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REVISION SHEET – FP1 (EDEXCEL)

COMPLEX NUMBERS

The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:
• How to manipulate complex numbers and be able to
• Manipulating complex multiply two complex numbers quickly and in one
numbers step as this will save a lot of time in the exam.
• How to geometrically interpret z1 − z2 as the
• Complex conjugates and roots distance between the complex numbers z1 and z2 in
of equations the Argand diagram.
• The fact that z1 + z2 = z1 − ( − z2 ) which equals
• The Argand diagram the distance between z1 and − z2 in the Argand
diagram.

Manipulating Complex Numbers.

Multiplying, dividing, adding and subtracting

• Multiplying, adding and subtracting are all fairly straightforward.

• Dividing is slightly more complicated. Whenever you see a complex number on the denominator of a fraction
you can “get rid of it” by multiplying both top and bottom of the fraction by its complex conjugate.
3 + 2i ⎛ 3 + 2i ⎞ ⎛ 1 + i ⎞ 1 + 5i
e.g. =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟=
1− i ⎝ 1− i ⎠⎝1+ i ⎠ 2

Complex Conjugates and Roots of Equations

The complex conjugate

The complex conjugate of z = a + bi is z∗ = a − bi .

• Remember zz ∗ is a real number and it equals the square of the modulus of z.

• Complex roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients occur in conjugate pairs. This means that if you
are told one complex root of a polynomial equation with real coefficients you are in fact being told two roots.
This is key to answering some typical exam questions.

An example of an algebraic trick that it is very useful to know is:

( z − (3 + 2i ))( z − (3 − 2i )) = (( z − 3) − 2i )(( z − 3) + 2i )
= ( z − 3) 2 − 4i 2
= z 2 − 6 z + 13

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The Argand Diagram Imaginary

axis

2 + 2i
(2, 2)

Real axis

( −1, −3) −4i

−1 − 3i
(0,−4)

• In the Argand diagram the point (x, y) corresponds to the complex number x + yi.

• The argument of a complex number z, denoted arg( z ) is the angle it makes with the positive real axis in the
Argand diagram, measured anticlockwise and such that −π < arg( z ) ≤ π .

• When answering exam questions about points in the Argand diagram be prepared to used geometrical
arguments based around equilateral triangles, similar triangles, isosceles triangles and parallel lines to calculate
lengths and angles. This particularly the case when referring to sums, products and quotients of complex
numbers.

Modulus-Argument (or Polar) Form

If z = x + yi has z = r and arg( z ) = θ then z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) . This is called the polar or modulus-argument
form.
Example Write z = 3 − 3j in polar form.

Solution
3π
z = 32 + (−3) 2 =3 2 and arg( z ) = .
4
⎛ ⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞⎞
Therefore in polar form z is z = 3 2 ⎜ cos ⎜ ⎟ + i sin ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎠

Example
⎛ ⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞⎞
If z = 6 ⎜ cos ⎜ ⎟ + i sin ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ , what are z and arg( z ) ?
⎝ ⎝ 7 ⎠ ⎝ 7 ⎠⎠

Solution
3π
Since z is given in polar form it can just be read off that z =6 and arg( z ) = .
7

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REVISION SHEET – FP1 (EDEXCEL)

NUMERICAL METHODS
The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:
• The formula associated with linear interpolation
• Using the method of interval af (b) − bf ( a )
c=
bisection, linear interpolation and f ( b) − f ( a )
the Newton Raphson Method to • The formula associated with the Newton Raphson
approximate the solution of an f ( xr )
Method: xr +1 = xr −
equation. f ′( xr )
• For every one of the methods, you should know
• Knowing how accurate each of how to judge when you have the approximation to
these methods is so that you are the required degree of accuracy and then check
able to estimate error. that this is indeed the case.

The Bisection Method

a+b
If a root of an equation f(x) = 0 lies between a and b, then c = gives an approximation to the root. You can
2
then determine whether the root lies between a and c or between b and c and repeat this idea, obtaining better and
better interval estimates to the root. Eventually you can give an approximation of the root to the desired degree of
accuracy.

