Mass, like
energy, is a conserved property, and it cannot be created or destroyed during a process.
However, mass m and energy E can be converted to each other according to the well-known
formula proposed by Albert Einstein (1879–1955):
E = mc2……………………(3)
Where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, which is c = 2.9979x108 m/s. This equation
suggests that the mass of a system changes when its energy changes. However, for all energy
interactions encountered in practice, with the exception of nuclear reactions, the change in
mass is extremely small and cannot be detected by even the most sensitive devices. For
example, when 1 kg of water is formed from oxygen and hydrogen, the amount of energy
released is 15,879 kJ, which corresponds to a mass of 1.76x10-10 kg. A mass of this magnitude
is beyond the accuracy required by practically all engineering calculations and thus can be
disregarded. For closed systems, the conservation of mass principle is implicitly used by
requiring that the mass of the system remain constant during a process. For control volumes,
however, mass can cross the boundaries, and so we must keep track of the amount of mass
entering and leaving the control volume.

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Separated and Un-Separated flows
The term “separated flow” may at first seem to be a rather inappropriate description of flow
phenomena, and it does not mean exactly what it might seem to imply—in particular,
separated does not mean that there is no fluid adjacent to the surface from which the flow is
said to be separated. On the other hand, we will recognize that this is a quite apt description
once we understand the physics associated with it. We first observe that flow behind
backward-facing step is one of the best-known examples of separated flow. This type of
behavior is encountered often in devices of engineering importance (e.g., in interior cooling-
air circuits of aircraft engine turbine blades), so it is worthwhile to attempt understand why
and how such a flow field occurs.

Fig.1 UnSeparated Flow Fig.2 Separated Flow

It is easiest to first consider a flow situation in which separation does not occur. Suppose
We examine what happens with a very slow-moving fluid in a geometric setting similar to
that of above one. For example, assume the fluid is pancake syrup that has been removed
from the Refrigerator only moments before the start of our experiment. Figure 1. Provides a
sketch of the approximate flow behavior as the syrup oozes along the top of the step and then
encounters the corner. As the flow reaches the corner its momentum is very low due to its low
speed, and it exhibits no tendency to “overshoot” the corner; thus, it oozes around the corner,
flows down the vertical face of the step and continues on its way. Fluid initially in the vicinity
of the solid surface remains close to it, even when making a 90 degree turn—i.e., the flow
remains “attached” to the surface.
Now consider the same experiment but with a less viscous fluid and/or a higher-speed flow.
Figure 2. Presents this case. Now the flow momentum is high, and it is difficult for the fluid
to turn the sharp corner without part of it overshooting. This high-speed fluid then shears the
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fluid immediately beneath it at the same time the lower portions of this region begin to move
toward the step to fill the void caused, in the first place, by the overshooting fluid coming off
the step. The immediate consequence of this combination of physical events is the primary
recirculation region indicated in Fig. (This is just alternative terminology for the vortex
shown previously in such vortices, or recirculation zones, are common features of essentially
all separated flows.

Streamlines

Fluid flow is characterized by a velocity vector field in three-dimensional space, within the
framework of continuum mechanics. Streamlines, streaklines and pathlines are field
lines resulting from this vector field description of the flow. They differ only when the flow
changes with time: that is, when the flow is not steady.

Streamlines are a family of curves that are instantaneously tangent to the velocity vector of
the flow. These show the direction in which a massless fluid element will travel at any point
in time.

Streaklines are the loci of points of all the fluid particles that have passed continuously
through a particular spatial point in the past. Dye steadily injected into the fluid at a fixed
point extends along a streakline.

Pathlines are the trajectories that individual fluid particles follow. These can be thought of as
"recording" the path of a fluid element in the flow over a certain period. The direction the
path takes will be determined by the streamlines of the fluid at each moment in time.

Timelines are the lines formed by a set of fluid particles that were marked at a previous
instant in time, creating a line or a curve that is displaced in time as the particles move.

