BASICS

DC machines: Principle & Construction, Types, EMF equation of generator and torque equation
of motor, applications of DC motors (simple numerical problems)

Electromechanical energy conversion process involves the transfer of energy between

electrical and mechanical system, via the electric field or magnetic field.

An electrical machines deals with the energy transfer either from mechanical to electrical or
electrical to mechanical form. This process is called electromechanical energy conversion.
 An electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called
electric generator.
 While an electrical machines which convert electrical energy into mechanical energy is
called electric motor.
 Construction of DC Machines

Fig.5.1 Construction of DC Machine

Yoke:
 Purpose of outermost cover of the DC machine.
 Provide mechanical support to the pole.
 It forms a part of the magnetic circuit, and provide
 a path of low reluctance for magnetic flux as shown in Fig.5.1
Material: cast iron(low reluctance material)
Poles: Each pole divided into two parts:-
1. Pole core
2. Pole shoe
 Pole core carries field winding
 It direct the flux produced through air gap to armature
 Pole shoe enlarge the area of armature core to come across the flux.
Material: cast iron or si-steel (laminated construction is used).

Fig.5.2 pole of DC Machine

Field Winding (F1-F2): Carry current due to which pole core, on which field winding is placed
behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary. Flux.
Material: Aluminum, or copper.

Armature: Divided into two parts:- 1. Armature core 2. Armature winding

Fig.5.3 Armature of DC machine

Armature Core:
  Cylindrical in shape mounted on shaft.
 It consists of slots on its periphery and the air duct for cooling purpose.
 Armature core provide house for armature windings i.e., armature conductor.
Material used for Armature core: Cast iron or cast steel.
Armature windings:
 Armature winding is interconnections of armature conductors, placed into armature slots
provided onto periphery of armature core.
 It is made up of copper.
Functions of Armature windings:
1. Generation of EMF take place in the armature windings in case of generator.
2. To carry current supplied in case of motor.
Commutator: The basic nature of EMF induced in armature conductor is alternating. This need
rectification in case of DC generator, which is possible by a device called commutator.

Fig.5.4 Slip Ring and carbon Brush

Functions of commutator:
1. To facilitate the collection of current from the armature conductors.
2. To convert internally developed alternating emf to unidirectional (DC) emf.
3. To produce unidirectional torque in case of motor.
Choice of material for commutator: Copper segments
Brushes:
 Brushes are stationary and resting on commutator surface.
 Brushes collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary external
circuit.
Material used for brushes: to avoid wear and tear of commutator, the brushes are made
up of soft material like carbon.

 EMF equation of DC Generator

The basic principle of DC generator is electromagnetic induction, i.e., when the flux developed
within the air gap, conductors cut across the magnetic field and an emf is induced in the
generator. The induced e.m.f. is alternating in nature. Alternating current is converted into
unidirectional current in the external circuit with the help of commutator.
Let P= no. of poles of generator;
 =Flux per pole (Wb)
N=speed of armature (rpm)
Z= total no. of armature conductors
A=no. of parallel paths in which the ‘Z’ no of conductors are devided
A=2 for wave winding
A=P for lap winding Derivation utilizes
Faradays Law
Average value of emf induced in each armature conductor is,
change _ in _ flux
e=average rate of cutting of flux=
change _ in _ time
consider one revolution of conductor. In one revolution, conductor will cut total flux produced
by all the poles i.e.’  P. While time required to complete one revolution is 60/N seconds as
speed is N rpm.
P N
e= = P …. Emf induced in one conductor
N 60
60
Now conductors in one parallel path are always in series. There are total Z conductors with A
parallel paths, hence Z/A number of conductors are always in series and emf remains same
across all parallel paths.
N Z
 Total emf can be expressed as, Eg=  P X
60 A
This is nothing but emf equation of a DC generator,
 PNZ
Eg= Volts (5.1)
60 A
Symbolic Representation of DC generator:
 IF
A1 Ia