Example
Show that the equation x 3 = 5 − 3 x has a root α between 1 and 2. Starting with these two points straddling α, apply
the method of bisection 3 times and state what you find having done that.

Solution
First of all rearrange the equation into the form x 3 + 3 x − 5 = 0 . Any root of this equation is a root of the one we
started with and vice versa.

Let f ( x ) = x 3 + 3x − 5 . Since f(1) = −1 and f(2) = 9, there must be a root of f(x) = 0 between 1 and 2. The table
below shows 3 applications of the method of bisection beginning with a1 = 1, b1 = 2 .

Sign of Sign of cr Sign of

r ar f(ar) br f(br) =(ar+br)/2 f( cr)
1 1 -ve 2 +ve 1.5 +ve
2 1 -ve 1.5 +ve 1.25 +ve
3 1 -ve 1.25 +ve 1.125 -ve

At this point you see that the root lies between 1.125 and 1.25. The function is negative when x = 1.125 and
positive when x = 1.25.

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Linear Interpolation
af (b) − bf ( a )
If a root of an equation f(x) = 0 lies between a and b, then c = gives an approximation of the root. If
f ( b) − f ( a )
needed you can determine whether the root lies between a and c or between b and c and repeat this process to
obtain a sequence of approximations to the root.

Example
Show that the equation f ( x) = x 2 − 7 = 0 has a root, α, between 2 and 3. By using linear interpolation, starting with
these two values, find an estimate to this root.

Solution
Since f ( 2) = −5 < 0 and f (3) = 2 > 0 the function must cross the x-axis between x = 2 and
x = 3 and so there will be a root of f(x) = 0 there. With a = 2 and b = 3 , the linear interpolation gives a first
af (b) − bf (a )
approximation to the solution of c = .
f (b) − f (a )

In this case this is

( 2 × f (3) ) − ( 3 × f (2) ) = ( 2 × 2 ) − ( 3 × −3) = 13 = 2.6 .
f (3) − f (2) 2 − ( −3) 5

Note: Since f (2.6) = −0.24 the points 2.6 and 3 straddle the solution. Therefore 2.6 ≤ α ≤ 3 and you can apply the
af (b) − bf (a)
procedure again by calculating x2 = with a = 2.6 and b = 3 .
f (b) − f (a)

Newton Raphson Method

f ( xr )
The sequence of values generated by xr +1 = xr − with x 0 an appropriate estimate, usually converges to a root
f ′( xr )
of f ( x ) = 0 near to x0 .

Example
Use the Newton Raphson method to find the root the equation x 4 + x − 3 = 0 near x = 1.5. With x0 = 1.5 , use the
method three times (in other words calculate as far as x4 ). Hence, give an approximation to the root and state its
accuracy.

Solution
f ( xr ) ⎛ xr 4 + xr − 3 ⎞
The iterative formula in the case of f ( x ) = x + x − 3 is as follows: xr +1 = xr −
4
= xr − ⎜ ⎟.
f ′( xr ) 3
⎝ 4 xr + 1 ⎠
⎛ x 4 + x −3⎞ ⎛ 1.54 + 1.5 − 3 ⎞
Thus x1 = x0 − ⎜ 0 3 0 ⎟ = 1.5 − ⎜ ⎟ = 1.254310
⎝ 4 x0 + 1 ⎠ ⎜
⎝ ( 4 × 1.53
) + 1 ⎟
⎠
⎛ x14 + x1 − 3 ⎞
Similarly x2 = x1 − ⎜ 3 ⎟ = 1.172278 , x3 = 1.164110 , and x4 = 1.164035 .
⎝ 4 x1 + 1 ⎠
From this evidence it looks as though 1.164 may be an estimate to the root which is correct to three decimal places.
You can check this by verifying that the function changes sign between 1.1635 and 1.1645. In fact

f (1.1635) = −0.00391 < 0 and f (1.1645) = 0.003399 > 0 .

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REVISION SHEET – FP1 (Edx)

CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS
The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:
• The parabola, ellipse and hyperbola are each loci of
• Parametric and Cartesian a point P which moves so that its distance from the
Equations of the parabola fixed point (the focus) is in a constant ration (e, the
and rectangular hyperbola eccentricity) to its distance from a fixed line (the
directrix).