Lagrangian & Eulerian Systems

Depicted in Fig. 3.1. This figure shows two different fluid particles and their particle paths
for a short period of time. Notice that it is the location of the fluid parcel at each time that is
given, and this can be obtained directly by solving the corresponding equations. There are
several important features of this representation requiring some explanation. First, it can be
seen that the fluid parcel does not necessarily retain its size and shape during its motion.
Later, when we derive the equation for mass conservation we will require that the mass of the

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fluid element remain fixed; hence, if the density is changing, which might well be the case,
the volume must also change. Second, we can think of changes in shape as having arisen due
to interactions with neighboring fluid elements (not shown, but recall Fig. 2.9); we will treat
this in more detail when we derive the momentum equations.
Thus, if a sequence of locations of the fluid parcel is known for a period of time, it is easy to
Calculate its velocity (and acceleration) during this same period. Furthermore, we can think
about obtaining values of any other fluid property (e.g., temperature or pressure) at this
sequence of locations by simply “measuring” them as we ride through the fluid on the fluid
parcel. Finally, it must be emphasized that in order to obtain a complete description of the
flow field using this approach it is necessary to track a very large number of fluid parcels.

The Lagrangian viewpoint

Use of Lagrangian-coordinate formulations for the equations of fluid motion is very natural
in light of the fact that Newton’s second law applies to point masses, and it is reasonable to
view a fluid parcel as such. The equations of motion that arise from this approach are
relatively simple because they result from direct application of Newton’s second law. But
their solutions consist merely of the fluid particle spatial location at each instant of time as
depicted in Fig. 3.1. This figure shows two different fluid particles and their particle paths for
a short period of time. Notice that it is the location of the fluid parcel at each time that is
given, and this can be obtained directly by solving the corresponding equations. There are
several important features of this representation requiring some explanation. First, it can be
seen that the fluid parcel does not necessarily retain its size and shape during its motion.
Later, when we derive the equation for mass conservation we will require that the mass of the
fluid element remain fixed; hence, if the density is changing, which might well be the case,
the volume must also change. Second, we can think of changes in shape as having arisen due
to interactions with neighboring fluid elements (not shown, but recall Fig. 2.9); we will treat
this in more detail when we derive the momentum equations.
Thus, if a sequence of locations of the fluid parcel is known for a period of time, it is easy to
Calculate its velocity (and acceleration) during this same period. Furthermore, we can think
about obtaining values of any other fluid property (e.g., temperature or pressure) at this
sequence of locations by simply “measuring” them as we ride through the fluid on the fluid
parcel. Finally, it must be emphasized that in order to obtain a complete description of the
flow field using this approach it is necessary to track a very large number of fluid parcels.
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The Eulerian viewpoint
An alternative to the Lagrangian representation is the Eulerian view of a flowing fluid. As
noted above, this corresponds to a coordinate system fixed in space, and within which fluid
properties are monitored as functions of time as the flow passes fixed spatial locations. Figure
3.2 is a simple representation of this situation. It is evident that in this case we need not be
explicitly concerned with individual fluid parcels or their trajectories. Moreover, the flow
velocity will now be measured directly at these locations rather than being deduced from the
time rate-of-change of fluid parcel location in a neighborhood of the desired measurement
points. It is fairly clear that this approach is more suitable for practical purposes, and
essentially all engineering analyses of fluid flow are conducted in this manner. On the other
hand, such a viewpoint does not produce total acceleration along the direction of motion of
fluid parcels as needed for use of Newton’s second law. It is worth noting that, because of
this, physicists still typically employ a Lagrangian approach.

Physics of compressible Flows: - Compressibility effects are encountered in gas flows at

high velocity and/or in which there are large pressure variations. When the flow velocity
approaches or exceeds the speed of sound of the gas or when the pressure change in the
system is large, the variation of the gas density with pressure has a significant impact on the
flow velocity, pressure, and temperature. Compressible flows create a unique set of flow
physics for which you must be aware of the special input requirements and solution
techniques. Compressible flows can be characterized by the value of the Mach number. The
Mach number M is the ratio of the speed of the flow v to the speed of sound c.