F1
Ra
E

F2
A2

Fig.5.5 Symbol of DC Generator

 Types of DC Generator

Fig.5.6 Types of DC Generator

DC Series generator:

Ise Current equation

I a  I se  I L
A1 Ia F1 Rse F2
IL
Ia =Armature current
Ra
Ise=Current in series winding
Load

E Vt
IL=Load current
A2
Voltage equation:
E  Vt  I a Ra  I a Rse  Vbrush

Fig.5.7 DC Series Generator

While explaining Types of DC
Generator, voltage and current
equations are written using KVL an
KCL
DC Shunt generator:

IL
Ish
A1 Ia
IL I a  I L  I sh
F1
Ra
Rsh Vt

Load
E Vt I sh 
Rsh
F2

A2

E  Vt  I a Ra  Vbrush
Fig.5.8 DC Shunt Generator

DC compound Generator:
In this type the part of field winding is connected in parallel with armature and part in series with
the armature. Both the series and shunt windings are mounted over same pole.
Depending upon the connection of shunt and series field windings, compound generator is
further classified as:
1. Long shunt compound generator
2. Short shunt compound generator
Long shunt compound generator:
Ise I a  I L  I sh
IL
Ish
Vt
A1 Ia I sh  where Rsh=resistance of shunt wdg
F1

Rsh
Load

Ra Vt

E  Vt  I a Ra  I a Rse  Vbrush
E
F2

A2

Where Rse= resistance of series wdg

Fig.5.9 DC Compound Generator (Long shunt)

 Short shunt compound generator:
I a  I L  I sh
Ise E  I a Ra
IL I sh  where Rsh=resistance of shunt wdg
Rsh
Ish
E  Vt  I a Ra  I a Rse  Vbrush
Ia

Load
A1 Vt where Rse= resistance of series winding
F1

Ra
E Neglecting brush drop i.e.
F2

A2
E  I a Ra  Vt  I L Rse

Fig.5.10 DC Compound Generator (short shunt) Vt  I L Rse

I sh 
Rsh
The two windings shunt and series field are wound
on the same poles. Depending on the direction on windings on the pole, two fluxes produced by
series and shunt field may help or may oppose each other. This fact decides whether compound
generator is cumulative or differential.

Fig.5.11(a) and Fig.1.11(b) shows cumulative and differential compound generator.

Application of Various Types of DC generator:

a) Separately excited generators: As separate supply is required to excite field, the use is
restricted to special applications like electro-plating, electro-refining of materials etc.
b) Shunt generators: Commonly used in battery charging and ordinary lighting purpose.
c) Series generator: Commonly used as boosters on DC feeders, as a current generators for
welding generator and arc lamp.
d) Cumulatively compound generators: These are used for domestic lighting purposes
and to transmit energy over long distance.
e) Differentially compound generators: The use of this type of generators is very rare and
it is used for special application like electric arc welding.
Ex.5.1A 4-pole, lap-wound armature has 144 slots with two coil sides per slot, each coil having
two turns. If the flux per pole is 20 mWb and the armature rotates at 720 rpm, what is the
 induced voltage?
Solution:
N P
Induced voltage =   Z  
60 A
For lap wound armature A = P (number of pole) = 4
  20mWb  20 103Wb
N  720 rpm
Total number of conductor in armature Z = 144 slots × 2 coil/slot × 2 turns/coil
20 103  (144  2  2)  720 4
Now, induced voltage  
60 4
 138.24 volts.

Ex.5.2 A 20 KW, 200 V shunt generator has an armature resistance of 0.05  and a shunt field
resistance of 200. Calculate the power developed in the armature when it delivers rated
output.
Solution:

Vt 200
Field current, I f   1A
Rf 200
PL  Vt IL

PL 20 1000
Load current, I L    100 A
Vt 200
Armature current
I a  I L  I f = 100 + 1 = 101 A
Eg  Vt  I a Ra
= 200 + 101 × 0.05 = 200 + 5.05
Eg = 205.05 V
Power development by armature,
 Eg  I a = 205.05 × 101 = 20.71 KW
 Working principle of DC motor
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A current-carrying
conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it
will experience a force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the
external magnetic field.
In DC motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature conductors play a
role of current carrying conductors and hence armature conductors experience a force. The
magnitude of the force experienced by an armature conductor is given by:-

F=Bil Newton(N)

The direction of this force can be determined by using Fleming’s left hand rule.
Since the entire armature conductors are mounted over the periphery of armature core, so
tangential force give arises a torque and motor starts rotating.