• Equations of tangents and

normals to the above
• Intrinsic coordinates and
radius of curvature

The Parabola
The parabola with equation y2 = 4ax has focus at (a, 0) and directrix x = – a. Parametrically the parabola with
equation y2 = 4ax is given by x = at2, y = 2at.

The tangent at (h, k) to the parabola has the equation ky = 2a(x + h) and the tangent at (at2, 2at) has the
equation ty = x + at2. The corresponding normal has the equation y + tx = 2at + at3.

Example

Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola with equation y2 = 4ax at the point T(at2, 2at). If S is the
focus find the equation of the chord QSR which is parallel to the tangent at T. Prove that QR = 4TS.

Solution
dy dy dt 1 1
The gradient of the tangent at T is = × = 2a × = .
dx dt dx 2at t
The tangent passes through T(at2, 2at) and therefore has equation y − 2at =
1
t
( x − at 2 ) or ty = x + at2.
The chord QSR is parallel to this tangent and so has the same gradient. Since the chord passes through the
1
focus (a, 0) the equation of chord QSR is y − 0 = ( x − a ) or ty = x − a .
t
The distance from T(at2, 2at) to S(a, 0) is
( at − a ) + ( 2at − 0 ) = a 2t 4 − 2a 2t 2 + a 2 + 4a 2t 2
2 2 2

= a 2 t 4 + 2a 2t 2 + a 2
= a t 4 + 2t 2 + 1
= a ( t 2 + 1)
Q and R are where ty = x − a intersects y2 = 4ax. Using x = a + ty in y2 = 4ax gives y2 = 4a(a + ty) or
4at ± 16a 2t 2 + 16a 2
y 2 − 4aty − 4a 2 = 0 . The formula for the roots of a quadratic gives = 2at ± 2a t 2 +1 .
2
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The corresponding x–coordinates are a + 2at 2 ± 2at t 2 +1 . The distance between the two
( ) (
points a + 2at 2 + 2at t 2 + 1, 2at + 2a t 2 +1 and a + 2at 2 − 2at t 2 + 1, 2at − 2a t 2 + 1 is )
16a 2t 2 ( t 2 + 1) + 16a 2 ( t 2 + 1) = 4a (t 2
+ 1)( t 2 + 1)

= 4a ( t 2 + 1)
So the distance from T to S is four times the distance from Q to R.

The Rectangular Hyperbola

The rectangular hyperbola is a special case of a hyperbola with e = 2 . You should know the Cartesian and
parametric equations for a hyperbola and the equations of tangents and normals.

Intrinsic Coordinates
If the length of the arc AP on a curve is s, and the tangent to the curve at P makes an angle of ψ with the
positive x-axis, then (s, ψ) are called the intrinsic coordinates of the point P. In particular

dy dx dy
= tanψ , = cosψ , = sinψ
dx ds ds
3
⎡ ⎛ dy ⎞ 2 ⎤ 2
⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ 3

ds ⎢ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎡ x + y ⎤⎦
2 2 2

The radius of curvature ρ at point P(x, y) on the curve is or ⎣ or ⎣ .

dψ d y
2
y − 
x xy
dx 2

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REVISION SHEET – FP1 (EDEXCEL)

SERIES
The main ideas are: Before the exam you should know:
• The standard formula:
• Summing Series using n n n
standard formulae ∑r ∑r ∑r
r =1
,
r =1
2
,
r =1
3

• Telescoping • And be able to spot that a series like

(1× 2) + (2 × 3) + ... + n(n + 1)
can be written in sigma notation as:
n

Summing Series ∑ r (r + 1)
r =1
Using standard formulae

Fluency is required in manipulating and simplify standard formulae sums like:

n 2 ( n + 1) n ( n + 1)
2

r ( r + 1) = ∑ r + ∑ r =
n n n

∑
r =1
2

r =1
3

r =1 4
+
2
1
= n ( n + 1) ⎡⎣ n ( n + 1) + 2 ⎤⎦
4
= n ( n + 1) ( n 2 + n + 2 ) .
1

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