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Complete Bio 11 - Copy - Part2
Complete Bio 11 - Copy - Part2
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Exercise
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MCQs
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1. Select the correct answer
(i) Which of the following is the major advantage of using a light microscope instead of
an electron microscope? .o
(A) superior resolving power
(B) constant depth of focus
(C) observation of living matter
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(D) use of very thin sections
(ii) Some cellular organelles are bound by a single membrane, while other organelles
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have two membranes (envelopes) around them. Which one of the following is
correct?
Single membrane Double membranes
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(C) microfilaments (D) microvilli
(ix) Which of the following structure is found in all living organisms:
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(A) cell membrane (B) nucleus
(C) lysosome (D) vacuole
(x) The cell wall of plant cell is different from that of prokaryotes in:
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(A) both structure and chemical composition
(B) structure only
(C) chemical composition only
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(D) number of layers only
(xi) Which of the following are present in prokaryotic cells:
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(A) chloroplast, DNA, nuclear envelope
(B) chromosomes, mitochondria, nuclear envelope
(C) cytoplasm, DNA, mitochondria
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secretory cell:
(A) lysosome (B) Golgi complex
(C) mitochondrion (D) ribosome
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(xiv) When a glycoprotein is being synthesized for secretion from a cell, which rout e is
it most likely to take?
(A) Golgi complex RER SER
(B) RER Golgi complex SER
(C) RER SER Golgi complex
(D) SER Golgi complex RER
(xv) Which one of the following is responsible for cyclosis?
(A) microtubule (B) microfilament
(C) intermediate filament (D) none of them
36 1 Cell Structure and Functions
Short Questions
2. What are the applications of chromatography and electrophoresis?
3. Write the difference between:
(a) resolution and magnification
(b) plant cell wall and bacterial cell wall
(c) cytoplasm of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell
(d) flagella of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell
(e) rough ER and smooth ER.
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(f) chromatin and chromosome.
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4. Name three organelles revealed by an electron microscope.
5. What holds the ribosomes together in a polysome?
6. Why lysosomes are called suicide bags?
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7. How and where lysosomes are formed in the cell?
8. Name the structures and organelles which are common in plant cell, animal cell and a
prokarytic cell. .o
9. How is a chloroplast similar to a bacterium?
10. What would happen if there are no lysosomes in human cells?
11. Draw a labelled diagram of a section through:
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(a) mitochondrion (b) bacterium
(c) chloroplast
12. What are lysosomal storage diseases? Give example.
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16. Why do eukaryotic cells need both membranous organelles and cytoskeleton?
17. List the structures missing in prokaryotic cells.
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18. Differentiate between the patterns of cell division in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
19. Compare microfilaments and microtubules.
20. Why ER is present in all eukaryotic cells but not in prokaryotic cells?
21. Write a very brief notes on: (a) mesosomes (b) plasmids (c) nucleoid (d) cell surface
makers (e) vacuole (f) plastids
22. What organelles are single and double layer membranes?
Extensive Questions
23. List the principles and identify the apparatus used in the techniques of:
1 Cell Structure and Functions 37
(a) Fractionation
(b) Microdissection
(c) Tissue culture
(d) Differential staining
(e) Centrifugation
(f) Chromatography
(g) Electrophoresis
(h) Spectrophotometry
24. Describe the locations, chemical compositions and significance of the primary and
secondary cell wall and of middle lamella in a plant cell.
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25. Explain the (a) chemical composition of plasma membrane (b) role of plasma membrane
in regulating cell’s interactions with environment.
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26. (a) Relate the lipid foundation and variety of proteins of the plasma membrane.
(b) Identify the role of glycolipids and glycoproteins as the cell surface markers.
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27. What are the functions of the plasma membrane proteins?
28. What is the chemical nature of cytoplasm? Explain the metabolic roles of cytoplasm.
29. Distinguish between smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum in terms of their structures
and functions.
30.
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Explain the structure, chemical composition and function of ribosomes.
31. Explain the structure, and functions of Golgi complex.
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32. Explain the structure, and functions of the peroxysomes and glyoxisomes in animal and
plant cells.
33. (a) Describe the formation, structure and functions of the lysosomes.
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(b) Interpret the storage diseases with reference to the malfunctioning of lysosomes.
34. Explain the external and internal structure of mitochondrion and interlink it with its function.
35. Explain the external and internal structure of chloroplast and interlink it with its function.
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36. Compare and contrast the structure and functions of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
37. Describe the structure, composition and functions of centriole.
38. Describe the types, structure, composition and functions of cytoskeleton.
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2.1 Biological Molecules in Protoplasm (2 Periods)
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2.2 Importance of Water (1 Period)
2.3 Carbohydrates (4 Periods)
2.4 Proteins (4 Periods)
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2.5 Lipids (4 Periods)
2.6 Nucleic Acids (5 periods)
2.7 Conjugated Molecules (1 Period)
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Reading
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You have got a very brief introduction about biological molecules in IX-X biology course.
