AC motor - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/AC_motor

AC motor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An AC motor is an electric motor that is driven by an alternating current. It consists of two basic parts, an
outside stationary stator (there are examples such as some of the Papst motors that have the stator on the
inside and the rotor on the outside to increase the inertia and cooling, they were common on high quality
tape and film machines where speed stability is important) having coils supplied with alternating current to
produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by
the rotating field.

There are two types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used (not including eddy current motors
also AC/DC mechanically commutated machines which are speed dependant on voltage and winding
conection). The first is the synchronous motor, which rotates exactly at the supply frequency or a
submultiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is either generated by current delivered
through slip rings or by a permanent magnet.

The second type is the induction motor, which runs slightly slower than the supply frequency. The magnetic
field on the rotor of this motor is created by an induced current.

Contents
1 History
2 Squirrel-cage rotors
2.1 Calecon Effect
2.2 Two-phase AC servo motors
2.3 Single-phase AC induction motors
2.3.1 Shaded-pole motor
2.3.2 Split-phase induction motor
2.3.2.1 Capacitor start motor
2.3.2.2 Resistance start motor
2.3.3 Permanent-split capacitor motor
3 Wound rotors
3.1 Three-phase AC synchronous motors
3.2 Universal motors and series wound motors
3.2.1 Repulsion motor
4 Other types of rotors
4.1 Single-phase AC synchronous motors
4.1.1 Hysteresis synchronous motors
4.2 Electronically commutated motors
4.3 Watthour-meter motors
4.4 Slow-speed synchronous timing motors
5 See also
6 References

History

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In 1882 Nikola Tesla identified the rotating magnetic induction field principle[1][2] used in alternators and
pioneered the use of this rotating and inducting electromagnetic field force to generate torque in rotating
machines. He exploited this principle in the design of a poly-phase induction motor in 1883. In 1885, Galileo
Ferraris independently researched the concept. In 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the
Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.

Introduction of Tesla's motor in 1888 initiated what is sometimes referred to as the Second Industrial
Revolution, making possible both the efficient generation and long distance distribution of electrical energy
using the alternating current transmission system, also of Tesla's invention (1888).[3] Before widespread use
of Tesla's principle of poly-phase induction for rotating machines, all motors operated by continually passing
a conductor through a stationary magnetic field (as in homopolar motor).

Initially Tesla suggested that the commutators from a machine could be removed and the device could
operate on a rotary field of electromagnetic force. Professor Poeschel, his teacher, stated that would be akin
to building a perpetual motion machine. This was because Tesla's teacher had only understood one half of
Tesla's ideas. Professor Poeschel had realized that the induced rotating magnetic field would start the rotor
of the motor spinning, but he did not see that the counter electromotive force generated would gradually
bring the machine to a stop.[4] Tesla would later obtain U.S. Patent 0,416,194 (http://www.google.com
/patents?vid=416194) , Electric Motor (December 1889), which resembles the motor seen in many of
Tesla's photos. This classic alternating current electro-magnetic motor was an induction motor.

Michail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky later invented a three-phase "cage-rotor" in 1890. This type of
motor is now used for the vast majority of commercial applications.

Squirrel-cage rotors
Main article: Squirrel-cage rotor

Most common AC motors use the squirrel cage rotor, which will be found in virtually all domestic and light
industrial alternating current motors. The squirrel cage refers to the rotating exercise cage for pet animals.
The motor takes its name from the shape of its rotor "windings"- a ring at either end of the rotor, with bars
connecting the rings running the length of the rotor. It is typically cast aluminum or copper poured between
the iron laminates of the rotor, and usually only the end rings will be visible. The vast majority of the rotor
currents will flow through the bars rather than the higher-resistance and usually varnished laminates. Very
low voltages at very high currents are typical in the bars and end rings; high efficiency motors will often use
cast copper to reduce the resistance in the rotor.