M = v / c……………(4)

Speed of the sound can be calculated as:-

When the Mach number is less than 1.0, the flow is termed subsonic. At Mach numbers much
less than 1.0 compressibility effects are negligible and the variation of the gas density with

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pressure can safely is ignored in your flow modeling. As the Mach number approaches 1.0
(which is referred to as the transonic flow regime), compressibility effects become important.
When the Mach number exceeds 1.0, the flow is termed supersonic, and may contain shocks
and expansion fans which can impact the flow pattern significantly.

Compressible flows are typically characterized by the total pressure P 0 and total temperature
T0 of the flow. For an ideal gas, these quantities can be related to the static pressure and
temperature by the following:-

These relationships describe the variation of the static pressure and temperature in the flow as
the velocity (Mach number) changes under isentropic conditions. This choked flow condition
will be established at the point of minimum flow area. In the subsequent area expansion the
flow may either accelerate to a supersonic flow in which the pressure will continue to drop,
or return to subsonic flow conditions, decelerating with a pressure rise. If a supersonic flow is
exposed to an imposed pressure increase, a shock will occur, with a sudden pressure rise and
deceleration accomplished across the shock. Compressible flows are described by the
standard continuity and momentum equation. The energy equation correctly incorporates the
coupling between the flow velocity and the static temperature, and should be activated
whenever you are solving a compressible flow. Continuity and momentum equations are as
follows.
The differential & integral form of the continuity equation is as follows.

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Which means that the divergence of velocity field is zero everywhere?

Mathematically, the integral form of the continuity equation is:

Where, S is a closed surface that encloses a volume V. S is arbitrary but fixed (unchanging
in time) for the calculation,

Denotes a surface integral, where n^ is the outward-pointing unit normal to the surface S,
The momentum equation is given as follows:-

Where,

Fx are the forces acting on the control volume,

vx is the velocity in the x-direction;
d is the volume differential;
V is the velocity vector; and
dA is the differential area taken as a vector normal to the control surface, CS, of
the control volume.

Similarly the energy equation can be represented as follows:-

       
 
v2 v2   
   e         e  v      pv   g   f  v
t   2    2  

The above equation is nonlinear partial differential equations.

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 Chapter-4
Computational Fluid Dynamics

Introduction
Analysis of physical problems in any area of engineering and science involves a multi-
pronged approach:
Idealized physical model: experiments on scale models of the problem.
Mathematical model: Theoretical analysis (analytical solution) / approximate numerical
solution.
Both physical experiments and analytical/numerical simulations complement each other.
Both the approaches have their own limitations, advantages and disadvantages.

Physical experiments

 These are usually very time consuming and expensive to set up.
 There are limitations on extrapolation of the results obtained on scaled model of a
problem to the actual prototype. But the experimentally observed data provides the
closest approximation possible of the physical reality within the limits of
experimental errors.

Numerical Simulation

 Mathematical modelling is based on a set of assumptions with regard to the variation

of the problem variables, constitutive relations and material properties.
 Numerical simulation process introduces additional approximation errors in the
solution. Hence, results of any analytical or numerical study must be carefully
validated against physical experiments to establish their practical usefulness.
 However, once validated, a numerical simulation can be easily performed on the full
scale prototype, and thereby eliminate the need of extrapolation.
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Mathematical modelling of a continuum problem leads to a set of differential, integral
or integro-differential equations. Exact analytical solution of such equations is limited to
problems in simple geometries. Hence, for most of the problems of practical interest,
an approximate numerical solution is sought. In the context of mechanics, the
science and practice of obtaining approximate numerical solution using digital
computers is termed Computational Mechanics. For thermo-fluid problems, this
approach is popularly known as Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
CFD deals with approximate numerical solution of governing equations based on the
fundamental conservation laws of physics, namely mass, momentum and energy
conservation.

The CFD solution involves

 Conversion of the governing equations for a continuum medium into a set

of discrete algebraic equations using a process called discretization.
 Solution of the discrete equations can using a high speed digital computer
to obtain the numerical solution to desired level of accuracy.

History
Although development of some of the techniques used in CFD dates back to pre-
digital era, history of CFD is intrinsically linked to the advent of the digital computers
in late 1950s. It is highly debatable as to who did the first CFD simulation of a flow
problem. Hence, instead of looking at chronology of the history of CFD, we focus
on the evolution of CFD for motivational and application perspective.