This chapter caters the detailed study of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acid as well
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beings. Biochemistry is the branch of biology that deals with such molecules. It also deals with
various chemical reactions (metabolism) of living beings. Biochemistry helps biologists to
understand anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, biotechnology, bioinformatics etc.
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Minor elements include: potassium (0.35%), sulphur (0.25%), chlorine (0.15%), sodium
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(0.15%) and magnesium (0.05%).
Trace elements include iron, copper, manganese, zinc and iodine.
mammalian cells
Carbohydrates 3% 4%
Lipids 2% 3%
DNA 1% 0.25%
RNA 6% 1.1%
Other organic molecules (enzymes, 2% 2%
hormones, metabilites)
Inorganic ions (Na+, K+, Ca++, 1% 1%
Mg++, Cl-, SO4--)
40 2 Biological Molecules
The four fundamental kinds of biological molecules are carbohydrates, proteins, lipids
and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are present in the inclusions of the cells and provide fuel for
the metabolic activities of the cell. Proteins are present in the membranes, ribosomes,
cytoskeleton and enzymes of the cell. Lipids are present on the membranes of Golgi complex
and inclusion of the cell. Lipids provide a reserved energy source, shape, protect and insulate
the cells. The nucleic acid DNA is present in the chromosome. It controls the cell activity. The
nucleic acid RNA is present in the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. It transmits genetic information
and takes part in protein synthesis.
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A macromolecule is high molecular
weight compound which is made from many
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repeating units. Molecules built like this are also
known as polymers. The individual units of
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polymers are micromolecules which are also
known as monomers. The interconversions of
Fig: 2.2: Monomer and polymer
these molecules are carried out by condensation
and hydrolysis.
.o During condensation, when two monomers
join, a hydroxyl (–OH) group is removed from one
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Science Titbits monomer and a hydrogen (–H) is removed from the
Do not confuse involvement of water in
other to make water and as a result a bond is
hydrolysis with making a solution, in which the
role of water is to act as a solvent, rather than synthesized between the monomers. The product
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taking part in a chemical reaction. Hydration is of such reaction is called a dimer. If the same
yet another completely different process, reaction is repeated several times the resulting
involving the addition of water, but not breaking molecule will be a polymer. Condensation is also
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The properties of water that make it the cradle of life
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are :
1. High polarity
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The bonds which are formed by the mutual sharing
of electrons between two atoms are called covalent
bonds. Normally the sharing of electrons between two
Fig: 2.4: Polarity of water molecule
atoms is fairly equal and the covalent bond is nonpolar.
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In the case of water, however the sharing of electrons between oxygen and hydrogen is
not completely equal so the covalent bond is polar. A polar covalent bond is a chemical
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bond in which shared electrons are pulled closer to the more electronegative atom, making
it partially negative and the other atom partially positive. Thus, in H 2O, the O atom actually
has a slight negative charge and each H atom has a slight positive charge, even though
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H2O as a whole is neutral. Because of its polar covalent bonds, water is a polar molecule
i.e., it has a slightly negative pole and two slightly positive ones.
This is polarity of water molecules that makes it an excellent or universal solvent for
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polar substances. Ionic compound or electrolytes can be easily dissolved in water, non-polar
substances having charged groups in their molecules can also be dissolved in water. Such
compounds when dissolved in water, dissociates into positive
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4. High specific heat
Heat capacity can be defined as the amount of heat required for minimum increase (1 oC
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or 1oK) in temperature of a substance. The specific heat capacity of water can be represented
as number of calories required to raise the temperature of 1g of water up to 1 oC i.e., 1 Calorie
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(4.18 Joules). Water has relatively a very high heat capacity than any other substance due to
its hydrogen bonding, because much of the heat absorbed by water is utilized in the breakdown
of hydrogen bonding therefore it does not manifest itself to raise the temperature of water.
Hence, very large amount of heat can increase very little in temperature in water. Due to its high
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heat capacity water works as temperature stabilizer or regulator for organisms in the hot
environment and hence protects the living material against sudden thermal changes.
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5. High heat of vapourization
Heat of vapourization is the amount of heat required to convert a unit mass of a liquid
into gaseous form. Heat of vapourization of water is represented as number of calories
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absorbed per gram vapourized. Water has high heat of vapourization i.e., 574 calories per
gram. The high heat of vapourization means that a large amount of heat can be lost with
minimal loss of water from the body. This is high heat of vapourization of water that gives
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animals an efficient way to release excess body heat in a hot environment. When an anima l
sweats, body heat is used to vapourize the sweat thus cooling the animal. Due to this property
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of water, evaporation of only 2 ml out of one litter of water lowers the temperature of the
remaining 998 ml water by 1oC.