In operation, the squirrel cage motor may be viewed as a transformer with a rotating secondary. When the
rotor is not rotating in sync with the magnetic field, large rotor currents are induced; the large rotor currents
magnetize the rotor and interact with the stator's magnetic fields to bring the rotor almost into
synchronization with the stator's field. An unloaded squirrel cage motor at rated no-load speed will consume
electrical power only to maintain rotor speed against friction and resistance losses. As the mechanical load
increases, so will the electrical load - the electrical load is inherently related to the mechanical load. This is
similar to a transformer, where the primary's electrical load is related to the secondary's electrical load.

This is why a squirrel cage blower motor may cause household lights to dim upon starting, but doesn't dim
the lights on startup when its fan belt (and therefore mechanical load) is removed. Furthermore, a stalled
squirrel cage motor (overloaded or with a jammed shaft) will consume current limited only by circuit
resistance as it attempts to start. Unless something else limits the current (or cuts it off completely)
overheating and destruction of the winding insulation is the likely outcome.

To prevent the currents induced in the squirrel cage from superimposing itself back onto the supply, the
squirrel cage is generally constructed with a prime number of bars, or at least a small multiple of a prime

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number (rarely more than 2). There is an optimum number of bars in any design, and increasing the number
of bars beyond that point merely serves to increase the losses of the motor particularly when starting.

Virtually every washing machine, dishwasher, standalone fan, record player, etc. uses some variant of a
squirrel cage motor.

Calecon Effect

If the rotor of a squirrel runs at the true synchronous speed, the flux in the rotor at any given place on the
rotor would not change, and no current would be created in the squirrel cage. For this reason, ordinary
squirrel-cage motors run at some tens of rpm slower than synchronous speed, even at no load. Because the
rotating field (or equivalent pulsating field) actually or effectively rotates faster than the rotor, it could be
said to slip past the surface of the rotor. The difference between synchronous speed and actual speed is
called slip, and loading the motor increases the amount of slip as the motor slows down slightly.

Two-phase AC servo motors

A typical two-phase AC servo-motor has a squirrel cage rotor and a field consisting of two windings:

1. a constant-voltage (AC) main winding.

2. a control-voltage (AC) winding in quadrature (ie, 90 degrees phase shifted) with the main winding so
as to produce a rotating magnetic field. Reversing phase makes the motor reverse.

An AC servo amplifier, a linear power amplifier, feeds the control winding. The electrical resistance of the
rotor is made high intentionally so that the speed/torque curve is fairly linear. Two-phase servo motors are
inherently high-speed, low-torque devices, heavily geared down to drive the load.

Single-phase AC induction motors

Three-phase motors produce a rotating magnetic field. However, when only single-phase power is available,
the rotating magnetic field must be produced using other means. Several methods are commonly used:

Shaded-pole motor

A common single-phase motor is the shaded-pole motor and is used in devices requiring low starting torque,
such as electric fans or the drain pump of washing machines and dishwashers or in other small household
appliances. In this motor, small single-turn copper "shading coils" create the moving magnetic field. Part of
each pole is encircled by a copper coil or strap; the induced current in the strap opposes the change of flux
through the coil. This causes a time lag in the flux passing through the shading coil, so that the maximum
field intensity moves across the pole face on each cycle. This produces a low level rotating magnetic field
which is large enough to turn both the rotor and its attached load. As the rotor picks up speed the torque
builds up to its full level as the principal magnetic field is rotating relative to the rotating rotor.

A reversible shaded-pole motor was made by Barber-Colman several decades ago. It had a single field
coil, and two principal poles, each split halfway to create two pairs of poles. Each of these four "half-poles"
carried a coil, and the coils of diagonally-opposite half-poles were connected to a pair of terminals. One
terminal of each pair was common, so only three terminals were needed in all.

The motor would not start with the terminals open; connecting the common to one other made the motor run
one way, and connecting common to the other made it run the other way. These motors were used in
industrial and scientific devices.

An unusual, adjustable-speed, low-torque shaded-pole motor could be found in traffic-light and advertising-

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lighting controllers. The pole faces were parallel and relatively close to each other, with the disc centred
between them, something like the disc in a watthour meter. Each pole face was split, and had a shading coil
on one part; the shading coils were on the parts that faced each other. Both shading coils were probably
closer to the main coil; they could have both been farther away, without affecting the operating principle,
just the direction of rotation.