Significance of Back EMF:

When current is flowing through the armature conductor of dc motor, it starts rotating inside the
magnetic field of stator pole. As the armature conductors move inside the magnetic field there
will be an induced emf in the armature conductor generating action of machine. The direction of
the induced emf will be as per Fleming right hand rule(Or lenz’s law) and the induced emf will
oppose the applied voltage across the armature terminals.
In other words in dc motor the rotating armature will generate an emf as it is rotating
under magnetic field, in opposite of the applied voltage and this generated emf in dc motor is
called Back emf and denoted by Eb.
The equations of this back EMF will same as Eg

 PNZ
Eb= Volts (5.2)
60 A
This back EMF is shown systematically in fig (a) below. So as if V is supply voltage in volts and
Ra is the value of the armature resistance, the equivalent electric circuit can be shown in fig (b)

Ia Ia

A1
Ra Ra
voltage
Supply

Eb Eb
A2

Fig.5.12 (a) Back emf in DC motor Fig.5.12(b) Equivalent circuit

Voltage equation of DC motor:
In case of DC motor, supply voltage V has to overcome back emf Eb which is opposing V and
also various drops as armature resistance drop IaRa , brush drop etc. Hence the voltage equation
of a DC motor can be written as,
V=Eb + IaRa +brush drop
The net drop across armature decide the armature current. Hence from the voltage equation, we
can write :
V  Eb
Ia  (5.3)
Ra
Back emf as a regulating mechanism:
Due to presence of back emf DC motor becomes regulating machine, i.e., motor adjusts itself to
draw the armature current just to satisfy the load.
 PNZ
Back EMF Eb=  Eb N
60 A
V  Eb
Armature current I a 
Ra
a) When motor is running under no-load: A small torque is required to over come the
friction and windage loss. Therefore the armature current Ia is small and back emf is
nearly equal to the back emf.

b) When motor is suddenly loaded: The first effect is to cause the armature to slow down.
Therefore, the speed at which the armature conductors move through the field is reduced
and hence the back emf falls. The decreased back emf allows a larger current to flow
through armature and larger current means increased driving torque.
c) When the load on motor is suddenly decreased: Armature speed increases when load is
decreases. As armature speed increases, hence the back emf. Increased back emf causes
to decreased armature current and motor speed will start decreasing until armature current
is just sufficient to produce the reduced torque required by load.

 Power equation of DC motor

The Voltage equation of DC motor is given by,
V=Eb + IaRa (5.4)
Multiply both side of above equation by Ia, we get
VIa=Eb Ia+ I a2 Ra (5.5)
This equation is called Power equation of a DC motor
 VIa =Net electrical power input to the armature (in watts)
 I a2 Ra=Power loss due to resistance of armature, called Armature copper loss
 Difference between VIa and I a2 Ra gives the output of the armature.
 Eb Ia is called electrical equivalent of gross mechanical power developed by the armature.
Types Of DC Motor:
Similar to DC generator, DC motors are classified depending upon the way of connecting field
winding with the armature winding.
a) Shunt motor
b) Series motor
c) Compound motor
Shunt motor:

IL
Ish
A1 Ia
IL
F1

Ra Supply
Rsh
Eb voltage,
V
F2

A2

Fig.5.13 DC shunt motor

Now flux produced by field winding is proportional to the current passing through it, i.e., Ish
 I sh
As long assupply voltage is constant, which is generally so in practice, the flux produced is
constant. Hence DC shunt motor is also called constant flux motor.
Series motor:

Ise

A1 Ia F1 Rse F2
IL
Ra Supply
Eb voltage
V
A2

Fig.5.14 DC series motor

In series motor, entire armature current is passing through the series field winding. So flux
produced is proportional to armature current:
 I se I a
DC compound motor:

Ise
Rse IL

Ia Ish Supply
A1 voltage

F1
V
Ra Rsh
Eb
A2 F2

Fig.5.15 DC compound motor (Long shunt)

From Fig.5. IL=Ia+Ish

Ise=Ia

V
I sh 
Rsh

V=Eb+IseRse+IaRa+Vbrush

V=Eb+Ia(Rse+Ia)+Vbrush

Ise
IL
Ish

Ia Supply
A1 voltage
F1

v
Ra
Eb
F2

A2

Fig.5.16 DC compound motor (Long shunt)

 IL=Ise

The entire line current is passing through the series field winding.

And IL=Ia+Ish

Now the drop across the shunt field winding is to be calculated from the voltage equation

So V=Eb+IseRse+IaRa+Vbrush
 A Long shunt compund motor can
Drop across shunt field winding is, be cumulative or differential type.
 Similarly short shunt compund
=V  ILRse=Eb+ IaRa+Vbrush motor can be cumulative or
V  I L Rse Eb  I a Ra  Vbrush differential type.
I sh  
Rsh Rsh

 Torque equation of DC motor

The turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque. Rotation

Consider a wheel of radius R meters acted upon by
circumferential force F Newton as shown in Fig. 5.17
The wheel is rotating at the speed of N rpm. Then its angular R
speed is,

2 N
 Rad/sec
60

So work done in one revolution is,

Fig.5.17
W=F X Distance travelled in one revolution=F X 2 R

Workdone F  2 R  2 N 
P=Power developed =    F  R  
Time  60   60 
 
N

 P  T  Watts

Where T =Torque in N-m and  =Angular speed in rad/sec.

Let Ta be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor. It is also called Armature
Torque. The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is Eb Ia, as seen in power
equation.

So if the speed of the motor is N rpm then,

Power in armature=Armature torque X 

Eb Ia=Ta  2 N
60

 PNZ
But Eb in a motor is given by, Eb 
60 A

 PNZ 2 N
  I a  Ta 
60 A 60

1 PZ PZ
 Ta   Ia   0.159 I a  N-m (5.6)
2 A A

 Characteristics of DC motor

The performance of DC motor under various conditions can be judged by the following
characteristic.

 Torque-Armature current characteristics(T Vs Ia)

 Speed-Armature current characteristics(N Vs Ia)
 Speed-Torque characteristics(N Vs T)

Before analyzing the various characteristics of motors, let us revise the torque and speed
equation. Fundamentally all characteristics are derived from these equation

T I a From torque equation (refer equation no.)

Eb
N From speed equation (refer equation no.)


a) Characteristics of DC shunt motor:

 Torque-Armature current characteristics(T Vs Ia)
For DC motor: T I a

In shunt motor Rsh and supply voltage are constant and hence flux is also constant

 T  Ia (5.6)

Eq(5.6) represents a atraight line, passing through origine, as shown in Fig.5.18

 T

Ta

Ia
Fig.5.18 Torque-Armature current characteristics (T Vs Ia)

 Speed-Armature current characteristics(N Vs Ia)

From speed equations, we get

Eb
N

V  I a Ra
For DC shunt motor N

NV  I a Ra as  is constant (5.7)
Hence for constant supply eq (5.7) represent a line of negative slop as shown in Fig.5.19

N Constant speed line

No

Ia

Fig.5.19 Speed-Armature current characteristics (N Vs Ia)

 Speed-Torque characteristics(N Vs T)
This characteristic can be derived from the above two characteristics. This graph is similar to
speed-armature current characteristics as torque is proportional to armature current.
Characteristic is shown in Fig.5.
 N Constant speed line

Fig.5.20 Speed-Torque characteristics(N Vs T)

b) Characteristics of DC series motor:

 Torque-Armature current characteristics(T Vs Ia)
For DC motor: T I a

In series motor

 Field winding carries entire armature current ,

 Flux produced is proportional to armature current i.e.,  I a
 T  I a2 (5.8)

Eq (5.8) represents a parabolic relation, as shown in Fig.5.21. Further when the poles get
saturated, flux becomes contant and torque & armature current relation becomes linear.