6. Hydrophobic exclusion
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7. Ionization
The dissociation of a molecule
into ions is called ionization. When
water molecule ionizes, it releases an
equal number of positive hydrogen and
negative hydroxyl ions.
This reaction is reversible but
Fig: 2.7: Ionization of water
equilibrium is maintained at 25oC. The
H+ and OH- ions affect and take part in many of the
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reactions that occur in cells, e.g., it helps to maintain
or change the pH of the medium.
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8 Lower density of ice
Ice floats on water. This is because ice is less
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dense than water. The reason is that ice has a giant
structure and show maximum number of hydrogen
bonding among water molecules; hence, they are
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arranged like a lattice. In freezing weather, ice forms
on the surface of ponds and lakes forming an
insulating layer above the water below. This Fig: 2.8: Lattice likes arrangement of water
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provides a living environment for some organisms molecules in ice
until the ice melts. Organisms can also live under the ice.
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2.3 CARBOHYDRATES
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Carbohydrates are the compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Literally word
carbohydrate means “hydrates of carbon” i.e., a carbon associated with water or any compound
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aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone is supposed to be single saccharide units, whereas, the
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derivative carbohydrates are composed of more than one saccharide units.
Classification of carbohydrates is based upon number of saccharide units. Carbohydrates
are generally classified into three group i.e., monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and
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polysaccharides.
Table: 2.2: Comparison of characteristics of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
.o Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides
They consist of single saccharide They are composed of 2 to 10 They are composed of more than
unit. saccharide units. 10 saccharide units.
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They are simplest carbohydrates; They have less complex structure, so They have highly complex
therefore, they cannot be further upon hydrolysis they yield at least 2 structure, so upon hydrolysis they
hydrolyzed. and maximum 10 monosaccharides. yield at least 11 monosaccharides.
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They are highly soluble in water. They are less soluble in water. They are generally insoluble in
water.
They are sweetest among all They are less sweet in taste. They are tasteless.
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carbohydrates.
2.3.1.1 Monosaccharides
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carbon atoms in a monosaccharide except one, have a hydroxyl group (-OH) while the
remaining carbon atom is either the part of aldehyde or ketone. The general formula for
the representation of monosaccharides is C nH2nO n, where, n is the number of carbon atoms
in monosaccharides.
Classification of monosaccharides
Classification of monosaccharides is based upon functional group and number of carbon
atoms. On the basis of functional group, the monosaccharides containing aldehyde are called
aldoses while those containing ketone are called ketoses. On the other hand monosaccharides
are classified into five groups based upon number of carbon atoms i.e., trioses (3C), tetroses
(4C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C) and heptoses (7C).
2 Biological Molecules 45
Table: 2.3: Examples and functions of monosaccharide
Class Formula Aldoses Ketoses Function
Trioses C3H6O3 Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxy Intermediates in photosynthesis and cellular
(3C) acetone respiration.
Tetroses C4H8O4 Erythrose Erythrulose Intermediates in bacterial photosynthesis.
(4C)
Pentoses C5H10O5 Ribose, Ribulose Ribose and deoxyribose are components of
(5C) Deoxyribose RNA and DNA respectively.
(C5H10O4)
Ribulose is an intermediates in photosynthesis.
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Hexoses C6H12O6 Glucose, Fructose Glucose is respiratory fuel (initial substrate)
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(6C) Galactose
Fructose is an intermediate in respiration.
Galactose is the component of milk sugar.
Heptoses C7H14O7 Glucoheptose Sedoheptulose Intermediates in photosynthesis.
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(7C)
Furanose is a five membered ring in which one oxygen atom and four carbon atoms are
found, oxygen atom is linked with C1 and C4. All pentoses and ketohexoses are converted into
furanose ring.
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Pyranose is a six membered ring in which one oxygen atom and five carbon atoms are
found, oxygen atom is linked with C1 and C5. Only aldohexoses are converted into pyranose
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ring.
Let us understand it by taking ribose as an
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asymmetric carbon atoms are called stereoisomers. An asymmetric carbon atom is that
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which makes bonds with four different atoms around it. For example, in glucose, the C-2, C-3,
C-4 and C-5 are asymmetric carbon atoms. In
monosaccharide the number of stereoisomers;
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actually depends upon the number of asymmetric
carbons in its structure and can be calculated by
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asymmetric carbon atoms so glucose has 16
stereoisomers. Stereoisomers can be classified
Fig: 2.12: α and β isomers of glucose in three groups:
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(i) Enantiomers: Those stereoisomers which are non-superimposable mirror images of one
another are called enantiomers. An example of an enantiomer is the D and L isomers of
glucose, as shown in figure 2.14. In D isomers (also called right handed form) the asymmetric
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carbon atom farthest from aldehyde group (second last carbon or C-5 in case of glucose also
called penultimate carbon) has –OH group on right side whereas in L isomers (also called left
handed form), the –OH group is projected on left side at penultimate carbon atom. Out of 16
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Fig: 2.15: Stereoisomers of D-glucose
Laboratory manufactured sugars such as tagatose, sucralose etc., are left-handed forms
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(L sugars). On the other hand the naturally occurring sugars in bodies are D sugars. Proteins
and cell receptors are designed to react only with particular enantiomers. For example the
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enzymes in your stomach can digest only right-handed sugars. Likewise left-handed sugars
cannot be metabolized by right-handed enzymes. Just as the glove fits only on the proper hand,
a right-handed enzyme cannot fit on or react with a left-handed substrate. The substrate must
fit on the proper active site of the enzyme. So for the left handed substrate (sweetener) the
enzyme must be left-handed.