Early Applications

 The early beginning of the CFD can be traced to numerical simulations for
aerospace applications at Douglas, Boeing, NASA, and Lockheed in 1960s
based on panel methods.
 Meteorologists were the next early users of CFD for weather forecasting
applications. Large eddy simulation models for atmospheric turbulent flows
appeared in early 1970s.

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Algorithmic Front

 1960s: Development of Particle-In-Cell (PIC), Marker-and-Cell (MAC) and

Vorticity- Stream function methods at NASA.
 1970s: Development of parabolic flow codes (GENMIX), Vorticity-Stream function
based codes, and the SIMPLE algorithm by the research group of Professor D. Brian
Spalding, at Imperial College, London.
 1980 onwards vigorous research activity in various parts of the globe addressing
different aspects of CFD: new discretization methods, turbulence modelling,
numerical algorithms, grid generation methods, post-processing and visualization,
parallel implementation etc.

Impact of Developments in CAD on Industrial Applications of CFD

 Industrial applications of CFD boosted by the availability of commercial CFD codes
in 1980s.
 Developments in CAD and FEA have inspired development of commercial CFD
codes with user-friendly graphical user interface, in-built geometry and solid
modelling, and visual post-processing capabilities.
 Availability of commercial and open-source GUI based codes which offer CAD inter-
operability has led to the integration of CFD analysis in the design cycle.

APPLICATIONS OF CFD
 CFD is being used for fundamental research as well as industrial R&D. CFD analysis
forms an integral part of design cycle in most of the industries: from aerospace,
chemical and transportation to bio-medical engineering. The length scales range from
planetary boundary layers to micro-channels in electronic equipment. Following is a
short-list of some of more prominent applications of CFD:
 Meteorology: weather forecasting.
 Aerospace: design of wings to complete aircraft aerodynamic design
 Turbomachines: design of hydraulic, steam, gas, and wind turbines; design of pumps,
compressors, blower, fans, diffusers, nozzles.
 Engines: combustion modelling in internal combustion engines.
 Chemical process engineering.

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  Energy systems: analysis of thermal and nuclear power plants, modelling of accident
situations for nuclear reactors.
 Hydraulics and hydrology: flow in rivers, channels, ground aquifers, sediment
transport.
 HVAC: Design of ducts, placement of heating/cooling ducts for optimum.

The fundamental basis of almost all CFD problems are the Navier–Stokes equations, which
define any single-phase (gas or liquid, but not both) fluid flow. These equations can be
simplified by removing terms describing viscous actions to yield the Euler equations. Further
simplification, by removing terms describing vorticity yields the full potential equations.
Finally, for small perturbations in subsonic and supersonic flows these equations can
be linearized to yield the linearized potential equations. The Navier–Stokes equations were
the ultimate target of development.

NUMERICAL SIMULATION PROCESS

Numerical simulation of a physical problem involves approximation of the problem

geometry, choice of appropriate mathematical model and numerical solution techniques,
computer implementation of the numerical algorithm and analysis of the data generated by
the simulation

GEOMETRY MODELLING
The numerical simulation requires a computer representation of the problem domain. For
most of the engineering problems, it may not be possible or even desirable to include all the
geometric details of the system in its geometric model. The analyst has to make a careful
choice regarding the level of intricate details to be chosen. For example, in the numerical
simulation of flow field around an automobile, finer details of the front air-intake grills
would be avoided. Incorporation of these finer features would make the grid generation
process very difficult, but would hardly contribute to the accuracy of the velocity and
pressure fields.

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

An appropriate mathematical model for the problem has to be selected keeping in view the

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objective of the simulation, and physics of the flow problem. For example, one can opt for
incompressible Navier-Stokes equations for low speed aerodynamics (Mach number < 0.3,
e.g. flow over a car or train). Similarly, for high speed compressible flow over a whole
aircraft, one may choose inviscid model (Euler’s equation). The choice of the model also
depends on the available computing resources and level of accuracy desired.