Ta
T
T  Ia

T  I a2

Ia
Fig.5.21 Torque-Armature current characteristics(T Vs Ia)
 Speed-Armature current characteristics(N Vs Ia)
From speed equations, we get

Eb
N

 V  I a Ra  I se Rse
For DC series motor N as   I a is constant
Ia
Now the value of Ra and Rse are so small that the effect of change in Ia on speed overrides the
effect of change in V  I a Ra  I se Rse on the speed. So speed equation reduces to,

1
N (5.9)
Ia

Eq(5.9) give a rectangular hyperbola, as shown in Fig.5.

Ia

Fig.5.22 Speed-Armature current characteristics(N Vs Ia)

In series motor(from above two characteristics, (Fig.5.23 and Fid.5.24)

1
T  I a2 and N 
Ia
1
So from above two relations we can write N (5.10)
T
Equation (5.10) suggests, as torque increases, speed decreases. Characteristic is shown in Fig.5.

Fig.5.23 Speed-Torque characteristics(N Vs T)

 Characteristic of compound Motors:

Differential
Cumulative Differential
T Series N N
Shunt
Shunt Shunt
Cumulative
Cumulative
Differential Series

Ia Ia T

Fig.5.24 Characteristics of DC compound motors

 Application of DC motor
Type of Motor Characteristic Application
Speed is fairly constant and  Blower and fans
starting torque is medium  Centrifeuga and reciprocating pumps
Shunt  Lathe Machines
 Milling Machines
 Drilling Machines
High starting torque. No load  Cranes
condition is dengerous.  Hoists
Variable speed  Elevators
Series
 Trolleys
 Conveyers
 Electrical Locomotive
High starting torque. No load  Rolling mill
Cumulative condition is allowed  Punches
compound  Shears
 Heavy Planner
Differentially Speed increases as load Not suitable for Practical Application
compound increase
Ex5.3 A DC shunt motor runs at 600 rpm taking 60A from a 230 V supply. Armature
resistance is 0.2 ohm and field resistance is 115 ohms. Find the speed when the current
through the armature is 30A.
Solution:
Ra  0.2 
R f  115 
 V  I f Rsh
230  I f .115
I f  2A
Is  Ia  I f
Ia  Is  I f
Armature current
( I a1 ) = 60 – 2 = 58 A
Back emf
E  V  I R
b1 a a

 230   58  0.2
 218.4 volt.
If armature current
( I a2 ) = 30 A
Than back emf
E  V  I
b2 a2 Ra
 230  30  0.2
 244 volt.
 Eb 
but, N 2  N1   2 
 Eb1 
600  224
N2 
218.4
N 2  615 rpm.
Ex5.4 A DC shunt generator running at 1200rpm supplies a load of 60 kW at 250V. Find
the speed at which it runs as a sh8unt motor when taking 60kW from 250 V supply. Take
armature resistance at 0.1 ohm and field winding resistance AS 50 OHM. Neglect brush drop.
Solution:
As a generator
Pout=60kW, Vt=250V, Ng=1200rpm
Pout 60 103
IL    240 A
Vt 250
Vt 250
I sh    5A
Rsh 50
Ia=IL+Ish=245A
Eg=Vt+IaRa=250+245X0.1=274.5V
As a motor
Pin=60kW, V=250V
P
I L  in  240 A
V
V 250
I sh  t   5A
Rsh 50
Ia=IL  Ish=240  5=235A
Eg=Vt  IaRa=250  235X0.1=226.5V
E
Now N  E

Ng Eg

Nm Eb
Eb 226.5
Nm   Ng  1200  990.1639 rpm
Eg 274.5

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