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2.3.1.2 Oligosaccharides
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This group consists of derivatives of monosaccharides. Those carbohydrates which upon
hydrolysis yield 2 to 10 saccharide units are called oligosaccharides. On the basis of number of
saccharide units, the oligosaccharides are classified into disaccharides, trisaccharides,
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tetrasaccharides and so on. The most common among these are disaccharides.
Disaccharides
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give monosaccharides. Examples are: maltose, lactose, sucrose. The general formula of
disaccharide is: C12 H22 O11. Some common disaccharides are as follows:
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Maltose: It is commonly known as malt sugar. It is an intermediate disaccharide produced
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during the breakdown of starch and glycogen. Maltose is generally found in germinating seeds.
In brewing industry the maltose is produced from the breakdown of barley starch by the help of
amylase enzyme. This process is known as malting. Upon hydrolysis it yields two molecules of
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α-glucoses. Therefore, the maltose is formed by the condensation of α-glucoses. In this reaction,
the –OH group at C-1 of one glucose reacts with the –OH group at C-4 of other glucose,
liberating a water molecule and a linkage is formed between C-1 of one glucose and C-4 of other
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glucose, known as α-1, 4-glycosidic linkage.
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Lactose: It is commonly known as milk sugar as it is found in milk of mammals i.e., 4-6% in
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cow's milk and 5-8% in human milk. It is also a byproduct in the manufacture of cheese. Upon
hydrolysis it yields a molecule of β-galactose and a molecule of α-glucose. Therefore, the lactose
is formed by the condensation of β-galactose and β-glucose. In this reaction, the –OH group at
C-1 of galactose reacts with the –OH group at C-4 of glucose, liberating a water molecule and
a linkage is formed between C-1 of galactose and C-4 of glucose, known as β-1, 4-glycosidic
linkage.
2 Biological Molecules 49
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Science Titbits
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Any carbohydrate which is capable being oxidized and causes the reduction of other substances without
having to be hydrolyzed first is known as reducing sugar, but those which are unable to be oxidized and do not
reduce the other substances are known as non-reducing sugars. All monosaccharides and two of three types
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of disaccharides (maltose and lactose) have the open chemical structure needed to act as reducing agents. The
third type of disaccharides, sucrose, and polysaccharides are non-reducing sugars.
2.3.1.3 Polysaccharides
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Those carbohydrates which upon hydrolysis yield more than ten monosaccharide units
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are called polysaccharides. This is largest group of carbohydrates. The polysaccharides which
are composed by the condensation of only one kind of monosaccharides are called
homopolysaccharides e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin; whereas the polysaccharide
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which are composed by the condensation of different kind of monosaccharides are called
heteropolysaccharides e.g., agar, pectin, peptidoglycan. Polysaccharides function chiefly as
food and energy stores, e.g., starch, glycogen, and structural material, e.g., cellulose and chitin.
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They are convenient storage molecule for several reasons. Their large size makes them more
or less insoluble in water, so they exert no osmotic or chemical influence in the cell; they fold
into compact shapes and they are easily converted to sugars by hydrolysis when required. Some
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common polysaccharides e.g., starch, cellulose, and chitin are being discussed here.
Starch
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Fig: 2.19: Structure of starches
Amylose is un-branched i.e., a linear chain of glucoses in which glucoses are attached
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together by α-1, 4-glycosidic linkages. It is soluble in hot water only. On the other hand,
amylopectin has branched structure i.e., a linear chain of glucoses but more chains of glucoses
in the form of branches are also attached by α-1, 6-glycosidic linkages. It is completely
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insoluble in water.
Glycogen
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Cellulose
Cellulose is most abundant carbohydrate on earth. It is also a homopolysaccharides but
unlike starch and glycogen it is formed by the condensation of hundreds of β-glucoses. It is
structural carbohydrate of plants as it is major constituent of plant cell wall. Cotton and paper
are the pure forms of cellulose.
Cellulose shows no colour with iodine solution. Structure of cellulose resembles with
amylose starch in such a way that it has un-branched structure but it has β-1, 4-glycosidic
linkages between glucose residues. Therefore, in a cellulose chain, the β-glucoses are
alternatively arranged in upright and inverted manner.