DISCRETIZATION METHOD

For computer simulation, the continuum mathematical model must be converted into a
discrete system of algebraic equation using a suitable discretization procedure. There are
many discretization approaches. The most popular are the finite difference method (FDM),
the finite element method (FEM) and the finite volume method (FVM). Choice of the
discretization method depends on the problem geometry, preference of the analyst and pre-
dominant trend in a particular application area. For instance, FEM is very popular for stress
analysis applications, whereas FDM has traditionally been more popular for simulation of
turbulent flows. Similarly, commercial CFD codes have shown a distinct preference for the
finite volume method.

GRID GENERATION

The problem domain is discretized into a mesh/grid appropriate to the chosen discretization
method. The type of the grid also depends on the geometry of the problem domain.
Structured grid is required for the finite difference method, whereas FEM and FVM can
work with either structured or unstructured grids. In case of unstructured grids, care must be
taken to ensure proper grading and quality of the mesh.

NUMERICAL SOLUTION

The discretization method applied to the mathematical model of the problem leads to a
system of discrete equations: (a) a system of ordinary differential equations in time for
unsteady problems, and (b) a system of algebraic equations for steady state model. For
unsteady problems, time integration methods for initial value problems are employed, some
of which transform the differential system to a system of algebraic equations at each time
step. Iterative methods are usually employed to solve the system of algebraic equations,
choice of methods being dependent on the type of the grid and size of the system.
The convergence criterion for the iterative solvers depends on the accuracy as well as
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efficacy requirements. The tightness of the specified error tolerance would also depend on
the precision chosen for numerical computations.

POST-PROCESSING

Numerical simulation provides values of field variables at discrete set of computational

nodes. For analysis of the problem, the analyst would like to know the variation of different
variables in space-time. Further, for design analysis, secondary variables such a stresses and
fluxes must be computed. Most of the commercial CFD codes provide their own post-
processor which compute the secondary variables and provide variety of plots (contour as
well as line diagrams) based on the nodal data obtained from simulation. These
computations involve use of further approximations for interpolation of nodal data required
in integration and differentiation to obtain secondary variables or spatial distributions.

VALIDATION

Numerical solution of a physical problem must be validated with available experimental

data to ensure that it gives a reasonably accurate description of the physical reality. In
general, numerical solution is sought for a problem for which no experimental results are
available. For example, it is not feasible to perform experiments on a full scale prototype of
an airplane or high-speed train. In such situations, validation of the simulation process is
carried out with the scale model for which experimental data are available. Thereafter, the
simulation process can be extended for numerical solution of the full-scale problem.

Navier- Stokes Equation: - The Navier-Stokes equations govern the motion of fluids and
can be seen as Newton's second law of motion for fluids. In the case of a compressible
Newtonian fluid, this yields

Where u is the fluid velocity, p is the fluid pressure, ρ is the fluid density, and μ is the fluid
dynamic viscosity. The different terms correspond to the inertial forces (1), pressure forces
(2), viscous forces (3), and the external forces applied to the fluid (4). The Navier-Stokes
equations were derived by Navier, Poisson, Saint-Venant, and Stokes between 1827 and
1845.

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3.3.Euler Equations:- In fluid dynamics, the Euler equations are a set
of quasilinear hyperbolic equations governing adiabatic and inviscid flow. They are named
after Leonhard Euler. The equations represent Cauchy equations of conservation of mass
(continuity), and balance of momentum and energy, and can be seen as particular Navier–
Stokes equations with zero viscosity and zero conductivity. They are as follows:-

Reynolds Transport Equation: - Reynolds' theorem, is a three-dimensional generalization

of the Leibniz integral rule which is also known as differentiation under the integral sign. The
theorem is named after Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912). It is used to recast derivatives of
integrated quantities and is useful in formulating the basic equations of continuum
mechanics. Reynolds Transport Theorem states that the time rate of change of intensive
property for the system is equal to the rate of change of intensive property in control volume
plus net flux of the intensive property through the boundaries of the control volume.

where η is the intensive property related to extensive property N, (N per unit mass), t is time,
c.v. refers to the control volume, c.s. refers to the control surface, ρ is the fluid density, V is
the volume, υb is the velocity of the boundary of the control volume (the control surface), υ r is

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the velocity of the fluid with respect to the control surface, n is the outward pointing normal
vector on the control surface, and A is the area.