Applying AC to the coil created a field that progressed in the gap between the poles. The plane of the stator
core was approximately tangential to an imaginary circle on the disc, so the travelling magnetic field dragged
the disc and made it rotate.

The stator was mounted on a pivot so it could be positioned for the desired speed and then clamped in
position. Keeping in mind that the effective speed of the travelling magnetic field in the gap was constant,
placing the poles nearer to the centre of the disc made it run relatively faster, and toward the edge, slower.

It is possible that these motors are still in use in some older installations.

Split-phase induction motor

Another common single-phase AC motor is the split-phase induction motor,[5] commonly used in major
appliances such as washing machines and clothes dryers. Compared to the shaded pole motor, these motors
can generally provide much greater starting torque by using a special startup winding in conjunction with a
centrifugal switch.

In the split-phase motor, the startup winding is designed with a higher resistance than the running winding.
This creates an LR circuit which slightly shifts the phase of the current in the startup winding. When the
motor is starting, the startup winding is connected to the power source via a set of spring-loaded contacts
pressed upon by the stationary centrifugal switch. The starting winding is wound with fewer turns of smaller
wire than the main winding, so it has a lower inductance (L) and higher resistance (R). The lower L/R ratio
creates a small phase shift, not more than about 30 degrees, between the flux due to the main winding and
the flux of the starting winding. The starting direction of rotation may be reversed simply by exchanging the
connections of the startup winding relative to the running winding.

The phase of the magnetic field in this startup winding is shifted from the phase of the mains power, allowing
the creation of a moving magnetic field which starts the motor. Once the motor reaches near design
operating speed, the centrifugal switch activates, opening the contacts and disconnecting the startup winding
from the power source. The motor then operates solely on the running winding. The starting winding must be
disconnected since it would increase the losses in the motor.

Capacitor start motor

A capacitor start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starting

capacitor inserted in series with the startup winding, creating an LC
circuit which is capable of a much greater phase shift (and so, a much
greater starting torque). The capacitor naturally adds expense to such
motors.

Resistance start motor

A resistance start motor is a split-phase induction motor with a starter

Schematic of a capacitor start inserted in series with the startup winding, creating capacitance. This
motor. added starter provides assistance in the starting and initial direction of
rotation.

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Permanent-split capacitor motor

Another variation is the permanent-split capacitor (PSC) motor (also known as a capacitor start and run
motor).[6] This motor operates similarly to the capacitor-start motor described above, but there is no
centrifugal starting switch,[6] and what correspond to the start windings (second windings) are permanently
connected to the power source (through a capacitor), along with the run windings.[6] PSC motors are
frequently used in air handlers, blowers, and fans (including ceiling fans) and other cases where a variable
speed is desired.

A capacitor ranging from 3 to 25 microfarads is connected in series with the "start" windings and remains in
the circuit during the run cycle.[6] The "start" windings and run windings are identical in this motor,[6] and
reverse motion can be achieved by reversing the wiring of the 2 windings,[6] with the capacitor connected to
the other windings as "start" windings. By changing taps on the running winding but keeping the load
constant, the motor can be made to run at different speeds. Also, provided all 6 winding connections are
available separately, a 3 phase motor can be converted to a capacitor start and run motor by commoning two
of the windings and connecting the third via a capacitor to act as a start winding.

Wound rotors
An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. In this case, the rotor
has the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made of wire, connected to slip rings on the
shaft. Carbon brushes connect the slip rings to an external controller such as a variable resistor that allows
changing the motor's slip rate. In certain high-power variable speed wound-rotor drives, the slip-frequency
energy is captured, rectified and returned to the power supply through an inverter. With bidirectionally
controlled power, the wound-rotor becomes an active participant in the energy conversion process with the
wound-rotor doubly-fed configuration showing twice the power density.

Compared to squirrel cage rotors and without considering brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed technology,
wound rotor motors are expensive and require maintenance of the slip rings and brushes, but they were the
standard form for variable speed control before the advent of compact power electronic devices.
Transistorized inverters with variable-frequency drive can now be used for speed control, and wound rotor
motors are becoming less common.