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Fig: 2.21: Structure of cellulose
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Science Titbits
Cellulose cannot be digested by human body but it has to be taken into diet because it works as roughage or
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fibre so it prevents abnormal absorption of food in intestine. However, herbivore animals have some symbiotic
bacteria that secrete cellulase enzyme for its digestion. Upon hydrolysis it first yields a disaccharide, the
cellubiose and then cellubiose is further digested into glucoses.
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Chitin
Chitin is the second most abundant organic molecule on earth. It is also a
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homopolysaccharides. It is a structural carbohydrate found in the cell walls of fungi and in the
exoskeleton of arthropods. Due to the occurrence of chitin in fungal cell wall, it is also known as
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fungal cellulose. Chitin is the derivative of N-acetyl glucosamine which is a modified form of
2.4. PROTEINS
Proteins are the main structural components of the cell. All proteins contain C, H, O and
N, while some contains P, S. Few proteins have Fe, I and Mg incorporated into the molecule.
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2.4.1 Structure of Proteins
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Chemically proteins can be defined as polymers of amino acids or polypeptide chains.
A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide.
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Amino acids
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. There are
many amino acids known to occur, but only 20 are commonly found
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in proteins. The amino acids are built on a common plan. Each
contains a carbon atom. It is called α (alpha) carbon to this a
hydrogen atom, an amino group (–NH2), a carboxyl group (–OOH)
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and a variable group known as –R group are attached. The R group
has a different structure in each of the 20 biologically important
amino acids and determines their individual chemical properties.
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ribosome under the instructions of mRNA which takes these instructions from DNA. This process
is known as translation. During this process, when an amino acid reacts with another amino
acid, the –OH from carboxylic acid group of one amino acid and –H from amino group of other
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amino acid are liberated and form a water molecule, as a result a bond is established between
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structure. It is shown by all proteins at the time of their synthesis on ribosomal surface. After
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Sequence of amino acid in a polypeptide is a characteristic feature of primary structure
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of protein which is responsible for proper functioning of protein. It is determined by the sequence
of nucleotide in DNA. Even due to point mutation (change of single or few nucleotides in DNA)
the sequence of amino acid in a particular protein (polypeptide) may be disturbed which causes
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severe defects in the body as it happens in sickle cell anemia, a hereditary disease.
Normal red blood cells are disc-shaped and look like doughnuts without holes in the
centre. They move easily through your blood vessels. Red blood cells contain an iron-rich
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protein called haemoglobin. This protein carries oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.
Normal haemoglobin (HbA) contains four polypeptides i.e. two α-chains which consist of 141
amino acids each and two β-chains which consist of 146 amino acids each.
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Sickle cell anemia is a serious disorder in which the body makes sickle or crescent
shaped red blood cells. Sickle cells contain abnormal hemoglobin called sickle haemoglobin
(HbS). Sickle haemoglobin causes the cells to develop a sickle, or crescent, shape. Sickle cells
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are stiff and sticky. They tend to block blood flow in the blood vessels of the limbs and organs.
Blocked blood flow can cause pain and organ damage. Sickle cell anemia is caused by a point
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mutation in β-globin gene in which only one nucleotide is replaced by another which causes a
change in amino acid sequence of β-chain of hemoglobin. Sickle cell haemoglobin (HbS) shows
only one difference from HbA i.e., glutamic acid is replaced by valine at position number six in
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β-chain.
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These proteins have spherical or globules like shape. Therefore, they exist in tertiary or
quaternary structure during function. These proteins are soluble in aqueous medium, inelastic
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in nature and can be crystalized. Examples are: enzymes, hormones, antibodies, channel
proteins.
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2.4.4 Role of Proteins
Proteins are very important molecules in our cells. They are involved in virtually all cell
functions. Each protein within the body has a specific function. Some proteins are involved in
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support or composition of body parts i.e., structural roles, while others are involved in various
physiological activities like bodily movement or in defence against germs i.e., functional roles. A
list of several types of proteins and their functions is given in table 2.4 and 2.5.
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Table: 2.4: List of structural proteins
Types Roles of proteins
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ligaments.
Keratin It strengthens protective coverings such as hair, nails, quills, feathers,
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Skills: Analyzing, Interpreting and Communication
• Draw table to illustrate different structural and functional proteins with roles of each.
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• Illustrate the synthesis and breakage of peptide linkages.