CONCLUSIONS

As stated in our report that firstly we study the feasibility of the vacuum based transportation
then since it is confirmed during our research then we proceed towards the basic idea of the
fluid mechanics behind it. After studying various aspects we moved forward towards getting
ourselves used to various CAD tools like Solid Works as well as analysis tool which involved
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) like Ansys and Fluent. With this progress we were
able to determine the concepts and ideas that are to be implemented. Our further approach
would be to optimize the outer mold of our vehicle as well as the system carrying it.
Moreover we would also try and resolve some of the basic challenges that are being put up.

Fig.3 Fig.4

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 Fig.5

S.No. Velocity Supersonic Blockage Coefficient of Drag

/Initial Gauge Ratio Drag Force(KN)
Pressure
1. 30 22450 0.21 0.494 4.357
2. 60 22450 0.25 0.587 20.7
3. 90 22450 0.36 0.756 60.011
4. 120 22450 0.56 0.989 139.5
5. 150 22450 0.69 1.02 224.9

Observation Table:-

Fig. 6 Coefficient of Drag vs. Velocity

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 Fig.7 Drag Force vs. Velocity

REFERENCES
1. Yaoping Zhang, Journal of modern transportation on Numerical simulation and
analysis of aerodynamic drag on a subsonic train in evacuated tube transportation,
vol-20, March, 2012.
2. Yaoping Zhangi, Daryl Oster, Masayuki Kumada, Jianye Yu, Shengshan Li, Journal
on Key vacuum technology issues to be solved in evacuated tube transportation, vol-
19, June, 2011.
3. Y.P.Zhang, S.S.LI, M.X.WANG, Journal on Main vacuum technical issues of
evacuated tube transportation, 2012.
4. Yaoping Zhangi, Daryl Oster, Masayuki Kumada, Journal on Evacuated tube transport
technologies (ET3) tm: a maximum value global transportation network for
passengers and cargo, vol-19, March, 2011.

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32 | P a g e
 Publication

Achieves of Computational Methods in Engineering

Numerical Simulation of Modified Structure of Evacuated Tube

Transportation System

Manuscript No. ARCO-D-16-00042

Abstract

Numerical simulations are methods to study the different behavior of systems and to calculate
the results whose mathematical models are way too complex to solve and non-linear. This
paper is focused on the study of the aerodynamic drag on an Evacuated Tube Transport
(ETT) system with modified outer mold sections. The present simulated model would be
running at subsonic speeds in reduced pressure tubes. The modifications are implemented on
the proposed design in order to provide feasibility for drag reduction. The Navier-Stokes
equation and k-epsilon turbulence equations are used for drag analysis. Ansys Fluent 14.0
has the distinct modeling capabilities to model the flows and is used for simulating the
aerodynamic drag on the ETT train.

Keywords- CFD, Partial vacuum, Aerodynamic Drag, Subsonic speed, Turbulent Flow

Abbreviations

ETT=Evacuated tube transportation

FD =Drag Force (N)
Re = Reynolds Number
D=Characteristic Length (m)
T=Temperature (K)
P=Pressure (N/m2) T=Temperature (K)
R=Gas Constant (KJ/Kg-K) D=Characteristic Length (m)
μ=Dynamic Viscosity (Pa-s) Re = Reynolds Number
V=Velocity (m/s) FD =Drag Force (N)
ρ=Density (kg/m3) ETT=Evacuated tube transportation
s=Surface Area
Introduction

The High Speed Transportation is the need for future and the conventional transportation
system could not make up for it. However, the system involving reduced pressure tube makes
the above a reality which moves faster, consumes less power, environment friendly &
relatively safer than the conventional one [1].Yaoping Zhang et al [2] determined drag force
on the ETT Train at various velocities while considering different pressures within certain
values of blockage ratio. This research work emphasizes on bringing the modification on the

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different sections of the ETT train. The above system is subjected to varied pressure
conditions according to the need and availability. The operational speed at initial stage should
be in subsonic range due the fact that gravitational force acting should be bearable. One of
the previous researches emphasizes on the modeling the front and rear section of the ETT
train so as to streamline the body accordingly making it taper to reduce the drag [3]. Previous
research in the same area has resulted in the discussion of difficulties faced during the
multiple stages. Along with these problems are offered some feasible solutions [4].The
vehicle running in the reduced pressure tubes is subjected to aerodynamic drag that itself
depends upon the various factors for example speed and the shape of the vehicle. Ansys
Fluent 14.0 plays a key role in simulating various situations of computational fluid dynamics.

