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CHAPTER ONE -American Astronomer
-found out that the nebulae were
The Universe is all of space and time (spacetime)
distant galaxies containing 109to 1013
and its contents, which includes planets, moons,
stars.
minor planets, stars, galaxies, and the contents
-catalogued the distances of galaxies
of intergalactic space and all matter and energy.
from one another & found out that the
A galaxy is a gravitationally bound system of galaxies are moving away from one
stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and another.
dark matter. Derived from the Greek word -Hubble’s Law: the recessional velocity
galaxias , literally “milky”, a reference to the of a galaxy increases with its distance
Milky Way. from the earth
A nebula (Latin for “fog”) is an interstellar cloud
CONCLUSIONS:
of dust, hydrogen, helium and other ionized
1. THE UNIVERSE IS EXPANDING 2.
gases.
THE DISTANCE BETWEEN
1912 GALAXIES IS CONTINUOUSLY
GROWING ALL THE TIME.
✘ Vesto Slipher
-American astronomer 1948
-observed the table spectra of the spiral
✘George Gamow
nebulae
-Russian-American Physicist
-1917: discovered that all of the spectra
-with his student Ralph Alpher&
were highly red-shifted= moving away
nuclear scientist Hans Bethe
from us at high speeds at millions of
-Hypothesis: The universe burst into
km/hr
being in a gigantic explosion or a
-performed the first measurements of
big bang several billion years ago
radial velocities for galaxies, providing
the empirical basis for the expansion of
Evidences Supporting George
the universe.
Gamow’s Hypothesis
1920: 2 Competing Theories 1. The Universe is expanding & the
galaxies are moving away from one
1 . Our galaxy, the Milky Way, was “it”
another in high speeds Deduction: the
2. That there are island universes and
universe was born about 13B years ago.
we are one of the many galaxies
2. A cosmic background radiation was
1927 detected It is the same in all directions
and found in all directions as well.
✘ Georges Lemaître
3. The discovery of the Primordial
-Belgian Catholic priest, astronomer &
Helium The lightest of the elements, H
professor
& He, were the first elements to be
-proposed that the universe was getting
formed.
bigger
C, N, O & other heavier elements were
-coined the “Hypothesis of the primeval
thought to have been formed later.
atom” or the “Cosmic Egg”
-imagined the clock moving backwards 1950’s
and concluded that the farther the
✘Sir Fred Hoyle
galaxy was, the faster it was receding
-English astronomer
from us.
-noted for the “Theory of Stellar
1929 Nucleosynthesis”
-coined the term “Big Bang”
✘Edwin Hubble
-rejected the Big Bang Theory.
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After the BIG BANG
1. 10^-35later - Big Bang’s energy
turns into matter
2. 10^-5s later - Universe’s natural
forces take place
3. 3s later - Nuclei of simple
elements formed
1. 10,000 years later - Universe’s
energy becomes radiation
2. 300,000 years later - Energy in form
of matter equals energy in form of
radiation
3. 300,000,000 years later - Gas
pocket density increases & stars
form
The galaxy is not moving, the space in between
them is expanding. The Big Bang is the
expansion of space itself.
13, 820, 000,000 years Or 13.8 B or 14 B years...
That’s the age of the universe! REVIEW
REVIEW ✘Seconds after the Big Bang, protons,
neutrons, and electrons consisted the universe.
✘The Big Bang Theory states that the universe
was formed 13.8B or 14B years ago. It has been ✘At present, the universe consists of mostly H
expanding since then. & He.
✘After the giant explosion, minute particles ✘Heavier elements were formed in a process
mixed with radiation gradually cooled which called nucleosynthesis.
allowed the formation of atoms. Atoms
CHAPTER TWO
clumped together thru gravity to form billions
of galaxies. Democritus
✘Evidences supporting George Gamow’s Big ✘ Greek philosopher
Bang Theory:
✘ Concluded that matter could not be
1. The universe is expanding and the galaxies divided into smaller and smaller pieces
are moving away from each other. infinitely
2. A cosmic background radiation was detected. ✘ Coined the term “atom” which comes
from the Greek word atomos which
3. Pimordial helium was discovered. means indivisible.
✘ People who shared the same view as
him were called “Atomists”
Alchemy
o is a philosophical and protoscientific
tradition practiced throughout Europe,
Africa and Asia. It aimed to purify,
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mature and perfect certain objects (e.g. Law of Conservation of Mass
Chrysopoeia, elixir of immortality,
Matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
philosopher’s stone).
Matter is made up of atoms that are unchanged
o A pseudoscience that dominated 2000
in a chemical reaction, it follows that mass can
years of chemistry history.
be conserved as well.
o Development of metallurgy and
medicinal application of metals from John Dalton
ore
1. Atoms are indivisible particles and all
John Dalton elements are composed of atoms.
✘ English chemist, physicist and 2. Same elements have exactly alike
meteorologist. atoms.