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2.5 LIPIDS
Lipid is the collective name for variety of organic compounds such as fats, oils, waxes
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and fat-like molecules (steroids) found in the body. Therefore, it is defined as a heterogeneous
group of organic compounds which are insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but soluble in organic
solvent such as acetone, alcohol, and ether etc. Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen and
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oxygen as carbohydrates. However, they have relatively less oxygen in proportion to carbon
and hydrogen than do carbohydrates. For instance, tristearin is a simple lipid which shows
molecular formula as C57H110O6. Due to high contents of carbon and hydrogen, they contain
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Lipids are broadly classified into simple, complex and derived, which are further
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subdivided into different groups. Simple lipids are esters of fatty acids with various alcohols
e.g., acylglycerols (fats and oils) and waxes. The compound/complex lipids contain other groups
in addition to an alcohol and a fatty acid e.g., phospholipids, glycolipids and lipoproteins. Derived
lipids are the derivatives of simple and complex lipids e.g., terpenes, steroids, prostaglandins
and cholesterols. Some examples such as acylglycerol, waxes, phospholipids, terpenes,
prostaglandin and steroids are discussed here.
Acylglycerol
The most abundant lipids in living things are acylglycerol. Chemically, acylglycerols can
be defined as esters of glycerol and fatty acids. An ester is the compound produced as the result
2 Biological Molecules 57
of a chemical reaction of an alcohol with acid and a water molecule is released such a reaction
is called esterification.
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Fig: 2.27: Esterification
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Glycerol is a trihydroxy alcohol which contains three carbons, each bears an OH group.
A fatty acid is a type of organic acid containing one carboxylic acid group attached to a
hydrocarbon. Fatty acids contain even number of carbons from 2 to 30. Each fatty acid is
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represented as R-COOH, where R is a hydrocarbon tail. When a glycerol molecule combines
chemically with one fatty acid, a monoacylglycerol (monoglyceride) is formed. When two fatty
acids combine with a glycerol a diacylglycerol (diglyceride) is formed and when three fatty
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acids combine with one glycerol molecule a triacylglycerol (triglyceride) is formed.
Triacylglycerols are also called neutral lipid as all three OH groups of glycerol are occupied by
fatty acids and charge bearing OH group is left.
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Saturated
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1.Lauric Coconut oil 12 44
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oils
Most fats and
4.Stearic 18 70
oils
Unsaturated .o
5.Oleic Olive oil 18 4
Waxes
Waxes are highly hydrophobic compounds. There are two types of waxes. Natural
waxes are simple lipids. They are typically esters of long chain fatty acids and long chain
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alcohols, such as bee’s wax (found in honeycomb), lanolin (obtained from sheep wool), cutin
(on leaf surfaces of plants) and suberin (found in cell wall of endodermis of plant roots). These
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are chemically inert and resistant to atmospheric oxidation. Waxes have protective functions in
plants and animals.
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Synthetic waxes are generally derived from petroleum or polyethylene and consist of
mixtures of long-chain hydrocarbons (alkanes), alcohols, aldehydes, ketones and fatty acids
e.g., paraffin wax which is used to make candles, wax paper, lubricants, and sealing materials.
Phospholipids
Phospholipid is a type of compound/complex lipids. Commonly occurring phospholipids
are derived from phosphatidic acid. A phospholipid is formed when phosphatidic acid
combines with one of the four organic compounds such as choline (a nitrogenous base),
ethanolamine (an amino alcohol), inositol (an amino alcohol) and serine (an amino acid). A
phosphatidic acid molecule is most similar to diglyceride that it contains a glycerol, two fatty
2 Biological Molecules 59
acids esterified with first and second OH groups of
glycerol and a phosphate group esterified with third
OH group of glycerol. Most common type of
phospholipid is phosphatidylcholine also called
lecithin in which choline is attached to phosphate
group of phosphatidic acid. One end of the
phospholipid molecule, containing the phosphate
group and additional compound is hydrophilic i.e.,
polar and readily soluble in water. The other end,
containing the fatty acid side chains, is hydrophobic
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i.e., non-polar and insoluble in water. These
phospholipids are major constituents of lipid bilayer
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of cell membrane.
Terpenes
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Terpenes are the types of derived lipids. All Fig. 2.29: Phosphatidylcholine (Lecithin)
the terpenes are synthesized from a five-carbon
building block known as isoprene unit. This unit condenses in
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different ways to form many compounds. Two isoprene units form a
monoterpene e.g., menthol, four form a diterpene e.g., vitamin A,
phytol (chlorophyll tail) and six form a triterpene e.g., ambrein.
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Natural rubber is a polyterpene.
Steroids Fig. 2.30 Isoprene unit
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Steroids are lipids of high molecular weight which can be crystalline. A steroid consists
of 17 carbon atoms arranged in four attached rings, three of the rings contain six carbon atoms,
and the fourth contains five. The length and structure of the side chains that extend from these
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Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins exist in virtually every mammalian tissue, acting as local hormones.
Prostaglandins are derived from arachidonic acid (a tetra unsaturated 20C fatty acid). Their
functions vary widely depending on the tissue. Some reduce blood pressure, whereas others
60 2 Biological Molecules
raise it. In the immune system, various prostaglandins help to induce fever and inflammation
and also intensify the sensation of pain. They also help to regulate the aggregation of platelets
an early step in the formation of blood clots. Those synthesized in the temperature-regulating
centre of the hypothalamus cause fever. In fact, the ability of aspirin to reduce fever and
decrease pain depends on the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis.