Several methods of starting a polyphase motor are used. Where the large inrush current and high starting
torque can be permitted, the motor can be started across the line, by applying full line voltage to the
terminals (direct-on-line, DOL). Where it is necessary to limit the starting inrush current (where the motor is
large compared with the short-circuit capacity of the supply), reduced voltage starting using either series
inductors, an autotransformer, thyristors, or other devices are used. A technique sometimes used is (star-
delta, Y∆) starting, where the motor coils are initially connected in star for acceleration of the load, then
switched to delta when the load is up to speed. This technique is more common in Europe than in North
America. Transistorized drives can directly vary the applied voltage as required by the starting
characteristics of the motor and load.

This type of motor is becoming more common in traction applications such as locomotives, where it is
known as the asynchronous traction motor.

The speed of the AC motor is determined primarily by the frequency of the AC supply and the number of
poles in the stator winding, according to the relation:

Ns = 120F / p
where

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Ns = Synchronous speed, in revolutions per minute

F = AC power frequency
p = Number of poles per phase winding

Actual RPM for an induction motor will be less than this calculated synchronous speed by an amount known
as slip, that increases with the torque produced. With no load, the speed will be very close to synchronous.
When loaded, standard motors have between 2-3% slip, special motors may have up to 7% slip, and a class
of motors known as torque motors are rated to operate at 100% slip (0 RPM/full stall).

The slip of the AC motor is calculated by:

S = (Ns − Nr) / Ns
where

Nr = Rotational speed, in revolutions per minute.

S = Normalised Slip, 0 to 1.

As an example, a typical four-pole motor running on 60 Hz might have a nameplate rating of 1725 RPM at
full load, while its calculated speed is 1800 RPM.

The speed in this type of motor has traditionally been altered by having additional sets of coils or poles in the
motor that can be switched on and off to change the speed of magnetic field rotation. However,
developments in power electronics mean that the frequency of the power supply can also now be varied to
provide a smoother control of the motor speed.

Three-phase AC synchronous motors

If connections to the rotor coils of a three-phase motor are taken out on slip-rings and fed a separate field
current to create a continuous magnetic field (or if the rotor consists of a permanent magnet), the result is
called a synchronous motor because the rotor will rotate synchronously with the rotating magnetic field
produced by the polyphase electrical supply.

The synchronous motor can also be used as an alternator.

Nowadays, synchronous motors are frequently driven by transistorized variable-frequency drives. This
greatly eases the problem of starting the massive rotor of a large synchronous motor. They may also be
started as induction motors using a squirrel-cage winding that shares the common rotor: once the motor
reaches synchronous speed, no current is induced in the squirrel-cage winding so it has little effect on the
synchronous operation of the motor, aside from stabilizing the motor speed on load changes.

Synchronous motors are occasionally used as traction motors; the TGV may be the best-known example of
such use.

One use for this type of motor is its use in a power factor correction scheme. They are referred to as
synchronous condensers. This exploits a feature of the machine where it consumes power at a leading power
factor when its rotor is over excited. It thus appears to the supply to be a capacitor, and could thus be used
to correct the lagging power factor that is usually presented to the electric supply by inductive loads. The
excitation is adjusted until a near unity power factor is obtained (often automatically). Machines used for
this purpose are easily identified as they have no shaft extensions. Synchronous motors are valued in any
case because their power factor is much better than that of induction motors, making them preferred for
very high power applications.

Some of the largest AC motors are pumped-storage hydroelectricity generators that are operated as

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synchronous motors to pump water to a reservoir at a higher elevation for later use to generate electricity
using the same machinery. Six 350-megawatt generators are installed in the Bath County Pumped Storage
Station in Virginia, USA. When pumping, each unit can produce 563,400 horsepower (420 megawatts).[7]

Universal motors and series wound motors

AC motors can also have brushes. The universal motor is widely used in small home appliances and power
tools.