CFD Modeling

Considering the incompressible, viscous and flow field density in proposed design can be
calculated by:-
Using equation of state: P=ρ*R*T …………………………………...… (1)
At P= (1/1000th of the atmospheric Pressure) Density comes out to be = 0.01225 kg/m3
And flow characterization of fluid field is estimated by Reynolds number.

Re= …… ………………..………………. (2)

Where ρ is the density, V is the velocity (m/s), D is the characteristic length=2.580m and μ is
the viscosity (1.789x10-5 kg/m-s) the

Re = = =128388.764.

Since the Reynolds number is greater than 4000, flow is said to turbulent.
The aerodynamic drag imposed on vehicle is calculated according to the following equation
(3)
FD= 0.5*CD*ρ*V2*S ……………………… (3)
A 2.5m in diameter and 20m long a train which is in an evacuated tube of diameter of 3.5m to
3.8 m is subjected to the mentioned conditions velocity and pressure.
Surface Area of ETT train = 16.213 m2
The fig-1.a and fig-1.b, consists of a schematics of the train and CFD model of tube train is
shown in fig 2.

Fig 1.a Side view of the model Fig 1.b Top view of the
model
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 Fig 2 FEM meshing of tube
Ansys Fluent 14.0 is used for evaluating the aerodynamic drag .The various solver settings
are as follows:-
Solver- Pressure Based
Model- Viscous→ k-Epsilon (Realizable)
Near Wall Treatment – Enhanced Wall Treatment
Inlet- Velocity Inlet
Outlet- Pressure Outlet
Result and Discussion

The simulation based results for different values of Coefficient of Drag and Drag Force with
value of velocities and variations shown in table-1 and in fig 3.a, & 3.b respectively.

Table 1-Observation Table

Velocity (m/s) Coefficient of Drag Drag Force (kN)

70 0.61 29.60
100 0.72 71.44
150 0.96 214.40
200 1.52 603.70

Fig 3.a Velocity Vs Coefficient of Drag Fig 3.b Velocity Vs Drag forces

The above graphs indicate that with the increase in the velocity of the train drag force as well
as coefficient of drag continuously increases. It is to be noted that after the velocity reaches
150 m/s drag force increases steeply. For this reason velocity greater than 150 m/s would not
yield any considerable results.

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Conclusion

Modifications on the train such as front section of the train being wider and flatter are the
result of the usage of the front section acting as a unit which cannot be streamlined as needed.
This design is to be used in extreme cases or when any other alternative is not available.
As it is depicted in the Fig 3.b, with increase in the velocity, drag force increases linearly for
a particular range of speeds but after that it moves out of that fashion.
References

[1] D. Oster, M. Kumada, Y. P. Zhang, Evacuated tube transport technologies (ET3) tm: a
maximum value global transportation network for passengers and cargo, Journal of Modern
Transportation, 2011, 19(1): 42-50.

[2] Yaoping ZHANG, Daryl OSTER, Masayuki KUMADA, Jianye YU, Shengshan LI Key
Vacuum technology issues to be solved in evacuated tube transportation, Journal of Modern
Transportation Volume 19, Number 2, June2011, Page 110-113.

[3] Yaoping ZHANG, Jun ZHU, Baigang MI and Maoxing SHEN, Reasonable Figure of
Subsonic Train Front and Rear in Evacuated Tube Transportation Based on Aerodynamics
Consideration, 2nd International Conference on Electronic & Mechanical Engineering and
Information Technology (EMEIT-2012).

[4] Y Zhang, Numerical simulation and analysis of aerodynamic drag on a subsonic train in
evacuated tube transportation Journal of Modern Transportation ,Volume 20, Number 1,
March 2012, Page 44-48.

[5] Reference manual, Fluent 14.0, Turbulence modelling.

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