Science, Technology and Society Connections
Relate the role of prostaglandin in inflammation with the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis through
aspirin.
Prostaglandins play a pivotal role in inflammation a process characterized by redness (rubor), heat (calor),
pain (dolor), and swelling (tumor). The changes associated with inflammation are due to dilation of local blood
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vessels that permits increased blood flow to the affected area. The blood vessels also become more permeable,
leading to the escape of white blood cells (leukocytes) from the blood into the inflamed tissues.
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Aspirin is anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic. Aspirin inhibit prostaglandin synthetase salicylate.
This drug affects the metabolism of arachidonate via the lipoxygenase pathway by inhibiting the conversion of
12-hydroperoxy- to 12-hydroxy-5, 8, 10, 14-eicosatetraenoic acid.
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2.6 NUCLEIC ACID
Nucleic acids were first reported in 1869 by a Swiss physician when he isolated a new
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compound from the nuclei of pus cells (white blood cells). This compound was neither a protein
nor lipid nor a carbohydrate; therefore, it was a novel type of biological molecule. He named this
molecule as nuclein, because it was located in the nucleus. In 1920 the basic structure and
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chemical nature of nuclein was determined and was renamed as nucleic acid because of its
acidic nature.
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(DNA) and ribo nucleic acid (RNA). Both nucleic acids are linear un-branched polymers. The
monomers of the nucleic acid are called nucleotides.
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Composition of a nucleotide
Nucleotides of DNA are called deoxyribonucleotides and of RNA are known as
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Fig. 2.32: Components of nucleotides
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During the formation of a
nucleotide, first nitrogenous base is linked
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Polymerization of nucleotides (Formation of polynucleotide)
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Nucleotides are also joined together by a condensation reaction like other biomolecules.
Unlike proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids, however, the molecule that is released is not water
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but pyrophosphate (two phosphate groups bound together). When pyrophosphate is cleaved by the
addition of water, a great deal of free energy is released which derives the process. In this way
nucleotides begin to link by phosphodiester bonds and a polymer of nucleotides (polynucleotide) is
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formed. Polynucleotides have a free 5' phosphate group at one end and a free 3' hydroxyl group
at the other end. By convention, these sequences are named from 5' to 3'.
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(NAD) consists of two nucleotides. One
nucleotide consists of base-nicotinamide,
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sugar and phosphate. Other nucleotide
Fig. 2.35 Structure of ATP
consists of base-adenine-sugar and
phosphate. The two nucleotides are joined by
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their phosphate group forming a dinucleotide.
NAD is a coenzyme. It works with
dehydrogenases as oxidizing agent. Its
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reduced form is NADH+H (NADH2).
2.6.3 Watson and Crick Model of DNA
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In 1951, Erwin Chargaff found that the
nitrogenous bases in a DNA show specific
ratios. He observed that amount of adenine is
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the total purines and total pyrimidines are in Fig. 2.36 Structure of NAD
1:1 in any DNA. This conclusion is known as Chargaff’s rule. In those days the X-ray
diffraction analysis of DNA by Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin was published. They
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first time claimed that DNA is a duplex (double helix) molecule. The width of duplex is 2ηm while
the length of each turn is 3.4ηm. In 1953, on the basis of these observations a graduate
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student Francis Crick and a research fellow James Watson of Cambridge University proposed
a physical model of DNA which is now called Watson and Crick Model of DNA.
According to this model a DNA is made up of two polynucleotide chains which are
attached together by base pairs. In order to make base pairing the two polynucleotide chains
are opposite in direction i.e., one chain runs from 5′ to 3′ downward and the other chain runs
from 5′ to 3′ upward. Both chains show a constant width of 2 ηm. Therefore, both chains are
supposed be antiparallel to each other. The base pairing is very specific i.e., Adenine makes
the pair with Thymine and Guanine with Cytosine. The base pairs are held together by the
hydrogen bond. There are three hydrogen bonds between Guanine and Cytosine and two
64 2 Biological Molecules
hydrogen bonds between Adenine and Thymine. Therefore, the ratio of A: T and C: G is equal
but the ratio of AT: CG is different. Each turn of the duplex consist of 10 base pairs. Both
polynucleotide chains are complementary to each other. There is no restriction of the sequence
of nucleotides along the length of a DNA strand. The sequence can vary in countless ways. The
sequence is specific for different species, organisms and even individuals.