Repulsion motor

Repulsion motors are wound-rotor single-phase AC motors that are similar to universal motors. In a
repulsion motor, the armature brushes are shorted together rather than connected in series with the field. By
transformer action ,the stator induces currents in the rotor, which create torque by repulsion instead of
attraction as in other motors. Several types of repulsion motors have been manufactured, but the
repulsion-start induction-run (RS-IR) motor has been used most frequently. The RS-IR motor has a
centrifugal switch that shorts all segments of the commutator so that the motor operates as an induction
motor once it has been accelerated to full speed. Some of these motors also lift the brushes out of contact
with the commutator once the commutator is shorted. RS-IR motors have been used to provide high starting
torque per ampere under conditions of cold operating temperatures and poor source voltage regulation. Few
repulsion motors of any type are sold as of 2005.

Other types of rotors

Single-phase AC synchronous motors

Small single-phase AC motors can also be designed with magnetized rotors (or several variations on that
idea; see "Hysteresis synchronous motors" below).

If a conventional squirrel-cage rotor has flats ground on it to create salient poles and increase reluctance, it
will start conventionally, but will run synchronously, although it can provide only a modest torque at
synchronous speed. This is known as a reluctance motor.

Because inertia makes it difficult to instantly accelerate the rotor from stopped to synchronous speed, these
motors normally require some sort of special feature to get started. Some include a squirrel-cage structure to
bring the rotor close to synchronous speed. Various other designs use a small induction motor (which may
share the same field coils and rotor as the synchronous motor) or a very light rotor with a one-way
mechanism (to ensure that the rotor starts in the "forward" direction). In the latter instance, applying AC
power creates chaotic (or seemingly chaotic) jumping movement back and forth; such a motor will always
start, but lacking the anti-reversal mechanism, the direction it runs is unpredictable. The Hammond organ
tone generator used a non-self-starting synchronous motor (until comparatively recently), and had an
auxiliary conventional shaded-pole starting motor. A spring-loaded auxiliary manual starting switch
connected power to this second motor for a few seconds.

Hysteresis synchronous motors

These motors are relatively costly, and are used where exact speed (assuming an exact-frequency AC
source) as well as rotation with a very small amount of fast variations in speed (called 'flutter" in audio
recordings) is essential. Applications included tape recorder capstan drives (the motor shaft could be the
capstan). Their distinguishing feature is their rotor, which is a smooth cylinder of a magnetic alloy that stays
magnetized, but can be demagnetized fairly easily as well as re-magnetized with poles in a new location.
Hysteresis refers to how the magnetic flux in the metal lags behind the external magnetizing force; for

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instance, to demagnetize such a material, one could apply a magnetizing field of opposite polarity to that
which originally magnetized the material.

These motors have a stator like those of capacitor-run squirrel-cage induction motors. On startup, when slip
decreases sufficiently, the rotor becomes magnetized by the stator's field, and the poles stay in place. The
motor then runs at synchronous speed as if the rotor were a permanent magnet. When stopped and
re-started, the poles are likely to form at different locations.

For a given design, torque at synchronous speed is only relatively modest, and the motor can run at below
synchronous speed.

Electronically commutated motors

Such motors have an external rotor with a cup-shaped housing and a radially magnetized permanent magnet
connected in the cup-shaped housing. An interior stator is positioned in the cup-shaped housing. The interior
stator has a laminated core having grooves. Windings are provided within the grooves. The windings have
first end turns proximal to a bottom of the cup-shaped housing and second end turns positioned distal to the
bottom. The first and second end turns electrically connect the windings to one another. The permanent
magnet has an end face rom the bottom of the cup-shaped housing. At least one galvano-magnetic rotor
position sensor is arranged opposite the end face of the permanent magnet so as to be located within a
magnetic leakage of the permanent magnet and within a magnetic leakage of the interior stator. The at least
one rotor position sensor is designed to control current within at least a portion of the windings. A magnetic
leakage flux concentrator is arranged at the interior stator at the second end turns at a side of the second end
turns facing away from the laminated core and positioned at least within an angular area of the interior stator
in which the at (?-someone got distracted)

ECM motors are increasingly being found in forced-air furnaces and HVAC systems to save on electricity
costs as modern HVAC systems are running their fans for longer periods of time (duty cycle).[8] The cost
effectiveness of using ECM motors in HVAC systems is questionable, given that the repair (replacement)
costs are likely to equal or exceed the savings realized by using such a motor.[9]

Watthour-meter motors

These are essentially two-phase induction motors with permanent magnets that retard rotor speed, so their
speed is quite accurately proportional to wattage of the power passing through the meter. The rotor is an
aluminium-alloy disc, and currents induced into it react with the field from the stator.