✘ In the early 1800’s, he proposed an 3. While atoms of same elements are the
atomic theory about the indivisible same, atoms of different elements are
blocks of matter called atoms. different.
✘ A summary of his hypotheses 4. 2 or more atoms of elements can be
combined to form compounds. They
1. All elements of matter are composed of
combine in fixed ratios of whole
extremely small particles called atoms.
numbers forming particles of
2. Atoms of the same element are molecules.
identical, having the same size, mass,
5. Atoms are units of chemical change
and chemical properties.
which involves combinations or
3. Compounds are composed of 2 or rearrangements of atoms where they
more elements. To form a certain are not created, destroyed or changed.
compound, what is needed is not only
The Atomic Models
the atoms of the right elements but also
the specific number of these atoms. Joseph John Thomson
(The Plum Pudding Model)
Support
● The electrons (-) were thought to be
Law of Definite Proportions
like the plums in a plum pudding and
Different samples of the same compound the rest of the space is positively (+)
always contain constituent elements in the same charged
proportion of mass.
● J. J. Thompson was credited for the
Law of Multiple Proportions discovery of the electron (-)
If 2 elements can combine to form more than 1 Ernest Rutherford
compound, the mass of 1 element that (The Nuclear Model)
combines with a fixed mass of the other
● He did the Gold Foil Experiment where
element is in ratios of small numbers.
some negatively charged rays passed
Different compounds made up of the same through and some rebounded
elements differ in the number of atoms of each ● Discovery of the nucleus (positively
kind that combine. ( e. g. CO & CO2 ) charged and occupies a small space in
the atom)
4. A chemical reaction involves only the
separation, combination, or ● The atom is mostly empty space
rearrangement of atoms. It does not
Niels Henrik David Bohr
result in their creation or destruction.
(The Astronomical Model)
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● Electrons were like rotating in orbits ✘ Electrically neutral / no charge
around the nucleus, like planets
✘ All neutrons are identical
around the sun.
✘ Slightly more massive than a proton
● The orbits were named K (2 e-),L (8 e-
), M (18 e-) and N (32 e-). ✘ 1 neutron = 1 amu
● Electrons are never in-between orbits ✘ Proved by James Chadwick
The Electron (-)
● Energy gain = electrons move to outer
orbits ✘ Negatively charged
● Energy loss= electrons move to an ✘ Revolving rapidly outside the nucleus
inner orbit
✘ 1 electron = 1/1836 amu
✘ Protons = electrons = 0/neutral
✘ The exact location is unknown
The Wave Model ✘ An electron with lower energy level is
located close to the nucleus while that
- According to this model, an electron acts
with higher energy level is located far
as both a wave and a particle. This is part of
from the nucleus.
Quantum Physics and scientists such as
Louis de Broglie, Niels Bohr, Erwin ✘ The chemical properties of the
Schrodinger and Werner Heisenberg elements depend on the arrangement
contributed to this idea. of the electrons of its atoms. (i. e. their
bonding and or combining ability) This
● Electrons have no definite path, the has something to do with the
location is undetermined. The probable arrangement of e – in the outermost
location is based on how much energy energy levels or at the level farthest
the electron has. from the nucleus.
● The electron travel like a wave, not a Synthesis of New Elements
straight path ✘ 1864: John Newlands
The Structure of the Atom o every eighth element exhibited similar
The Nucleus properties
o “The Law of Octaves”
✘ Found at the center of the atom / core o beyond Ca, the law seemed
✘ 99% of the mass of the atom is located inadequate
in this core.
✘ 1869: Dmitri Mendleev
✘ 100,000 times smaller than the size of
o periodic recurrence of the properties of
the atom.
elements
✘ Protons and neutrons are found here o periodicity
The Proton (+) o grouped the elements together
according to their properties
✘ Positively charged
✘ 1913: Henry Mosely
✘ All identical regardless of the element
in which they are found. • discovered a correlation
between what he called atomic
✘ 1 proton = 1 amu number and the frequency of
The Neutron X-rays generated by
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bombarding the elements with Absorption and Relatively small
high energy e – . release of amounts of energy
• The frequency of emitted X- tremendous
rays increases with increasing amounts of energy
atomic mass.
Not affected by Affected by one or
• X-ray emission from K has temperature, more of the
greater frequency than Ar pressure, or following:
although Ar has a greater catalysts temperature,
atomic mass. pressure,
• Conclusion: atomic number is concentration and
equal to the number of p + in catalysts.
the nucleus and the number of
e - in the atom.
Isotopes - elements with the same atomic
number but different mass number, due to their
different number of neutrons.
Radioactivity – the emission of particles and
electromagnetic radiation when an unstable
nuclei undergoes radioactive decay.
Nuclear vs. Chemical Reactions
NUCLEAR CHEMICAL
REACTIONS REACTIONS
Elements are Atoms are
converted to other rearranged by the
elements or breaking and
isotopes forming of
chemical bonds
Involve p+, n, e-, Involve only e- in
and other atomic and
subatomic particles molecular orbitals
such as alpha
particles