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A gene is region of DNA which is made up of nucleotides. It is the physical and functional
unit of heredity. Each gene contains the information required to build specific proteins needed
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in an organism, such as they contain the instructions for our individual characteristics – like eye
and hair colour. In order to make proteins, the gene from the DNA is copied into messenger
RNA. The mRNA moves out of the nucleus and uses ribosomes to form the polypeptide that
Science Titbits
Watson and Crick assembled the molecular model and published their two -page article on their
molecular model of DNA in the journal “Nature” in April 1953. Few milestones in the history of biology
have as broad an impact as their double helix. They were awarded Nobel Prize in 1962 for their model of
DNA.
2 Biological Molecules 65
finally folds and configures to form the protein. Genes possess the data to build and maintain
cells and pass genetic information to offspring.
2.6.5 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
RNA is also a polymer of nucleotides. Its detailed chemical nature has already been
discussed in previous topics. Unlike DNA, the RNA is generally single stranded and does not
form a double helix like DNA. However, some RNA shows a secondary double stranded
structure in their complementary regions. There are three major classes of RNA each with a
special function in protein synthesis. These RNA are transcribed from DNA template.
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Messenger RNA (mRNA)
mRNA consists of a single strand of variable length. Its length depends upon the size of
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the gene, as well as the protein for which it is taking message. For example, for a protein
molecule consisting of 100 amino acids, the mRNA will have the length of 300 nucleotides.
Actually every three nucleotides in mRNA encode a specific amino acid, such triplets of
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nucleotides along the length of mRNA are called codons of genetic codes. mRNA is about 3
to 4% of the total RNA in the cell. mRNA takes the genetic message from the nucleus to the
ribosome in the cytoplasm to form particular protein. It is transcribed from DNA template i.e., the
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base of sequence of mRNA is according to the base sequence of DNA. It becomes attached to
the ribosome. At ribosome, amino acids are attached one by one to form a polypeptide chain as
per base sequence of mRNA. This process is known as translation.
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Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Ribosome consists of rRNA and protein. rRNA is transcribed by the genes present on the
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DNA of the several chromosomes. It is called rRNA because it eventually becomes part of
ribosome. The rRNA is packaged with a variety of proteins into ribosomal subunits. The base
sequence of rRNA is similar from bacteria to higher plants and animals. rRNA have largest size
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among the RNA. Approximately, 80% of total RNA contents of a cell are rRNA. It is a part of
ribosome where protein synthesis takes place. In other words rRNA provides a platform for
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protein synthesis.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
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bf
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is a very powerful tool that can be used to resolve features less Atoms seen on the
surface of a solid
than a nanometer. The microscope’s inventors, Gerd Binnig
and Heinrich Rohrer were awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in
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Nucleoproteins consist of simple basic
the phosphodiester bond. Thus, DNA can act as a stable
protein and nucleic acid. They are found in
long-term repository for genetic information. RNA is
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chromosomes and ribosomes. usually degraded within your cells in 30 minutes.
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• Illustrate the formation of phosphodiester linkage
Skills: Initiating and Planning
• Hypothesize, which came first DNA or RNA
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Science Technology and Society Connections
List the career opportunities in the field of biochemistry.
Biochemistry, the study of chemical processes that take place in living organisms, is a broad field that offers a
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wide range of career options. Biochemists can pursue stem cell or genetic research that has the potential to
result in dramatic medical or scientific breakthroughs. Some biochemists study the body’s immune response to
germs and allergens or the effectiveness of drugs in treating a wide array of afflictions. Other biochemists work
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in the commercial food or agricultural field looking for ways to improve products and crops. The many and diverse
applications of biochemistry include pharmacology, genetics, immunology, bioinformatics, environmental
science, forensics, toxicological studies and food science. The career options are nearly endless, and still
unfolding, as new applications for this exciting field of study continue to evolve.
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Exercise
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MCQs
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Which two of the groups combine to form a peptide link between two amino acids?
(A) 1 and 2 (B) 1 and 3 (C) 2 and 3 (D) 2 and 4
68 2 Biological Molecules
(ii) Which class of molecule is the major component of cell membrane
(A) phospholipid (B) cellulose
(C) wax (D) triglyceride
(iii) Glycerol is the backbone molecule for
(A) ATP (B) terpenes
(C) neutral lipids (D) steroids
(iv) A fatty acid is unsaturated if it
(A) contains hydrogen (B) contains double bonds
(C) contains an acid group (D) all of them
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(v) In RNA the nitrogen base that takes the place of thymine is
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(A) adenine (B) cytosine
(C) guanine (D) uracil
(vi) The ending—ose means a substance is a
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(A) sugar (B) lipid
(C) protein (D) nucleic acid
(vii) Glycolipids and lipoprotein are important components of
(A) cellular membrane
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(C) both of them (D) none of them
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(viii) When two amino acids are linked to form peptide linkage .......... is removed
(A) hydroxyl (B) water
(C) carbon (D) nitrogen
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(ix) What is the theoretical number of chemically different dipeptides that may be
assembled from two different amino acids.
(A) one (B) two
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