The stator is composed of three coils that are arranged facing the disc surface, with the magnetic circuit
completed by a C-shaped core of permeable iron. One phase of the motor is produced by a coil with many
turns located above the disc surface. This upper coil has a relatively high inductance, and is connected in
parallel with the load. The magnetic field produced in this coil lags the applied (line/mains) voltage by almost
90 degrees. The other phase of the motor is produced by a pair of coils with very few turns of heavy-gauge
wire, and hence quite-low inductance. These coils, located on the underside of the disc surface, are wired in
series with the load, and produce magnetic fields in-phase with the load current.

Because the two lower coils are wound anti-parallel, and are each located equidistant from the upper coil, an
azimuthally traveling magnetic flux is created across the disc surface. This traveling flux exerts an average
torque on the disc proportional to the product of the power factor; RMS current, and voltage. It follows that
the rotation of the magnetically-braked disc is in effect an analogue integration the real RMS power
delivered to the load. The mechanical dial on the meter then simply reads off a numerical value proportional
to the total number of revolutions of the disc, and thus the total energy delivered to the load.

Slow-speed synchronous timing motors

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Representative are low-torque synchronous motors with a multi-pole hollow cylindrical magnet (internal
poles) surrounding the stator structure. An aluminum cup supports the magnet. The stator has one coil,
coaxial with the shaft. At each end of the coil are a pair of circular plates with rectangular teeth on their
edges, formed so they are parallel with the shaft. They are the stator poles. One of the pair of discs
distributes the coil's flux directly, while the other receives flux that has passed through a common shading
coil. The poles are rather narrow, and between the poles leading from one end of the coil are an identical set
leading from the other end. In all, this creates a repeating sequence of four poles, unshaded alternating with
shaded, that creates a circumferential traveling field to which the rotor's magnetic poles rapidly synchronize.
Some stepping motors have a similar structure.

See also

References
1. ^ Seifer, Marc J., "Wizard, the Life and Times of Nikola Tesla," 1998. ISBN (HC), ISBN (SC)
2. ^ Tesla's Autobiography, III. My Later Endeavors; The Discovery of the Rotating Magnetic Field
(http://www.teslaplay.com/autosection3.htm)
3. ^ [1] (http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/system.htm)
4. ^ "Tesla's Early Years (http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_early.html) ". PBS.
5. ^ Split Phase Induction Motor section in Neets module 5: Introduction to Generators and Motors
(http://www.tpub.com/content/neets/14177/css/14177_96.htm)
6. ^ a b c d e f George Shultz, George Patrick Shultz (1997). Transformers and Motors (http://books.google.com
/?id=kfIC04vdXYcC&pg=PA159&lpg=PA159&dq=%22Permanent+split-capacitor+motor%22) . Newnes.
pp. page 159 of 336. ISBN 0750699485, 9780750699488. http://books.google.com/?id=kfIC04vdXYcC&
pg=PA159&lpg=PA159&dq=%22Permanent+split-capacitor+motor%22. Retrieved 2008-09-26.
7. ^ Dominion Resources, Inc. (2007). "Bath County Pumped Storage Station" (http://www.dom.com/about
/stations/hydro/bath.jsp) . http://www.dom.com/about/stations/hydro/bath.jsp. Retrieved 2007-03-30
8. ^ http://www.ferret.com.au/c/Maxon-Motor-Australia/EC-max-16-2-wire-electronically-commutated-motors-
available-from-Maxon-Motor-Australia-n817712
9. ^ http://www.thomasnet.com/articles/machinery-tools-supplies/ECM-Motors-HVAC-Systems

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